produced from images generously made available by the canadian institute for historical microreproductions (www.canadiana.org)) the dakotan languages by a. w. williamson. augustana college, rock island, illinois. from american antiquarian, january, . the dakotan languages, and their relations to other languages. by a. w. williamson. to the ethnologist and to the philologist the dakotas and those speaking kindred languages are a very interesting people. there are four principal dakota dialects, the santee, yankton, assinniboin and titon. the allied languages may be divided into three groups: i. a, winnebago; b, osage, kaw, and quapaw; c, iowa, otoe and missouri; d, omaha and ponka. ii. mandan. iii. a, minnetaree (minitari) or hidatsa; b, absauraka, or crow. pawnee and aricaree seem also to be somewhat related. in my father's opinion the dakota dialects differ about as much as the greek dialects did in the time of homer, and the assinniboin is much nearer to the yankton dialect of which it is an offshoot than is the titon. judging by the vocabularies to which i have access chiefly in hayden's "indian tribes of the missouri," i would suppose the first group to differ from the dakota about as much as the german from the english, and to differ among themselves somewhat as hollandish, friesian, and english. the mandan appears to be separated much more widely from them than they are from each other. the minnetaree and crow constitute a distinct group diverging from each other more than the santee and titon, the extreme dialects of the dakota. they show more resemblance to the mandan than to any other one of the class, but diverge very widely from it. but very few words approximate identity. about one half of the words in matthew's hidatsa dictionary appear to me to be in part at least composed of material related to the dakota, and about five per cent to fairly represent dakota words. many of these show little similarity except as compared in the light of sound representation. when first discovered the dakotas and assinniboins were nomads, living almost entirely by hunting and fishing. the dakotas, then probably less than ten thousand, are now more than thirty thousand in number. there are probably about three thousand assinniboins. the allied tribes, except the crows, when first found lived chiefly by agriculture. they have during the last hundred years rapidly diminished in numbers, and do not number over twelve thousand including the crows. all of the dakotan tribes and some others formerly made and baked pottery similar to that found in the mounds of the ohio valley. the osages and some others lived in earth houses, whose ruins are similar to those of the houses of the mound builders. the minnetarees, mandans and aricarees still live in houses of the same kind, and make and bake pottery. measurements indicate that the crania of the dakotas in size of brain and angle decidedly approach the european form. the cheek bones of the dakotas are much less prominent than those of the chippewas, and those one-fourth chippewa and three-fourths white have on an average darker complexions than those half white and half dakota. among the minnetarees and mandans are many persons of light hair, blue eyes, and tolerably fair complexion, not attributable to an infusion of caucasian blood since the time of columbus. no people take more pains to speak their language accurately than the dakotas. their social condition is similar to that of the arabs, whose language has within historic observation changed more slowly than any other. the assinniboins have been separated from the dakotas about three centuries, perhaps a little less, possibly much more. during all this time they have been entirely separated, associating wholly with tribes speaking languages entirely different, and yet their dialect remains almost identical with the yankton. we are then encouraged to believe that their language has not changed so rapidly as to obliterate traces of its origin. so far as i have been able to ascertain them the most important features characteristic of the dakotan languages generally are the following: i. three pronominal prefixes to verbs, i, o and wa. i, this, forms nouns of instrument. o forms nomen actionis, etc. some crow and minnetaree words seem to indicate that its original form was a. wa, meaning some or something, prefixed to transitive verbs makes them intransitive or general in their application. wa is in min. ma (ba, wa), in crow, ba. scantiness of material prevents me from more than inferring the existence of these and other prefixes in the other allied languages, from a few words apparently containing them. ii. a system of verbal prefixes used to form verbs from certain stems, regularly varied in signification, according to the prefix used. the dakota has seven of these prefixes. the min. has three of these almost identical in force. i should suppose that i would, with as much material, find greater similarity in the other languages, but the only one i have been able to trace at all generally is dak yu. this merely converts the stem into a verb without changing its meaning. dak y is nearly always represented in the allied languages so far as i have observed by r, d, l or n; so that i find it in min. du (ru, lu, nu), iowa, mandan, and crow ru, omaha ra. iii. a reflexive pronoun tawa, min. tama (tawa, taba), iowa tawe, osage tabe, forming from possessive pronouns double possessives, related to their primitives somewhat as mine to my. in some features of structure the dakotan languages present an amazing diversity. according to powell (int. to stud. am. lang.) a ponka in order to say "a man killed a rabbit," would have to say "the man, he, one, animate, standing, in the nominative case, purposely, killed, by shooting an arrow, he, the one animate, sitting, in the objective case." "for the form of the verb to kill would have to be selected, and the verb changes its form by inflection, and by incorporated particles, to denote person, number and gender, as animate or inanimate, as standing, sitting or lying." on the other hand the dakota could not vary the form of the verb to denote any of these things except number, with reference to either subject or object. he would probably say: "wichasta-wan mastincha-wan kte,"--"man-a, rabbit-a, kill,"--in which each word is about synonymous with its english equivalent, and case as in english denoted by position. if he wished to show that the action was done by shooting, he would probably not vary the form of the verb kill, but would use the verb kute, meaning shoot whether with arrow or bullet. except that the dak. order corresponds to the icelandic the only difference in structure between the dak. and english expression is that the dakota word kte may mean any time, the particular time being indicated whenever desirable in all cases in dak. as mostly in english by auxiliary verbs and adverbs. if the word man were represented by a pronoun the dak. would be still more analytic, since its pronoun would indicate any actor, male or female, or inanimate, unless it were desirable to distinguish, in which case the distinction would be made by compounding the pronoun with a suitable auxiliary word. in this feature, often given as characteristic of american languages, is a variation the greatest possible between two languages closely related. it is also worthy of remark that the minnetaree, which i should suppose the most analytic of the group next to the dakota, is one of those that least resembles the dakota in vocabulary. some of the features often assigned as peculiarities of american languages were according to bopp and schleicher features of the i. e. languages in their earlier stages. of most other features said to characterize american languages i find in dak. but faint traces. the dak. _does have_ verbs nearly synonymous with _go_, _walk_, _eat_, _drink_, _strike_, _etc._ _it is well supplied with purely copulative verbs. it has differentiated_ the various parts of speech even to the _definite_ and _indefinite article_. it is sufficiently supplied with nouns denoting genera and classes. this is not a feature of recent development. a much smaller proportion of general than of special names have lost trace of origin. the dak _does not_ have inclusive and exclusive plurals, etc. it _does not_ have a multiplicity of verb forms to denote mode and tense, but when necessary does denote them with elegance and precision, by auxiliary verbs and adverbs, very much as we do in english. the dakota is not made up chiefly of very long words. on the other hand it uses a great many little particles and connectives to express fine shades of meaning, wonderfully reminding one of the greek. it fully agrees with other american languages in its wonderful facility for forming derivatives. the i. e. languages in their earlier stages possessed equal facility. as a matter of fact we know scarcely anything concerning the structure of american languages aside from the algonquin and iroquois groups, and a very few isolated languages. they have been classified, in fact, almost entirely by examination of scanty and not very accurate vocabularies. in investigating the relations of the dakotan to other american languages we are therefore compelled to base our conclusions chiefly on vocabulary. i once resided a year among the chippewas, and in various ways have had much better opportunities of comparing the dakota with the chippewa than with any other american language. i have not been able to find a word alike in the two; and but very few words even slightly similar in sound and sense. in pronouns few languages in any part of the world are so strikingly contrasted. if i were to attempt an argument for original affinity between dakota and chippewa my argument would be that so great dissimilarity could not be the result of accident. aside from the cheyenne, an algonkin language which has incorporated some dakotan words, and the pawnee group, the similarities east of the rocky mountains are surprisingly few, though the huron, iroquois and mobilian languages do not seem quite so strongly contrasted as the algonkin. among the eskimo, the tribes of the pacific slope, mexico, central and south america, we occasionally find identical and not infrequently similar words. in some the resemblances seem remarkable considering the size of the vocabulary. closer examination shows however that they are not of a kind to indicate a special relationship. they are almost exclusively confined to a few pronominal bases of very wide diffusion, and the following: . ata, tata. . papa, each meaning father; . ana, nana; . ma, mama, each meaning mother. as an example i take the base ata, tata. dakota, ate (dialect ata); minnetaree, ate, tata, tatish; mandan, tata; omaha, adi, dadi; ponka, tade-ha; aricaree, ate-ah; pawnee, ate-ish. tuscarora ata; cherokee e-dauda; eskimo--greenland ahtata, aleutian ata, california, san miguel tata; mexico aztec teta; otomi, ta, te; yucatan, cakchequil tata; central am. tarasca tata; darien tauta; eastern peru, mossa tata; western paraguay, villela tata. congo western africa, tat, tata. japan dialect tete; chinese dialect tia. turko tartar, turkish ata; tatar ata, atha; kunan atta; kasanish, orenburg, kirgis ata; samoyedic dialects, eastern russia and western siberia ata, atai, atja, tatai; finno hungarian, lap attje; hungarian atja. caucasus, kisti dada. basque (pyrenees mountains) aita. indo european: sanskrit ata, tata; hindustanee dada; latin, atta, tatta; greek atta, tatta; albanian, albania, at, atti; calabria and sicily tata; celtic, welsh tad; cornish and bret tat; irish, daid; gaelic daidein; english (according to skeats of welsh) dad, daddy; old slav, tata otici; moldavian tata; wallachian tate; polish tatus; bohemian, servian croatian otsche; lithuanian teta; preuss thetis; gothic ata; old fries tate; o. h. g. tato; old swed atin; swed island runoe dadda. in fifty-nine of the one hundred and forty-six versions of the lord's prayer given by adelung in the sclavonic, lithuanian and teutonic families, the word for father is from this base. atta is the form used in ulfillas gothic version of the fourth century, the oldest teutonic relic. papa and mama in dak., as in i. e. languages, occupy a subordinate position, having about the same scope as in latin and greek. words apparently related to these are rare in n. a. languages, but frequent in s. a., african, malay polynesian and turanian languages. the semitic aba, etc., is perhaps related. the base ana, nana (dak. ina), though not very much used in i e languages appears to be more widely distributed than any of the others. all the dakota pronouns which show much similarity to other american forms are representative of fick's i e bases, and appear to be widely disseminated. adelung and latham do not however give pronominal forms in as many languages as they give words for father and mother, and i cannot so well determine their distribution. professor roehrig, in his able paper on the dakota, points out some very interesting analogies to turanian languages. others might be added. these similarities are chiefly in features common to i. e. and turanian. on the other hand the dakota shows on the surface striking contrasts to turanian languages. the numerals are eminently dissimilar. the dakota, like i. e. languages, varies both root and suffix in forming words, and uses both prefixes and suffixes. in turanian languages the suffix only is varied, and prefixes are scarcely at all used. it seems to me therefor that it is not unscientific to inquire whether the similarities of the various dakotan languages to various european languages, modern and ancient, so often remarked are or are not accidental. it is very easy to see that the dakota resembles the english in vocabulary much more than it resembles the chippewa. the similarities of the dakota suffixes, pronouns and prepositions to those given by bopp, and the general resemblance of dakotan languages to sanskrit, gothic, etc., in vocabulary, made me certain of relationship before i ever saw fick's dictionary. yet as i turned over his pages i was amazed at the similarity of the i. e. roots to the dak roots. the slav teut bases of fick seem to me most similar to the dak. i am certain that neither the teutonic or graeco-italic dictionaries resemble the dakota as much as do the european, indo. european and aryan dictionaries. the i. e. consonants are represented in dakota, santee and titon dialects, and in minnetaree in accordance with the following table. i omit representatives concerning which i am doubtful. i have too little material on the other languages to justify me in including them. ---+----------------+---------+------------+----+---------+---------+------ i e| k | g | gh | p | bh | m | w | | | | | | | s | k, h, kh, sh[a]| k, h[b] | gh, kh, zh | p | m, b, w | m | w, p | | | | | | | t |k, h, g[b], khsh| k, g[b] | gh, kh, zh | p | b, w | m, b[c] | w, p | | | | |---------+---------+------ m |k, h, gh[d], sh | k | gh[d] | p | m[f] (b, w) p +------+---------+---------+---+--------+----+-------------------------- i e| t | d | dh | n | r, l[e]|y[e]| s | | | | | | | s | t, n | t, d, n | d | n | n, d |y, z| s, sh, z, zh, t | | | | | | | t | t, n | t, l, n | l | n | n, l |y, z| s, sh, z, zh, t | +---------+---------+---+--------+----+-------------------------- m | t, d | t d[f] (l, n, r) ts | ts, sh, t ---+------+-------------------------------------+-------------------------- footnotes: [footnote a: chiefly, probably not always, for fick's second k, lith sz (pron sh), slav s. the k's and g's liable to labialization in eu. languages appear to be occasionally labialized in dakotan languages.] [footnote b: in s. hd, yankton kd, t. gl; s. hn, y. kn, t. gn or gl; s. hm, y. km, t. gm.] [footnote c: in s. md, y. bd, t. bl.] [footnote d: in a previous paper i represented this by kh; and do not know whether it is nearest dak kh german ch, or dak gh; i e gh.] [footnote e: santee d always becomes l in titon.] [footnote e: dak y becomes r, d, l or n in the allied languages, except perhaps the osage, and perhaps in part represents i e r.] [footnote f: in minnetaree m, interchanges so freely with b and w, and d with l, n, and r, that matthews represents each group by one letter. the same irregularity occurs largely in crow, and somewhat also in mandan.] ch as in chin very often occurs in dak as a euphonic modification of k. otherwise it stands chiefly for d, r, l, n of the allied languages. on the other hand win and iowa ch usually represents dak, and i e t. r is found in all the allied languages, and in winnebago is more frequent than even in icelandic. iowa aspirate th, represents dak s, and other sibilants. hayden does not distinguish the subvocal and aspirate th in omaha. from a small list gathered by my father i judge that the aspirate is probably similar to the iowa, and that the subvocal represents dak and i e dentals. f in iowa represents some dak p's. there is wonderful regularity in the sound changes in passing from santee to titon dak, and so far as i can yet discover great irregularity in passing to the allied languages. possibly fuller materials and closer study may reduce the changes to system. dak proper has but five vowels; a and e represent i e a; i, i; u, u; and o, either u or a. they are weakened as in i e languages, and suffixes which raise i e vowels raise i and u to a. the allied languages have a larger number of vowels, the minnetaree ten. verb stems. the reduplication of roots in dak as in i e is extremely frequent, in both, as in other languages, developing iteratives which occasionally become intensives. the reduplication of dak words is like skt of but one syllable, usually but not always the root. the suffix a, aya, which formed verb stems of i e roots usually becomes a, e, i in dak as in old eu. languages. ya seems to be rarely preserved: i e pak cook, skt papakaya parch; dak papakhya parch; i e agh say, lat ajo for aghya say; dak eya say. the dak has many relics of the n of suffix na, which worked its way before the final consonant; i e tag touch whence i e tang, lat tango; dak tan touch. there seem to be relics of the other methods, which were however so closely akin to methods of forming nominal stems that they need not be discussed here. schleicher gives two methods of forming secondary verb stems: by suffix sa forming frequentatives; by suffix ya cause to be, forming transitive verbs from verbs, adjectives and nouns. both are living suffixes extremely frequent and having the same force in dak. nominal stems. as in i e a few dak roots either single or reduplicated form nomen actionis, etc. this similarity is too widely spread to be of value. it is far otherwise with suffixes, which are in a majority of cases usually representative of one or more of schleicher's twenty suffixes, and if otherwise at least derived from i e roots, excepting a few of obscure origin. . i e -a formed from roots, adjectives, also appellatives, and abstracts, of which the dak. has many relics: i e stag, teut stak strike beat; dak staka beaten, broken; slav. teut kak sound; dak kaka rattling; i e pu stink, rot; min pua stinking, rotten; eu sap understand; lat sapa wise; dak k-sapa wise. slav teut kak cackle, kaka the crow; pawnee kaka; man keka the crow; eu sara stream flow, sara butter; min tsara; tit dak sla grease; i e ar join whence our arm; win and min ara, the arm; slav teut lap, lamp shine; dak ampa light; slav teut krup fear; dak kopa noun fear, a fearful place; adj insecure; a scandinavian base naf, nap, our nab, icel nefi; swed nefwa (perhaps i was the original suffix) the hand; dak nape the hand; i e kak spring; lith szaka (pronounced shaka) twig shoot, etc; dak shake nails claws; om shage finger; min shaki hand paw. in dak as in i e -a usually raises the stem vowel; i e kid burn; teut haita hot; dak kata hot; i e sik dry; dak saka also shecha dried; i e lip adhere; tit dak lapa sticky adhesive; i e migh pour out water, skt megha cloud; om magha, mangha cloud sky; crow makha sky; dak in makhpiya (maghapiya) cloud sky, maghazhu rain. the zhu is dak-zhu, min-ghu, i e ghu pour. . i e -i formed abstracts and nouns of agency; i e ar go; min ari, way, track, trail. . i e -u formed adjectives; i e ragh spring, raghu light, whence lungs; min dagho, agho; dak chaghu lungs;[g] eu park whence parka wrinkle; dak pako crooked, wrinkled. . i e -ya formed nouns, adjectives and participles. the dak still retains some adjectives thus formed, and hundreds of participles rendered by english participles, but used only adverbially, and it has become an adverbial suffix. . i e -wa formed passive participles, adjectives and nouns. it is in dak a living passive participial suffix combined with the like suffix -an, forming wa(h)an. when added directly to the root it raises the stem vowel as in; eu ku contain to be hollow; lat cava; dak -ko be hollow, noun ko a hole; kawa open. after consonants the w becomes p; i e akwa water of ak; gothic ahva river; dak wakpa river. . i e -ma, -mana, -man formed adjectives, present participles and nouns; i e akman stone of ak, a s iman; dak imni stone. . i e -ra, -la formed adjectives and nouns; eu kira yellow; old slav seru; crow shira, min tsidi, tsiri, man psida, iowa thi, om thi, zi; win and dak zi yellow; i e ghu pour; min ghu pour; dak zhu pour, ozhu pour in, in ozhudan, tit ozhu la full; eu wasra spring of was; icel vara, lat ver; win wera spring; eu tag cover whence; welsh and irish ti house, our thatch; win chira house; man, min, om, dak ti house; aryan nira water of ni; tit dak nila water; om and win ni water. ra, la is also a diminutive suffix in i e languages. it is the regular diminutive suffix in win, -ra, in tit dak, -la, in yank -na, in santee dak -dan also -na. . i e -an formed past passive participles whence our en in fallen, etc. it is still the regular passive participial suffix in dak either alone or combined with wa. as dak verb stems end in a vowel it is preceded by a euphonic h. when added directly to the root it raises the stem vowel, as in eu wik whence gothic veiha holy; dak wakan sacred. . i have not found infinitive suffix -na in dak. . i e -na was a passive participial suffix, developing also denominatives. the dak has perhaps a few relics; i e ku bring low, kauna low; dak ku- in kuchedan, also kun low. i e mi, diminish (mince); yank and tit dak mina knife. . i e -ni formed abstracts and nouns of agency. possibly it is found in; i e migh pour out water; dak mini water; and a few others. . two words containing -nu, are recognized by schleicher as i e; i e and dak su bear; i e sunu son; dak sun younger brother. i e and dak tan extend; i e tanu adj thin, noun body; dak tan body. . i e -ta (our -d) formed the past passive participle, and nouns of similar signification, in which uses it is tolerably frequent in dak; i e ski collect, arrange; dak shki plait gather, skita bound together, tied on; i e pu destroy rot; min pu rot; dak po in pon (=po an) rotten, po -ta used up, worn out; i e sta stand, stata standing, stopped, brought to a stand; dak -sdata standing, stopped, hence also sdata feeble; i e su sew, sut sewed; dak suta strong, compare min ashu a string cord; i e and dak wi wind, wrap around, encircle; dak wita island; wita bound together, in witaya together. . i e -ta formed nouns of agency and future participles. it is derived by bopp from i e tar pass-over, whence also eu tar, tur pass-over, possess, accomplish, fulfil. the root is extremely frequent in these uses in the dakotan languages, and in dak at least is much used as a suffix. the last half of the word mini-tari is tari, cross over. in dak, eu tur is re; represented as accurately as possible by ton possess, accomplish, fulfil, have, give birth, and the preposition tan in composition from equally represents skt tar, from.[h] as forming nouns of agency it has in dak lost the r; eu pa, whence eu pana fire; dak peta fire; i e ak skt iksh see, whence our eye; min aka, ika see; crow am-aka, iowa at-aka see; ishta eye, in all dakotan languages. we perhaps have a few relics of tar as a comparative suffix; i e uk increase whence old sax agen our again; mand age, dak ake again, dak akton more than. . i have not recognized -ti in dak. . dak wetu, etu time, season, may be i e and dak, -wi encircle, with -tu, but is more probably related to i e vatas year, adj. old. . i have not recognized -dhi in dak. . i e -ant (our ing) forming active participles necessarily drops t and prefixes h in dak, and in this form, han, is used as active participial suffix with some verbs. . as a plural suffix i e -as seems to be presented by the mandan plural suffix osh. . i e -ka as a primary suffix forms a few nouns and adjectives; i e ku contain be hollow; dak root ko the same, koka a cask, barrel, box, etc; i e and dak tan extend, stretch; dak tanka large (cf iowa tanra large). i e da bind; dak daka bound by obligation, relationship or league, whence their name dakota, those bound by league, those making a league, friend, comrade (-ta for i e tar). as a secondary suffix it is extremely frequent in dak as well as i e, forming in both words of multifarious relations to their primitives. i e kuan, kwan, kwanka dog; lith szun (pronounced shun); dak shunka dog; old slav suka a bitch; min shuka a dog. ka is used both in i e and dak as a negative suffix. in sanskrit and several other i e languages it is used as a diminutive suffix, and forms one syllable of the various min diminutive suffixes. footnotes: [footnote g: for i e r--dak ch compare eu wira dak wicha-man; eu wera; dak wicaka true. teut legya thigh whence leg of lak; win lega and legra; iowa reke; mandan doka; min diki, liki the leg, the thigh; dak checha the thighs. the r probably first became d.] [footnote h: dak n--i e r is supported by about fifty examples.] prepositions. the dak is like the i e languages remarkable for its copiousness in prepositions. in their use or omission the dak differs from the english less than does the anglo saxon. as in some of the old i e languages they are either verbal prefixes or follow their nouns. nearly all of them seem to be of i e prepositions mostly compounded. i give examples of the more obvious similarities. sam. together with, in skt. a. s. and dak. en in, greek, teutonic and dak. on, a. s. with dat, for, on account of, of, dak the same. a verbal prefix on, icel, a. s., dak. i e ana a. s. an on, dak an in composition on. a. s. at our at; dak ta at necessarily transposed. eu da old ir du, our to, germ zu; min du, during, at that time; dak tu to, till etc. eu ek over, of i e ak; min ak over, dak in ak -an upon, ak -am beyond over upon, ek -ta at, etc. eu api about, around; min api with. eu ambhi about, around, over; dak am in akam over upon; a s and ger um. swed om same meaning; dak om with, used with plural object only. a s ni negative; dak ni prefix in nicha none and base of negative words in shni not combined with reflexive sa. pronouns. the dak and algonkin pronouns are amazingly dissimilar; the dak and i e are remarkably alike. st person sing. inflection, ma, mi, m, in i e and dakota. the dakotan forms are however oftener prefixed than suffixed eg; dak root ha have (teut aih own) yu formative prefix, yuha he has; duha thou hast; mduha i have; titon yuha, luha, bluha. st p stem. the ga of lat ego a s, ic etc. appears in iowa, ka, ke, etc. the chief base of nearly all the dak languages is however, ma, mi, corresponding to i e ma, mi; lat me, mi; eng me, etc. st dual and plural stem. i e na, lat no, mandan nu; teut dual onki, goth ugki, a s unc, dak unki and un. the base wa whence we, has become in dak wa i, in omaha wi me, in iowa inflection plural wa, us, etc. d. i e twa has become in dak ni (cf swed ni thou). it is however in omaha thi identical in sound with our thee, and da, di in most allied languages similar to german du. dak ya pl yapi you, and our you are probably also of this base. the iowa forms the possessive of personal pronouns like the icelandic by -i; icel min my; iowa min my. d person, i, he, she, it, extremely frequent in i e languages, is the base used in all the dakotan languages as least partaking of a demonstrative nature. in dak it is omitted except when emphatic. i e sa reflexive and emphatic; min she, the same. contracted to s it forms i e nominative; in dak, as sh nominatives of i (ish), mi, ni and unki, and occurs in composition; in min it forms proper names. i e sa, ta; teut tha, this, that; om the, this; dak ta, to in many compounds. i e sawa genitive of sa, ta reflexive possessive for all persons; dak tawa the same, also ta. it is in the third person used alone in dak, but suffixed to i in minnetaree. all its forms in min, and those of the first and second persons in dak are double possessives analogous to mine, thine. eu ki, kina, that, this, he, she, it; dak ki, his, her, its, etc. in nom kana those, etc.; sing ka that, the vowel is raised as in the greek keinos. for abridgement of stem in singular compare our ox, pl. oxen, nortumbrian oxena, and other relics of stems in na; teut hina this; crow hina this. from kina, hina, originated the icelandic and swedish pastpositive def. article the; likewise dak kin postpositive def. article the; ke emphatic pronoun kuns, clf, etc. of this base a s stem he, he, she, it; dak he (pl hena) he, she, it, that. slav teut da this; dak de (pl dena) this. i e antara other; mandan ant that. i e i demon, pref, this; dak i. i e a dem. pref; min a, o; dak o. i e wa pronominal base used in compounds; dak wa pronominal prefix some, something. prefix wo (wa-|-o) forms abstract nouns and nouns of agency. i e ka int. and rel. pronoun; pawnee ka interrogative; dak ka interrogative suffix and in compounds; ger wer; dak tu-we who int. and rel; gk po; min tape who, tapa or tako what. i e neuter base ku what; dak ta-ku what rel. and int. i e wika all the whole; dak wicha them, incorporated objective. iowa wi; dak pi plural suffix seems to be a contraction of this base. analogous to a s, accusative mik of ma-|-ga we have; dak accusative michi, in which the k has become ch through the influence of i; also the accusatives unki-chi, ni-chi, i-chi. numerals. i have compared the dakotan numerals with all others accessible to me, including some of the forms of more than five hundred dialects. i can find less than half a dozen american or turanian sets that resemble any dakotan set as much as the english numerals resemble the hebrew. the similarity of the dak to the i e numerals can therefore be accounted for only as the result of special relationship or of accident. except as noted below all changes are in accordance with well sustained laws. , a s an, lith (w)ena; dak (w)-an, ind. article wanzhi one, wancha one, once. , i e dwa; min d(o)pa; iowa n(o)wa; dak n(o)m pa cf a s ta two; dak ta a pair. , i e traya; iowa tanye; dak ya -mni [or ya (m) ni?] , i e k-atwar; iowa towa; dak s topa; y tom; t tol. , i e kankan, kwankwan; mand kikhun; dak zaptan? , i e kswakswa; win hakwa; iowa shagwa; dak shakpe. , a s seowon; dak shakowin. , i e aktu, gk hokto; dak y sh-akdo-ghan; sant sh-ahdo-ghan. , i e nawan; dak na (pchi) wan-ka. , i e dwakan; lat decem; dak wikchem-na. , i e k = dak z otherwise sustained but not proved. kw = kp = tp = pt, t and k being interchangeable before labials in dak. , neither a s seowon nor dak shakowin are legitimately deducible from saptan. perhaps sakan, sakwan was the true base. , either gk h or dak sh may equal i e s. dak d for i e t is rare but s. hd, y. kd is a favorite combination. , i cannot explain inserted pchi. , in dak m and n are interchangeable before labials, but m for i e n is here unsupported.[i] d cannot stand before w in dak. footnotes: [footnote i: whitney skt gr appears to regard m, as in latin decem, the original nasal.] vocabulary. the table of sound representation heretofore given serves to compare the materials of the main body of the dak with fick's i e bases. the results are, however, in many cases ambiguous. besides the number of accidental resemblances of the dakotan to the i e languages seems, to be much greater than the whole number of similarities between dakotan and algonkin languages. dak anapta is identical with i e anapta in sound, closely similar in meaning. dak a-na-pta is prep. a = icel a on, na prefix converting root to verb, and pta separate; cf i e pat fall, also open (lat pateo). i e an-apta is an negative prefix, and apta participle of ap attain. my father compared dak chepa fat with lat adeps. i have since found min idip fat almost identical with lat stem adipi. i e and lat d and p are nearly always d and p in min; but it is extremely doubtful whether the words are related. on the other hand there is little apparent similarity between eu karpya shoe, and dak hanpa shoe; but the dak word represents the eu as accurately as possible; similar forms are found in every dakotan language, and it seems scarcely possible to me that the similarity can be accidental. in giving a few additional examples of similar roots i select those that are the most obvious, rather than the most certain. i exclude those not in accordance with sound representation, and the analogies of such allied dakotan and i e forms as are known to me. where the dakotan forms are not used as separate words it is indicated by a hyphen, before, if used alone as a verb stem, after if it requires suffixes. where the root is found primarily combined with only one suffix or prefix the derivative form is given. in some cases the dak root has one of the meanings given in one combination, another in another. eu i go; dak i go. aryan u mangle; min u wound; dak o. eu ak tell, relate; dak o(y)-aka. eu aka mother; min ika mother. eu ap attain; dak ape wait for, expect. eu ad; icel eta eat; dak ta eat. eu as be; ital, alb, pers e is; dak e is, -esh be it so. eu as mouth, asta lips; dak i mouth, ishti the under lip. eu unk dwell; dak un dwell, be; unkan be, unkan and, (act part for unkant continuing.) eu ka bend, curl, kak (for kaka) laugh; min ka laugh; dak kha bend, curl, i-khakha laugh. eu kak be injurious, gk kakos bad; mand khekosh bad; crow kawi bad; dak shicha bad? eu ka and; dak ka and. i e ka, kan, kar desire; dak kon desire. i e ka, kar, gar honor; dak kan honor. i e ka, ga know; min eke know; dak ka mean, signify. eu ka pierce, cut in; dak ka dig. eu kat cover; dak o-kati, o in, kati cover. eu kap take hold of; dak yu-kapa catch as a ball, kapa surpass. eu kam; teut him bend, curve, arch; dak s-hmi, y-kmi curve; s hmi-hma, y kmikma round. eu kas rub against, scratch; dak kashe rub against, kaza pick to pieces. eu skar, kar shave off; dak ka strip off, as the feather part of a quill. eu ki, gi possess by force; dak ki take by force. eu ki, kit seek; dak a-kita seek. teut han waver, hang; dak -han hang, totter, waver. teut haf lift, heave; dak -ha lift, heave. teut hata hate; dak -hiti hate. teut hama the hull; dak ha the hull. teut hiwan related of the same family. icel hjun household; o. h. g. hun both husband and wife; dak hun- of the same family, also hun mother. teut kan, kin beget, germinate; goth kuni related; dak ku suffix kin, root ku-, kin-, chin- in many derivatives. goth kwino woman; dak wino. eu gha open out, whence gate, gape; dak -gha, ghapa, ghata open out. eu ghagh move convulsively; dak gheghe swing the arms like a drunken man. eu ghans goose; win wighanna, mandan mihan, dak magha goose. eu ghans be rough; min -gha, dak kha be rough. eu tap press; min tapi press; dak -tpa. eu tarp satisfy; dak tpa satisfying, etc. eu tan thunder; dak o-tin thunder. icel taka take, touch, fasten; dak yu-taka take, touch, na-taka fasten. eu da know, dak show, suppose; dak da, daka think, regard, have an opinion. eu da give; dak da ask. eu di go, hasten; min di go, travel. eu du go forth; dak du-za run. eu dup sink in, our dive; dak dopa mire; min dipi bathe. eu nu now; dak i-nu suddenly, na-ka now, wan-na now. eu nar man; om no, nu man. eu pak, gk pakto- bind; dak pakhta bind. eu pat press; min pati press. eu pat fill up, crowd; dak in pta-ya together. eu pa swallow nourish; dak -pa- nourish papa the nourishment, min pe swallow, take nourishment. eu pap swell up, puff out; dak popa swell burst. eu par divide (our part); dak a-pa a part. eu pi hate; crow -pi hate. eu pik pierce; min pi tatoo, -pi pierce. eu pu dry; dak pu- dry. icel fok our fog; dak po fog, mist, steam, etc. icel finn, swed, nor, m. h. g. fin, dan, sax finn, o. du fijn m eng fine; win pin, dak -pi, iowa pi good, perfected.[j] eu bub (of bu) make a noise; dak -bu make a noise, bubu noisy. teut and ir bata boat; min mati, bati, cr bashe, dak wata boat. teut blas flame, our blaze; t dak bleza clear, transparent. lat and gr bison from teut; crow bishe the bison; dak pte. lat and gr mamma the mother breast; dak mama the mother breast. eu man remain; dak man remain, stay. sclav teut man go, step; dak mani walk. eu magh grow; ir magh field; dak magha field. teut marka limit, boundary, territory of a tribe; dak maka the ground, the earth, makoche country. eu ya go; dak ya go. eu rup break; min dupi, rupi break. a s throte the throat; t dak lote, s dote throat. eu wak say, speak, wad speak, sing; gk wepos word; dak wo-wa-pi that related by pictures and writing, root wa in various compounds, relate, count, write, sing, etc. (gk p is root, dak p suffix.) eu wagh carry, our way; dak o-we way, trail. eu wad flow forth, our wet; dak wi-wi a marsh, a springy place. eu wasu good; dak wash-te good. teut wantra winter; dak wani- winter. icel wakta watch, guard; dak wakta watch, guard. teut widu wood; min mida, bida wood. eu sa refrain from; crow suffix sa the same. teut swa, old fris sa like as; dak se like as. eu sak divide, cut; min tsaki divide cut. eu sama summer; min tsame hot, very warm. eu si bind; min -shi bind; dak -shi command. swed si! lo! behold! dak. shi! hark! eu su good; dak -su good. eu suk suck; min tsuki, dak zoka suck. i e ska shine; lat candidus white; dak ska white shining. i e ska separate; dak ksa separate. i e ska kill, gk kten- kill; dak kte kill. i e ska tarry, gk kta possess; dak kta defer, tarry, used also as sign of future tense. the mandan future inflection -kit -kt -t appears to be an abridgement of this. eu skat spring, leap; dak skata play. eu ska, skad burn; dak shku roast. eu skap annihilate; dak skepa evaporate, remove entirely, cause to disappear. eu skap strike; dak -skapa strike. eu skad, gk keda spill, scatter; dak kada spill, scatter, applied only to solids. eu skap scratch, shave; min kape scratch. eu kopa concave; dak skopa concave. eu skid press; dak -ski- press. eu sku shave off, flay; dak -sku shave off, flay. eu skru rough hew; dak sku broken in gaps. eu snigh cold; dak sni cold. eu swan sonare; dak sna ring, rattle. eu skud, teut skut shoot; dak kate shoot. teut sota soot; dak shota smoke, shotkazi soot. eu sad sit; dak si, siha the foot. the dakota words that most resemble i e forms are those in daily use, those roots entering into the largest number of compounds, those most widely distributed in languages more nearly related. excluding words repeated in compounds and those contained in phrases i have not satisfactorily analyzed, and including words derivative rather than compound, i find in hayden, morgan and schoolcraft different iowa words. of these thirty-five as words represent words discussed in this paper; thirty-nine others appear to be derived from roots herein discussed, a number of them varying from the dak. word only by using a different suffix also herein compared. out of that i have been able plainly to trace to dakota words and roots are to dakotan roots and words which seem to be related to i e forms. if i had sufficient iowa material to enable me to find iowa roots independently, i doubt not the resemblance to the dakota would be much increased, and the resemblance to the i e in a still greater degree. the parable of the prodigal son as printed in dr. rigg's dictionary, page , contains as there printed words, different[k] words. of these words, occurring times, are in the exact form[l] given in this paper; other words, occurring times, as given in my preceding paper; other words, occurring times, are composed wholly of the words, roots and pronominal elements compared with i e forms in the two papers. there remain words, different words. if i have correctly analyzed them they contain the following elements compared in this paper: words and verb roots, times, pronouns times, prepositional and pronominal prefixes times. much of the remainder, in all about nine-tenths of the whole, seems to me represent i e materials with which i have compared it. i do not doubt that some of the similarities will prove in the end fallacious. on the other hand i have no doubt that many new similarities will be found. my father made a list of , dakota verb stems, radical words and words which he could not satisfactorily to himself derive from simpler elements. of these about seem to be similar to i e forms with which i have compared them, and from them are derived more than three-fourths of the , words in dr. rigg's dictionary. the pronouns, prepositions and suffixes herein given seem to indicate that the dakotas did not separate from the teutonic family till long after the latter separated from the south european family. the fact that the dak resembles the icelandic and gothic in vocabulary and in structure much more than it resembles the older latin, points in the same direction. the laws of consonantal change in many cases produce the same result as grimm's law, but the laws themselves are entirely different. it _is certain_, therefore, that the dakota has not been connected with the teutonic since the development of grimm's law made any considerable progress. i have studied the question less, yet i think i have enough evidence in the system of consonantal change _to prove_ that the dakota has not been connected with the slavonic or lithuanian since they separated from each other, or for some time previously. it is possible so far as i can now say that the dak may have borrowed material from some language not i e, but i have found no evidence of it. undoubtedly the adoption of prisoners has introduced a considerable percentage of algonkin blood. it is also certain that they have adopted some chippewa religious observances, but even in these they do not appear to have adopted any chippewa words. footnotes: [footnote j: a word of this kind used every day by the masses of all teutonic people, and corresponding to the principal languages in such a variety of meanings, could not possibly be derived from the latin finitum. our fine may be in part from finitum, but fin--i e pin is certainly a teut word.] [footnote k: words varied by inflection are classed as different words.] [footnote l: except that in accordance with euphonic laws initial k becomes ch sixteen times, and final a e seven times.] +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's note: inconsistencies in the punctuation around| | abbreviations have been retained. | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ transcriber's note a number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of this book. they have been marked with a [tn-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the end of the text. a record of study in aboriginal american languages by daniel g. brinton, a.m., m.d., ll.d., sc.d., _professor of american archæology and linguistics in the university of pennsylvania_ printed for private distribution media, pa., press of the new era printing company, lancaster, pa. prefatory. if this review of my own work in the field of american linguistics requires an apology, i may say that the preparation of it was suggested to me by my late friend, mr. james constantine pilling, whose admirable volumes on the bibliography of american aboriginal languages are familiar to all students. he had experienced the difficulty of cataloguing the articles of writers whose contributions extend over many years, and have been published in different journals, proceedings of societies and volumes, and was impressed with the advantage of an analytical list composed by the author himself. with this in view, i have arranged the present survey of my writings in this branch of science, extending over a period of two score years. they are grouped geographically, and sufficient reference to their contents subjoined to indicate their aims and conclusions. d. g. brinton. media, penna., november, . i. general articles and works. . the philosophic grammar of american languages as set forth by wilhelm von humboldt; with the translation of an unpublished memoir by him on the american verb. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . on polysynthesis and incorporation as characteristics of american languages. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . characteristics of american languages. _american antiquarian_, january, . . on certain morphologic traits in american languages. _american antiquarian_, october, . . on various supposed relations between the american and asiatic races. _memoirs_ of the international congress of anthropology, . . the present status of american linguistics. _memoirs_ of the international congress of anthropology, . . american languages and why we should study them. an address delivered before the pennsylvania historical society. pp. . in _pennsylvania magazine of history and biography_, . . the rate of change in american languages. in _science_, vol. x., . . traits of primitive speech, illustrated from american languages. in _proceedings_ of the american association for the advancement of science, august, . . the language of palæolithic man. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, october, . . the american race: a linguistic classification and ethnographic description of the native tribes of north and south america. pp. . new york, . . the standard dictionary (indian words in). new york, . . aboriginal american authors and their productions, especially those in the native languages. pp. . philadelphia, . . american aboriginal poetry. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the numismatic and antiquarian society of philadelphia, . . the conception of love in some american languages. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, november, . the earlier numbers, ( - ,) in the above list are occupied with the inquiry whether the native american languages, as a group, have peculiar morphological traits, which justify their classification as one of the great divisions of human speech. in this question, i have been a disciple of wilhelm von humboldt and professor h. steinthal, and have argued that the phenomenon of incorporation, in some of its forms, is markedly present in the vast majority, if not in all, american tongues. that which has been called "polysynthesis" is one of these forms. this is nothing more than a familiar, nigh universal, grammatic process carried to an extreme degree. it is the _dvanda_ of the sanscrit grammarians, an excellent study of which has recently appeared from the pen of dr. h. c. müller.[ - ] in its higher forms incorporation subordinates the nominal concepts of the phrase to those of time and relation, which are essentially verbal, and this often where the true verbal concept, that of abstract action, is lacking, and the verb itself is in reality a noun in the possessive relation.[ - ][tn- ] even extremely simple american languages, such as the zoque, display the tendency to energetic synthesis;[ - ] while many of them carry the incorporative quality to such a degree that the sentence becomes one word, a good example of which is the micmac.[ - ] some american and french writers have misunderstood the nature of this trait, and have denied it; but the student who acquaints himself thoroughly with the authors above mentioned, will not be misled.[ - ] the ms. of the memoir by w. von humboldt i obtained from the berlin library. even professor steinthal, in his edition of humboldt's linguistic works, had overlooked it. it is a highly philosophic analysis of the verb, as it occurs in the languages of the following tribes: abipones, achaguas, betoyas, caribs, huastecas, lules, maipures, mayas, mbayas, mexicans (nahuas), mixtecas, mocovis, omaguas, otomis, tamanacas, totonacos, tupis, yaruros. in ( ) i have examined the various alleged affiliations between american and asiatic tongues, and showed they are wholly unfounded. in ( ) i have entered a plea for more attention to american languages. not only for ethnographic purposes are they useful, but their primitive aspects and methods of presenting ideas enable us to solve psychological and grammatic problems more completely than other tongues. in support of this, in ( ) and ( ), i endeavor to outline what must have been the morphology of the language which man spoke when in the very beginning of his existence as man; a speech of marvelous simplicity, but adapted to his wants. the volume, of nearly four hundred pages, entitled _the american race_ (no. ) was the first attempt at a systematic classification of all the tribes of america, north, central and south, on the basis of language. it defines seventy-nine linguistic stocks in north america and sixty-one in south america. the number of tribes named and referred to these stocks is nearly sixteen hundred. several of these stocks are defined for the first time, such as the tequistlatecan of mexico, the matagalpan of central america, and in south america the timote, the paniquita, the cocanuca, the mocoa, the betoya, the lamuca, etc. in the article ( ) i show that, contrary to an oft expressed opinion, the rate of change in these unwritten tongues is remarkably slow, not greater than in cultivated languages. when the publishers of the _standard dictionary_ (new york, ) were preparing that well-known work, they placed in my hands all the words in the english language derived from the native tongues of america. although the etymology of some of them remains obscure, i believe the derivation of all positively traced will be found presented. i early became convinced that the translations of books of devotion, etc., into the native tongues gave no correct impression of those tongues. the ideas conveyed were foreign to the primitive mind, and the translations were generally by foreigners who had not completely mastered the idioms. hence, the only true reflex of a language is in the words and thoughts of the natives themselves, in their indigenous literature. this led me to project the publication of a series of volumes containing writings, preferably on secular subjects, by natives in their own languages. that there is such a literature i undertook to show in ( ) and ( ). the former was the expansion of a paper presented to the international congress of americanists at copenhagen. it contains a list of native american authors and notices of a number of their works composed in their own tongues. that on "aboriginal poetry" vindicates for native american bards a respectable position among lyric and dramatic composers. that some of the central subjects of poetic literature--the emotions of love and friendship--exist, and often in no low form of sentiment, among these natives, i have undertaken to show by an analysis of a number of terms expressing these feelings in five leading american linguistic stocks, the algonkin, nahuatl, maya, quechua and tupi (no. ). following out this plan, i began in the publication of "the library of aboriginal american literature." each volume was to contain a work composed in a native tongue by a native; but those based upon foreign inspiration, such as sermons, etc., were to be excluded. each was to be translated and edited with sufficient completeness to make it available for the general student. of this "library" eight volumes were issued, the first in , the eighth in , when i ceased the publication, not from lack of material, but because i had retired in from my connection with the publishing business and became more engaged in general anthropological pursuits. the "library," as issued, contains the following numbers: no. i. the chronicles of the mayas. edited by daniel g. brinton, m. d. pages. . this volume contains five brief chronicles in the maya language, written shortly after the conquest, and carrying the history of that people back many centuries. to these is added a history of the conquest, written in his native tongue, by a maya chief, in . this interesting account has been published separately, with an excellent grammatical and lexical analysis by the count de charencey, under the title _chrestomathie maya, d'après la chronique de chac-xulub-chen_ (paris, ). the texts are preceded by an introduction on the history of the mayas, their language, calendar, numerical system, etc.; and a vocabulary is added at the close. no. ii. the iroquois book of rites. edited by horatio hale. pages. . this work contains, in the mohawk and onondaga languages, the speeches, songs and rituals with which a deceased chief was lamented and his successor installed in office. the introduction treats of the ethnology and history of the huron-iroquois. a map, notes and glossary complete the work. no. iii. the comedy-ballet of güegüence. edited by daniel g. brinton, m. d. pages. . a curious and unique specimen of the native comic dances, with dialogues, called _bailes_, formerly common in central america. it is in the mixed nahuatl-spanish jargon of nicaragua, and shows distinctive features of native authorship. the introduction treats of the ethnology of nicaragua, and the local dialects, musical instruments and dramatic representations. a map and a number of illustrations are added. no. iv. a migration legend of the creek indians. edited by a. s. gatschet. pages. . offers a survey of the ethnology of the native tribes of the gulf states. the legend told to governor oglethorpe, in , by the creeks, is given in the original. no. v. the lenâpé and their legends. edited by daniel g. brinton, m. d. pages. . contains the complete text and symbols, in number, of the "walum olum," or "red score," of the delaware indians, with the full original text, and a new translation, notes and vocabulary. a lengthy introduction treats of the lenâpé or delawares, their history, customs, myths, language, etc., with numerous references to other tribes of the great algonkin stock. no. vi. the annals of the cakchiquels. edited by daniel g. brinton, m. d. pages. . the original text, written about , by a member of the reigning family, with a translation, introduction, notes and vocabulary. this may be considered one of the most important historical documents relating to the pre-columbian period. no. vii. ancient nahuatl poetry. edited by daniel g. brinton, m. d. pages. . in this volume twenty-seven songs in the original nahuatl are presented, with translation, notes, vocabulary, etc. many of them date from before the conquest and none later than the sixteenth century. the introduction describes the ancient poetry of the nahuas in all its bearings. no. viii. rig veda americanus. edited by daniel g. brinton, m. d. pages. . presents the original text with a gloss in nahuatl of twenty sacred chants of the ancient mexicans. they are preserved in the madrid mss. of father sahagun, and date anterior to the conquest. a paraphrase, notes and a vocabulary are added, and a number of curious illustrations are reproduced from the original. the edition of each of these was about copies, except no. ii., of which were printed. a complete set is now difficult to obtain. ii. north american languages north of mexico. . lenâpé-english dictionary. from an anonymous ms. in the archives of the moravian church at bethlehem, pa., with additions, by daniel g. brinton and rev. albert seqaqkind anthony, to, pp. . philadelphia, . published by the historical society of pennsylvania. . the lenâpé and their legends; with the complete text and symbols of the walum olum, a new translation and an inquiry into its authenticity. pp. . illustrated. philadelphia, . . lenâpé conversations. in _american journal of folk-lore_, vol. i. . the shawnees and their migrations. in _american historical magazine_, january, . . the chief god of the algonkins, in his character as a cheat and liar. in the _american antiquarian_, may, . . on certain supposed nanticoke words shown to be of african origin. _american antiquarian_, . . vocabulary of the nanticoke dialect. proceedings of the _american philosophical society_, november, . . the natchez of louisiana, an offshoot of the civilized nations of central america. in the _historical magazine_ (new york), for january, . . on the language of the natchez. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, december, . . grammar of the choctaw language. by the rev. cyrus byington. edited from the original ms. by d. g. brinton. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . contributions to a grammer[tn- ] of the muskokee language. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, march, . . the floridian peninsula, its literary history, indian tribes, and antiquities. vo, cloth, pp. . philadelphia, . . the taensa grammar and dictionary. a deception exposed. in _american antiquarian_, march, . . the taensa grammar and dictionary. a reply to m. lucien adam. in _american antiquarian_, september, . within the area of the united states, my articles have been confined practically to two groups, the algonkian dialects and those spoken in florida and the gulf states. the delaware indians or lenni lenâpé, who occupied the valley of the delaware river and the land east of it to the ocean, although long in peaceful association with the white settlers, were never studied, linguistically, except by the moravian missionaries, in the latter half of the eighteenth century. in examining the mss. in the moravian church at bethlehem, pa., i discovered a ms. dictionary of their tongue, containing about , words. this i had carefully copied, and induced a native delaware, an educated clergyman of the english church, the rev. albert seqaqkind anthony, to pass a fortnight at my house, going over it with me, word by word. the ms. thus revised, was published by the historical society of pennsylvania as the first number of its "student series." various interesting items illustrating the beliefs and customs of the delawares of the present day, communicated to me by mr. anthony, i collected into the article ( ), "lenâpé conversations." a few years previous i had succeeded in obtaining the singular ms. referred to by c. s. rafinesque, in , as the "painted record" of the delaware indians, the _walum olum,_ properly, "painted" or "red" "score." this i reproduced in no. , with the accessories mentioned above (p. ). there is no doubt of the general authenticity of this record. a corroboration of it was sent me in march of this year ( ) by dr. a. s. gatschet, of the u. s. bureau of american ethnology. he writes: "when the delaware delegate, johnnycake, was here for the last time, he told mr. j. b. n. hewitt (also attached to the bureau) that some of the lenâpé indians, near nowata, cherokee nation, had seen your publication on the _walum olum_. they belong to the oldest men of that tribe, and stated that the text was all right, and that they remembered the songs from their youth. they could give many additions, and said that a few passages were in the wrong order and had to be placed elsewhere to give them the full meaning they were intended to convey." this was cheering confirmation to me that my labor had not been expended on a fantastic composition of rafinesque's, as some have been inclined to think. some years ago i contemplated the publication of a work through the american folklore society on algonquian mythology. various reasons led me to lay it aside. part of the material was introduced into my works on the general mythology of the american tribes,[ - ] and one fragment appeared in ( ) in which i offered a psychological explanation of the character of the hero god gluscap, so prominent in the legends of the micmacs and abenakis. at that time i was not acquainted with the ingenious suggestions on the etymology of the name subsequently advocated by the native author, joseph nicolar.[ - ] the nanticokes lived on the eastern shore of chesapeake bay. in collecting their vocabularies i found one alleged to have been obtained from them, but differing completely from the algonquian dialects. it had been partly printed by dr. benjamin smith barton,[ - ] but remained a puzzle. my article ( ) proves that it belongs to the mandingo language of western africa. it was doubtless obtained from some negro slave. the nanticoke vocabulary ( ) was secured in for mr. thomas jefferson. i give the related terms in the other dialects of the stock. the natchez are an interesting people of whose rites we have strange accounts from the early french explorers. their language is a small stock by itself. at one time i thought it related to the maya ( ); but this is probably an error. in ( ) i printed a vocabulary of words obtained for me from a native, together with some slight grammatical material. the taensas were a branch of the natchez, speaking the same tongue; but in , j. parisot presented an article of half a dozen pages to the international congress of americanists on what he called the "hastri or taensa language," totally different from the natchez.[ - ] subsequently this was expanded to a volume, and appeared as tome ix. of the _bibliothêque linguistique américaine_ (maisonneuve et cie, paris) introduced by the well-known scholars lucien adam and albert s. gatschet. it passed unchallenged until , when i proved conclusively that the whole was a forgery of some young seminarists, and had been palmed off on these unsuspecting scientists out of a pleasure in mystification ( ). as i have given the details elsewhere, i shall not repeat them.[ - ] the works of pareja in the timuquana tongue of florida were unknown to linguists when, in , i published the little volume ( ). in it, however, i called attention to them, and from the scanty references in hervas expressed the opinion that it might be related to the carib. this was an error, as no such affinity appears on the fuller examination of the tongue now possible, since pareja's grammar has been republished,[ - ] and texts of the timuquana have been reproduced by buckingham smith.[ - ] the language stands alone, an independent stock. iii. mexican and central american languages. . the native calendar of central america and mexico. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, november, . . the lineal measures of the semi-civilized nations of mexico and central america. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, january, . . on the chontallis and popolucas. in the compte rendu du congrés des américanistes, . . the study of the nahuatl language. in the _american antiquarian_, january, . . the written language of the ancient mexicans. in _transactions_ of the american philosophical society, . . the ancient phonetic alphabet of yucatan. in _american historical magazine_, . . the graphic system and ancient records of the mayas. in _contributions to american ethnology_, vol. v., washington, . . the phonetic elements in the graphic systems of the mayas and mexicans. in _american antiquarian_, november, . . on the "ikonomatic" method of phonetic writing. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . a primer of mayan hieroglyphics. pp. . boston, . . what the mayan inscriptions tell about. in _american archæologist_, . . on the "stone of the giants" near orizaba, mexico. in _proceedings_ of the numismatic and antiquarian society of philadelphia, . . on the nahuatl version of sahagun's historia de la nueva españa, at madrid. in the _compte rendu_ of the congrés international des americanistes, ^eme session. . on the words "anahuac" and "nahuatl." in _american antiquarian_, november, . . on the so-called alagüilac language of guatemala. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, november, . . the güegüence; a comedy ballet in the nahuatl-spanish dialect of nicaragua. pp . philadelphia, . . ancient nahuatl poetry; containing the nahuatl text of twenty-seven ancient mexican poems; with translation, introduction, notes and vocabulary. pp. . . . rig veda americanus. sacred songs of the ancient mexicans, with a gloss in nahuatl. with paraphrase, notes and vocabulary. pp. . illustrated. philadelphia, . . a notice of some manuscripts of central american languages. in the _american journal of science and arts_ (new haven), march, . . the maya chronicles. pp. . philadelphia, . . the books of chilan balam, the prophetic and historic records of the mayas of yucatan. in the _penn monthly_, march, . . the names of the gods in the kiche myths. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . on the chane-abal (four-language) tribe and dialect of chiapas. in the _american anthropologist_, january, . . a grammar of the cakchiquel language of guatemala. translated from an ancient spanish ms., with an introduction and numerous additions. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . the annals of the cakchiquels. the original text, with a translation, notes and introduction. pp. . illustrated. philadelphia, . . on some affinities of the otomi and tinné stocks. international congress of americanists, . . observations on the chinantec language of mexico and the mazatec language and its affinities. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . notes on the mangue dialect. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, november, . . on the xinca indians of guatemala. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, october, . . the ethnic affinities of the guetares of costa rica. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, december, . . on the matagalpan linguistic stock of central america. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, december, . . some vocabularies from the mosquito coast. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, march, . the _popol vuh_, or "sacred book" of the quiches of guatemala was published by the abbé brasseur in . the study ( ) is an effort to analyze the names of the gods which it contains and to extract their symbolic significance. the chane-abal dialect of chiapas ( ) is a mixed jargon, the component elements of which i have endeavored to set forth from ms. material collected by dr. berendt. another language of chiapas is the "chapanecan." in ( ) and also in the introduction to ( ) i have shown, from unpublished sources, its close relationship to the mangue of nicaragua. the mazatec language of oaxaca, is examined for the first time in ( ) from material supplied me by mr. a. pinart. it is shown to have relations with the chapanecan and others with costa rican tongues. the article on the chinantec, ( ) a little-known tongue of oaxaca, is an analysis of its forms and a vocabulary from the _doctrina_ of father barreda and notes of dr. berendt. the cakchiquels occupied most of the soil of guatemala at the period of the conquest, and their tongue was that chosen to be the "metropolitan" language of the diocess. in ( ) i gave a translation of an unpublished grammar of it, the ms. being one in the archives of the american philosophical society. in some respects it is superior to the grammar of flores. the higher culture of the tribes of central america and mexico gives a special interest to the study of their languages, oral and written; for with some of them we find moderately well-developed methods of recording ideas. much of this culture was intimately connected with their astrological methods and these with their calendar. this remarkable artificial computation of time, based on the relations of the numerals and applied to various periods, was practically the same among the mayas, nahuas, zapotecs, mixtecs, chapanecs, otomis and tarascos--seven different linguistic stocks--and unknown elsewhere on the globe. the study of it ( ) is exclusively from its linguistic and symbolic side. it is strange that nowhere in north america was any measure of weight known to the natives. their lineal measures were drawn chiefly from the proportions of the human body. they are investigated in ( ). under the names _chontalli_ and _popoluca_, both nahuatl words indicating "foreigners," ethnographers have included tribes of wholly diverse lineage. in ( ) i have shown that some are tzentals, others tequistlatecas, ulvas, mixes, zapotecs, nahuas, lencas and cakchiquels, thus doing away with the confusion introduced by these inappropriate ethnic terms. no. ( ) is an article for the use of students of the nahuatl language, mentioning the principal grammars, dictionaries and text-books which are available. the numbers ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) and ( ), are devoted to the methods of writing invented by the cultured natives of mexico and central america in order to preserve their literature, such as it was. the methods are various, that of the nahuas not being identical with that of the mayas. the former is largely phonetic, but in a peculiar manner, for which i have proposed the term of "ikonomatic," the principle being that of the rebus. that this method can be successfully applied to the decipherment of inscriptions i demonstrated in the translation of one which is quite celebrated, the "stone of the giants" at orizaba, mexico ( ). the translation i proposed has been fully accepted.[ - ] the "primer of mayan hieroglyphics" ( ) was intended as a summary of what had been achieved up to that time ( ) by students in this branch. it endeavored, moreover, to render to each student the credit of his independent work; and as, unfortunately, some, notably in germany, had put forward as their own what belonged to others of earlier date, the book naturally was not very well treated by such reviewers. its aim, however, to present a concise and fair statement of what had been accomplished in its field up to the date of its publication was generally conceded to have been attained. much of the considerable manuscript material which i have accumulated on the languages of this section of the continent was obtained from the collections of the late dr. carl hermann berendt and the abbé e. c. brasseur (de bourbourg). when in spain, in , i found in the royal library the ms. of the earlier portion of sahagun's "history of new spain" in nahuatl. i described it in ( ). the term "anahuac" has long been applied to the territory of mexico. dr. e. seler, of berlin, published an article asserting that this was an error, and devoid of native authority. in ( ) i pointed out that in this he was wrong, as early nahuatl records use it in this sense. the alaguilac language of guatemala, long a puzzle to linguistics, is shown in ( ) to be an isolated dialect of the nahuatl. nos. ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) and ( ), have been already mentioned. the term _chilan balam_, which may be freely rendered "the inspired speaker," was the title of certain priests of the native mayas. many records in the maya tongue, written after the conquests, go by the name of "the books of chilan balam." they have never been published, but copies of them, made by dr. berendt, are in my possession. their purpose and contents were described in ( ). there are reasons for believing that previous to the arrival of the cakchiquels in guatemala its area was largely peopled by xincas. of this little-known stock i present in ( ) three extended vocabularies, from unpublished sources, with comments on the "culture-words." some apparent but no decisive affinities between the otomi of mexico and the tinné or athapascan dialects are shown in ( ); and in ( ) the ancient guetares of costa rica are proved, on linguistic evidence, to have been members of the talamancan linguistic stock. the matagalpan is an interesting family, first defined in _the american race_, and in ( ) more fully discussed, as they survive in san salvador. in ( ) some unpublished vocabularies from the tribe of the ramas, on the mosquito coast, place them as members of the changuina stock, most of whom dwelt on the isthmus of panama. iv. south american and antillean languages. . remarks on the ms. arawack vocabulary of schultz. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . the arawack language of guiana in its linguistic and ethnological relations. in _transactions_ of the american philosophical society, . . studies in south american languages. pp. . in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . some words from the andagueda dialect of the choco stock. in _proceedings_ of american philosophical society, november, . . vocabulary of the noanama dialect of the choco stock. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, november, . . note on the puquina language of peru. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, november, . . further notes on the betoya dialects. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, october, . . the linguistic cartography of the chaco region. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, october, . . further notes on fuegian languages. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, . . on two recent, unclassified vocabularies from south america. in _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, october, . the library of the american philosophical society contains a ms. copy of the arawack vocabulary of the missionary schultz, the same work, apparently, which was edited from another copy by m. lucien adam in . a study of this ms. led me to discover the identity of the so-called "lucayan" of the bahamas, the language of cuba, fragments of which have been presented, and the "taino" of haiti, with the arawack. they had previously been considered either of mayan or caribbean affinities. the results are presented in ( ). the "studies" in ( ) are ten in number. no. i. is on the tacana language and its dialects, and is the only attempt, up to the present time, to determine the boundaries and character of this tongue. texts and a vocabulary in five of its dialects are given. no. ii. is on the jivaro or xebero tongue, and is entirely from unpublished sources. a grammatical sketch, texts and a vocabulary give a moderately complete material for comparison. no. iii. presents the first printed account of the cholona language on the river huallaga, drawn from mss. in the british museum. in no. iv. is a discussion of the relations of the leca language spoken on the rio mapiri. no. v. contains a text of some length in the manao dialect of the arawack stock, the original ms. being in the british museum. the bonaris are an extinct tribe of the carib stock. no. vi. contains the only vocabulary which has been preserved of their dialect. on a loose sheet in the british museum, among papers on patagonia, i found a short vocabulary in a tongue called "hongote," which i could not locate and hence published it in no. vii. it subsequently proved to be one of the north pacific coast languages. the same "study" presents a comparative vocabulary in fourteen patagonian dialects, with notes (tsoneca, tehuelche, puelche, tekennika (yahgan), alikuluf, etc.). in study no. viii. are discussed the various dialects of the kechua or quichua tongue of peru, with an unpublished text from the pacasa dialect. no. ix. examines the affinities which have been noted between the languages of north and south america, especially in the mazatec and costa rican dialects of the northern continent. finally, no. x. aims to define for the first time the linguistic stock to which belong the dialects of the betoyas, tucanos, zeonas and other tribes on the rivers napo, meta, apure and their confluents. further information on this stock is given in ( ). the choco stock extends widely over the northwest angle of the southern continent. in ( ) and ( ) i have printed short vocabularies of some of its dialects secured for me from living natives by mr. henry g. granger. the puquina language of peru was quite unknown to linguists when, in , i published the article ( ) containing material in it from the extremely rare work of geronimo de ore, entitled _rituale peruanum_ (naples, ). since then an extended essay upon it has been written by m. de la grasserie. in the "further notes on the fuegian languages" ( ), i have printed an alikuluf vocabulary of , with comparisons, and given a vocabulary of the idiom of the onas, pointing out some affinities with the yahgan. few linguistic areas on the continent have been more obscure than that called "el gran chaco," in northern argentina and southern bolivia. in ( ) i have mapped the area from ° to ° south latitude and ° to ° west longitude, defining the boundaries of each of the seven linguistic stocks which occupied it, to wit, the ennima, guaycuru, lule, mataco, quechua, samucu and tupi, with discussions of some uncertain dialects, as the calchaqui, lengua, querandi, charua, payagua. in ( ) recent vocabularies of the andoa and cataquina tongues are examined and their linguistic relations discussed. many of the above articles, written previous to , were collected by me in that year and published in a volume entitled "essays of an americanist" (pp. . philadelphia). for the convenience of those who may wish to refer to them i add here a complete list of the essays which it contains. part i.--ethnologic and archÆologic.--a review of the data for the study of the prehistoric chronology of america. on palæoliths, american and others. on the alleged mongolian affinities of the american race. the probable nationality of the mound-builders of the ohio valley. the toltecs of mexico and their fabulous empire. part ii.--mythology and folk-lore.--the sacred names in the mythology of the quiches of guatemala. the hero-god of the algonkins as a cheat and liar. the journey of the soul in egyptian, aryan and american mythology. the sacred symbols of the cross, the svastika and the triqetrum in america. the modern folk-lore of the natives of yucatan. the folk-lore of the modern lênapé indians. part iii.--graphic systems and literature.--the phonetic elements in the hieroglyphs of the mayas and mexicans. the ikonomatic method of phonetic writing used by the ancient mexicans. the writings and records of the ancient mayas of yucatan. the books of chilan balam, the sacred volume of the modern mayas. translation of the inscription on "the stone of the giants" at orizaba, mexico. the poetry of the american indians, with numerous examples. part iv.--linguistic.--american aboriginal languages, and why we should study them. wilhelm von humboldt's researches in american languages. some characteristics of american languages. the earliest form of human speech, as revealed by american languages. the conception of love, as expressed in some american languages. the lineal measures of the semi-civilized nations of mexico and central america. the curious hoax about the taensa language. footnotes: [ - ] _beiträge zur lehre der wortzusammensetzung._ leiden. . [ - ] in this connection i would refer students to an instructive passage of heinrich wrinkler on "die hauptformen in den amerikanischen sprachen," in his work _zur sprachgeschichte_ (berlin, ) and to his essay on the pokonchi language in his _weiteres zur sprachgeschichte_, (berlin, ). [ - ] see my remarks on this tongue in the _american anthropologist_, august, , p. . [ - ] interesting examples in the preface to s. t. rand's _micmac dictionary_ (halifax, ). [ - ] notably with steinthal's _charakteristik des hauptsächlichsten typen des sprachbaues._ [ - ] _the myths of the new world_ (third edition, ); _american hero myths_ ( ). [ - ] _life and traditions of the red man_ (bangor, ). [ - ] _new views of the origin of the tribes of america_ (philadelphia, ). [ - ] _actas del congreso internacional de americanistas_, tom. ii., pp. - . [ - ] see the article "the curious hoax of the taensa language," in my _essays of an americanist_, pp. - . (philadelphia, .) [ - ] in tome xi., of the _bibliothêque linguistique américaine_. [ - ] privately printed, . [ - ] see garrick mallery in _ th annual report of the bureau of ethnology_, pp. , sqq. (washington, ). index. abenakis, abipones, achaguas, adam, l., , alaguilac language, algonkin, , algonquian mythology, alikuluf, , american authors, aboriginal, american languages, american race, the, americanists, congress of, "anahuac", andagueda, andoa, anthony, a. s., antillean languages, arawack, , asiatic analogies, _bailes_, barton, b. s., berendt, c. h., , betoya, , , bonaris, brasseur, e. c., , byington, c., cakchiquels, , calchaqui, calendar, native, carib, , , cataquina, chaco, el gran, chane-abal language, changuina, chapanecs, charua, chiapas, chilan balam, chinantec, choco, choctaw grammar, cholona, chontallis, cocanuca, costa rica, , creeks, cuba, language of, delaware, , _dvanda_, the, ennima, floridian peninsula, fuegian languages, gatschet, a. s., , , gluscap, gods, names of, granger, h. g., grasserie, r., guatemala, , guaycuru, güegüence, guetares, haiti, language of, hale, h., "hastri" language, hongote, huasteca, humboldt, w. von, huron, "ikonomatic" method, the, incorporation, iroquois, johnnycake, jefferson, t., jivaro, kechua, kiche myths, leca, lenâpé, , lenâpé dictionary, lenâpé conversations, lencas, lengua, library of aborig. literature, lineal measures, love, conception of, lucayan, lule, , maipure, manao, mandingo language, mangue, mata co, matagalpan, maya, , , mayan hieroglyphics, mayan inscriptions, mazatec, mbaya, measures, lineal, mexican, micmacs, mixes, mixteca, , mocoa, mocovi, mohawk, morphology of amer. langs., mosquito coast[tn- ] muller,[tn- ] h. c., muskokee, mythology, american, myths of new world, nahuatl, , , nahuatl-spanish jargon, nanticoke, natchez, nicaragua, nicolar, j., noanama, omagua, onas, onondaga, ore, g. de, otomi, .[tn- ] , pacasa, paniquita, pareja, f., payagua, pilling, j. c., pinart, a., poetry, aboriginal, polysynthesis, popolucas, primitive speech, puelche, puquina, querandi, quiche, quechua, , , rafinesque, c. s., ramas, rand, s. f., rate of change, rebus writing, red score, the, , rig veda americanus, sahagun, , samucu, schultz, rev., shawnees, smith, b., standard dictionary, the, steinthal, h., "stone of the giants", svastika, the, tacana, taensa, taino, tamanaca, tarascos, tehuelche, teknnika, tequistlatecan, timote., timuquana, tinné, toltecs, the, totonaco, triquetrum, the, tsoneca, tucanos, tupi, , , tzental, ulvas, verb, the american, walum-olum, , winkler, h., written language, xebero, xinca, yahgan, , yaruro, yucatan, zapotecs, zeonas, zoque, the, transcriber's note the following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained. page error tn- the marker for footnote - was not printed and has been inserted based on context. tn- grammer should read grammar tn- mosquito coast should read mosquito coast, , tn- muller, should read müller tn- otomi, . should read otomi, , indian methodist hymn-book staylim=paypa ta methodist=ts'hayilth. hymns used on the fraser river indian mission, of the methodist church, b. c. conference. to which are appended hymns in chinook, and the lord's prayer and ten commandments. translated by rev's. thos. crosby, chas. m tate, and wm. h barraclough, b.a., missionaries. compiled and printed by rev. w.h. barraclough, chilliwack, b.c. . notes the following hymns are in the chill-way-uk dialect of the language of the alkomaylum nation of indians, who live along the fraser river, from yale to the coast, and on vancouver island, at cowichan and nanaimo. the alkomaylum, (or ankomeenum, sometimes called stawlo or river language,) as spoken by the cowichans, is sweet and rythmical. the chillwayuk dialect is harsher and more guttural. the nanaimos, the yales, the sumas, the kwantuls, etc. of b.c., and the nooksaks of wash., u.s.a., each speak a slightly different dialect of the same language. ==> pronunciation. _`_ when before k, sound the letter by pressing the back of the tongue against the soft palate, and expelling the letter with a clicking sound. when before t, ts, or tz, press the tip of the tongue against the hard palate, and expel the sound as before. _kh_, is sounded by lightly pressing the back of the tongue against the soft palate, and emitting the sound in a slurring manner. _tl_, and _lth_, are sounded by pressing the tip of the tongue against the hard palate and emit as in kh. _a_, is pronounced ah; while all others are regular as in english. t.c., c.m.t., and w.h.b., at the end of each hymn, are the initials of the translators. ts'hayilth staylim arise my soul arise. canadian hymnal no. . alkomaylum whee talswal skwi-la-wal whee, wheesit ta kul see-see; ta sat-see-ul jesus aylakut telth-le-melth: tokla tl'khaylikh ska ta see-am, s'khayl talswal skwikh lay ta tchalikhs. t.c. owe-awts tokla jesus my-ate talswal skwi-la-wal, al stlay tokla see-am, e ta swas sat-see-ul; tokla jesus swas sat-see-ul ay-la-kut tomuk sawlth skwi-lawal. c.m.t. english arise, my soul arise, shake off thy guilty fears; the bleeding sacrifice in my behalf appears; before the throne my surety stands; my name is written on his hands. we'll work till jesus comes. gospel hymns - complete no. . alkomaylum lay ta ay-e tumokh al stlay-kwus ka-wom, temtam kwuls lam al tus; temtam kwus tlakit talswal see-ize e ka-wom lay ta ay-e. ay-e-kwus see-ize ka tatsel ta jesus, ||:see-ize-tchit ka tatsel ta jesus,:|| lam ka-put alokh. lay-wilth kukh ta ay-e mestayokh lay, hayluk taswas skwilawal. kla al stlay-kwus lam kwatsit toklalim lay ta ay-e tumokh. owita ay-e e-tila tumokh, owe-awts telth-le-melth kham; owa-tcha staas lay ta ay-e tumokh, laysit ta sawlth see-am. c.m.t. english o land of rest, for thee i sigh, when will the moment come, when i shall lay my armor by, and dwell in peace at home. ||: we'll work till jesus comes, :|| and we'll be gathered home. i am so glad that our father. g.h. - no. . alkomaylum hayluk tal skwilawal tal mal lay ta tchee-tchilth, shkha-khayl taswas skwell tokla may awkwus-thawmikh, kukh ta ay-e stem shkha-khayl lay taswas skwell kla ewal ay-e tokla jesus stlay-il-thawmikh. ||:hayluk tal skwilawal ta jesus stlayil-thawmikh:|| jesus stlay-il-thawmikh ta-alsa. c.m.t. english i am so glad that our father in heaven tells of his love in the book he has given, wonderful things in the bible i see, this is the dearest, that jesus loves me. ||: i am so glad that jesus loves me, :|| jesus loves even me. though i forget him and wander away, still he doth love me wherever i stray; back to his dear loving arms would i flee, when i remember that jesus loves me. jesus loves me, and i know i love him, love brought him down my poor soul to redeem. yes! it was love made him die on the tree, oh! i am certain that jesus loves me. come thou fount. can. hym'l, no. . alkomaylum maytla jesus ska telth-le-melth, ewis-tawlokh ta sawlth staylim; sta-a kwo stawlo taswas ay-e skwilawal, owe-awts ma-tatsel whimay ta-alsa. al stlay ta jesus, hallelujah, al stlay ta jesus osthayte tal skwell; al stlay ta jesus, a-yelokh-sthawmikh, tokla jesus stlays ta-alsa. talowa jesus christ tal stlay, ooli talowa ay-e see-am; tsukh-wemit-tchuh tomuk salawa, a-yelokh-tchuh towuk `kaw-`kie. c.m.t. english come, thou fount of every blessing, tune my heart to sing thy grace, streams of mercy never ceasing, call for songs of loudest praise. i love jesus, hallelujah, &c. teach me some celestial measure, sung by ransomed hosts above; oh, the vast, the boundless treasure, of my lord's unchanging love. sweet by-and-bye. can. hym'l, no. . alkomaylum lay kwa tchee-tchilth ta ay-e tumokh, awkwus-tawlokwus ta tcheetchilth-seeam, theeilth-sitawlokwus kwa ay-e shwaw-met, almit-stawlokwus tokla sawlth mal. ||: tchalal may hayluk tasawlth skwilawal, olamit `kup lay ta tchee-tchilth tumokh.:|| lay kwa tchee-tchilth ta ay-e staylim, tchalal kwus staylim skaka ta ay-e mes-tayokh, lamtcha hi owe-awts may kulth skwilawal, skwi kwuls kham lam al-tus ay-e lalam. c.m.t. english there's a land that is fairer than day, and by faith we can see it afar, for the father waits over the way, to prepare us a dwelling place there. ||: in the sweet by-and-bye, we shall meet on that beautiful shore. :|| we shall meet, we shall sing, we shall reign in the land where the saved never die; we shall rest free from sorrow and pain, safe at home in the sweet by-and-bye. thy will be done. g.h. - no. . alkomaylum tchee-tchilth-see-am talswal lay mal, tlay talswal ke-a'tl e-tila tumokh, ay-e-kwus may e-wis-thawmikh kwulls skwell "taswas skwi-la-wal." yawswa tawtayls-thawmikh ta lee-awm, yawswa mays kulth tal skwilawal, ay-e-kwus owe-awts thuts-thawma see-am; "taswas skwilawal." c.m.t. english my god and father, while i stray far from my home, on life's rough way, oh, teach me from my heart to say, "thy will be done." what tho' in lonely grief i sigh for friends beloved, no longer nigh, submissive still would i reply, "thy will be done." renew my will from day to day, blend it with thine, and take away all that now makes it hard to say, "thy will be done." title clear. alkomaylum temtam may ay-e tal skwi-la-wal, aye-aw-wilth ta kul see-see; tchalal kwus kwatsit ay-e shwaw-met, tchalal kwus hi kwus kham. aye-kwus kween-tal ta lee-awm, tchalal-e ka wom lay ta tchee-tchilth tumokh. owe-awth may kulth tal skwi-la-wal, tomuk stem ay-e tal shwa-lay; al stlay kwus makh tokla lee-awm, ta tchee-thilth-see-am tal stlay. tchalal kwuls tsats-aye lay ta tchee-tchilth, tchalal kwuls ka-wom lay; tchalal lay hi tokla lee-awm kal-kul-aylt tal skwi-la-wal. c. m. t. english when i can read my title clear to mansions in the skies, i'll bid farewell to every fear, and wipe my weeping eyes. ||: we will stand the storm, we will anchor by-and-bye. :|| nothing but the blood of jesus. g. h. - no. . alkomaylum stem kwa ts'kwot tal skwi-la-wal, ooli ta sat-see-ul ta jesus; stem kwa may sthay-lawmikh talsa, ooli ta sat-see-ul ta jesus. o ay-e taswas sat-see nl ts'kwot talswal skwi-la-wal, owita kwa lat`z al stlay, ooli ta sat-see-ul ta jesus. owita stem aylaka-sthawmikh, owa tlaws ta ay-e talswal see-ize. owita stem may hayluk-sthawmikh, owita shwa-lays tal skwi-lawal. c.m.t. english what can wash away my stain, nothing but the blood of jesus; what can make me whole again, nothing but the blood of jesus. o precious is the flow, that makes me white as snow; no other fount i know, nothing but the blood of jesus. nothing can for sin atone, naught of good that i have done. holy spirit, faithful guide. can. hym'l. no. . alkomaylum holy spirit ewis-thawmikh, owe-awth stitaysh ta ay-e mestay-okh, kwilat-sthawmikh talowa see-am, kwus e-mikh e-tila tumokh; owe-awth hayluk tlawat tl'jeuse, tchit-tcha-lam ta ay-e a skwell, tchalkam-sthawmikh talowa tasos lam-asthawm ta ay-e lalam. osthayte talowa sawlth see-aya, owe-awth stitaysh kwus sthukh-wemit-stawlokh; hi-stukh-tchukh ta sawlth see-see, tawit-tchukh ta sawth skwi-la-wal; omays-kawlthsit tokla lee-awm, omays-kaykalam taswa skwilawal; tchalkam-sthawmikn talowa tasos lam-asthawm ta ay-e lalam. c.m.t. english holy spirit, faithful guide, ever near the christian's side, gently lead us by the hand, pilgrims in a desert land; weary souls fore'er rejoice, while they hear that sweetest voice, whispering softly, 'wanderer, come! follow me, i'll guide thee home.' stand up for jesus. can. hym'l no. . alkomaylum tl'khay-likh whulam ta jesus, tl-welop soldiers ta lak-wail; ay-e-kwos os-thayte lam kweental whulam taswas shu-mal; tchalal kwos lam tl'whuluk, o tchal-tokh ta see-am; tchalal stakhail ta jesus, ka hi tokla lee-awm. c.m.t. tl'khay-likh whulam ta jesus, tl'khay-likh lay ta tokla; owita tasawlths kwawm-kwum, ooli tokla kwawm-kwum. ay-e-kwus owe-awts ts'khulth-kham whulam ta sawlth see-am; owita kwus stem sawlth see-see, owe-awts tokla my-ate-tawlokh. w.h.b. english stand up! stand up for jesus! ye soldiers of the cross! lift high his royal banner; it must not suffer loss: from victory unto victory his army will he lead, till every foe is vanquished, and christ is lord indeed. there is a fountain. g. h. - no. . alkomaylum tokla jesus swas sat-see-ul aylth ma-kwutl lay ta lak-wail; ka yawswa wat lay shaw-kwa-kwom may ay-e taswas skwi-la-wal. ta-laykwus kwuts-alokh ta ay-e stawlo sat-see-ul tokla jesus; owe-awts kwus staylim tzayte tokla, ah-tcha ow staa whulam kwus `kie. c.m.t. english there is a fountain filled with blood, drawn from immanuel's veins; and sinners, plunged beneath that flood, lose all their guilty stains. the dying thief rejoiced to see that fountain in his day; and there may i, though vile as he wash all my sins away. o dying lamb, thy precious blood shall never lose its power, till all the ransomed church of god be saved to sin no more. jesus shall reign. alkomaylum jesus tchalal ooli see-am, lay tomuk shwa-lays lam see-akwom; tokla see-am lay tomuk shwalays tchalal may lalam ta see-am. tchalal tomuk mestay-okh ts'kulth-kham, e staylim whimay tokla see-am, tomuk mestayokh tzayte tokla e kwe-khit lay taswa lalam. t.c. english jesus shall reign where'er the sun doth his successive journeys run; his kingdom stretch from shore to shore, till suns shall rise and set no more. for him shall endless prayer be made, and praises throng to crown his head; his name like sweet perfume shall rise with every morning sacrifice. let every creature rise, and bring its grateful honors to our king; angels descend with songs again, and earth prolong the joyful strain. come holy spirit, heavenly dove. alkomaylum may ska telth-le-melth holy spirit; osthayte telth-le-melth skhietl; ay-e may whee tasawlth skwi-la-wal, mistokh kwawm-kwum kwaw-kwus. yawswa talowa owa tatsel whee tasawlth skwi-la-wal; tasawlth staylim owa lam sitsaye, e skwi ta sawlth stha-kulth-kham. c.m.t. english come, holy spirit, heavenly dove, with all thy quickening powers; kindle a flame of sacred love in these cold hearts of ours. in vain we tune our formal songs, in vain we strive to rise; hosannas languish on our tongues, and our devotion dies. come, holy spirit, heavenly dove, with all thy quickening powers; come, shed abroad the savior's love, and that shall kindle ours. jesus lover of my soul. alkomaylum talowa jesus stlay-il-sthawmikh, taswa salis ay-e kwus lam; e-tila tumokh kukh lee-awm kalkulaylt tal skwi-la-wal. ay-e talowa kwallikh ta-alsa ta lee-awm owe awts tatayles; ewis talswal skwi-la-wal, lay ta tchee-tchilth a-yelokh-sthis. owita wat ay-e kwawkwit-sthawmikh, ooli talowa tchee-tchilth-see-am, ooli tchukh ay-e lasthawmikh ta-alsa, kwawmkwum stukh hi tal skwi-la-wal. talowa al shwilastukh tal skwilawal, ta lay talowa talswal kwawmkwum, ay-e-kwus tlawheets tal skwilawal, lay kwa stlupalawit taswa tl'kaylikh. c.m.t. english jesus, lover of my soul, let me to thy bosom fly, while the nearer waters roll, while the tempest still is high: hide me, oh, my saviour, hide, till the storm of life be past; safe into the haven guide, oh, receive my soul at last. there is a land of pure delight. can. hym'l, no. . alkomaylum tchee-tchilth tumokh owe-awts hayluk ta shwalays ta ay-e mestayokh, owe-awts see-a-kwom staa to lay, owita `kaw-`kie lay. owe-awts kweelis lay ta tchee-tchilth, ta spa-`kwom owe-awts ay-e; tla-wat owe-awts tsits-ay-e o ay-e, tchalal hayluk lay titsa. c.m.t. english there is a land of pure delight where saints immortal reign; infinite day excludes the night, and pleasures banish pain. there everlasting spring abides, and never withering flowers; death, like a narrow sea, divides that heavenly land from ours. could we but climb where moses stood, and view the landscape o'er, not jordan's stream, nor death's cold flood, should fright us from the shore. jesus, the name high over all. can. hym'l, no. . alkomaylum jesus, ta skwikh tchee-tchilth tumokh ta tatlee-tlup tomuk shwalays, lee-zas ta mes-tay-okh mow-`tzitl, ta lee-awm see-see lam tlow. jesus ta skwikh osthayte tsits-ay-e whulam ta kul skwi-la-wal, tokla towtamuk kul see-see awkwit tokla lee-awm. t.c. english jesus! the name high over all, in hell, or earth, or sky; angels and men before it fall, and devils fear and fly. jesus! the name to sinners dear, the name to sinners given; it scatters all their guilty fear, it turns their hell to heaven. jesus the prisoner's fetters breaks, and bruises satan's head; power into strengthless souls it speaks, and life into the dead. come every soul by sin oppressed. can. hym'l no. . alkomaylum mukwat tasos taswa skwi-la-wal maytcha tasut ta tchee-tchilth-see-am, ka hayluk-sthawm, ka kawom-sthawm, stlay-il-sthawm tokla see-am. may ta jesus, may ta jesus, owe-awts tokla asthawm; ||: a-yelokh-sthawm-tcha, :|| a-yelokh-sthawm tokla. ta sat-see-ul tokla jesus a-yelokh ta sawlth skwi-la-wal; ayek's muktchit lam ta ts'khwum stawlo, e ts'kwot ta sawlth skwi-la-wal. c.m.t. english come, every soul by sin oppressed, there's mercy with the lord, and he will surely give you rest by trusting in his word. only trust him, only trust him, only trust him now; he will save you, he will save you, he will save you now. for jesus shed his precious blood rich blessings to bestow; plunge then into the crimson flood that washes white as snow. tell it to jesus. can. hym'l no. . alkomaylum aytchuh tl'jeuse whulam ta whuta skwilawal? haysest ta jesus, haysest ta jesus; aytchuh kham whulam ta ay-elth skwilawal? haysest ta jesus ooli. ||: haysest ta jesus :|| osthayte a see-aya tokla, owita sta-a see-ilth a see-aya, haysest ta jesus ooli. ay makwu`tl ta skas lay ta sa-at-ses? aytchuh kwilalt ta skwaw-kwult kul see-ize? c.m.t. english are you weary, are you heavy hearted? tell it to jesus, tell it to jesus; are you grieving over joys departed? tell it to jesus alone. tell it to jesus, tell it to jesus, he is a friend well known; you have no other such a friend or brother, tell it to jesus alone. do the tears flow down your cheeks unbidden? have you sins that to man's eyes are hidden? are you troubled at the thought of dying? for christ's coming kingdom are you sighing? shall we gather at the river. can. hym'l, no. . alkomaylum tchalal telth-le-melth `kup lay ta stawlos ta tchee-tchilth-see-am, whaw-ay-e-im ta kas ta tchee-tchilth stawla, ta shwalays ta ay-e lee-zas. tchalal telthlemelth `kup lay ta stawlo, ta ay-e, osthayte ay-e stawlo; skaka ta ay-e mestayokh lay ta stawlo, lay ta tchee-tchilth ay-e tumokh. tchalal telthlemelth tus ta ay-e stawlo, tchalal lay hi ta sawlth see-ize; tchalal ta sawlth skwi-la-wal hayluk lay ta ay-e tumokh. c.m.t. english shall we gather at the river, where bright angel-feet have trod; with its crystal tide forever flowing by the throne of god. yes, we'll gather at the river, the beautiful, the beautiful river! gather with the saints at the river, that flows by the throne of god. soon we'll reach the silver river, soon our pilgrimage will cease; soon our happy hearts will quiver with the melody of peace. here we suffer grief and pain. alkomaylum e-tila tumokh kukh ta s`kaw-`kie, `kup telthlemelth whum lam hi, owa-lays staa lay kwa tchee-tchilth. osthayte may hayluk, hayluk, hayluk, hayluk; osthayte may hayluk, tchalal telthlemelth tus ka-wom. may see-ize tchee-tchilth-see-am, tchalalie `kie lam ay-e tumokh, so staylim ska ta ay-e. t.c. tchalal telthlemelth hayluk lay skaka ta jesus sawlth see-am, lay ta tchee-tchilth tumokh. c.m.t. english there, we shall be happy, happy, happy, happy; there, we shall be happy, when we shall meet to part no more. nearer my god to thee. can. hym'l no. . alkomaylum tchee-tchilth-see-am lay mal, tchee-tchilth-see-am; ay-e-kwus shtitayse talowa, tchee-tchilth-see-am; tchalal kwus owe-awts stay-lim, ||: shtitayse talowa see-am, :|| tchee-tchilth-see-am. tchee-tchilth-see-am lay mal, tchee-tchilth-see-am; ta-wit tal skwi-la-wal, tchee-tchilth-see-am; a-yelokh tal skwi-la-wal, tchee-tchilth-see-am lay mal; shtitayse talowa see-am, tchee-tchilth-see-am. c.m.t. english nearer, my god, to thee, nearer to thee; e'en though it be a cross that raiseth me; still all my song shall be, nearer, my god, to thee, nearer to thee. come, come to jesus. g.h. - no. . alkomaylum may, may ta jesus! stlay-il-sthawm, tokla see-am, hayluk stukh taswa skwi-la-wal may, may ta jesus! may, may ta jesus! almitsthawm tokla see-am, awkwisthawm ta ay-e skwilawal, may, may ta jesus. may, may ta jesus! layilth `kie lay ta lakwail aylakut taswa skwilawal, may, may ta jesus. c.m.t. english come, come to jesus! he waits to welcome thee, o wand'rer, eagerly come, come to jesus! come, come to jesus! he waits to ransom thee, o slave! so willingly; come, come to jesus! jesus, my all, to heaven is gone. alkomaylum jesus kree `kie, lam ay-e tumokh, tokla ta-alsa skwilawal stlay; stlay ta-alsa kwatsit, maytla lam ta tsatsul ke-a'tl kwatsit tokla. maytla tl'welop lam, talsa stlay lam ta ay-e lalam, osthayte kwawmkwum owita `kie osthayte kwawmkwum, ta ay-e lalam lay hi `kaw-`kie. t.c. kla ke-a'tl ta otat ay-e mestayokh, lamtcha e-mikh aytchuh ta tl'welop, swas ke-a'tl, tokla tchee-tchilth-see-am, lamtchil talsa osthayte ay-e ke-a'tl. c.m.t. english jesus, my all, to heaven is gone, he whom i fix my hopes upon; his track i see, and i'll pursue, the narrow way, till him i view. i'm going home, i'm going home, i'm going home to die no more; to die no more, to die no more, i'm going home to die no more. the way that holy prophets went, the road that leads from banishment, the king's highway of holiness, i'll go, for all his paths are peace. psalm . can. hym'l, no. . alkomaylum muk mes-tay-okh e-tila tum-okh, stay-lim whulam ta tchee-tchilth-see-am; ay-e-kwus may `tzayte tokla see-am, muk mes-tay-okh khweekit tokla. ay-e-kwus tulokh ta tchee-tchilth-see-am, ooli see-am lay tomuk shwalays; telthlemelth swas see-ize tokla, owe-awts tokla ay-e khee-aw-tlimit-tawlokh. ay-e-kwus kut-whaylum taswas lalam kwul-awtul ay-e skwi-la-wal, ay-e-kwus maytchit tokla see-am owe-awts staa tomuk ay-e mestayokh. c.m.t. english all people that on earth do dwell, sing to the lord with cheerful voice; him serve with mirth, his praise forth tell, come ye before him, and rejoice. know that the lord is god indeed, without our aid he did us make; we are his flock, he doth us feed, and for his sheep he doth us take. how firm a foundation. can. hym'l no. . alkomaylum o tchee-tchilth-see-am, talowa lay mal, lo hayluk tal skwilawal whulam talowa; kulilth tal skwilawal talowa see-am, ka aytchuh-tsukh-whee-mit-sthawmikh talsa salawa. o tchee-tchilth-see-am, talowa lay mal, lo hayluk tal skwilawal whulam talowa; ay-e-ilth tatsel ta jesus, whimay tila tumokh, lam kulstokh tal skwilawal whulam ta ay-e se-ize. c.m.t. english how firm a foundation, ye saints of the lord, is laid for your faith in his excellent word! what more can he say, than to you he hath said, to you, who for refuge to jesus have fled? "fear not, i am with thee; oh, be not dismayed! for i am thy god, i will still give thee aid; i'll strengthen thee, help thee, and cause thee to stand, upheld by my gracious, omnipotent hand. "when through the deep waters i call thee to go, the rivers of sorrow shall not overflow; for i will be with thee thy trials to bless, and sanctify to thee thy deepest distress." there is a happy land. alkomaylum ay-e tumokh lay ta tchee-tchilth, tchawk, osthayte tchawk; lee-ilth shwalays ta ay-e mestayokh, owe-awts hayluk; o! ay-e tswas staylim, jesus a-yelokh-stawlokh, king, 'stheea-kul kwos `tzayte, tokla, owe-awts, owe-awts. awsthawm ta ay-e see-am, maytla, maytla; owa-tchuh kukh ta skwi-la-wal, maytla, maytla; o! hayluk skwi-la-wal, a-yelokh whulam tokla lee-awm, lay, ska talowa see-am, owe-awts hayluk. c.m.t. english there is a happy land, far, far away; where the bright angels stand, bright, bright as day. there, we will always sing, glory to our savior, king, loud let his praises ring, praise, praise for aye. 'tis the promise of god. g.h. - no. . alkomaylum may-tcha a-yelokh-sthawmikh tokla tchee-tchilth-see-am. o `kal al ta jesus swas mellas tokla. ||: hytch kwa tchee-tchilth-see-am, ta-alsa `kal ta jesus; may-tcha a-yelokh-sthawmikh taswas sat-see-ul tokla- :|| c.m.t. english 'tis the promise of god full salvation to give unto him who on jesus, his son will believe. ||: hallelujah, 'tis done! i believe on the son; i am saved by the blood of the crucified one. :|| tho' the pathway be lonely, and dangerous too, surely jesus is able to carry me through. many loved ones have i in yon heavenly throng, they are safe now in glory and this is their song. little children i see standing close by their king, and he smiles as their song of salvation they sing. there's a part in that chorus for you and for me and the theme of our praises forever shall be. angels hovering around. songs of salvation no. . alkomaylum almit-stawlokwus ta ay-e lee-zas, lamtcha kwe stukh ta ay-e skwulkwul, whulam ta ay-e tumokh. kukh mestayokh kwod stlay ta ay-e. c.m.t. english there are angels hovering round, to carry the tidings home, to the new jerusalem; poor sinners are coming home. come to jesus. g. h. - no. . alkomaylum maytla jesus, tila whum. tokla a-yelokh tila whum. tokla jesus stlay-il-sthawmikh. al stlay ta jesus ta-lukize. w.h.b. english come to jesus, just now. he will save you, etc. only trust him, etc. i love jesus, etc. oh i am so happy in jesus. g. h. - no. . alkomaylum o hayluk tal skwilawal ta jesus, swas satsee-ul tokla a-yelokh-sthawm; may hayluk tal skwilawal kwus staylim, osthayte tokla jesus stlay-il-sthawm. o hayluk tal skwilawal ta jesus, lay hi stukh ta kul skwilawal; o hayluk tal skwilawal ta jesus, osthayte tokla jesus stlay-il-sthawm. c.m.t. english oh, i am so happy in jesus, his blood has redeemed me from sin, i weep and i sing in my gladness, to know he is dwelling within. oh, i am so happy in jesus, from sin and from sorrow so free; so happy that he is my saviour, so happy that jesus loves me. oh, i am so happy in jesus, if earth in his love is so blest, what joy in his glorified presence, to sit at his feet as his guest. there'll be no parting. alkomaylum hayluk tal skwilawal ta ay-e tumokh, ta shwa-lays ta ay-e lee-zas; owita kwa see-ize kulth skwilawal, o kukh ta see-aya tchit lay. ||: owita kulth lam pa-tchit, :|| lay. c.m.t. english how happy every child of grace who knows his sins forgiven; this earth, he cries, is not my place, i seek my place in heaven. ||: there'll be no parting, :|| there. follow jesus. alkomaylum lamtchiltcha ska jesus, tal savior, lamtchiltcha, owe-awts al-stlay-kwus-lam ska tokla; ayekwus lamtchil lay ta aye ke-a'tl lay tomuk swile tchallal-tcha tl'whuluk whulam ta aye tumokh tchalkum, tchalkum, lamtchiltcha ta jesus, allitza muk eltchal, lamtchiltcha tokla; tchalkum, tchalkum, lamtchiltcha ta jesus, muk eltchal kwus ewis lamtchiltcha tokla. english follow, follow, i will follow jesus, anywhere, everywhere, i will follow on; follow, follow, i will follow jesus, anywhere he leads me, i will follow on. i will tell it to jesus my lord. can. hym'l no. . alkomaylum o mays tsithet tokla lee-awm, lamtchil haysest ta jesus, tal see-am; tokla lee-awm owe-awts tawtaylth, lamtchil haysest ta jesus, tal see-am. ta etila tumokh owe-awts kulth skwilawal, whulam ta whutas ah skwilawal, ka o mays tawtaylth-sthawm tokla lee-awm lamtchil haysest ta jesus, tal see-am. lamtchil haysest ta jesus, ta jesus, tal see-am, ||: lamtchil haysest ta jesus, :|| tal see-am. d.m. english when times of temptation bring sadness and gloom i will tell it to jesus my lord; the last of earth's treasures borne out to the tomb, i will tell it to jesus, my lord. this earth hath no sorrow for to-day or to-morrow, but jesus hath known it and felt long ago, and when it comes o'er me, and i'm tempted so sorely, i will tell it to jesus, my lord. i will tell it to jesus, to jesus, my lord, ||: i will tell, etc. :|| o happy day. can. hym'l. no. . alkomaylum o hayluk swile, aytchil amay ta tchee-tchilth see-am, talswal lay mal; ay-e-kwus may tzayte tokla see-am a-yelokh talswal tasos skwi-la-wal. hayluk swile, kwaw-sis amay ts'kwotis talswal skwi-la-wal; lay ewis-thawmikh kwuls stha-kulth-kham hayluk tal skwi-la-wal tomuk-swile. w.h.b. english oh, happy day that fixed my choice on thee, my savior and my god! well may this glowing heart rejoice, and tell its raptures all abroad. happy day, happy day, when jesus washed my sins away. he taught me how to watch and pray, and live rejoicing every day. happy day, happy day, when jesus washed my sins away. 'tis done, the great transaction's done, i am my lord's, and he is mine; he drew me, and i followed on, charmed to confess the voice divine. now the chains of sin are broken. songs of salvation no. . alkomaylum laywilth hi ta kulilth see-ize, laytchilwilth a-yelokh osthayte; e-wilth whu-e ta ay-e skwul-kwul whimay talswal skwilawal. hallelujah! hallelujah! jesus tokla may `kie; hallelujah! hallelujah! jesus stlay-il-sthawmikh talsa. lamtchil yithum ta ay-e skwul-kwul, tilay taswas ay-e skwell; awkwus-thawmikh ta ay-e skwilawal, hytch kwa tchee-tchilth-see-am. w.h.b. english now the chains of sin are broken, i am free, i'm free! christ the word of power has spoken unto me, to me. hallelujah! hallelujah! jesus died for me; hallelujah! hallelujah! i am free, i'm free. i will tell the wondrous story of his grace and love; he hath filled my soul with glory, praise the lord above. precious savior thou dost save me alkomaylum ay-e tal skwilawal whulam ta jesus; ay-e tal skwilawal tomuk-swile; jesus tokla a-yelokh-sthawmikh; la-stlaykwus my-ate tomuk-wat. tal see-am, tal ay-e see-aya, talsa mellas swas jesus; tokla aylakut tal skwilawal, hytch kwa tchee-tchilth see-am. al stlaykwus tzayte talswal see-aya, tokla jesus swas skwikhs; kwus-litelth whul-ay ta kul see-ize, tokla `kie whimay telth-le-melth. w.h.b. english precious savior, thou dost save me-- thine, and only thine, i am-- oh, the cleansing blood has reached me; glory, glory to the lamb! glory, glory, jesus saves me! glory, glory, to the lamb! oh, the cleansing blood has reached me, glory, glory, to the lamb! yes, i will stand up for jesus, he has sweetly saved my soul; cleansed my soul from sin's corruption, sanctified and made me whole. doxology. can. hym'l. no. . alkomaylum hytch tchee-tchilth see-am awkwust 'muk stem, hytch tokla e-tila 'muk mes-tay-okh, staylim ta tl-welop lay ta tchee-tchilth, hytch ta mals, ta mellas, e ta holy spirit. c.m.t. english praise god, from whom all blessings flow; praise him, all creatures here below; praise him above, ye heavenly host; praise father, son, and holy ghost. "kwus-litelth whul-ay ta kul see-ize, tokla jesus `kie whimay telth-le-melth." "kahta-laylie nes-ika ma-mook masat-chie, jesus yahka chako mem-a-loos kopa ne-sika." "while we were yet sinners, christ died for us," romans, , . chinook hymns. arise my soul arise. get up nika tumtum, mash mika ma-sat-chie, jesus yahka pilpil ma-kook nika tumtum, yahka mit-lite kopa saghalie, nika nem tzum kopa yahka le-mah. jesus mit-lite sagh-alie ma-mook kla-how-yum nika. yahka delate tik-ke kopa kon-away klax-ta. nika kum-tux jesus pilpil wash konaway-klaxta tumtum. jesus kwansum yahka pray kopa yahka papa, spose mamook klahowyum nika kopa nika tumtum, 'halo mika sollex papa', kwansum jesus yahka waw-waw. have you been to jesus. spose mika tik-ke klap klosh tumtum, mika wash kopa jesus pilpil; alkie mika klosh kopa kon-away sun, mika wash kopa jesus pilpil. mika wash, mika wash, mika wash kopa jesus pilpil; mamook halo masat-chie kopa mika tumtum mika wash kopa jesus pilpil. spose mika tikke koolie kopa jesus way-hut, yahka tikke mika kwansum koolie delate. what can wash away my stain. ikta kumtux mash siah konaway nesika masat-chie, ikta kumtux mamook delate konaway nesika tumtum. kopet jesus pilpil wash nika kaw-kwa snow; o hyas klosh pilpil, halo hul-oima ikta. ikta mamook jesus mash an-kutte yahka pilpil? yahka tikke mamook delate konaway nesika tumtum. now the chains of sin are broken. alta nika kopet masat-chie, alta klosh nika tumtum; jesus, yahka waw-waw klosh kopa nika sick tumtum. hallelujah! hallelujah! jesus memaloost kopa nika; hallelujah! hallelujah! jesus hyas tikke nika. nika kwo-lan klosh waw-waw kopa jesus nika savior, yahka potlatch klosh tumtum kopa konaway-klaxta. sweet by-and-bye. nika kumtux ikt klosh illahie, kah jesus, nesika savior, mitlite; yahka mamook klahowyum nesika, yahka kwansum klosh-nanitsh nesika. alkie chako klosh nesika tumtum, kahta-laylie nesika chako saghalie-illahie. nesika sing kopa saghalie illahie, halo chako sick tumtum nesika, nesika praise nesika saghalie papa, yahka potlatch konaway-iktah kopa nesika there is a happy land. mit-lite klosh illahie, siah, siah; kah mit-lite klosh tilikum, siah, siah; oh, konaway-klaxta sing, jesus christ, nesika king, hyas nesika sing, kwansum, kwansum. klosh chako okook sun, chako, chako; ikta kwansum moxt tumtum? chako, chako; alkie nesika klosh, konamoxt mika jesus, kah halo sick-tumtum, kwansum delate. mit-lite klosh illahie, kopa saghalie; halo klaxta sick yahwa, halo memaloost; oh, kwansum klosh tumtum, kwansum, kwansum konaway-sun, oh, kwansum klosh tumtum kopa saghalie. choruses follow, follow, i will follow jesus. kimta, kimta, nika kimta jesus, kahta koolie, konaway-kah nika konamoxt; kimta, kimta, nika kimta jesus, kahta yaka elip koolie nika kimta. tell it to jesus. klosh mika waw-waw, klosh mika waw-waw kopa jesus, mika delate tilikum; halo huloima tilikum kawkwa jesus, klosh mika waw-waw kopa yaka. help me, dear savior, thee to own. oh, jesus, klosh spose mika help, nika wake skookum alta; klosh mamook haul nika konamoxt mika, kopa saghalie. appendix. the lord's prayer. our father, which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name. thy kingdom come. thy will be done on earth, as it is in heaven. give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us our trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against us. and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. for thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, for ever. amen. the lord's prayer in chinook. nesika papa, mitlite kopa saghalie, klosh spose konaway tilikum mamook praise mika nem; klosh spose konaway tilikum mamook tyee mika; klosh spose konaway tilikum kopa okook illahie mamook mika tumtum, kaw-kwa klaska mamook kopa saghalie-illahie. okook sun, pe konaway-sun potlatch nesika muk-amuk; pe klosh mika mash okook ma-sa-tchie nesika mamook kopa mika, kaw-kwa nesika mash okook ma-sa-tchie hul-oi-ma tilikum mamook kopa nesika; pe klosh mika mamook help nesika, spose halo-ikta tolo nesika kopa masatchie; pe klosh mika mamook haul nesika spose halo nesika chako kla-how-yum. klosh spose kawkwa. the lord's prayer in alkomaylum. sawlth mal, lay kwa tchee-tchilth, ay-e-tcha kwus kwaw-kwa-tchits tomuk mes-tayokh taswas skwikh e-wal ay-e; ay-e-tcha-kwus tomuk mestayokh kwus titheet talowa e-wal see-am; ay-e-tcha-kwus tomuk mestayokh e-tila tumokh, kwus staa-stokh taswas skwilawal staa ta mes-tay-okh lay ta tchee-tchilth tumokh. awkwus-tawlokh til-alth-le-melth kwus elth-til tila wile; ay-e mela-kul-is-tchuh tasawlth kul-see-ize, staa-tcha-staa mela-kul-is-tchit ta kul-skwi-it-tawlokh ta ow la`tz mes-tay okh; ay-e kwawm-kwum-tchuh tila sawlth skwi-la-wal kwus owa-tchit at ow kwulam ta kul; ay-e-kwus kee-awt'la-mit-taw-lokh kwus owa-tchit tasos-it. ay-e-tcha-kwus staas. the ten commandments. thou shalt have no other gods before me. thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them: for i the lord thy god am a jealous god, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them that hate me; and showing mercy unto thousands of them that love me, and keep my commandments. thou shalt not take the name of the lord thy god in vain: for the lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain. remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy. six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work: but the seventh is the sabbath of the lord thy god: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy man-servant, nor thy maid-servant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates: for in six days the lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the lord blessed the sabbath day, and hallowed it. honour thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon the land which the lord thy god giveth thee. thou shalt not kill. thou shalt not commit adultery. thou shalt not steal. thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor. thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's house, thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife, nor his man-servant, nor his maid-servant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything that is thy neighbor's. the ten commandments in chinook. kopet ikt, nika saghalie-tyee. wake mika iskum ikta spose mamook saghalie-tyee yaka. wake mika mamook kultus yaka nem saghalie tyee. klosh nannitsh sabbath-sun. klosh nannitsh mika papa pe mika mamma. wake mika mamook memaloos klaxta. wake mika ma-mook ma-sat-chic kona-moxt klootchman. wake mika kepswalla ikta. wake mika kliminawit. wake mika mamook tumtum spose mika kepswalla huloima tilikum klaska klootchman pe iktas. the ten commandments in alkomaylum. awpul skwells kwa tchee-tchilth-see-am. oolawl-tcha kwa t-s khakha-stokh-okh. owa-tchuh ee-ise-okh kwa stem staa kwa t-s. owa-tchuh kal-kul-aylth-okh ta skwikhs kwa tchee-tchilth-see-am. ay-e-skwas kwaw-kwatchit skha-khut-lat. ay-e-skwas kwaw-kwa-tchit taswa lay mal, ka taswa lay tal. owa-tchuh kie-tokh kwa wat. owa-tchuh kwus sthee-its-tul. owa-tchuh kwus kal kwa stem tilay kwa latcha. owa-tchuh kwus ma-me`tsul kaylam. owa-tchuh kwus kwolkwul-aywal kwus sthee-its-tul, ka kwus kal kwus stem. index. angels hovering around. hymn arise my soul arise. arise my soul arise, (in chinook.) choruses come to jesus, just now. come, come to jesus. come, every soul by sin oppressed. come, holy spirit, heavenly dove. come, thou fount of every blessing. doxology. follow, follow, i will follow jesus. follow jesus, (in chinook.) happy day. have you been to jesus. (chinook) help me, dear savior. (chinook) here we suffer grief and pain. holy spirit, faithful guide. how firm a foundation. i am so glad that our father. i will tell it to jesus, my lord. jesus, lover of my soul. jesus, my all, to heaven is gone. jesus shall reign, where'er the sun. jesus, the name high over all. lord's prayer. nearer, my god to thee. nothing but the blood of jesus. nothing but the blood. (in chinook) now the chains of sin are broken. now the chains of sin, (chinook) oh, i am so happy in jesus. praise god, from whom all blessings. precious savior, thou dost save me. psalm . shall we gather at the river. stand up, stand up for jesus. sweet by-and-bye. sweet by-and-bye. (chinook.) ten commandments. tell it to jesus. tell it to jesus. (chinook.) 'tis the promise of god. title clear. there is a fountain filled with blood. there is a happy land. there is a happy land. (chinook) there is a land of pure delight. there'll be no parting. thy will be done. we'll work till jesus comes. transcriber's note: this book was originally published as a part of: powell, j. w. _first annual report of the bureau of ethnology to the secretary of the smithsonian institution, -' ._ pp. - . government printing office, washington, d.c. the table of contents and index included in this version of the book was extracted from the complete volume. a number of typographical errors found in the original text have been maintained in this version. they are marked in the text with a [tn-#]. a description of each error is found in the complete list at the end of the text. original spelling has been maintained. a list of inconsistently spelled words is found at the end of the text. smithsonian institution--bureau of ethnology. j. w. powell, director. studies in central american picture-writing. by edward s. holden, professor of mathematics, u. s. naval observatory. table of contents list of illustrations introductory materials for the present investigation system of nomenclature in what order are the hieroglyphs read? the card catalogue of hieroglyphs comparison of plates i and iv (copan) are the hieroglyphs of copan and palenque identical? huitzilopochtli, mexican god of war, etc. tlaloc, or his maya representative cukulean or quetzalcoatl comparison of the signs of the maya months list of illustrations figure .--the palenquean group of the cross .--statue at copan .--statue at copan .--synonymous hieroglyphs from copan and palenque .--yucatec stone .--huitzilopochtli (front) .--huitzilopochtli (side) .--huitzilopochtli (back) .--miclantecutli .--adoratorio .--the maya war-god .--the maya rain-god .--tablet at palenque studies in central american picture-writing. by edward s. holden. i. since i have been familiar with the works of mr. john l. stephens on the antiquities of yucatan, and from time to time i have read works on kindred subjects with ever increasing interest and curiosity in regard to the meaning of the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the stones and tablets of copan, palenque, and other ruins of central america. in august, , i determined to see how far the principles which are successful when applied to ordinary cipher-writing would carry one in the inscriptions of yucatan. the difference between an ordinary cipher-message and these inscriptions is not so marked as might at first sight appear. the underlying principles of deciphering are quite the same in the two cases. the chief difficulty in the yucatec inscriptions is our lack of any definite knowledge of the nature of the records of the aborigines. the patient researches of our archæologists have recovered but very little of their manners and habits, and one has constantly to avoid the tempting suggestions of an imagination which has been formed by modern influences, and to endeavor to keep free from every suggestion not inherent in the stones themselves. i say the stones, for i have only used the maya manuscripts incidentally. they do not possess, to me, the same interest, and i think it may certainly be said that all of them are younger than the palenque tablets, and far younger than the inscriptions at copan. i therefore determined to apply the ordinary principles of deciphering, without any bias, to the yucatec inscriptions, and to go as far as i could _certainly_. arrived at the point where demonstration ceased, it would be my duty to stop. for, while even the conjectures of a mind perfectly trained in archæologic research are valuable and may subsequently prove to be quite right, my lack of familiarity with historical works forced me to keep within narrow and safe limits. my programme at beginning was, _first_, to see if the inscriptions at copan and palenque were written in the same tongue. when i say "to see," i mean to definitely prove the fact, and so in other cases; _second_, to see how the tablets were to be read. that is, in horizontal lines, are they to be read from right to left, or the reverse? in vertical columns, are they to be read up or down? _third_, to see whether they were phonetic characters, or merely ideographic, or a mixture of the two--rebus-like, in fact. if the characters turned out to be purely phonetic, i had determined to stop at this point, since i had not the time to learn the maya language, and again because i utterly and totally distrusted the methods which, up to this time, have been applied by brasseur de bourbourg and others who start, and must start, from the misleading and unlucky alphabet handed down by landa. i believe that legacy to have been a positive misfortune, and i believe any process of the kind attempted by brasseur de bourbourg (for example, in his essay on the _ms. troano_) to be extremely dangerous and difficult in application, and to require a degree of scientific caution almost unique. dr. harrison allen, in his paper, "the life form in art," in the _transactions of the american philosophical society_, is the only investigator who has applied this method to central american remains with success, so it seems to me; and even here errors have occurred. the process i allude to is something like the following: a set of characters, say the alphabet of landa, is taken as a starting point. the _variants_ of these are formed. then the basis of the investigation is ready. from this, the interpretation follows by identifications of each new character with one of the standard set or with one of its _variants_. theoretically, there is no objection to this procedure. practically, also, there is no objection if the work is done strictly in the order named. in fact, however, the list of _variants_ is filled out not before the work is begun, but during its progress, and in such a way as to satisfy the necessities of the interpreter in carrying out some preconceived idea. with a sufficient latitude in the choice of _variants_ any ms. can receive any interpretation. for example, the _ms. troano_, which a casual examination leads me to think is a _ritual_, and an account of the adventures of several maya gods, is interpreted by brasseur de bourbourg as a record of mighty geologic changes. it is next to impossible to avoid errors of this nature at least, and in fact they have not been avoided, so far as i know, except by dr. allen in the paper cited. i, personally, have chosen the stones and not the manuscripts for study largely because _variants_ do not exist in the same liberal degree in the stone inscriptions as they have been supposed to exist in the manuscripts. at any one ruin the characters for the same idea are alike, and alike to a marvelous degree. at another ruin the type is just a little different, but the fidelity to this type is equally great. synonyms exist; that is, the same idea may be given by two or more utterly different signs. but a given sign is made in a fixed and definite way. finally the mss. are, i think, later than the stones. hence the root of the matter is the interpretation of the stones, or not so much their full interpretation as the discovery of a _method of interpretation_, which shall be sure. suppose, for example, that we know the meaning of a dozen characters only, and the way a half dozen of these are joined together in a sentence. the _method_ by which these were obtained will serve to add others to the list, and progress depends in such a case only on our knowledge of the people who wrote, and of the subjects upon which they were writing. such knowledge and erudition belongs to the archæologists by profession. a step that might take me a year to accomplish might be made in an instant by one to whom the maya and aztec mythology was familiar, if he were proceeding according to a sound method. at the present time we know nothing of the meaning of any of the maya hieroglyphs. it will, therefore, be my object to go as far in the subject as i can proceed with certainty, every step being demonstrated so that not only the archæologist but any intelligent person can follow. as soon as the border-land is reached in which proof disappears and opinion is the only guide, the search must be abandoned except by those whose cultivated and scientific opinions are based on knowledge far more profound and various than i can pretend or hope to have. if i do not here push my own conclusions to their farthest limit, it must not be assumed that i do not see, at least in some cases, the direction in which they lead. rather, let this reticence be ascribed to a desire to lay the foundations of a new structure firmly, to prescribe the method of building which my experience has shown to be adequate and necessary, and to leave to those abler than myself the erection of the superstructure. if my methods and conclusions are correct (and i have no doubts on this point, since each one has been reached in various ways and tested by a multiplicity of criteria) there is a great future to these researches. it is not to be forgotten that here we have no rosetta stone to act at once as key and criterion, and that instead of the accurate descriptions of the egyptian hieroglyphics which were handed down by the greek cotemporaries[tn- ] of the sculptors of these inscriptions, we have only the crude and brutal chronicles of an ignorant spanish soldiery, or the bigoted accounts of an unenlightened priesthood. to cortez and his companions a memorandum that it took one hundred men all day to throw the idols into the sea was all-sufficient. to the spanish priests the burning of all manuscripts was praiseworthy, since those differing from holy writ were noxious and those agreeing with it superfluous. it is only to the patient labor of the maya sculptor who daily carved the symbols of his belief and creed upon enduring stone, and to the luxuriant growths of semi-tropical forests which concealed even these from the passing spanish adventurer, that we owe the preservation of the memorials of past beliefs and vanished histories. not the least of the pleasures of such researches as these comes from the recollection that they vindicate the patience and skill of forgotten men, and make their efforts not quite useless. it was no rude savage that carved the palenque cross; and if we can discover what his efforts meant, his labor and his learning have not been all in vain. it will be one more proof that human effort, even misdirected, is not lost, but that it comes, later or earlier, "to forward the general deed of man." ii. materials for the present investigation. my examination of the works of mr. j. l. stephens has convinced me that in every respect his is the most trustworthy work on the _hieroglyphs_ of central america. the intrinsic evidence to this effect is very strong, but when i first became familiar with the works of waldeck i found so many points of difference that my faith was for a time shaken, and i came to the conclusion that while the existing representations might suffice for the study of the general forms of statues, tablets, and buildings, yet they were not sufficiently accurate in detail to serve as a basis for the deciphering i had in mind. i am happy to bear witness, however, that stephens's work is undoubtedly amply adequate to the purpose, and this fact i have laboriously verified by a comparison of it with various representations, as those of desaix and others, and also with a few photographs. the drawings of waldeck are very beautiful and artistic, but either the artist himself or his lithographers have taken singular liberties in the published designs. stephens's work is not only accurate, but it contains sufficient material for my purpose (over , separate hieroglyphs), and, therefore, i have based my study exclusively upon his earliest work, "_incidents of travel in central america, chiapas, and yucatan_," vols., vo. new york, (twelfth edition). i have incidentally consulted the works on the subject contained in the library of congress, particularly those of brasseur de bourbourg, kingsborough, waldeck, and others, but, as i have said, the two volumes above named contain all the the[tn- ] material i have been able to utilize, and much more which is still under examination. * * * * * one fact which makes the examination of the central american antiquities easier than it otherwise would be, has not, i think, been sufficiently dwelt upon by former writers. this is the remarkable faithfulness of the artists and sculptors of these statues and inscriptions to a standard. thus, at copan, wherever the same kind of hieroglyph is to be represented, it will be found that the human face or other object employed is almost identically the same in expression and character, wherever it is found. the same characters at different parts of a tablet do not differ more than the same letters of the alphabet in two fonts of type. at palenque the _type_ (font) changes, but the adherence to this is equally or almost equally rigid. it is to be presumed that in this latter case, where work was done both in stone and stucco, the nature of the material affected the portraiture more or less. the stone statues at copan, for example, could not all have been done by the same artist, nor at the same time. i have elsewhere shown that two of these statues are absolutely identical. how was this accomplished? was one stone taken to the foot of the other and cut by it as a pattern? this is unlikely, especially as in the case mentioned the _scale_ of the two statues is quite different. i think it far more likely that each was cut from a drawing, or series of drawings, which must have been preserved by priestly authority. the work at any one place must have required many years, and could not have been done by a single man; nor is it probable that it was all done in one generation. separate hieroglyphs must have been preserved in the same way. it is this rigid adherence to a type, and the banishment of artistic fancy, which will allow of progress in the deciphering of the inscriptions or the comparison of the statues. line after line, ornament after ornament, is repeated with utter fidelity. the reason of this is not far to seek. this, however, is not the place to explain it, but rather to take advantage of the fact itself. we may fairly say that were it not so, and with our present data, all advances would be tenfold more difficult. iii. system of nomenclature. it is impossible without a special and expensive font of type to refer pictorially to each character, and therefore some system of nomenclature must be adopted. the one i employ i could now slightly improve, but it has been used and results have been obtained by it. it is sufficient for the purpose, and i will, therefore, retain it rather than to run the risk of errors by changing it to a more perfect system. i have numbered the plates in stephens's _central america_ according to the following scheme: engravings of volume i. page. stone statue, front view, i have called plate i _frontispiece._ wall of copan, plate ii plan of copan, plate iii death's head, plate iii^a portrait, plate iii^b stone idol, plate iv portrait, plate iv^a stone idol, plate v tablet of hieroglyphics, plate v^a no. , sides of altar, plate vi no. , sides of altar, plate vii gigantic head, plate viii no. , stone idol, front view, plate ix no. , stone idol, back view, plate x idol half buried, plate xi no. , idol, plate xii no. , idol, plate xiii no. , idol, plate xiv no. , idol, plate xv idol and altar, plate xvi fallen idol, plate xvii no. , idol, front view, plate xviii no. , idol, back view, plate xix no. , idol, side view, plate xx fallen idol, plate xx^a circular altar, plate xx^b no. , stone idol, front view, plate xxi no. , stone idol, back view, plate xxii no. , stone idol, side view, plate xxiii great square of antigua guatimala, plate xxiii^a profile of nicaragua canal, plate xxiii^b engravings of volume ii. page. stone tablet, plate xxiv _frontispiece._ idol at quirigua, plate xxv idol at quirigua, plate xxvi santa cruz del quiché, plate xxvii place of sacrifice, plate xxviii figures found at santa cruz del quiché, plate xxix plaza of quezaltenango, plate xxx vases found at gueguetenango, plate xxxi ocosingo, plate xxxii palace at palenque, plate xxxiii plan of palace, plate xxxiv stucco figure on pier, plate xxxv front corridor of palace, plate xxxvi no. , court-yard of palace, plate xxxviii no. , colossal bas-reliefs in stone, plate xxxix east side of court-yard, plate xxxvii no. , bas-relief in stucco, plate xl no. , bas-relief in stucco, plate xli no. , bas-relief in stucco, plate xlii oval bas-relief in stone, plate xliii bas-relief in stucco, plate xliv general plan of palenque, plate xlv casa no. in ruins, plate xlvi casa no. restored, plate xlvii no. , bas-relief in stucco, plate xlviii no. , bas-relief in stucco, plate xlix no. , bas-relief in stucco, plate l no. , bas-relief in stucco, plate li no. , tablet of hieroglyphics, plate lii no. , tablet of hieroglyphics, plate liii tablet on inner wall, plate liv casa di piedras, no. , plate lv tablet on back wall of altar, casa no. , plate lvi stone statue, plate lvii casa no. , plate lviii front corridor, plate lix no. , bas-reliefs in front of altar, plate lx no. , bas-reliefs in front of altar, plate lxi adoratorio or altar, plate lxii casa no. , plate lxiii house of the dwarf, plate lxiv casa del gobernador, plate lxv sculptured front of casa del gobernador, plate lxvi egyptian hieroglyphics, plate lxviii top of altar at copan, plate lxviii=v^a mexican hieroglyphical writing, plate lxix in each plate i have numbered the hieroglyphs, giving each one its own number. thus the hieroglyphs of the copan altar (vol. i, p. ) which i have called plate v^a, are numbered from to according to this scheme-- and the right hand side of the palenque cross tablet, as given by rau in his memoir published by the smithsonian institution ( ), has the numbers-- * * * * * * * * * * * * these are consecutive with the numbers which i have attached to the left-hand side, as given by stephens. whenever i have stated any results here, i have also given the means by which any one can number a copy of stephens's work in the way which i have adopted, and thus the means of testing my conclusions is in the hands of every one who desires to do so. in cases where only a _part_ of a hieroglyphic is referred to, i have placed its number in a parenthesis, as _see_ ( ), by which i mean that the character is to be compared with a part of the character . the advantages of this system are many: for example; a memorandum can easily be taken that two hieroglyphs are alike, thus = and = . hence the _pair_ -- , read horizontally, occurs again at the point -- , etc. _horizontal pairs_ will be known by their numbers being consecutive, as -- ; _vertical pairs_ will usually be known by their numbers differing by . thus, -- are one above the other. this method of naming the _chiffres_, then, is a quick and safe one, and we shall see that it lends itself to the uses required of it. i add here the scheme according to which the principal plates at palenque have been numbered. plate xxiv (left-hand side). v----------v { {_see_ _see_ _see_ { { { = = ^a= ^a _see_ = ^a= ^a in the middle of the ^a= ? plate at the top. v----------v = ? _see_ = ? _see_ [+] _see_ _see_ = _see_ = = ? [*] [*] [*] accidental error in numbering here. [+] possibly muluc--a maya day; the meaning is "reunion." plate xxiv (right-hand side). v-------------------v = ?[+] = = _see_ , _see_ , [*] [++] = _see_ _see_ _see_ ( ), = _see_ , , = ? _see_ , _see_ [§] _see_ _see_ , , , = _see_ _see_ , _see_ _see_ , , [*] _see_ _see_ _see_ ^a, ^a, ^a v------------------------------------------v = [+] = _see_ , _see_ , _see_ _see_ , , , _see_ ? _see_ ? _see_ , , _see_ _see_ , _see_ ^a _see_ , , _see_ , , [*] possibly ymix--a maya day. [+] possibly chuen--a maya day; meaning "a board," "a tree." [++] possibly ahau--a maya day; meaning "king." [§] possibly ezanab--a maya day. plate lii. } } } line . _see_ } } = } _see_ _see_ _see_ } - } } line . } _see_ } } = = } } = } line . _see_ } } v-----------------v } _see_ _see_ _see_ } } } line . = } _see_ } } = } _see_ _see_ } } line . } } = } _see_ } } line . } } v-----------v = } _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ } } } line . } _see_ } } } _see_ _see_ } } } line . = } _see_ _see_ } , } } = } _see_ _see_ } , } line . } } } } _see_ } , } line . } } } = } _see_ _see_ } } } line . } _see_ _see_ } } } _see_ } } line . } } plate liii. [the upper left-hand square is no. , the upper right is , the lower left-hand is , the lower right is . all the squares from to , to , to , etc., up to to , are obliterated (and their numbers omitted here) except a few.] _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ , = = ? = ? _see_ _see_ _see_ = _see_ = _see_ plate liv. v-----------v _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ , = _see_ _see_ = _see_ _see_ _see_ - v------------v = = = _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ ? = = = _see_ _see_ = _see_ = = = v-----------------v = = = = = = plate lvi (left-hand side--palenque cross). { { _see_ { , { { { {_see_ _see_ { v---------------------v [*] _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ , ( ) , , , _see_ _see_ _see_ , = _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ , = _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ , = _see_ = _see_ _see_ _see_ , ?, ? = = ? = _see_ , _see_ = _see_ _see_ _see_ , _see_ , , = _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ , ?, ? ? = _see_ _see_ _see_ , = _see_ _see_ _see_ v---------------v _see_ _see_ = - ? = _see_ v-----------------v = = = _see_ _see_ _see_ , _see_ [*] at and after this place, in vertical columns, - - , - - , - - , - - , and - - may be taken as or symbols. i have assumed them to be . plate lvi (right-hand side--palenque cross). = _see_ _see_ _see_ , , _see_ _see_ _see_ _see_ , , , v---------v = _see_ _see_ _see_ , , , _see_ = = _see_ { { _see_ { , [*] { { { { _see_ { ? _see_ _see_ , [*] these four each side of the main stem of the cross. =_ezanab_--a maya day[tn- ] [illustration: fig. .--the palenquean group of the cross.] iv. in what order are the hieroglyphs read? before any advance can be made in the deciphering of the hieroglyphic inscriptions, it is necessary to know in what directions, along what lines or columns, the verbal sense proceeds. all the inscriptions that i know of are in rectangular figures. at copan they are usually in squares. at palenque the longest inscriptions are in rectangles. at palenque again, there are some cases where there is a single horizontal line of hieroglyphs over a pictorial tablet. here clearly the only question is, do the characters proceed from left to right, or from right to left? in other cases as in the tablet of the cross, there are vertical columns. the question here is, shall we read up or down? now, the hieroglyphs must be phonetic or pictorial, or a mixture of the two. if they are phonetic, it will take more than one symbol to make a word, and we shall have groups of like characters when the same word is written in two places. if the signs are pictorial, the same thing will follow; that is, we shall have groups recurring when the same idea recurs. further, we know that the subjects treated of in these tablets must be comparatively simple, and that _names_, as of gods, kings, etc., must necessarily recur. the _names_, then, will be the first words deciphered. at present no single name is known. these considerations, together with our system of nomenclature, will enable us to take some steps. take, for example, the right-hand side of the palenque cross tablet as given by rau. _see_ our figure , which is plate lvi of stephens (vol. ii, p. ), with the addition of the part now in the national museum at washington. our system of numbering is here * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * now pick out the duplicate hieroglyphs in this; that is, run through the tablet, and wherever occurs erase the number which fills the place and write in . do the same for , , etc., down to . the result will be as follows: right-hand side of palenque cross tablet (rau). ^-----------^ ^-----------^ ^-----------^ { { ^-----------^ { { ^-----------^ ? ? } ^-----------^ } ? } } { { { ^-----------^ ^-----------^ { { * ? { ^-----------^ { ^---- { { { * { ----^ { _see_ { ^-----------^ { { { ^-----------^ ^-----------^ ^-----------^ cases of horizontal pairs; cases of vertical pairs; characters in all, of which appear more than once, so that there are but independent hieroglyphs. here the first two lines are unchanged. in the third line we find that is the same as , = , = , and so on, and we write the smallest number in each case. after this is done, connect like pairs by braces whenever they are consecutive, either vertical or horizontal. take the pair and for example; occurs eight times in the tablet, viz, as , , , , , , , . in five out of the eight cases, it is followed by , viz, as , , , , . it is clear this is not the result of accident. the pair and means something, and when the two characters occur together they must be read together. there is no point of punctuation between them. we also learn that they are not inseparable. will make sense with , and . here it looks as if the writing must be read in _lines_ horizontally. we do not know yet in which direction. we must examine other cases. this is to be noticed: if the reading is in horizontal lines from left to right, then the progress is from top to bottom in columns, as the case of and shows. this occurs at the end of a line, and the corresponding _chiffre_ required to make the pair is at the other end of the next line. i have marked this case with asterisks. if we must read in the lines from right to left we must necessarily read in columns from bottom to top. thus the _lines_ are connected. a similar process with all the other tablets in stephens leads to the conclusion that the reading is in lines horizontally and in columns vertically. the cases -' , -' , -' , and -' should, however, be examined. we have now to decide at which end of the lines to begin. the reasons given by mr. bancroft (_native races_, vol. ii, p. ) appeared to me sufficient to decide the question before i was acquainted with his statement of them. therefore, the sum total of our present data, examined by a rational method, leads to the conclusion, so far as we can know from these data, that the verbal sense proceeded in _lines_ from left to right, in _columns_ from top to bottom; just as the present page is written, in fact. for the present, the introduction of the method here indicated is the important step. it has, as yet, been applied only to the plates of stephens' work. the definite conclusion should be made to rest on _all possible_ data, some of which is not at my disposition at present. tablets exist in great numbers at other points besides palenque, and for the final conclusion these must also be consulted. if each one is examined in the way i have indicated, it will yield a certain answer. the direction of reading for that plate can be thus determined. at palenque the progress is in the order i have indicated. v. the card-catalogue of hieroglyphs. it has already been explained how a system of nomenclature was gradually formed. as i have said, this is not perfect, but it is sufficiently simple and full for the purpose. by it, every plate in stephens' work receives a number and every hieroglyph in each plate is likewise numbered. this was first done in my private copy of the work. i then procured another copy and duplicated these numbers both for plates and single _chiffres_. the plates of this copy were then cut up into single hieroglyphs and each single hieroglyph was mounted on a library card, as follows: ____________________________________________ | | | | | no. . | hieroglyph. | plate lvi. | | |_______________| | |__________________________________________| | same as numbers. | similar to numbers. | | ---------------- | ------------------- | | ---------------- | ------------------- | | ---------------- | ------------------- | | ---------------- | ------------------- | | ---------------- | ------------------- | |__________________________________________| the cards were . by . inches. the _chiffre_ was pasted on, in the center of the top space. its number and the plate from which it came were placed as in the cut. the numbers of hieroglyphs which resembled the one in question could be written on the right half of the card, and the numbers corresponding to different recurrences of this hieroglyph occupied the left half. all this part of the work was most faithfully and intelligently performed for me by miss mary lockwood, to whom i desire to express the full amount of my obligations. a mistake in any part would have been fatal. but no mistakes occurred. these cards could now be arranged in any way i saw fit. the simple _chiffres_, for example, could be placed so as to bring like ones together. a compound hieroglyph could be placed among simple ones agreeing with any one of its components, and so on. the expense of forming this card catalogue of about , single hieroglyphs was borne by the ethnological bureau of the smithsonian institution, and the catalogue is the property of that bureau, forming only one of its many rich collections of american picture-writings. vi. comparison of plates i and iv (copan). in examining the various statues at copan, as given by stephens, one naturally looks for points of striking resemblance or striking difference. where all is unknown, even the smallest sign is examined, in the hope that it may prove a clue. the plate i, fig. , has a twisted knot (the "square knot" of sailors) of cords over its head, and above this is a _chiffre_ composed of ellipses, and above this again a sign like a sea-shell. a natural suggestion was that these might be the signs for the name of the personage depicted in plate i. if this is so and we should find the same sign elsewhere in connection with a figure, we should expect to find this second figure like the first in every particular. this would be a rigid test of the theory. after looking through the palenque series, and finding no similar figure and sign, i examined the copan series, and in plate iv, our fig. , i found the same signs exactly; _i. e._, the knot and the two _chiffres_. [illustration: fig. .--statue at copan.] [illustration: fig. .--statue at copan.] at first sight there is only the most general resemblance between the personages represented in the two plates; as stephens says in his original account of them, they are "in many respects similar." if he had known them to be the same, he would not have wasted his time in drawing them. the scale of the two drawings and of the two statues is different; but the two personages are the same identically. figure for figure, ornament for ornament, they correspond. it is unnecessary to give the minute comparison here in words. it can be made by any one from the two plates herewith. take any part of plate i, find the corresponding part of plate iv, and whether it is human feature or sculptured ornament the two will be found to be the same. take the middle face depending from the belt in each plate. the earrings are the same; the ornament below the chin, the knot above the head, the complicated beadwork on each side of this face, all are the same. the bracelets of the right arms of the main figures have each the forked serpent tongue, and the left-arm bracelets are ornamented alike. the crosses with beads almost inclosed in the right hands are alike; the elliptic ornaments above each wrist, the knots and _chiffres_ over the serpent masks which surmount the faces, all are the same. in the steel plates given by stephens there are even more coindences[tn- ] to be seen than in the excellent wood-cuts here given, which have been copied from them. here, then, is an important fact. the theory that the _chiffre_ over the forehead is characteristic, though it is not definitively proved, receives strong confirmation. the parts which have been lost by the effects of time on one statue can be supplied from the other. better than all, we gain a test of the minuteness with which the sculptors worked, and an idea of how close the adherence to a type was required to be. granting once that the two personages are the same (a fact about which i conceive there can be no possible doubt, since the chances in favor are literally thousands to one), we learn what license was allowed, and what synonyms in stone might be employed. thus, the ornament suspended from the neck in plate iv is clearly a tiger's skull. that from the neck of plate i has been shown to be the derived form of a skull by dr. harrison allen,[ -*] and we now know that this common form relates not to the human skull, as dr. allen has supposed, but to that of the tiger. we shall find this figure often repeated, and the identification is of importance. this is a case in regard to synonyms. the kind of symbolism so ably treated by dr. allen is well exemplified in the conventional sign for the _crotalus_ jaw at the mouth of the mask over the head of each figure. this is again found on the body of the snake in plate lx, and in other places. other important questions can be settled by comparison of the two plates. for example, at palenque we often find a sign composed of a half ellipse, inside of which bars are drawn. [illustration] i shall elsewhere show that there is reason to believe the ellipse is to represent the concave of the sky, its diameter to be the level earth, and in some cases at least the bars to be the descending and fertilizing rain. the bars are sometimes two, three, and sometimes four in number. are these variants of a single sign, or are they synonyms? before the discovery of the identity of the personages in these two plates, this question could not be answered. now we can say that they are not synonyms, or at least that they must be considered separately. to show this, examine the bands just above the wristlets of the two figures. over the left hands of the figures the bars are two in number; over the right hands there are four. this exact similarity is not accidental; there is a meaning in it, and we must search for its explanation elsewhere, but we now have a valuable test of what needs to be regarded, and of what, on the other hand, may be passed over as accidental or unimportant. one other case needs mentioning here, as it will be of future use. from the waist of each figure depend nine oval solids, six being hatched over like pine cones and the three central ones having two ovals, one within the other, engraved on them. in plate iv the inner ovals are all on the right-hand side of the outer ovals. would they mean the same if they were on the left-hand side? plate i enables us to say that they would, since one of these inner ovals has been put by the artist on that side by accident or by an allowed caprice. it is by furnishing us with tests and criteria like these that the proof of the identity of these two plates is immediately important. in other ways, too, the proof is valuable and interesting, but we need not discuss them at this time. these statues, then, are to us a dictionary of synonyms in stone--a test of the degree of adherence to a prototype which was exacted, and a criterion of the kind of minor differences which must be noticed in any rigid study. i have not insisted more on the resemblances, since the accompanying figures present a demonstration. let those who wish to verify these resemblances compare minutely the ornaments above the knees of the two figures, those about the waists, above the heads, and the square knots, etc., etc. vii. are the hieroglyphs of copan and palenque identical? one of the first questions to be settled is whether the same system of writing was employed at palenque and at copan. before any study of the meanings of the separate _chiffres_ can be made, we must have our material properly assorted, and must not include in the figures we are examining for the detection of a clue, any which may belong to a system possibly very different. the opinion of stephens and of later writers is confirmed by my comparison of the palenque and the copan series; that is, it becomes evident that the latter series is far the older. in nicaragua and copan the statues of gods were placed at the foot of the pyramid; farther north, as at palenque, they were placed in temples at the summit. such differences show a marked change in customs, and must have required much time for their accomplishment. in this time did the picture-writing change, or, indeed, was it ever identical? to settle the question whether they were written on the same system, i give here the results of a rapid survey of the card-catalogue of hieroglyphs. a more minute examination is not necessary, as the present one is quite sufficient to show that the system employed at the two places was the same in its general character and almost identical even in details. the practical result of this conclusion is that similar characters of the copan and palenque series may be used interchangeably. a detailed study of the undoubted synonyms of the two places will afford much light on the manner in which these characters were gradually evolved. this is not the place for such a study, but it is interesting to remark how, even in unmistakable synonyms, the palenque character is always the most conventional, the least pictorial; that is, the latest. examples of this are no. , plate v^a, and no. , plate lvi. the _mask_ in profile which forms the left-hand edge of no. seems to have been conventionalized into the two hooks and the ball, which have the same place in no. . [illustration: fig. .--synonomous[tn- ] hieroglyphs from copan and palenque.] the larger of these two was cut on stone, the smaller in stucco. the mask has been changed into the ball and hooks; the angular nose ornament into a single ball, easier to make and quite as significant to the maya priest. but to us the older (copan) figure is infinitely more significant. the curious rows of little balls which are often placed at the left-hand edge of the various _chiffres_ are also conventions for older forms. it is to be noted that these balls always occur on the left hand of the hieroglyphs, except in one case, the _chiffre_ in the palenque cross tablet, on which the left-hand acolyte stands. the conclusion that the two series are both written on the same system, and that like _chiffres_ occurring at the two places are synonyms, will, i think, be sufficiently evident to any one who will himself examine the following cases. it is the _nature_ of the agreements which proves the thesis, and not the number of cases here cited. the reader will remember that the copan series comprises plates i to xxiii, inclusive; the palenque series, plate xxiv and higher numbers. the sign of the group of mexican gods who relate to hell, _i. e._, a circle with a central dot, and with four small segments cut out at four equally distant points of its circumference, is found in no. , plate xxii, and in many of the palenque plates, as plate lvi, nos. , , , , etc. in both places this sign is worn by human figures just below the ear. the same sign occurs as an important part of no. , plate xxii, and no. , plate xiii (copan), and no. , plate lvi (palenque), etc. no. , plate v^a, and no. , plate lvi, i regard as absolutely identical. these are both human figures. no. , plate v^a, and no. , plate liii, are probably the same. these probably represent or relate to the long-nosed divinity, yacateuctli, the mexican god of commerce, etc., or rather to his maya representative. the sign of tlaloc, or rather the family of tlalocs, the gods of rain, floods, and waters, is an eye (or sometimes a mouth), around which there is a double line drawn. i take no. , plate v^a, of the copan series, and nos. and , plate xxiv, to be corresponding references to members of this family. no. , plate v^a, and no. also correspond. no. , plate xxii, is probably related to no. , plate xxiv and its congeners. nos. and , plate v^a, are clearly related to no. , plate liv, nos. and , plate xxiv, no. , plate lvi, and many others. plate iii^a of copan is evidently identically the same as the no. of the palenque plate no. xxiv. the right half of no. , plate v^a, is the same as the right half of nos. , , and many others of plate lvi. no. , plate v^a, is related to no. , plate lvi, and many others like it. the major part of no. , plate xiii, is the same as no. , plate xxiv, etc. [illustration: fig. .--yucatec stone.] it is not necessary to add a greater number of examples here. the card-catalogue which i have mentioned enables me to at once pick out all the cases of which the above are specimens, taken just as they fell under my eye in rapidly turning over the cards. they therefore represent the _average_ agreement, neither more nor less. taken together they show that the same signs were used at copan and at palenque. as the same symbols used at both places occur in like positions in regard to the human face, etc., i conclude that not only were the same signs used at both places, but that these signs had the same meaning; _i. e._, were truly synonyms. in future i shall regard this as demonstrated. viii. huitzilopochtli (mexican god of war), teoyaomiqui (mexican goddess of death), miclantecutli (mexican god of hell), and tlaloc (mexican rain-god), considered in relation to central american divinities. in the _congrès des américanistes, session de luxembourg_, vol. ii, p. , is a report of a memoir of dr. leemans, entitled "description de quelques antiquités américaines conservées dans le musée royal néerlandais d'antiquités à leide." on page we find-- m. g.-h.-band, de arnhiem, a eu la bonté de me confier quelques antiquités provenant des anciens habitants du yucatan et de l'amérique centrale, avec autorisation d'en faire prendre des fac-similes pour le musée, ce qui me permet de les faire connaître aux membres du congrès. elles ont été trouvées enfouies à une grande profondeur dans le sol, lors de la construction d'un canal, vers la rivière gracioza, près de san filippo, sur la frontière du honduras britannique et de la république de guatémala par m. s.-a.-van braam, ingénieur néerlandais au service de la guatémala-company. from the maps given in stieler's hand-atlas and in bancroft's native races of the pacific states i find that these relics were found miles from uxmal, miles from palenque, miles from copan, and miles from the city of mexico, the distances being in a straight line from place to place. the one of these objects with which we are now concerned is figured in plate ( ) of the work quoted, and is reproduced here as fig. . dr. leemans refers to a similarity between this figure and others in stephens' travels in central america, but gives no general comparison. i wish to direct attention to some of the points of this cut. the _chiffre_ or symbol of the principal figure is, perhaps, represented in his belt, and is a st. andrew's cross, with a circle at each end of it. inside the large circle is a smaller one. it may be said, in passing, that the cross probably relates to the _air_ and the circle to the _sun_. the main figure has two hands folded against his breast. two other arms are extended, one in front, the other behind, which carry two birds. each arm has a bracelet. this second pair of hands is not described by dr. leemans. the two birds are exact duplicates, except that the eye of one is shut, of the other open. just above the bill of each bird is something which might be taken as a second bill (which probably is not, however), and on this and on the back of each bird are five spines or claws. the corresponding claws are curved and shaped alike in the two sets. the birds are fastened to the neck of the person represented by two ornaments, which are alike, and which seem to be the usual hieroglyph of the _crotalus_ jaw. these jaws are placed similarly with respect to each bird. in kingsborough's mexican antiquities, vol. i, plate x, we find the parrot as the sign of tonatihu, the sun, and in plate xxv with naolin, the sun. on a level with the nose of the principal figure are two symbols, one in front and one behind, each inclosing a st. andrew's cross, and surmounted by what seems to be a flaming fire. it is probably the _chiffre_ of the wind, as the cross is of the rain. below the rear one of these is a head with protruding tongue (the sign of quetzalcoatl); below the other a hieroglyph (perhaps a bearded face). each of these is upborne by a hand. it is to be noticed, also, that these last arms have bracelets different from the pair on the breast. in passing, it may be noted that the head in rear is under a cross, and has on its cheek the symbol u. these are the symbols of the left-hand figure in the palenque cross tablet. the head hanging from the rear of the belt has an _open_ eye (like that of the principal figure), and above it is a crotalus mask, with open eye, and teeth, and forked fangs. the principal figure wears over his head a mask, with open mouth, and with tusks, and above this mask is the eagle's head. this eagle is a sign of tlaloc, at least in yucatan. in mexico the eagle was part of the insignia of tetzcatlipoca, "the devil," who overthrew the good quetzalcoatl and reintroduced human sacrifice. the characteristics of the principal figure, , are then briefly as follows: i. his _chiffre_ is an air-cross with the sun-circle. ii. he has four hands. iii. he bears two birds as a symbol. iv. the claws or spikes on the backs of these are significant. v. the mask with tusks over the head. vi. the head worn at the belt. vii. the captive trodden under foot. viii. the chain from the belt attached to a kind of ornament or symbol. ix. the twisted flames (?) or winds (?) on each side of the figure. x. his association with quetzalcoatl or cuculkan,[tn- ] as shown by the mouth with protruding tongue, and with tlaloc or tetzcatlipoca, as shown by the eagle's head. we may note here for reference the signification of one of the hieroglyphs in the right-hand half of fig. , _i. e._, in that half which contains only writing. the topmost _chiffre_ is undoubtedly the name, or part of the name, of the principal figure represented in the other half. it is in pure picture-writing; that is, it expresses the sum of his attributes. it has the crotalus mask, with nose ornament, which he wears over his face; then the cross, with the "five feathers" of mexico, and the sun symbol. these are in the middle of the _chiffre_. below these the oval may be, and probably is, heaven, with the rain descending and producing from the surface of the earth (the long axis of the ellipse), the seed, of which three grains are depicted. we know by the occurrence of the hieroglyphs on the reverse side of the stone that this is not of aztec sculpture. these symbols are of the same sort as those at copan, palenque, etc., and i shall show later that some of them occur in the palenque tablets. hence, we know this engraving to be yucatec and not aztec in its origin. if it had been sculptured on one side only, and these hieroglyphs omitted, i am satisfied that the facts which i shall point out in the next paragraphs would have led to the conclusion that this stone was mexican in its origin. fortunately the native artist had the time to sculpture the yucatec hieroglyphs, which are the proof of its true origin. it was not dropped by a traveling aztec; it was made by a yucatec. in passing, it may be said that the upper left-hand, hieroglyph of plate xiii most probably repeats this name. i collect from the third volume of bancroft's _native races_, chapter viii, such descriptions of huitzilopochtli as he was represented among the mexicans as will be of use to us in our comparisons. no display of learning in giving the references to the original works is necessary here, since mr. bancroft has placed all these in order and culled them for a use like the present. it will suffice once for all to refer the critical reader to this volume, and to express the highest sense of obligation to mr. bancroft's compilation, which renders a survey of the characteristic features of the american divinities easy. in mexico, then, this god had, among other symbols, "five balls of feathers arranged in the form of a cross." this was in reference to the mysterious conception of his mother through the _powers of the air_. the upper hieroglyph in fig. , and one of the lower ones, contain this sign: "in his right hand he had an azured staff cutte in fashion of a waving snake." (see plate lxi of stephens.) "joining to the temple of this idol there was a piece of less work, where there was another idol they called tlaloc. these two idolls were alwayes together, for that they held them as companions and of equal power." to his temple "there were foure gates," in allusion to the form of the cross. the temple was surrounded by rows of skulls (as at copan) and the temple itself was upon a high pyramid. solis says the war god sat "on a throne supported by a blue globe.[tn- ] from this, supposed to represent the heavens, projected four staves with serpents' heads. (see plate xxiv, stephens.) "the image bore on its head a bird of wrought plumes," "its right hand rested upon a crooked serpent." "upon the left arm was a buckler bearing five white plums arranged in form of a cross." sahagun describes his device as a dragon's head, "frightful in the extreme, and casting fire out of his mouth." herrara describes huitzilopochtli and tezcatlipoca[tn- ] together, and says they were "beset with pieces of gold wrought like birds, beasts, and _fishes_." "for collars, they had ten hearts of men," "and in their necks death painted." torquemada derives the _name_ of the war god in two ways. according to some it is composed of two words, one signifying "a humming bird" and the other "a sorcerer that spits fire." others say that the last word means "the left hand," so that the whole name would mean "the shining feathered left hand." "this god it was that led out the mexicans from their own land and brought them into anáhuac." besides his regular statue, set up in mexico, "there was another renewed every year, made of different kinds of grains and seeds, moistened with the blood of children." this was in allusion to the nature-side of the god, as fully explained by mÜller (_americanische urreligionen_). no description will give a better idea of the general features of this god than the following cuts from bancroft's _native races_, which are copied from leon y gama, _las dos piedras_, etc. figs. and are the war god himself; fig. is the back of the former statue on a larger scale; fig. is the god of hell, and was engraved on the bottom of the block. [illustration: fig. .--huitzilopochtli (front).] [illustration: fig. .--huitzilopochtli (side).] these three were a trinity well nigh inseparable. it has been doubted whether they were not different attributes of the same personage. in the natural course of things the primitive idea would become differentiated into its parts, and in process of time the most important of the parts would each receive a separate pictorial representation. [illustration: fig. .--huitzilopochtli (back).[tn- ]] [illustration: fig. .--miclantecutli.] [illustration: fig. .--adoratorio.] by referring back a few pages the reader will find summarized the principal characteristics of the central american figure represented in fig. . he will also have noticed the remarkable agreement between the attributes of this figure and those contained in the cuts or in the descriptions of the mexican gods. thus-- i. the symbol of both was the cross. ii. fig. and fig. each have four hands.[ -*] iii. both have birds as symbols. it is difficult to regard the bird of fig. as a humming bird, as it more resembles the parrot, which, as is well known, was a symbol of some of the central american gods. its occurrence here in connection with the four arms fixes it, however, as the bird symbol of huitzilopochtli. in the _ms. troano_, plate xxxi (lower right-hand figure), we find this same personage with his two parrots, along with tlaloc, the god of rain. iv. the claws of the mexican statue may be symbolized by the spikes on the back of the birds in fig. , but these latter appear to me to relate rather to the fangs and teeth of the various crotalus heads of the statues. v. the mask, with tusks, of fig. , is the same as that at the top of fig. , where we see that they represent the teeth of a serpent, and not the tusks of an animal. this is shown by the forked tongue beneath. the three groups of four dots each on huitzilopochtli's statue are references to his relationship with tlaloc. with these main and striking duplications, and with other minor and corroborative resemblances, which the reader can see for himself, there is no doubt but that the two figures, mexican and yucatec, relate to the same personage. the yucatec figure combines several of the attributes of the various members of the mexican trinity named above, but we should not be surprised at this, for, as has been said, some writers consider that this trinity was one only of attributes and not of persons. what has been given above is sufficient to show that the personage represented in fig. is the yucatec equivalent of huitzilopochtli, and has relations to his trinity named at the head of this section, and also to the family of tlaloc. i am not aware that the relationship of the yucatec and aztec gods has been so directly shown, on evidence almost purely pictorial, and therefore free from a certain kind of bias. if the conclusions above stated are true, there will be many corroborations of them, and the most prominent of these i proceed to give, as it involves the explanation of one of the most important tablets of palenque, parts of which are shown in plates xxiv, lx, lxi, and lxii, vol. ii, of stephens. plate lxii, fig. , represents the "adoratorio or alta casa, no. " of palenque. this is nothing else than the temple of the god huitzilopochtli and of his equal, tlaloc. the god of war is shown on a larger scale in plate lxi, fig. , while tlaloc is given in plate lx, fig. , and the tablet inside the temple in plate xxiv, fig. . the resemblances of plate xxiv and of the palenque cross tablet and their meanings will be considered farther on. returning to plate lxii, the symbols of the roof and cornice refer to these two divinities. the faces at the ends of the cornice, with the double lines for eye and mouth, are unmistakable tlaloc signs. the association of the two gods in one temple, as at mexico, is a strong corroboration. let us now take plate lxi, fig. , which represents huitzilopochtli, or rather, the yucatec equivalent of this aztec god. i shall refer to him by the aztec appelation, but i shall in future write it in italics; and in general the yucatec equivalents of aztec personages in italics, and the aztec names in small capitals. compare fig. and the plate lxi (fig. ). as the two plates are before the reader, i need only point out the main resemblances, and, what is more important, the differences. the sandals, the belt, its front pendant, the bracelets, the neck ornament, the helmet, should be examined. the four hands of fig. are not in lxi, nor the parrots; but if we refer to kingsborough, vol. ii, plates and of the laud manuscript, we shall find figures of huitzilopochtli with a parrot, and of tlaloc with the stork with a fish in its mouth, as in the head-dress here. the prostrate figure of fig. is here led by a chain. at labphak (bancroft, vol. iv., p. ), he is held aloft in the air, and he is on what _may be_ a sacrificial yoke. the _tlaloc_ eagle is in the head of the staff carried in the hand. this eagle is found in the second line from the bottom of fig. , we may remark in passing. notice also the crescent moon in the ornament back of the shoulders of the personage of fig. . the twisted cords which form the bottom of this ornament are in the hieroglyph no. , plate xxiv (fig. ). turning now to plate lx (fig. ). this i take to be the sorcerer _tlaloc_. he is blowing the wind from his mouth; he has the eagle in his head-dress, the jaw with grinders, the peculiar eye, the four tlaloc dots over his ear and on it, the snake between his legs, curved in the form of a yoke (this is known to be a serpent by the conventional crotalus signs of jaw and rattles on it in nine places), the four tlaloc dots again in his head-dress, etc. he has a leopard skin on his back (the tiger was the earth in mexico) and his naked feet have peculiar anklets which should be noticed. although i am deferring the examination of the hieroglyphs to a later section, the _chiffre_ should be noticed. it is the tlaloc eye again, and is the _chiffre_ of the mexican gods of hell. [illustration: fig. .--maya war god.] [illustration: fig. .--maya rain god.] in passing i may just refer the reader to p. , vol. ii, of stephens' book on yucatan, where a figure occurring at labphax is given. this i take to be the same as _huitzilopochtli_ of plate lxi. also in the ms. _troano_, published by brasseur de bourbourg, a figure in plate xxv and in other plates sits on a hieroglyph like , and is _tlaloc_. this is known by the head-dress, the teeth, the air-trumpet, the serpent symbol, etc. in plates xxviii, xxxi, and xxxiii of the same work huitzilopochtli and tlaloc are represented together, in various adventures. [illustration: fig. .--tablet at palenque.] in plate lx (fig. ) notice also the _chiffre_ on the tassels before and behind the main personage. now turn to the plate xxiv (fig. ), which is the main object in the "adoratorio" (fig. ), where the human figures serve as flankers. first examine the caryatides who support the central structure. these are _tlalocs_. each has an eagle over his face, is clothed in leopard skin, has the characteristic eye and teeth, and the wristlets of plate lx (fig. ). a vertical line through the center of plate xxiv (fig. ) would separate the figures and ornaments into two groups. these groups are very similar, but never identical, and this holds good down to the minutest particulars and is not the result of accident. one side (the right-hand) belongs to _tlaloc_, the other to _huitzilopochtli_. the right-hand priest (let us call him, simply for a name and not to commit ourselves to a theory) has the sandals of plate lxi; the left-hand priest the anklets of plate lx. the beast on which the first stands and the man who supports the other are both marked with the tassel symbol of plate lx. there is a certain rude resemblance between the supplementary head of this beast and the pendant in front of the belt of fig. . four of these beasts supply rain to the earth with _tlaloc_ in plate xxvi of the ms. _troano_. the infant offered by the right-hand priest has the _two_ curls on his forehead which was a necessary mark of the victims for tlaloc's sacrifices. the center of the whole plate is a horrid mask with an open mouth. behind this are two staves with _different_ ornaments crossed in the form of the air-cross. on either hand of this the ornaments are different though similar. a curious resemblance may be traced between the positions, etc., of these two staves and those of the figure on p. , vol. iv, of bancroft's _native races_, which is a mexican stone. again, this latter figure has at its upper right-hand corner a crouching animal (?) very similar to the gateway ornament given in the same volume, p. . this last is at palenque. i quote these two examples in passing simply to reinforce the idea of similarity between the sacred sculptures of yucatan and mexico. i take it that the examination of which i have sketched the details will have left no doubt but that the personage of fig. is truly _huitzilopochtli_, the yucatec representative of huitzilopochtli; that plate lxi (fig. ) is the same personage; that plate lx (fig. ) represents tlaloc; and that plate xxiv (fig. ) is a tablet relating to the service of these two gods. i have previously shown that the palenque hieroglyphs are read in order from left to right. we should naturally expect, then, that the sign for _tlaloc_ or for _huitzilopochtli_ would occupy the upper left-hand corner of plate xxiv. in fact it does, and i was led to this discovery in the way i have indicated. no. is the palenque manner of writing the top sign of fig. . i shall call the signs of fig. _a_, _b_, _c_, etc., in order downwards. the crouching face in _a_ occupies the lower central part of no. . notice also that this face occurs below the small cross in the detached ornament to the left of the central mask of fig. . the crescent moon of plate lxi (fig. ) is on its cheek; back of this is the sun-sign; the cross of _a_ is just above its eye; the three signs for the celestial concave are at the top of , crossed with rain bands; the three seeds (?) are below these. the feathers are in the lower right-hand two-thirds. this is the sign or part of the sign for _huitzilopochtli_. if a maya indian had seen either of these signs a few centuries ago, he would have had the successive ideas--a war-god, with a feather-symbol, related to sun and moon, to fertilizing rain and influences, to clouds and seed; that is _huitzilopochtli_, the companion of _tlaloc_. or if he had seen the upper left-hand symbol of the palenque cross tablet ( ), he would have had _related_ ideas, and so on. what i have previously said about the faithfulness with which the yucatec artist adhered to his prototypes in signs is perfectly true, although apparently partly contradicted by the identification i have just made. when a given attribute of a god (or other personage) was to be depicted, the _chiffres_ expressing this were marvellously alike. witness the _chiffres_ nos. , , , , , , , of the palenque cross tablet. but directly afterwards some other attribute is to be brought out, and the _chiffre_ changes; thus the hieroglyph of plate liv, or , plate lii, has the same protruding tongue as , etc., and is the same personage, but the style is quite changed. in fig. , _huitzilopochtli_ is the war-god, in plate xxiv he is the rain-god's companion; and while every attribute is accounted for, prominence is given to the special ones worshipped or celebrated. scores of instances of this have arisen in the course of my examination. again, we must remember that this was no source of ambiguity to the yucatecs, however much it may be to us. each one of them, and specially each officiating priest, was entirely familiar with every attribute of every god of the yucatec pantheon. the sign of the attribute brought the idea of the power of the god in that special direction; the full idea of his divinity was the integral of all these special ideas. the limits were heaven and earth. this, then, is the first step. i consider that it is securely based, and that we may safely say that in proper names, at least, a kind of picture writing was used which was _not_ phonetic. from this point we may go on. i must again remark that great familiarity with the literature of the aztecs and yucatecs is needed--a familiarity to which i personally cannot pertend[tn- ]--and that it is clear that the method to reach its full success must be applied by a true scholar in this special field. ix. tlaloc, or his maya representative. although there is no personage of all the maya pantheon more easy to recognize in the form of a _statue_ than _tlaloc_, there is great difficulty in being certain of _all_ the hieroglyphs which relate to him. there is every reason to believe that in yucatan, as in mexico, there was a family of rain-gods, _tlalocs_, and the distinguishing signs of the several members are almost impossible of separation, so long as we know so little of the special functions of each member of this family. in yucatan, as in mexico, _tlaloc's_ main sign was a double line about the eye or mouth, or about both; and further, some of the _tlalocs_, at least, were bearded.[ -*] cukulcan was also bearded, but we have separated out in the next section the _chiffres_, or certainly most of them, that relate to him. those that are left remain to be distributed among the family of rain-gods; and this, as i have said, can only be done imperfectly, on account of our slight knowledge of the character of these gods. if we examine the plates given by stephens, we shall find many pictorial allusions to _tlaloc_. these are often used as mere ornaments or embellishments, as in borders, etc., and probably served only to notify, in a general way, the fact of the relationship of the personage represented, to this family, and probably not to convey any specific meaning. thus, in plate xxxv of stephens' work the upper left-hand ornament of the border is a head of _tlaloc_ with double lines about eye and mouth, and this ornament is repeated in a different form at the lower right-hand corner of the border just back of the right hand of the sitting figure, and also in the base of the border below the feet of the principal figure. plate xlviii (of stephens') is probably chalchihuitlicue (that is, the yucatec equivalent of that goddess), who was the sister of _tlaloc_. his sign occurs in the upper left-hand corner of the border, and in plate xlix the same sign occurs in a corresponding position. plate xxiv (our fig. ) is full of _tlaloc_ signs. the bottom of the tablet has a hieroglyph, (_huitzilopochtli_), at one end and (_tlaloc_) at the other. the leopard skin, eagle, and the crouching tiger (?) under the feet of the priest of _tlaloc_ (the right-hand figure) are all given. the infant (?) offered by this priest has two locks of curled hair at its forehead, as was prescribed for children offered to this god. in plate lvi (our fig. ) the mask at the foot of the cross is a human mask, and not a serpent mask, as has been ingeniously proved by dr. harrison allen in his paper so often quoted. it is the mask of _tlaloc_, as shown by the teeth and corroborated (not proved) by the way in which the eye is expressed. the curved hook within the eyeball here, as in , stands for the air--the wind--of which _tlaloc_ was also god. the mexicans had a similar sign for breath, message. the _chiffre_ , on which _huitzilopochtli's_ priest is standing, i believe to be the synonym of in plate xxiv. just in front of _tlaloc's_ priest is a sacrificial yoke (?), at the top of which is a face, with the eye of the _tlalocs_, and various decorations. this face is to be found also at the lower left-hand corner of plate xli (of stephens'), and also (?) in the same position in plate xlii (of stephens'). these will serve as subjects for further study. notice in plate lvi (our fig. ) how the ornaments in corresponding positions on either side of the central line are similar, yet never the same. a careful study of these pairs will show how the two gods celebrated, differed. a large part, at least, of the attributes of each god is recorded in this way by antithesis. i have not made enough progress in this direction to make the very few conclusions of which i am certain worth recording. the general fact of such an antithesis is obvious when once it is pointed out, and it is in just such paths as this that advances must be looked for. i have just mentioned, in this rapid survey of the plates of vol. ii of stephens' work, the principal pictorial signs relating to _tlaloc_. there are a number almost equally well marked in vol. i, in plates vii, ix, x, xiii, and xv, but they need not be described. those who are especially interested can find them for themselves. the following brief account and plate of a _tlaloc_ inscription at kabah will be useful for future use, and is the more interesting as it is comparatively unknown. _inscription at kabah (yucatan)._ this hitherto unpublished inscription on a rock at kabah is given in _archives paléographiques_, vol. i, part ii, plate . it deserves attention on account of its resemblances, but still more on account of its differences, with certain other yucatec glyphs. we may first compare it with the plate lx of stephens (our fig. ). the head-dress in plate is quite simple, and presents no resemblance to the elaborate gear of plate lx, in which the ornament of a leaf (?), or more probably feather, cross-hatched at the end and divided symmetrically by a stem (?) or quill about which four dots are placed, seems characteristic. _possibly_, and only possibly, the square in the rear of the head of plate , which has two cross-hatchings, may refer to the elaborate cross-hatchings in plate lx. the four dots are found twice, once in front and once in rear of the figure. the heads of the two figures have only one resemblance, but this is a very important one. the tusks belong to huitzilopochtli and to his trinity, and specially to tlaloc, his companion. both plate and lx have the serpent wand or yoke clearly expressed. in lx the serpent is decorated with crotalus heads; in by images of the sun (?), as in the ferjavary ms. (kingsborough). the front apron or ornament of plate is of snake skin, ornamented with sun-symbols. comparing plate with fig. (_ante_), we find quite other resemblances. the head-dress of is the same as the projecting arm of the head-dress of fig. ; and the tusks are found in the helmet or mask of fig. . these and other resemblances show the kabah inscription to be a tlaloc. it is interesting specially on account of its hieroglyphs, which i hope to examine subsequently. the style of this writing appears to be late, and may serve as a connecting link between the stones and the manuscripts, and it is noteworthy that even the style of the drawing itself seems to be in the manner of the mexican ms. of laud, rather than in that of the palenque stone tablets. from the card catalogue i select the following _chiffres_ as appertaining to the family of the _tlalocs_. as i have said, these must for the present remain in a group, unseparated. future studies will be necessary to discriminate between the special signs which relate to special members of the family. the _chiffres_ are nos. ; ; ; ; ?; ?; ??; _b_?; (bearded faces, or faces with teeth very prominent); ?; ??; ?; ?; ?; ; ?; ?; ?; ; ; ?; ??; ?? (distinguished by the characteristic eye of the tlalocs). here, again, the writing is ideographic, and not phonetic. x. cukulcan or quetzalcoatl. the character occurs many times in plate lvi (fig. ), and occasionally elsewhere. the personage represented is distinguished by having a protruding tongue, and was therefore at once suspected to be quetzalcoatl. (see bancroft's _native races_, vol. iii, p. .) the protruding tongue is probably a reference to his introduction of the sacrificial acts performed by wounding that member. the rest of the sign i suppose to be the rebus of his name, "snake-plumage"; the part cross-hatched being "snake," the feather-like ornament at the upper left-hand corner being "plumage." it is necessary, however, to prove this before accepting the theory. to do this i had recourse to plates i and iv (figs. , ), my dictionary of synonyms. this _cross-hatching_ occurs in plate i. in the six tassels below the waist, where the cross-hatching _might_ indicate the serpent skin, notice the ends of the tassels; these are in a scroll-like form, and as if rolled or coiled tip. in plate iv they are the same, naturally. so far there is but little light. in plate iv, just above each wrist, is a sign composed of ellipse and bars; a little above each of these signs, among coils which may be serpent coils, and on the horizontal line through the top of the necklace pendant, are two surfaces cross-hatched all over. what do these mean? referring to plate i, we find, in exactly the same relative situation, the forked tongue and the rattles of the crotalus. these are, then, synonyms, and the _guess_ is confirmed. the cross-hatching means serpent-skin. is this _always_ so? we must examine other plates to decide. the same ornament is found in plates ix, xiv, xvi, xviii, xix, xx, xxi, xxxv (of stephens'), but its situation does not allow us to gain any additional light. in plate xii (stephens') none of the ornaments below the belt will help us. at the level of the mouth are four patches of it. take the upper right-hand one of these. immediately to its right is a serpent's head; below the curve and above the frog's (?) head are the rattles. here is another confirmation. in plate xviii i refer the cross-hatching to the jaw of the crocodile. in plate xxii i have numbered the _chiffres_ as follows: . . * * * * * * * * * * * * . has the cross-hatching at its top, and to its left in is the serpent's head. the same is true in - . in we have the same symbol that we are trying to interpret; it is in its perfect form here and in no. of the palenque series. in the caryatides of plate xxiv (fig. ) the cross-hatching is included in the spots of the leopard's skin; in the ornaments at the base, in and near the masks which, they are supporting, it is again serpent skin. take the lower mask; its jaws, forked-tongue, and teeth prove it to be a serpent-mask, as well as the ornament just above it. in plate lx (fig. ) it is to be noticed that the leopard spots are not cross-hatched, but that this ornament is given at the lower end of the leopard robe, which ends moreover in a crotalus tongue marked with the sign of the jaw (near the top of this ornament) and of the rattles (near the bottom). this again confirms the theory of the rebus meaning of the cross-hatching. in plate xxiv (fig. ) the cross-hatching on the leopard spots probably is meant to _add_ the serpent attribute to the leopard symbol, and not simply to denote the latter. thus an examination of the _whole_ of the material available, shows that the preceding half of the hieroglyph and its congeners is nothing but the _rebus_ for quetzalcoatl, or rather for cukulcan, the maya name for this god. brasseur de bourbourg, as quoted in bancroft's _native races_, vol. ii, p. , foot note, says cukulcan, comes from _kuk_ or _kukul_, a bird, which appears to be the same as the _quetzal_, and from _can_, serpent; so that cukulcan in maya is the same as quetzalcoatl in aztec. it is to be noticed how checks on the accuracy of any deciphering of hieroglyphs occur at every point, if we will only use them. the maya equivalents of huitzilopochtli and tlaloc are undoubtedly buried in the _chiffres_ already deciphered, but we have no means of getting their names in maya from the rebus of the _chiffres_. in the cases of these two gods we got the _chiffre_, and the rebus is still to seek. in the case of _quetzalcoatl_ or cukulcan, the rebus was the means of getting the name; and if the names of this divinity had not been equivalent in the two tongues, our results would have led us to the (almost absurd) conclusion that a god of certain attributes was called by his aztec name in the maya nations. thus every correct conclusion confirms every former one and is a basis for subsequent progress. the results of this analysis are that the maya god cukulcan is named in each one of the following _chiffres_, viz: nos. , , , , , , , , , , , , ?, ? ?? i give the numbers in the order in which they are arranged in the card-catalogue. there is, of course, a reason for this order. bancroft, vol. iii, p. , says of quetzalcoatl that "his symbols were the bird, the serpent, the cross, and the flint, representing the clouds, the lightning, the four winds, and the thunderbolt." we shall find all of his titles except one, the bird, in what follows. we must notice here that in the _chiffre_ and its congeners the bird appears directly over the head of cukulcan. it is plainly shown in the heliotype which accompanies professor rau's work on the palenque cross, though not so well in our fig. . in what has gone before, we have seen that the characters , , , , , , etc., present the portrait and the rebus of cukulcan. it will not be forgotten that in the examination of the question as to the order in which the stone inscriptions were read we found a number of _pairs_ in plate lvi, fig. ; the characters , etc., being one member of each. the other members of the pairs in the plate lvi were , , , , , etc. - is another example of the same pair elsewhere. i hoped to find that the name cukulcan, or , was associated in these pairs with some adjective or verb, and therefore examined the other members of the pair. in a case like this the card-catalogue is of great assistance; for example, i wish to examine here the _chiffres_ nos. , , , , , etc. in the catalogue their cards occur in the same compartment, arranged so that two cards that are exactly alike are contiguous. we can often know that two _chiffres_ are alike when one is in a far better state of preservation than the other. hence we may select for study that one in which the lines and figures are best preserved; or from several characters known to be alike, and of which no one is entirely perfect, we may construct with accuracy the type upon which they were founded. in this case the hieroglyph is well preserved (see the right-hand side of plate lvi, fig. , the upper left-hand glyph). it consists of a _human hand_, with the symbol of the _sun_ in it; above this is a sign similar to that of the maya day _ymix_; above this again, in miniature, is the rebus "snake plumage" or _cukulcan_; and to the left of the hieroglyph are some curved lines not yet understood. no. of the same plate is also well preserved. it has the hand as in , the rebus also, and the sign for _ymix_ is slightly different, being modified with a sign like the top of a cross, the symbol of the _four winds_. the symbol _ymix_ may be seen, by a reference to plate xxvii (lower half) of the ms. _troano_, to relate to the _rain_. the figure of that plate is pouring rain upon the earth from the orifices represented by _ymix_. the cross of the _four winds_ is still more plain in nos. , , and . the part of this symbol and its synonyms which consists of curved lines occupying the left hand one-third of the whole _chiffre_ occurs only in this set of characters, and thus i cannot say _certainly_ what this particular part of the hieroglyph means; but if the reader will glance back over the last one hundred lines he will find that these _chiffres_ contain the _rebus_ cukulcan, the sign of a _human hand_, of the _sun_, of the _rain_, and of the _four winds_. in bancroft's _native races_, vol. iii, chapter vii, we find that the titles of quetzalcoatl (cukulcan) were the _air_, the _rattlesnake_, the _rumbler_ (in allusion to thunder), the _strong hand_, the lord of the _four winds_. the bird symbol exists in , etc. now in and its congeners we have found every one of these titles, save only that relating to the _thunder_. and we have found a meaning for every part of the hieroglyph save only one, viz, the left-hand one-third, consisting of concentric half ellipses or circles. it may be said to be quite _probable_ that the unexplained part of the sign ( ) corresponds to the unused title, "the rumbler." but it is not rigorously proved, although very probable. the thunder would be well represented by repeating the sign for sky or heaven. this much seems to me certain. the sign is but another summing up of the attributes and titles of cukulcan. gave his portrait, his bird symbol, made allusion to his institution of the sacrifice of wounding the tongue, and spelled out his name in rebus characters. repeats his name as a rebus and adds the titles of lord of the four winds, of the sun, of rain, of the strong hand, etc. it is his biography, as it were. in this connection, a passing reference to the characters , etc., , etc., , etc., , etc., , etc., of the left-hand side of plate lvi should be made. among these, all the titles named above are to be found. these are suitable subjects for future study. we now see _why_ the pair , occurs so many times in plate lvi, and again as , , etc. the right-hand half of this tablet has much to say of cukulcan, and whenever his name is mentioned a brief list of his titles accompanies it. although it is disappointing to find _both_ members of this well-marked pair to be proper names, yet it is gratifying to see that the theory of pairs, on which the proof of the order in which the tablets are to be read must rest, has received such unexpected confirmation. to conclude the search for the hieroglyphs of cukulcan's name, it will be necessary to collect all those faces with "_round_ beards" (see bancroft's _native races_, vol. iii, p. ). tlaloc was also bearded, but all the historians refer to quetzalcoatl as above cited. i refer hieroglyphs nos. , ?, ?, and ? to this category. perhaps also the sign no. is the sign of quetzalcoatl, as something very similar to it is given as his sign in the _codex telleriano remensis_, kingsborough, vol. i, plates i, ii, and v (plate i the best), where he wears it at his waist. in plate lxiii of stephens (vol. ii) is a small figure of cukulcan which, he calls "bas relief on tablet." waldeck gives a much larger drawing (incorrect, however, in many details), in which the figure, the "beau relief," is seen to wear bracelets high up on the arm. this was a distinguishing sign of quetzalcoatl (see bancroft's _native races_, vol. iii, pp. and ), and this figure probably is a representation of the maya divinity. he is on a stool with tigers for supports. the tiger belongs to the attributes which he had in common with tlaloc, and we see again the intimate connection of these divinities--a connection often pointed out by brasseur de bourbourg. this is the third proper name which has been deciphered. all of them have been pure picture-writing, except in so far as their rebus character may make them in a sense phonetic. xi. comparison of the signs of the maya months (landa) with the tablets. we have a set of signs for maya months and days handed down to us by landa along with his phonetic alphabet. _a priori_ these are more likely to represent the primitive forms as carved in stone than are the alphabetic hieroglyphs, which may well have been invented by the spaniards to assist the natives to memorize religious formulæ.[ -*] brasseur de bourbourg has analyzed the signs for the day and month in his publication on the ms. _troano_, and the strongest arguments which can be given for their phonetic origin are given by him. i have made a set of ms. copies of these signs and included them in my card-catalogue, and have carefully compared them with the tablets xxiv and lvi. my results are as follows: plate xxiv (our fig. ). no. is the maya month _pop_, beginning july . no. is _zip_??, beginning august . no. is _tzoz_??, beginning september . no. is _tzec_? beginning october . no. - is _mol_?, beginning december . no. is _yax_, _zac_, or _ceh_, beginning january , february , february , respectively. plate lvi (our fig. ). no. is _uo_???? no. is _zip_???? no. is _tzoz_?? no. is _tzec_? no. is _mol_? no. is _yax_, _zac_, or _ceh_. no. is _mac_? the only sign about which there is little or no doubt is no. , which seems pretty certainly to be the sign of the maya month _pop_, which began july . no. , just above it, seems also to be _one_ of the months _yax_, _zac_, or _ceh_, which began on january , february , and february , respectively. which one of these it corresponds to must be settled by other means than a direct comparison. the signs given by landa for these three months all contain the same radical as no. , but it is impossible to decide with entire certainty to which it corresponds. it, however, most nearly resembles the sign for _zac_ (february ); and it is noteworthy that it was precisely in this month that the greatest feast of tlaloc took place,[ -*] and its presence in this tablet, which relates to _tlaloc_, is especially interesting. in connection with the counting of time, a reference to the bottom part of the _chiffre_ of the palenque cross tablet should be made. this is a _knot_ tied up in a string or scarf; and we know this to have been the method of expressing the expiration and completion of a cycle of years. it occurs just above the symbol , the _chiffre_ for a metal. an examination of the original stone in the national museum, washington, which is now in progress, has already convinced me that the methods which i have described in the preceding pages promise other interesting confirmations of the results i have reached. for the time, i must leave the matter in its present state. i think i am justified in my confidence that suitable methods of procedure have been laid down, and that certain important results have already been reached. i do not believe that the conclusions stated will be changed, but i am confident that a rich reward will be found by any competent person who will continue the study of these stones. the proper names now known will serve as points of departure, and it is probable that some research will give us the signs for verbs or adjectives connected with them. it is an immense step to have rid ourselves of the phonetic or alphabetic idea, and to have found the manner in which the maya mind represented attributes and ideas. their method was that of all nations at the origin of written language; that is, pure picture-writing. at copan this is found in its earliest state; at palenque it was already highly conventionalized. the step from the palenque character to that used in the kabah inscription is apparently not greater than the step from the latter to the various manuscripts. an important research would be the application of the methods so ably applied by dr. allen to tracing the evolution of the latter characters from their earlier forms. in this way it will be possible to extend our present knowledge materially. footnotes: [ -*] the life form in art, trans. amer. phil. soc., vol. xv, , p. . [ -*] from kingsborough, vol. i, plate , it appears that tlacli tonatio may have had four hands. his name meant (?) let there be light. [ -*] see kingsborough, vol. ii, plate i, of the laud ms. [ -*] since this was written i have seen a paper by dr. valentini, "the landa alphabet a spanish fabrication" (read before the american antiquarian society, april , ), and the conclusions of that paper seem to me to be undoubtedly correct. they are the same as those just given, but while my own were reached by a study of the stones and in the course of a general examination, dr. valentini has addressed himself successfully to the solution of a special problem. [ -*] see brasseur de bourbourg, _histoire du mexique_, vol. i, p. . index allen, dr harrison , , , bancroft, h. h., huitzilopochtli, description of , maya hieroglyphics, mode of reading band, g. h. braam, s. a. van brasseur de bourbourg, c. e. , , , card catalogue of hieroglyphs chalchihuitlicue codex telleriano remensis copan, statues of , , , , , cortez, h. cuculkan. (_see_ quetzalcoatl.) deciphering, principles of desaix, le capitaine herrera hieratic art hieroglyphs are read in a certain order huitzilopochtli , , , , , , , , , , kingsborough, lord landa, bishop , landa's hieroglyphic alphabet leemans, dr leon y gama lockwood, miss mary manuscript troano miclantecutli , months, their hieroglyphs ms. troano müller, j. g., mexican gods naolin nomenclature , palenque, statues of , , - , quetzalcoatl , , , , , , rau, dr stephens, john l. - teoyaomiqui tetzcatlipoca tlaloc , , , - , , torquemada touatihu troano, manuscript valentini variank waldeck , transcriber's note tn- cotemporaries should read contemporaries tn- the the should read the tn- maya day should read maya day. tn- coindences should read coincidences tn- synonomous should read synonymous tn- cuculkan should read cukulcan tn- blue globe. should read blue globe." tn- tezcatlipoca should read tetzcatlipoca tn- fig. huitzilopochtli should read huitzilopochtli tn- pertend should read pretend the following word was inconsistently spelled: labphak / labphax the following phrase had inconsistent use of italics and capitalization: _ms. troano_ / _ms. troano_ / ms. _troano_ proofreading team. library of aboriginal american literature. no. viii. edited by d.g. brinton [illustration: xippe totec, god of silversmiths, in full costume. hymn xv.] brinton's library of aboriginal american literature. number viii. rig veda americanus. sacred songs of the ancient mexicans, with a gloss in nahuatl. edited, with a paraphrase, notes and vocabulary, by daniel g. brinton preface. in accordance with the general object of this series of volumes--which is to furnish materials for study rather than to offer completed studies--i have prepared for this number the text of the most ancient authentic record of american religious lore. from its antiquity and character, i have ventured to call this little collection the rig veda americanus, after the similar cyclus of sacred hymns, which are the most venerable product of the aryan mind. as for my attempted translation of these mystic chants i offer it with the utmost reserve. it would be the height of temerity in me to pretend to have overcome difficulties which one so familiar with the ancient nahuatl as father sahagun intimated were beyond his powers. all that i hope to have achieved is, by the aid of the gloss--and not always in conformity to its suggestions--to give a general idea of the sense and purport of the originals. the desirability of preserving and publishing these texts seems to me to be manifest. they reveal to us the undoubtedly authentic spirit of the ancient religion; they show us the language in its most archaic form; they preserve references to various mythical cycli of importance to the historian; and they illustrate the alterations in the spoken tongue adopted in the esoteric dialect of the priesthood. such considerations will, i trust, attract the attention of scholars to these fragments of a lost literature. in the appended vocabulary i have inserted only those words and expressions for which i can suggest correct--or, at least, probable--renderings. others will have to be left to future investigators. contents. preface introduction i. hymn of huitzilopochtli ii. war song of the huitznahuac iii. hymn of tlaloc iv. hymn to the all-mother v. hymn to the virgin mother vi. hymn to the god of fire vii. hymn of mixcoatl viii. hymn to the god of flowers ix. hymn to the goddess of artists x. hymn to the god of fishing xi. hymn of the otomi leader xii. hymn to the goddess of childbirth xiii. hymn to the mother of mortals xiv. hymn sung at a fast every eight years xv. hymn to a night god xvi. hymn to the goddess of food xvii. hymn to the gods of wine xviii. hymn to the master of waters xix. hymn to the god of flowers xx. hymn to the god of merchants glossary index list of illustrations. xippe totec, god of silversmiths, in full costume, frontispiece priest of xippe totec, drinking and playing on a drum, hymn xv chicomecoatl, goddess of food and drink, hymn xvi totochtin, the rabbits, gods of the drunkards, hymn xvii atlaua, singing and dancing, hymn xviii introduction. as in a previous number of the library of aboriginal american literature i have discussed in detail the character of the ancient mexican poetry, i shall confine myself at present to the history of the present collection. we owe its preservation to the untiring industry of father bernardino de sahagun, one of the earliest missionaries to mexico, and the author of by far the most important work on the religion, manners and customs of the ancient mexicans. by long residence and close application sahagun acquired a complete mastery of the nahuatl tongue. he composed his celebrated _historia de las cosas de la nueva españa_ primarily in the native language, and from this original wrote out a spanish translation, in some parts considerably abbreviated. this incomplete reproduction is that which was published in spanish by lord kingsborough and bustamente, and in a french rendering with useful notes by dr. jourdanet and m. rémi simeon. so far as i know, the only complete copy of the nahuatl original now in existence is that preserved in the bibliotheca laurentio-mediceana in florence, where i examined it in april, . it is a most elaborate and beautiful ms., in three large volumes, containing thirteen hundred and seventy-eight illustrations, carefully drawn by hand, mostly colored, illustrative of the native mythology, history, arts and usages, besides many elaborate head and tail pieces to the chapters. there is another nahuatl ms. of sahagun's history in the private library of the king of spain at madrid, which i examined in may, , and of which i published a collation in the _mémoires de la sociétè internationale des américanistes_, for that year. it is incomplete, embracing only the first six books of the _historia_, and should be considered merely as a _borrador_ or preliminary sketch for the florentine copy. it contains, however, a certain amount of material not included in the latter, and has been peculiarly useful to me in the preparation of the present volume, as not only affording another reading of the text, valuable for comparison, but as furnishing a gloss or nahuatl paraphrase of most of the hymns, which does not appear in the florentine ms. as evidently the older of the two, i have adopted the readings of the madrid ms. as my text, and given the variants of the florentine ms. at the end of each hymn. neither ms. attempts any translation of the hymns. that at madrid has no spanish comment whatever, while that at florence places opposite the hymns the following remarks, which are also found in the printed copies, near the close of the appendix of the second book of the _historia_:-- "it is an old trick of our enemy the devil to try to conceal himself in order the better to compass his ends, in accordance with the words of the gospel, 'he whose deeds are evil, shuns the light.' also on earth this enemy of ours has provided himself with a dense wood and a ground, rough and filled with abysses, there to prepare his wiles and to escape pursuit, as do wild beasts and venomous serpents. this wood and these abysses are the songs which he has inspired for his service to be sung in his honor within the temples and outside of them; for they are so artfully composed that they say what they will, but disclose only what the devil commands, not being rightly understood except by those to whom they are addressed. it is, in fact, well recognized that the cave, wood or abysses in which this cursed enemy hides himself, are these songs or chants which he himself composed, and which are sung to him without being understood except by those who are acquainted with this sort of language. the consequence is that they sing what they please, war or peace, praise to the devil or contempt for christ, and they cannot in the least be understood by other men." lord kingsborough says in a note in his voluminous work on the _antiquities of mexico_ that this portion of sahagun's text was destroyed by order of the inquisition, and that there was a memorandum to that effect in the spanish original in the noble writer's possession. this could scarcely have referred to a translation of the hymns, for none such exists in any ms. i have consulted, or heard of; and sahagun intimates in the passage quoted above that he had made none, on account of the obscurity of the diction. neither does any appear in the florentine ms., where the text of the hymns is given in full, although the explanatory gloss is omitted. this last-mentioned fact has prevented me from correcting the text of the gloss, which in some passages is manifestly erroneous; but i have confined myself to reproducing it strictly according to the original ms., leaving its correction to those who will make use of it. the florentine ms. has five colored illustrations of the divinities, or their symbols, which are spoken of in the chants. these are probably copied from the native hieroglyphic books in which, as we learn from sahagun, such ancient songs were preserved and transmitted. these illustrations i had copied with scrupulous fidelity and reproduced by one of the photographic processes, for the present work. such is the history of this curious document, and with this brief introduction i submit it to those who will have the patience and skill to unravel its manifold difficulties. rig veda americana i. _vitzilopochtli icuic._ . vitzilopuchi, yaquetlaya, yyaconay, ynohuihuihuia: anenicuic, toçiquemitla, yya, ayya, yya y ya uia, queyanoca, oya tonaqui, yyaya, yya, yya. . tetzauiztli ya mixtecatl, ce ymocxi pichauaztecatla pomaya, ouayyeo, ayyayya. . ay tlaxotla tenamitl yuitli macoc mupupuxotiuh, yautlatoa ya, ayyayyo, noteuh aya tepanquizqui mitoaya. . oya yeua uel mamauia, in tlaxotecatl teuhtla milacatzoaya, itlaxotecatl teuhtla milacatzoaya. . amanteca toyauan xinechoncentlalizquiuia ycalipan yauhtiua, xinechoncentlalizqui. . pipiteca toyauan xinechoncentlalizquiuia: ycalipan, yautiua, xinechoncentlalizqui. _var._ . this verse is omitted in the medicean ms. _gloss._ . in ivitzilopochtli ayac nouiui, _id est_, ayac nechneneuilia, ayac iuhqui, in iuhqui. anenicuic, _id est_, amo ca nen nonicuic, in quetzali, in chalchihuitl in ixquich ynotlatqui, toçiquemitl. queyanoca oya tonaqui, _id est_, onocatonat, onocatlatuit. . _q.n._, tetzauiztli, _id est_, oquintetzauito, in mixteca inic oquiyaochiuhqui: oquimanilito in imicxi in pichauazteca, ioan in mixteca. . ay tlaxotla tenamitl, _q.n._, quitepeua inin tena in aquique yauchiuallo. iuitli macoc, _q.n._, oncan quitema in tiçatl in ihuitl. mopopuxotiuh yauhtlatuaya, _q.n._, inic mopopuxoticalaqui yauc, ioan, _q.n._, yeuatl quitemaca y yauyutl quitemaceualtia, tepanquizqui, mitoayaqui yehuatl quichioa yauyutl. . oya yeua huel mamauia, _q.n._, çan oc momamauhtiaya in aya momochiua yauyutl. teuhtla milacatzoaya _q.n._, in noteuh in opeuh yauyutl, aocac momauhtica iniquac ynoteuhtli moquetza ynoteuhtica tlayoa(lli). . amanteca toyauan, _q.n._, yn iyaoan yn aquique in cani omocentlalique ca in calipan in yautioa ca tlatlaz ynin cal. . pipiteca, toyaoan, xinechoncentlalizque, _q.n._, in pipiteca y yaoan mochiuhque. yn calla in mochiua yauyutl in i calipan. _translation._ _the hymn of huitzilopochtli._ . huitzilopochtli is first in rank, no one, no one is like unto him: not vainly do i sing (his praises) coming forth in the garb of our ancestors; i shine; i glitter. . he is a terror to the mixteca; he alone destroyed the picha-huasteca, he conquered them. . the dart-hurler is an example to the city, as he sets to work. he who commands in battle is called the representative of my god. . when he shouts aloud he inspires great terror, the divine hurler, the god turning himself in the combat, the divine hurler, the god turning himself in the combat. . amanteca, gather yourselves together with me in the house of war against your enemies, gather yourselves together with me. . pipiteca, gather yourselves together with me in the house of war against your enemies, gather yourselves together with me. _notes._ huitzilopochtli was the well-known war-god of the azteca, whose functions are described by sahagun (_historia_, lib. i., cap. ) and many other writers. the hymn here given is probably the _tlaxotecuyotl_, which was chanted at the celebration of his feast in the fifteenth month of the mexican calendar (see sahagun, _historia_, lib. ii., cap. ). the word means "his glory be established." it was commenced at sunset and repeated till sunrise. . "in the garb of our ancestors" (_to-citli-quemitl_). the high priest appeared in the insignia of quetzalcoatl, which, says sahagun, "were very gorgeous." (_hist._, lib. ii., appendix.) . mixteca, plural of mixtecatl, an inhabitant of mixtecapan, near the pacific. the huasteca, a nation of maya lineage, lived on the gulf coast. . the god was called the hurler, as he was believed to hurl the lightning serpent (the _xiuhcoatl_). . sahagun recites the legends about the amanteca (_historia_, lib. ix., cap. ). here the name refers to the inhabitants of the quarter called amantlan. . _pipiteca_, a _nomen gentile_, referring doubtless to a certain class of the hearers. this hymn may be compared to another, descriptive of the same divinity, preserved in sahagun's ms. in madrid. it is as follows, with my translation by its side. vitzilopuchtli huitzilopochtli, can maceualli only a subject, can tlacatl catca. only a mortal was. naualli a magician, tetzauitl a terror, atlacacemelle a stirrer of strife, teixcuepani a deceiver, quiyocoyani in yaoyotl a maker of war, yautecani an arranger of battles, yautlatoani; a lord of battles; ca itechpa mitoaya and of him it was said tepan quitlaza that he hurled in xiuhcoatl his flaming serpent, immamalhuaztli his fire stick; quitoznequi yaoyotl which means war, teoatl tlachinolli. blood and burning; auh iniquac ilhuiq'xtililoya and when his festival was celebrated, malmicouaya captives were slain, tlaaltilmicoaya washed slaves were slain, tealtilaya impochteca. the merchants washed them. auh inic mochichiuaya: and thus he was arrayed: xiuhtotonacoche catca with head-dress of green feathers, xiuhcoanauale holding his serpent torch, xiuhtlalpile girded with a belt, matacaxe bracelets upon his arms, tzitzile wearing turquoises, oyuvale. as a master of messengers. when in florence, in , i had an accurate copy made of the nahuatl text and all the figures of the first book of sahagun's history. the colored figure of huitzilopochtli is in accordance with the above description. ii. _uitznaoac yautl icuic._ . ahuia tlacochcalco notequioa ayayui nocaquia tlacatl, ya nechyapinauia, ayaca nomati, nitetzauiztli, auia, ayaca nomati niya, yautla, aquitoloc tlacochcalco notequioa, iuexcatlatoa ay nopilchan. . ihiya quetl tocuilechcatl quauiquemitl nepapan oc uitzetla. . huia oholopa telipuchtla, yuiyoc yn nomalli, ye nimauia, ye nimauia, yuiyoc yn nomalli. . huia uitznauac telepochtla yuiyoc, yn nomalli, ye nimauia, ye nimauia yuiyoc, ynomalli. . huia ytzicotla telipochtla, yuiyoc, yn nomalli, ye nimauia, ye nimauia, yuiyoc yn nomalli. . uitznauac teuaqui, machiyotla tetemoya, ahuia oyatonac, yahuia oyatonac, machiyotla tetemoya. . tocuilitla teuaqui, machiyotla tetemoya, ahuia oyatonac, yahuia oyatonac uia, machiyotla tetemoya. _var._ . vitzanaoac teuhoaqui machiotla. _ms. med._ _the war song of the huitznahuac._ . what ho! my work is in the hall of arms, i listen to no mortal, nor can any put me to shame, i know none such, i am the terror, i know none other, i am where war is, my work is said to be in the hall of arms, let no one curse my children. . our adornment comes from out the south, it is varied in color as the clothing of the eagle. . ho! ho! abundance of youths doubly clothed, arrayed in feathers, are my captives, i deliver them up, i deliver them up, my captives arrayed in feathers. . ho! youths for the huitznahuac, arrayed in feathers, these are my captives, i deliver them up, i deliver them up, arrayed in feathers, my captives. . youths from the south, arrayed in feathers, my captives, i deliver them up, i deliver them up, arrayed in feathers, my captives. . the god enters, the huitznahuac, he descends as an example, he shines forth, he shines forth, descending as an example. . adorned like us he enters as a god, he descends as an example, he shines forth, he shines forth, descending as an example. _notes._ there is no gloss to this hymn, but its signification seems clear. _huitznahuac_ was a name applied to several edifices in the great temple at tenochtitlan, as we are informed at length by sahagun. the word is a locative from _huitznahua_. this term means "magicians from the south" or "diviners with thorns," and was applied in the quetzalcoatl mythical cyclus to the legendary enemies of huitzilopochtli, whom he is said to have destroyed as soon as he was born. (see my discussion of this myth in _proceedings of the american philosophical society_ for .) apparently to perpetuate the memory of this exploit, the custom was, at the festival of huitzilopochtli, for the slaves who were to be sacrificed to form two bands, one representing the huitznahua and the other the partisans of the god, and to slaughter each other until the arrival of the god paynal put an end to the combat (sahagun, _historia_, lib. ii., cap. ). the song here given belongs to this portion of the ancient rite. . the _tlacochcalli_, "house of arrows" (_tlacochtli_, arrow, _calli_, house), was a large hall in the temple of huitzilopochtli where arrows, spears and other arms were kept (sahagun, lib. viii., cap. ). . the "adornment from the south" refers to the meaning of the name _huitznahua_. (see glossary.) . sahagun (_ubi sup._) informs us that the slaves condemned to die fought against free warriors, and when any of the latter were captured they were promptly put to death by their captors. iii. _tlalloc icuic._ . ahuia mexico teutlaneuiloc amapanitla anauhcampa, ye moquetzquetl, aoyequene y chocaya. . ahuia anneuaya niyocoloc, annoteua eztlamiyaual, aylhuiçolla nic yauicaya teutiualcoya. . ahuia annotequiua naualpilli aquitlanella motonacayouh tic yachiuh quitla catlachtoquetl, çan mitziyapinauia. . ahuia cana catella nechyapinauia anechyaca uelmatia, anotata yn oquacuillo ocelocoatl aya. . ahuia tlallocana, xiuacalco aya quizqui aquamotla, acatonalaya. . ahuia xiyanouia, nahuia xiyamotecaya ay poyauhtla, ayauh chicauaztica, ayauicalo tlallocanaya. . aua nacha tozcuecuexi niyayalizqui aya y chocaya. . ahuia queyamica xinechiuaya, temoquetl aitlatol, aniquiya ilhuiquetl, tetzauhpilla niyayalizqui aya y chocaya. . ahuia nauhxiuhticaya itopanecauiloc ayoc ynomatia, ay motlapoalli, aya ximocaya ye quetzalcalla nepanauia ay yaxcana teizcaltequetl. . ahuia xiyanouia, ahuia xiyamotequaya ay poyauhtla, ayauh chicauaztlica ayauicallo tlalloca. _var._ . amopanitl. _gloss._ . auia mexico teutlanauiloc, _q.n._, yn mexico onetlanauiloc in tlaloc. amapanitl annauhcampa ye moquetzquetl, _q.n._, amapanitl nauhcampa omoquequetz. aoyeque naichocaya, _id est_, itlaocuyaya. . auia anneuaya niyocoloc, _q.n._, ynehuatl ni tlalloc oniyocoloc. annoteua eztlamiyaual, _q.n._, noteu eztlamiyaualtitiuh. aylhuiçolla, _q.n._, yn umpa ilhuiçololo. inic yauicaya teuitualcoya, _q.n._ in teuitualoc. . auia annotequiua naualpilli, _q.n._ in tinoteuh naualpilli, _i.e._, tlalloc. aquitlanella motonacayouh, _q.n._, ca nelli teuatl ticmochiuilia in motonacayouh. catlachtoquetl, _q.n._, teuatl ticmochiuilia auh in aquin timitzpinauia. . ahuia cana catella nechyapinauia, _q.n._, catel nechpinauia ca monechuelmati. annotata ynoquacuillo ocelocoatl aya, _q.n._, yn notaua ioan yna quacuiloa yn oceloquacuili. . ahuia tlallocana xiuacalco, _q.n._, in tlalocan xiuhcalco, _id est_, acxoyacalco. ayaquizqui, _q.n._, umpa ualquizque. aquamotla acatonalaya, _q.n._, y notauan yn oquacuiloan acatonal. . ahuia xicanouia nauia xiyamotecaya, _q.n._, xiuian ximotecati. ay poyauhtlan, _q.n._, in umpa poyauhtlan tepeticpac. ayauh chicauaztica ayauicalo tlalocana, _q.n._, ayauh chicauaztica in auicalo tlalocan. . aua nach tozcuecuexi niyayalizqui, _q.n._, y nach tozcuecuex y ye niauh niman ye choca. . ahuia queyamica xinechiuaya, _q.n._, quenamican y ya niauh aço anechtemozque. aniquiya ilhuiquetl tetzapilla niyayalizqui ayaichocaya, _q.n._, onquilhui yn tetzapilli ye niyauh niman ye choca. . ahuia nauhxiuhticaya nitopanecauiloc, _q.n._, nauhxiuhtica in topanecauiloz, _id est_, in tepan mochiuaz. ayoc inomatia ay motlapoalli, _q.n._, aocmo nomatia iniquin motlapoalpan. ca oximoac ye quetzalcalla nepanauia, _q.n._, ye qualcan ye netlamachtiloyan ynemca. ay yaxcana teizcaltiquetl, _q.n._, iniaxca inic oteizcalli. . ahuia xiyanouia, _q.n._, xiuia. auia xiya motecaya ay poyauhtla, _q.n._, ximotecati in umpa poyauhtla. ayauh chicauaztica auicallo tlalocan, _q.n._, ayauh chicauaztica in auicallo in umpa tlallocan. _the hymn of tlaloc._ . in mexico the god appears; thy banner is unfolded in all directions, and no one weeps. . i, the god, have returned again, i have turned again to the place of abundance of blood-sacrifices; there when the day grows old, i am beheld as a god. . thy work is that of a noble magician; truly thou hast made thyself to be of our flesh; thou hast made thyself, and who dare affront thee? . truly he who affronts me does not find himself well with me; my fathers took by the head the tigers and the serpents. . in tlalocan, in the verdant house, they play at ball, they cast the reeds. . go forth, go forth to where the clouds are spread abundantly, where the thick mist makes the cloudy house of tlaloc. . there with strong voice i rise up and cry aloud. . go ye forth to seek me, seek for the words which i have said, as i rise, a terrible one, and cry aloud. . after four years they shall go forth, not to be known, not to be numbered, they shall descend to the beautiful house, to unite together and know the doctrine. . go forth, go forth to where the clouds are spread abundantly, where the thick mist makes the cloudy house of tlaloc. _notes._ the god tlaloc shared with huitzilopochtli the highest place in the mexican pantheon. he was the deity who presided over the waters, the rains, the thunder and the lightning. the annual festival in his honor took place about the time of corn-planting, and was intended to secure his favor for this all-important crop. its details are described at great length by diego duran, _historia de nueva españa_, cap. , and sahagun, _historia_, lib. ii., cap. , and elsewhere. his name is derived from _tlalli_, earth. _tlalocan_, referred to in v. , "the place of tlaloc," was the name of a mountain east of tenochtitlan, where the festival of the god was celebrated; but it had also a mythical meaning, equivalent to "the earthly paradise," the abode of happy souls. it will be observed that v. is a repetition of v. . the word _ayauicalo_ refers to the _ayauhcalli_, "house of mist," the home of the rain god, which sahagun informs us was represented at the annual festival by four small buildings near the water's edge, carefully disposed to face the four cardinal points of the compass (sahagun, _ubi supra_). in v. the expression _tetzauhpilli_ (_tetzauhqui_, to frighten) may be explained by the figure of tlaloc, whose statue, says duran, was that of _un espantable monstruo, la cara muy fea_ (_ibid._). the compound in v. , _nauhxiuhtica_, "after four years," appears to refer to the souls of the departed brave ones, who, according to aztec mythology, passed to the heaven for four years and after that returned to the terrestrial paradise,--the palace of tlaloc. (see my paper, _the journey of the soul_, in _proceedings of the numismatic and antiquarian society of philadelphia, _.) iv. _teteuynan ycuic._ . ahuiya coçauic xochitla oya cueponca yeua tonana teumechaue moquiçican tamoanchan, auayye, auayya, yyao, yya, yyeo, aye ayo, ayy ayyaa. . coçauic xochitla oya moxocha yeua tonana, teumechaue, moquiçica tamoanchan, ouayye, auayya, yyao, yya, yyeo, ayo aye, ayya, ayyaa. . ahuia iztac xochitla, oya cueponca yeua tonana teumechaue moquiçica tamoanchan, ouayye, auayya, yyao yya, yyeo, ayeaye, ayya ayyaa. . ahuiya iztac xochitla oya moxocha yeua tonana teumechaue moquiçica tamoanchan, ouayye, auayya, yyao, yya, yyeo, aye aye, ayya ayyaa. . ahuia ohoya teutl ca teucontli paca tona aya, itzpapalotli, auayye, yyao, yya, yyeo, ayyaa. . ao, auatic ya itaca chicunauixtlauatla maçatl yyollo, ica mozcaltizqui tonan tlaltecutli, ayao, ayyao, ayyaa. . aho, ye yancuic tiçatla ye yancuic yuitla oya potoniloc yn auicacopa acatl xamontoca. . aho maçatl mochiuhca teutlalipan mitziya noittaco, yeua xiuhnello, yeua mimichan. _var._ . xamantoca. . yehoa. _gloss._ . _q.n._, in tonan ocueponya umpa oalquiz yn tamoanchan. . _q.n._, in amona ca izcui yn xochiuh ca umpa oquiz yn tmoanchan. . _q.n._ in tonan ocuepo in umpa oquiz tamoanchan. . _q.n._, in amona iztac in oxochiuh yn umpa oniquiz tamoanchan. . _q.n._, in tonan ca teucumitl icpac in quiz yn itzpapalotl. . _q.n._, in tonan ixtlauan in mozcaltito auh inic mozcalti macatl y yollo y yeua tonan tlaltecutli. . _q.n._, auh inic potoniloc, tonan, yancuic tiçatl ioan yancuic yn iuitl, auh nauhcampa quite ynacatl. . _q.n._, in macatl yeuan can iliaya yn ixtlauacan yuhqui inic quic noitayan y yeuatl inimich ioan in xiuhnel. _hymn to the mother of the gods._ . hail to our mother, who caused the yellow flowers to blossom, who scattered the seeds of the maguey, as she came forth from paradise. . hail to our mother, who poured forth flowers in abundance, who scattered the seeds of the maguey, as she came forth from paradise. . hail to our mother, who caused the yellow flowers to blossom, she who scattered the seeds of the maguey, as she came forth from paradise. . hail to our mother, who poured forth white flowers in abundance, who scattered the seeds of the maguey, as she came forth from paradise. . hail to the goddess who shines in the thorn bush like a bright butterfly. . ho! she is our mother, goddess of the earth, she supplies food in the desert to the wild beasts, and causes them to live. . thus, thus, you see her to be an ever-fresh model of liberality toward all flesh. . and as you see the goddess of the earth do to the wild beasts, so also does she toward the green herbs and the fishes. _notes._ the goddess to whom this hymn is devoted was called _teteoinan_, the mother of the gods, _toçi_, our mother (maternal ancestor), and also by another name which signified "the heart of the earth," the latter being bestowed upon her, says duran, because she was believed to be the cause of earthquakes. her general functions were those of a genius of fertility, extending both to the vegetable and the animal world. thus, she was the patroness of the native midwives and of women in childbirth (sahagun). her chief temple at tepeyacac was one of the most renowned in ancient mexico, and it was a felicitous idea of the early missionaries to have "our lady of guadalupe" make her appearance on the immediate site of this ancient fane already celebrated as the place of worship of the older female deity. the _codex ramirez_ makes her a daughter of the first king of culhuacan. . _tamoanchan._ this word sahagun translates "we seek our homes," while the _codex telleriano-remensis_ gives the more intelligible rendering "there is their home whither they descend," and adds that it is synonymous with _xochitlycacan_, "the place where the flowers are lifted." it was the mystical paradise of the aztecs, the home of the gods, and the happy realm of departed souls. the codex just quoted adds that the gods were born there, which explains the introduction of the word into this hymn. . for _teucontli_ (see glossary) i should suggest _teocomitl_, a species of ornament, (cf. sahagun, _historia_, lib. ii., cap. .) v. _chimalpanecatl icuic ioan tlaltecaua (nanotl)._ . ichimalipan chipuchica ueya, mixiuiloc yautlatoaya, ichimalipan chipuchica ueya, mixiuiloc yautlatoa. . coatepec tequiua, tepetitla moxayaual teueuel aya quinelli moquichtiuiui tlalli cuecuechiuia aqui moxayaual teueuella. _var._ title. tlaltecaoannanotl. . cohoatepechquiua. _gloss._ . _q.n._, yautlatolli ipa omixiuh ynanotl chimalipan in omixiuh, _id est_, ipa oquitlacatilli ynanotl in uitzilopochtli y yauyutl. . _q.n._, coatepec otepeuh tepetitla yc moxaual ioan y teueuel, _id est_, ichimal ic otepeuh aocac omoquichquetz iniquac peualoque coatepec a iniquac otlalli cuecuechiuh, _id est_, iquac opopoliuhque. _hymn to chimalipan in parturition._ . chimalipan was a virgin when she brought forth the adviser of battles; chimalipan was a virgin when she brought forth the adviser of battles. . on the coatepec was her labor; on the mountain he ripened into age; as he became a man truly the earth was shaken, even as he became a man. _notes._ the goddess chimalipan is not mentioned by the authorities at my command; but from the tenor of the hymn it is evident that the name is a synonym for the virgin mother of huitzilopochtli, who is distinctly referred to by his title _yautlatoani_ (see _ante_, p. ). in the myth, she dwelt upon the coatepetl, the serpent mountain, on the site of tulan. for a full discussion of this myth i refer to my inquiry, "_were the toltecs an historic nationality?_" in _proceedings of the amer. phil. soc._ for sept. , and _american hero-myths_, chap. . (phila., ). the gloss distinctly states that the mother of huitzilopochtli is referred to in the hymn. we must regard chimalipan therefore as identical with _chimalman_, who, according to another myth dwelt in tula as a virgin, and was divinely impregnated by the descending spirit of the all-father in the shape of a bunch of feathers. in other myths she is mentioned as also the mother of the huitznahua, the enemies and the brothers of huitzilopochtli, referred to in the second of this collection of chants. vi. _ixcoçauhqui icuic._ . huiya tzonimolco notauane ye namech maya pinauhtiz, tetemoca ye namech maya pinauhtiz. . xonca mecatla notecua icçotl mimilcatoc chicueyocan naualcalli nauali temoquetlaya. . huiya tzonimolco cuicotipeuhque, aya tzonimolco cuicotipeuhque, aya iztleica naual moquizcauia, iztlauan naual moquizca. . huia tzonimolco maceualli maya temacouia, oya tonaqui, oya tonaqui maceualli, maya temacouiya. . huiya tzonimolco xoxolcuicatl cacauantoc ya ayouica mocuiltonoaci tontecuitl moteicnelil mauiztli. . huiya ciuatontla xatenonotza, ayyauhcalcatl quiyauatla, xatenonotza. _var._ . xoncan mecatlan notechoan. . iztleica (for iztlauan). . ia ayiauhcalcatl. _gloss._ . _q.n._, yn itzonmolcatl notauane ye nemechpinauhtiz nachcan nochan tetemoan, ye nemechpinauhtiz. . _q.n._, yn mecatla amo tecuhuan in oncan icçotl mimilcatoc ueyaquixtoc icçotl uncan in temoc in chicueyocan. . _q.n._, yn tzonmolco otipeuhque macuico yn tzonmolco macuico otipeuhque tleica in amo anualquiça tleica yn ayaualquiça. . _q.n._, yn tzonmolco otonac auh in omaceualhoan xinechinacaqui notechpouizque yn enetoltiloyan. . _q.n._, yn cuicatl tzomolco ca ye cauani in aic necuiltonollo netotilo in tetecuti yeua moteicnelil ca mauiztic. . _q.n._, yn ciuatontli xitenonotza in quiauat ayauhcalcatl, _id est_, in ticiuatontli xitenonotza. _hymn to ixcoçauhqui._ . in the hall of flames let me not put to shame my ancestors; descending there, let me not put you to shame. . i fasten a rope to the sacred tree, i twist it in eight folds, that by it i, a magician, may descend to the magical house. . begin your song in the hall of flames; begin your song in the hall of flames; why does the magician not come forth? why does he not rise up? . let his subjects assist in the hall of flames; he appears, he appears, let his subjects assist. . let the servants never cease the song in the hall of flames; let them rejoice greatly, let them dance wonderfully. . call ye for the woman with abundant hair, whose care is the mist and the rain, call ye for her. _notes._ _ixcoçauhqui_, "the yellow faced," was the mexican god of fire. torquemada gives as his synonyms _xiuhtecutli_, "lord of fire," and _huehueteotl_, "the ancient god" (_monarquia indiana_, lib. vi., cap. ). elsewhere he identifies him with the sun-god (_ibid._, lib. xiv., cap. ). sahagun describes his annual festival (_hist._, lib. ii., cap. ), and gives another of his names, _cueçaltzin_, a reverential form of _cuezalotl_, flame (_hist._, lib. i., cap. ). the _tzonmolco_ so often referred to in this hymn was the sixty-fourth edifice in the great temple of tenochtitlan, and was devoted to the worship of ixcoçauhqui (sahagun). the word literally means "the place of spreading hairs," the rays or ornaments spreading from the head of the statue of the god representing flames (sahagun). the reference in v. seems to be to one of the women who were sacrificed at the festival, as related by sahagun (lib. ii., app.). vii. _mimixcoa icuic._ . chicomoztoc quinexaqui, çani aueponi, çani, çani, teyomi. . tziuactitlan quinexaqui, çani a aueponi, çani, çani, teyomi. . oya nitemoc, oya nitemoc, aya ica nitemoc notziuaquimiuh, aya ica nitemoc notziuaquimiuh. . oya nitemoc, oya nitemoc, ayayca nitemoc nomatlauacal. . ni quimacui, ni quimacui, yuaya niquimacui, niquimacui, yuanya ayo macuiui. . tlachtli icpacaya, uel incuicaya, quetzalcuxcuxaya, quinanquilia çinteutla, aay. _var._ . quinehoaqui. . quineuaqui. . ipac. _gloss._ . _q.n._, chicomoztoc oniualleuac çani aueponi, ichichimecatlatol, çani aueponi, çani, çani teyomi. . _q.n._, tziuactli in itlan oniualleuac çani aueponi, çani, çani teyomi. . oya nitemoc, _q.n._, onitemoc onitlacatl ipan ynotziuacmiuh; onitemoc ipan ynotziuacmiuh ça niman ipan nitlacat ynotlauitol ynomiuh. . _q.n._, onitemoc onitlacat inipan nomatlauacal ça niman ipan nitlacat. . y yacatlatol. yc a a inya in chichimeca in chichimecatlatol. . _q.n._, yn tlataçica tictecazque totlach uncan ticuicazque noyehuatl in quetzalcocox. _hymn of mixcoatl._ . i come forth from chicomoztoc, only to you, my friends, to you, honored ones. . i come forth from tziuactitlan, only to you my friends, only to you honored ones. . i sought, i sought, in all directions i sought with my pack; in all directions i sought with my pack. . i sought, i sought, in all directions i sought with my traveling net. . i took them in hand, i took them in hand; yes, i took them in hand; yes, i took them in hand. . in the ball ground i sang well and strong, like to the quetzal bird; i answered back to the god. _notes._ "the chichimecs," says sahagun (_hist._, lib. vi., cap. ), "worshipped only one god, called _mixcoatl_." the _anales de cuauhtitlan_ speaks of mixcoatl as one of the leaders of the ancient nahuas from their primitive home chicomoztoc, the land of the seven caves. this is what is referred to in the above hymn. in later times mixcoatl became god of hunting and of the tornado, and his worship extended to the otomis. _tzihuactitlan_, "the land of the tzihuac bushes," i have not found mentioned by any of the spanish authorities, but it is named in connection with chicomoztoc in an ancient war-song given in my _ancient nahuatl poetry_, pp. and . the hymn appears to be in memory of the leadership of mixcoatl in conducting the ancestors of the nahua on their long wanderings after leaving their pristine seats. it should be read in connection with the earlier pages of the _annals of cuauhtitlan_. the reduplicated form of the name, _mimixcoatl_, is not found elsewhere, and appears to be a poetic license. viii. _xochipilli icuic._ . ye cuicaya tocniuaya ouaya yeo, ye cuicaya ye quetzalcoxcuxa yoaltica tlao çinteutla, oay. . Çan quicaquiz nocuic ocoyoalle teumechaue, oquicaquiz nocuica in cipactonalla atilili, ouayya. . ayao, ayao, ayao, ayao, nitlanauati ay tlalocan tlamacazque, ayao, ayao, ayao. . ayao, ayao, ayao, tlalocan tlamacazque nitlanauati, aya, ayao, ayyao. . ao çani uallaçic, otli nepaniuia, cani çinteutla campa ye noyaz, campa otli nicyatoca ça oay. . ayao, aya, ayao, tlalocan tlamacazque, quiauiteteu, ayyao, aya, ayao. _gloss._ . _q.n._, ca otonac, ca otlatuic ca ye cuico ca ye cuica centeotl in quetzalcocox. . _q.n._, macaco in tocuic ynican maquicaquican yn nican tlaca. . _q.n._, in tlaloque tlamacazque niquinnauatia ye niauh in nochan. . _q.n._, yn tlaloque tlamacazque niquinnauatia ye niauh in nochan. . _q.n._, ca onitlanauati ni tlaloca catli ye nictocaz utli. . _q.n._, yn antlaloque yn antlamacazque catli nictocaz yn anteteuh. _hymn to xochipilli._ . o friends, the quetzal bird sings, it sings its song at midnight to cinteotl. . the god will surely hear my song by night, he will hear my song as the day begins to break. . i send forth the priests to the house of tlaloc. . the priests to the house of tlaloc do i send forth. . i shall go forth, i shall join myself unto them, i shall go where is cinteotl, i shall follow the path to him. . the priests go forth to the house of tlaloc, to the home of the gods of the plain. _notes._ _xochipilli_, "lord of flowers," otherwise named _macuilxochitl_, "five flowers" (the name of a small odorous plant), was the deity who gave and protected all flowering plants. as one of the gods of fertility and production, he was associated with tlaloc, god of rains, and cinteotl, god of maize. his festival is described in sahagun (_historia_, lib. i., cap. ). . _cipactonalla_, from _cipactli_, and _tonalli_, may refer to _cipactonal_, the reputed discoverer of the aztec calendar. see _sahagun_, _historia_, lib. iv., cap. i. ix. _xochiquetzal icuic._ . atlayauican ni xochiquetzalli tlacya niuitza ya motencaliuan tamoanchan oay. . ye quitichocaya tlamacazecatla piltzintecutlo quiyatemoaya ye xochinquetzalla xoyauia ay topa niaz, oay. _var._ . icotochiquetzalla. _gloss._ . _q.n._, ompa niuitz ynixochiquetzal tamoanchan. . _q.n._, choca piltzintecutli quitemoa in xochiquetzal xoyauia no umpa niaz. _hymn to xochiquetzal._ . i, xochiquetzal, go forth willingly to the dancing place by the water, going forth to the houses in tamoanchan. . ye noble youths, ye priests who wept, seeking xochiquetzal, go forth there where i am going. _notes._ _xochiquetzal_, "plumage of flowers," was the deity of the artists, the painters, weavers, engravers on metal, silver and goldsmiths, and of all who dealt in fine colors. her figure was that of a young woman with gay garments and jewelry (duran, _historia_, cap. ). in the _codex telleriano-remensis_ she is assigned as synonyms _ichpochtli_, the virgin, and _itzpapalotl_, literally "the obsidian butterfly," but which was probably applied to a peculiar ornament of her idol. on _tamoanchan_ see notes to hymn iv. the term _atlayauican_, which i have translated "the dancing place by the water," appears to refer to the "jar dance," _baile de las jicaras_, which took place at the festival of the goddess, in the month of october. duran informs us this was executed at a spot by the shore of the lake. ceremonial bathing was carried on at the same festival, and these baths were considered to cleanse from sin, as well as from physical pollution. x. _amimitl icuic._ . cotiuana, cotiuana, cali totoch maca huiya yyalimanico, oquixanimanico, tlacochcalico, oua, yya yya, matonicaya, matonicalico, oua yya yo, çana, çana, ayoueca niuia, çana canoya, ueca niuia, yya, yya, yyeuaya, çana, çana, yeucua niuia. . ye necuiliyaya, niuaya, niuaya, niuaya, ay ca nauh niuahuaya, niuaya, niuaya, ay ca nauh. . tlaixtotoca ye ca nauhtzini, tlaixtotoca ye ca nauhtzini, ayoaya, yoaya, ye ca nauhtzini. . aueya itzipana nomauilia, aueya itzipana nomauilia, aueya itzipana nomauilia. _var._ . manca. matinicaya. _gloss._ in amimitl icuic yuh mitoa in ueli chichimeca cuic amo uel caquizti in quein quitoa in tonauatlatol ypa. _hymn to amimitl._ . join together your hands in the house, take hands in the sequent course, let them spread forth, spread forth in the hall of arrows. join hands, join hands in the house, for this, for this have i come, have i come. . yes, i have come, bringing four with me, yes i have come, four being with me. . four noble ones, carefully selected, four noble ones, carefully selected, yes, four noble ones. . they personally appear before his face, they personally appear before his face, they personally appear before his face. _notes._ the brief gloss to this hymn states that it is of ancient chichimec origin and that it cannot well be rendered in nahuatl. its language is exceedingly obscure, but it is evidently a dancing song. _amimitl_, "the water-arrow," or "fish-spear," was, according to torquemada, especially worshipped at cuitlahuac. he was god of fishing, and visited the subjects of his displeasure with diseases of a dropsical or watery character (_monarquia indiana_, lib. vi., cap. ). on slender and questionable grounds clavigero identifies him with opochtli, the god of net makers and fishers with nets (_storia antica del messico_, tom. ii., p. ). the four noble ones referred to in vv. and probably refer to those characters in the mexican sacred dances called "the four auroras," four actors clothed respectively in white, green, yellow and red robes. see diego duran, _historia_, cap. . xi. _otontecutli icuic._ . onoalico, onoalico, pomaya, yyaya, ayyo, ayyo, aya, aya, ayyo. . chimalocutitlana motlaqueuia auetzini nonoualico, quauinochitla, cacauatla motlaqueuia auetzini. . ni tepanecatli aya cuecuexi, ni quetzallicoatli aya cuecuexi. . cane ca ya itziueponi, cane ca ya itziueponi. . otomico, noyoco, nauaco, mexicame ya yauilili, noyoco, nauaco, mexicame ya. . a chimalli aya, xa, xauino quiyauilili, noyoco, nauaco, mexicame ya. _var._ . nonoualco. _hymn of olontecutli._ . at nonoalco he rules, at nonoalco, oho! oho! . in the pine woods he prepares your destruction at nonoalco, in the tuna woods, in the cacao woods he prepares your destruction. . i, dweller in the palace, shook them; i, quetzalcoatl, shook them. . there was a splendor of spears, a splendor of spears. . with my captain, with my courage, with my skill, the mexicans were put to flight; even the mexicans, with my courage, with my skill. . go forth, ye shield bearers, put the mexicans to flight with my courage, with my skill. _notes._ the absence of a gloss to this hymn adds to the difficulty of a translation. _otontecutli_ was the chief deity of the otomis, and the chant appears to be one of their war songs in their conflict with the azteca. the name is a compound of _otomitl_, an otomi, and _tecutli_, ruler or lord. he is slightly referred to by sahagun as "the first ruler to govern the ancestors of the otomis." (_historia_, lib. x, cap. , sec. .) xii. _ayopechtli icuic._ . cane cana ichan, ayopechcatl cozcapantica mixiuhtoc. . cane cana ichan ayopechcatl cozcapantica mixiuhtoc, cane ichan chacayoticaya. . xiualmeuayauia, xiua xiualmeuayaauiaya yancuipilla, xiualmeuaya. . auiya xiualmeuaya, ueya, xiua, xiualmeuaya, cozcapilla xiualmeuaya. _gloss._ . _q.n._, in oncan ichan ayopechtli oncan mixiuiqui tlacatilia in cuzcatl quetzalli. . cane cana ichan, _q.n._, in oncan ichan ayopechcatl oncan quitlacatilia in cozcatl quetzalli oncan yoliua, tlacatiua. . _q.n._, ximeua, ximeua, in tipiltzintli xiualmeua in quinotitlacat tipiltzintli. . _q.n._, xiualmeua, xiualmeua, in tipiltzintli in ti cuzcatl, in ti quetzalli. _hymn to ayopechcatl._ . truly in whatever house there is a lying-in, ayopechcatl takes charge of the child. . truly in whatever house there is a lying-in, ayopechcatl takes charge of the child, there where it is weeping in the house. . come along and cry out, cry out, cry out, you new comer, come along and cry out. . come along and cry out, cry out, cry out, you little jewel, cry out. _notes._ the name of ayopechcatl does not appear among the divinities named by sahagun, duran or the other authorities at my command. her name indicates her function as the goddess of the child-bed and the neonatus, and the above hymn establishes her claim to a place in the aztec pantheon. xiii. _ciuacoatl icuic._ . quaui, quaui, quilaztla, coaeztica xayaualoc uiuiya quauiuitl uitzalochpa chalima aueuetl ye colhoa. . huiya tonaca, acxolma centla teumilco chicauaztica, motlaquechizca. . uitztla, uitztla, nomactemi, uitztla, uitztla nomactemi, açan teumilco chicauaztica motlaquechizca. . malinalla nomactemi, açan teumilco chicauaztica motlaquechizca. . a omei quauhtli, ye tonanaya chalmecatecutli ay tziuac y mauiztla nechyatetemilli, yeua nopiltzinaya mixcoatla. . ya tonani, yauçiuatzin, aya tonan yauçiuatzi aya y maca coliuacan y yuitla y potocaya. . ahuiya ye tonaquetli, yautlatocaya, ahuiya ye tonaquetli yautlatocaya moneuila no tlaca cenpoliuiz aya y maca coliuaca y yuitla y potocaya. . ahuia quauiuitl amo xayaualli onauiya yecoyametl amo xayaualli. _var._ . cohoaeztica. . acxoima. . maneuila, cenpoalihuiz, inmaca. _gloss._ . _q.n._, in quauhcihuatl, ic oxaualoc in coaetztli, ioan in quauhtli yhuitli in moteneua iquauhtzon, ipan iualuicoc yn umpa colhuacan. . _q.n._, inic motocaya çentli, in mochiuaya teumilpa, ichicauaztica inic tlatatacaya, inic tocaya. . uitztla, _q.n._, nomactemi nochicauaztica inic nitocaya, inic nitlatatacaya. . malinalla, uictli, _q.n._, uictica in tlachpanaya, _id est_, iceliniquia, yn uncan teumilpan auh ychicauaztica inic nitlatatacaya, inic tocaya. . _q.n._, matlactli omei quauhtli yn notonal innamona auh ynan nopilhoan in chalmeca xicuiti in tziuactli xinechtemilica. . _q.n._, in iyauciuatzin yn amona umpa nochan in coluaca auh in quauiuitl nictemaca ynic oquauhtiuac. . _q.n._, ca otonac ca otlatuic momochiua yauyutl ma tlamalo tlalpiliuiz nic temaca in quauiuitl. . _q.n._, aahuia yn otlamaloc in quauiuitl yc moxaua. _hymn to cihuacoatl._ . quilaztli, plumed with eagle feathers, with the crest of eagles, painted with serpents' blood, comes with her hoe, beating her drum, from colhuacan. . she alone, who is our flesh, goddess of the fields and shrubs, is strong to support us. . with the hoe, with the hoe, with hands full, with the hoe, with hands full, the goddess of the fields is strong to support us. . with a broom in her hands the goddess of the fields strongly supports us. . our mother is as twelve eagles, goddess of drum-beating, filling the fields of tzioac and maguey like our lord mixcoatl. . she is our mother, a goddess of war, our mother, a goddess of war, an example and a companion from the home of our ancestors (colhuacan). . she comes forth, she appears when war is waged, she protects us in war that we shall not be destroyed, an example and companion from the home of our ancestors. . she comes adorned in the ancient manner with the eagle crest, in the ancient manner with the eagle crest. _notes._ cihuacoatl was the mythical mother of the human race. her name, generally translated "serpent woman," should be rendered "woman of twins" or "bearing twins," as the myth related that such was her fertility that she always bore two children at one lying-in. (torquemada, _monarquia indiana_, lib. vi., cap. .) she was also known by the title _tonan_ or _tonantzin_, "our mother," as in v. and . still another of her appellations was _quilaztli_, which is given her in v. . (comp. sahagun, _historia_, lib. vi., cap. .) she was essentially a goddess of fertility and reproduction. the name _cihuacoatl_ was also applied to one of the higher magistrates and war chiefs in the aztec army (sahagun). reference is made to this in v. . as a goddess of venerable antiquity, she is spoken of as coming from colhuacan, "the place of the old men," or of the ancestors of the tribe. this name is derived from _coloa_, to bend down, as an aged person, _colli_, an old man. (see my _ancient nahuatl poetry_, pp. - ). xiv. _izcatqui yn cuicatl chicuexiuhtica meuaya iniquac atamalqualoya._ . xochitl noyollo cuepontimania ye tlacoyoalle, oaya, oouayaye. . yecoc ye tonan, yecoc ye teutl tlacolteutla, oaya, ooayaya. . otlacatqui çenteutl tamiyoanichan ni xochitlicacani. Çey xochitli yantala, yantata, ayyao, ayyaue, tilili yao, ayaue, oayyaue. . otlacatqui çenteutl, atl, yayaui cani tlaca pillachiualoya chalchimichuacan, yyao, yantala, yatanta, a yyao, ayyaue tilili yao, ayyaue, oayyaue. . oya tlatonazqui tlauizcalleuaya inan tlachinaya nepapan quechol, xochitlacacan y yantala, yantata, ayyao, ayyaue, tilili yao, ayyaue, oayyayaue. . tlalpa timoquetzca, tianquiz nauaquia nitlacatla, ni quetzalcoatla, yyao, yantala, yantata, ayyao, ayyaue, tilili yao ayyaue, oayyayue. . ma ya auiallo xochinquauitl itlani nepapan quecholli ma ya in quecholli xicaquiya tlatoaya y toteuh, xicaquiya tlatoaya y quechol amach yeua tonicauh tlapitza amach ychan tlacaluaz, ouao. . aye oho, yyayya, ça miquiyecauiz ça noxocha tonaca xochitli ye izqui xochitla, xochitlicacan, yyaa. . ollama, ollama uiue xolutl nauallachic, ollama ya xolutl chalchiuecatl xiquitta mach, oya moteca piltzintecutli yoanchan, yoanchan. . piltzintle, piltzintle toçuitica timopotonia tlachco, timotlalli yoanchan, yoanchan. . oztomecatla yyaue, oztomecatla xochiquetzal quimama, ontlatca cholola, ayye, ayyo, oye maui noyol, oye maui noyol, aoya yecoc centeutl, matiuia obispo, oztomecatl chacalhoa, xiuhnacochtla, yteamic ximaquiztla yteamico, ayye, ayye. . cochina, cochina, cocochi ye nicmaololo, ni cani ye çiuatl ni cochina yyeo, ouayeo, yho, yya, yya. _var._ . Çenteuteutl. . uillachiualoia. . oya tonazqui. . tlapan. . timotlalia. . suchiquetzal. ontlatoa cholollan. _this is the hymn which they sang every eight years when they fasted on bread and water._ . the flower in my heart blossoms and spreads abroad in the middle of the night. . tonan has satisfied her passion, the goddess tlazolteotl has satisfied her passion. . i, cinteotl, was born in paradise, i come from the place of flowers. i am the only flower, the new, the glorious one. . cinteotl was born from the water; he came born as a mortal, as a youth, from the cerulean home of the fishes, a new, a glorious god. . he shone forth as the sun; his mother dwelt in the house of the dawn, varied in hue as the quechol bird, a new, a glorious flower. . i came forth on the earth, even to the market place like a mortal, even i, quetzalcoatl, great and glorious. . be ye happy under the flower-bush varied in hue as the quetzal bird; listen to the quechol singing to the gods; listen to the singing of the quechol along the river; hear its flute along the river in the house of the reeds. . alas! would that my flowers would cease from dying; our flesh is as flowers, even as flowers in the place of flowers. . he plays at ball, he plays at ball, the servant of marvellous skill; he plays at ball, the precious servant; look at him; even the ruler of the nobles follows him to his house. . o youths! o youths! follow the example of your ancestors; make yourselves equal to them in the ball count; establish yourselves in your houses. . she goes to the mart, they carry xochiquetzal to the mart; she speaks at cholula; she startles my heart; she startles my heart; she has not finished, the priest knows her; where the merchants sell green jade earrings she is to be seen, in the place of wonders she is to be seen. . sleep, sleep, sleep, i fold my hands to sleep, i, o woman, sleep. _notes._ in default of a gloss to this hymn, the indispensable sahagun again comes to our aid. he informs us in the appendix to the second book of his _historia_ that "when the indians celebrated the festival called _atamalqualiztli_, which took place every eight years, certain natives called mazateca swallowed living serpents and frogs, and received garments as a recompense for their daring." we are not informed as to the purpose of the festival, and its name, which signifies "eating bread made with water," is merely that of one of the regular systems of fasting in vogue in ancient mexico. (see sahagun, lib. iii., cap. .) the song before us appears to be a recitation calling on a number of the nahua divinities. . "the flower in my heart" is a metaphorical expression for song. . _tonan_, "our mother"; _tlazolteotl_, the goddess of lascivious love, _venus impudica_. the verb _yecoa_ appears to have its early signification, expressing carnal connection. . _centeotl_, god of maize and fertility. . the flowers referred to are the youths and maidens who die young. . the house of the ball player is the tomb. . this verse is very obscure and is obviously corrupt. it contains the only spanish word in the text of these hymns--_obispo_--a word including two letters, _b_ and _s_, not in the nahuatl alphabet. . the woman referred to is xochiquetzal. see hymn ix. [illustration: priest of xippe totec, drinking and playing on a drum. hymn xv.] xv. _xippe icuic, totec, yoallauana._ . yoalli tlauana, iztleican nimonenequia xiyaqui mitlatia teocuitlaquemitl, xicmoquenti quetlauia. . noteua chalchimamatlaco, apana, y temoya ay quetzallaueuetl, ay quetzalxiuicoatl, nechiya iqui nocauhquetl, ouiya. . maniyauia, nia nia poliuiz, ni yoatzin achalchiuhtla noyollo, ateucuitlatl nocoyaitaz, noyolceuizqui tlacatl achtoquetl tlaquauaya, otlacatqui yautlatoaquetl ouiya. . noteua ce in tlaco xayailiuiz çonoa y yoatzin motepeyocpa mitzualitta moteua, noyolceuizquin tlacatl achtoquetl tlaquauaya, otlacatqui yautlatoaquetl, ouiya. _var._ . quetloujia. . noteuhoa chalchimmama tlacoapana itemoia. . achalchiuhtla. . centlaco, mitzualitla. _gloss._ . _q.n._, yn ti yoallauana, ti xipe, totec, tleica in ti monequi in timoçuma, in timotlatia, _id est_, tleica in amo quiauiteocuitlaquemitl, xicmoquenti, _q.n._, ma quiaui, ma ualauh yn atl. . _q.n._, yn ti noteuh, otemoc in mauhoualla yn mauh; ay quetzalla ueuetl, _id est_, ye tlaquetzalpatia ye tlaxoxouia, ye xopantla. ay quetzal xiuhcoatl nechia iqui no cauhquetl, _id est_, ca ye otechcauh yn mayanaliztli. . _q.n._, ma mauh, ma nipoliui yn ni yoatzin, _id est_, in catleuatl, yuhquin chalchiuitl noyollo. a teocuitlatl nocoyaitaz, _q.n._, in catleuatl achtomochiuaz ninoyolceuiz. . _q.n._, yn oteuh cequi tlatlacotyan in mochiua initonacayouh, auh in tlein tlatlacotyan achto mochiua mochi tlacatl achto mitzualmaca, auh iniquac ye omochimochiuh occeppa nomochi tlacatl mitzualmaca yn motonacayuh. _hymn of the high priest of xipe totec._ . the nightly drinking, why should i oppose it? go forth and array yourselves in the golden garments, clothe yourselves in the glittering vestments. . my god descended upon the water, into the beautiful glistening surface; he was as a lovely water cypress, as a beauteous green serpent; now i have left behind me my suffering. . i go forth, i go forth about to destroy, i, yoatzin; my soul is in the cerulean water; i am seen in the golden water; i shall appear unto mortals; i shall strengthen them for the words of war! . my god appears as a mortal; o yoatzin, thou art seen upon the mountains; i shall appear unto mortals; i shall strengthen them for the words of war. _notes._ there is slight mention of the deity xipe totec in the spanish writers. he was the patron divinity of the silversmiths, and his festival, attended with peculiarly bloody rites, was celebrated in the first month of the calendar. (duran, _historia_, cap. ; sahagun, lib. i., cap. , lib. ii., cap. , etc.) totec is named as one of the companions of quetzalcoatl, and an ancient divinity whose temple stood on the _tzatzitepec_ (see the _codex vaticanus_; tab. xii., in kingsborough's _mexico_). his high priest was called _youallauan_, "the nocturnal tippler" (_youalli_, night, and _tlauana_, to drink to slight intoxication), and it was his duty to tear out the hearts of the human victims (sahagun, _u.s._). the epithet _yoatzin_, "noble night-god," bears some relation to the celebration of his rites at night. [illustration: chicomecoatl, goddess of food and drink. hymn xvi.] xvi. _chicomecoatl icuic._ . chicomollotzin xayameua, ximiçotica aca tona titech icnocauazqui tiyauia mochan tlallocan nouia. . xayameua ximiçotica aca tonan titech icnocauazqui tiyauian mochan tlallocan nouiya. _var._ . xaia mehoa. _gloss._ . _q.n._, yn ti chicomolotl, _id est_, in ti centli ximeua, xiça, xixoa, ca otimouicaya in mochan tlallocan. . _q.n._, xayameua, _id est_, ximeua, xixua, xiça, ca otimouicaya in mochantzinco in tlallocan ca yuhquin ti tonatzon. _hymn to chicomecoatl._ . o noble chicomolotl, arise, awake, leave us not unprotected on the way, conduct us to the home of tlaloc. . arise, awake, leave us not unprotected on the way, conduct us to the home of tlaloc. _notes._ the goddess chicomecoatl, "seven guests," was the deity who presided over food and drink. hence in the first verse she is referred to as chicomolotl, "seven ears of corn," and is spoken of as a guide to tlalocan, or the home of abundance. father duran, who gives a long chapter on this goddess (_historia_, cap. ), translates her name "serpent of seven heads," and adds that she was also called _chalciucihuatl_, "lady of the emerald," and _xilonen_, "goddess of the tender ears of maize." every kind of seed and vegetable which served for food was under her guardianship, and hence her festival, held about the middle of september, was particularly solemn. her statue represented her as a girl of about twelve years old. [illustration: totochtin, the rabbits, gods of the drunkards. hymn xvii.] xvii. _totochtin incuic tezcatzoncatl._ . yyaha, yya yya, yya ayya, ayya ouiya, ayya yya, ayya yya, yyauiyya, ayya ayya, yya ayya, yya yya yye. . coliuacan mauizpan atlacatl ichana, yya ayya, yyayyo. . tezcatzonco tecpan teutl, macoc ye chocaya, auia, macaiui, macayui teutl, macoc yye chocaya. . auia axalaco tecpanteutl, macoc yye chocaya, macayui, macayui teutl, macoc yye chocaya. _var._ . tezcatzoncatl tepan. . axalaca. _gloss._ . y tlauelcuic, tlauelcuica. . coliuacan mauizpa tlacatlichana, _q.n._, in tlacatl, _id est_, octli ompa ichan ni colhoacan. mauizpa, _q.n._, temamauhtican. . tezcatzonco tecpanteutl, _q.n._, ye choca in omacoc teutl tezcatzonco tecpan, _id est_, octli. quimonacayotia in teutl. macaiui teutl, _q.n._, macamo omatoni in teutl, _id est_, octli, ye choca cayamo ynemac. . aia axalaco tecpanteutl, _q.n._, axala in tecpanteutl. ye choca yn omacoc, _id est_, octli axalatecpan, ye choca in omacoc, macamo omaco ni ye choca cayamo ynemac. _hymn to tezcatzoncatl totochtin._ . alas! alas! alas! alas! alas! alas! . in the home of our ancestors this creature was a fearful thing. . in the temple of tezcatzoncatl he aids those who cry to him, he gives them to drink; the god gives to drink to those who cry to him. . in the temple by the water-reeds the god aids those who call upon him, he gives them to drink; the god aids those who cry unto him. _notes._ tezcatzoncatl was one of the chief gods of the native inebriating liquor, the pulque. its effects were recognized as most disastrous, as is seen from his other names, _tequechmecaniani_, "he who hangs people," and _teatlahuiani_, "he who drowns people." sahagun remarks, "they always regarded the pulque as a bad and dangerous article." the word _totochtin_, plural of _tochtli_, rabbit, was applied to drunkards, and also to some of the deities of special forms of drunkenness. the first verse is merely a series of lamentations. the second speaks of the sad effects of the pulque in ancient times. (on colhuacan see notes to hymn xiii.) [illustration: atlaua, singing and dancing. hymn xviii.] xviii. _atlaua icuic._ . auia nichalmecatl, nichalmecatl, neçaualcautla, neçaualcautla, olya quatonalla olya. . ueya, ueya, macxoyauh quilazteutl y tlapani macxoyauh. . nimitz acatecunotzaya, chimalticpao moneçoya nimitzacatecunotzaya. . ayac nomiuh timalla aytolloca nacatl nomiuh aca xeliui timalla. . tetoma amo yolcana tlamacazquinte tometl, açan axcan ye quetzaltototl, nic ya izcaltiquetla. . y yopuchi noteuh atlauaquetl, aça naxcan ye quetzaltototl, nic ya izcaltiquetla. . neçaualcactla. . itlamani. . aitollaca acatl. timalli. . tetonac amo yolcana tlamacaz quin tetometl. _gloss._ . _q.n._, ynichalmecatl, yn ineçaualac oqixicauhteuac y nioholti, y nioya, ixquatechimal iquatunal. . _q.n._, ma xiyauh ti quilazteutl, momactemi in macxoyauh. . _q.n._, iniquac onimitznotz, mochimalticpac timiçoya. . _q.n._, atle nomiuh yc notimaloa, ca uel itoloc in acatl nomiuh, yn acatl xeliui yc ninotimaloa. . _q.n._, oncan euac in tetuman nitlacochtetumetl. auh inaxcan ye quetzaltotol inic ni tlazcaltia. . _q.n._, tiacauh in oteuh in atlaua, auh inaxcan yuhqui quetzaltotol in nitlazcaltia. _the hymn of atlaua._ . i chalmecatl, i chalmecatl, i leave behind my sandles, i leave my sandles and my helmet. . go ye forth and follow the goddess quilaztli, follow her . i shall call upon thee to arise when among the shields, i shall call upon thee to arise. . i boast of my arrows, even my reed arrows, i boast of my arrows, not to be broken. . arrayed in priestly garb, take the arrow in thy hand, for even now i shall arise and come forth like the quetzal bird. . mighty is my god atlaua; truly i shall arise and come forth like the quetzal bird. _notes._ _atlaua_, mentioned by olmos, who translates the word "master of waters," is a divinity of whom little is known. the derivation from _atlatl_, arrow, would seem more appropriate to the words of this hymn. _chalmecatl_, used as a synonym in v. , appears to be from _chalania_, to beat, to strike, as a drum. on _quilaztli_ see notes to hymn xiii. xix. _macuilxochitl icuic._ . ayya, yao, xochitlycaca umpan iuitza tlamacazecatla tlamocoyoalca. . ayya, yao, ayo intinotzicaya teumechaue oya, yao, tlauizcalac yacallea tlamacazecatlo tlamocoyoualca. . tetzauhteutla notecuyo tezcatlipuca quinanquilican çinteutla, oay. . tezcatzonco moyolca ayyaquetl yya tochin quiyocuxquia noteuh, niquiyatlacaz, niquiyamamaliz, mixcoatepetl colhoacan. . tozquixaya, nictzotzoniyao, yn tezcatzintli tezcatzintli tezcaxocoyeua, tzoniztapaliati tlaoc xoconoctlia ho, a. . tlamocoioaleua. . tozquiuaia. tzoniztapalatiati. _gloss._ . _q.n._, ompa nochan in xochitlicacan in itlamacazqui ni macuilxochitl. . _q.n._, motilinia in tinoçi in ompa titlaecoltilozque umpa tochan ez. . _q.n._, yn tetzauitl in tezcatlipoca ca oyaque auh ynic tiui umpa titlananquilizque in centeotl. . tezcatzonco moyolcan, _q.n._, tezcatzonco oyol in tochtli ynic yaz, oquiyocux, oquipic, y noteuh oquito nittlaçaz, nicmamaliz, in mixcoatepetl colhoacan, _id est_, nictepeuaz. . tozquixaya nictzotzomiao, _q.n._, nictzotzona, in tezcatzintli oncan nexa in tezcatzonco, oncan oyol tzoniztapalatiati ocxoni ni octli. _hymn to macuilxochitl._ . yes, i shall go there to-night, to the house of flowers; i shall exercise the priestly office to-night. . we labor in thy house, our mother, from dawn unto night, fulfilling the priestly office, laboring in the night. . a dreadful god is our god tezcatlipoca, he is the only god, he will answer us. . his heart is in the tezcatzontli; my god is not timid like a hare nor is he peaceable; i shall overturn, i shall penetrate the mixcoatepec in colhuacan. . i sing, i play on an instrument, i am the noble instrument, the mirror; i am he who lifts the mirror; i cry aloud, intoxicated with the wine of the tuna. _notes._ as before stated (notes to hymn viii), macuilxochitl is another title of the flower-god xochipilli. xx. _yacatecutli icuic._ . anomatia aytoloc, anomatia aytoloc, tzocotzontla aytoloc, tzocotzontla anomatia aytoloc. . pipitla aytoloc, pipitla anomatia aytoloc, cholotla aytoloc, pipitla anomatia aytoloc. . tonacayutl nicmaceuh aça naxcan noquacuillo atliyollo, nechualyauicatiaque xalli itepeuhya. . chalchiuhpetlacalco ni naxcan aça naxcan noquacuillo, atliyollo nechualyauicatiaque xalli itepeuhya. _gloss._ . anomatia, _q.n._, amo nixpan in omito yauyutl inic otepeualoc tzocotzontla, amo nomatia in omito yauyutl. . pipitla aytoloc, _q.n._, ynic tepeualoc pipitla amo nicmati inic omito yauyutl, in cholotla ic otepeualloc amo nixpan ynic oyautlatolloc. . tonacayutl nicmaceuh, _q.n._, yn tonacayutl inic onicmaçeuh ayaxcan, onechualhuicaque in oquacuiloan in xochayutl, in çoqniayutl in teuelteca, quimilhui in iquintonaz tlatuiz anoquacuiloan ayezque. xalli tepeuhya, _id est_, tlalocan. quilmach chalchiuhpetlacalli in quitepeuh inic tepeuh. . chalchiuhpetlacalco ninaxcan, _q.n._, onca ninotlati in chalchiuh petlacalco. ayaxcan ynechualhuicatiaque yn oquacuiloan atliyoloa in umpa tlallocan. _hymn to yacatecutli._ . i know not what is said, i know not what is said, what is said about tzocotzontlan, i know not what is said about tzocotzontlan. . i know not what is said of pipitlan, what is said of pipitlan, nor what is said of cholollan, what of pipitlan, of pipitlan. . now i seek our food, proceeding to eat it and to drink of the water, going to where the sand begins. . now i go to my beautiful house, there to eat my food, and to drink of the water, going to where the sand begins. _notes._ the god yacatecutli, whose name means "lord of travelers," or "the lord who guides," was the divinity of the merchants. sahagun (_historia_, lib. i, cap. ) and duran (_historia_, cap. ) furnish us many particulars of his worship. the hymn is extremely obscure, containing a number of archaic words, and my rendering is very doubtful. the writer of the gloss is, i think, also at fault in his paraphrase. the general purpose of the hymn seems to be that of a death-song, chanted probably by the victims about to be sacrificed. they were given the sacred food to eat, as described by duran, and then prepared themselves to undergo death, hoping to go to "the beautiful house," which the gloss explains as tlalocan, the terrestrial paradise. glossary. a a, prefix, negative, or positive prefix, = _atl_, water. acatecunotzaya, xviii, . equivalent, according to the gloss, to _onimitznotz_. acatona, xvi, , . for _ac a tonan_. _see_ v. . acatonalaya, iii, . from _acatl_, reed (?). achalchiuhtla, xv, . comp. of _atl_, and _chalchiuitl_. achtoquetl, xv, , . in the first place, first. acxolma, xiii, . apparently related to _acxoyatl_, wild laurel. açan, xiii, . much, many times. aça naxcan, xviii, , ; xx, , . only now, for _çan axcan_. ahuia, ii, . an interjection. amanteca, i, . workers in mechanic arts (molina), especially feathers (sahagun). amapanitl, iii, . _panitl_, banner, flag, with possessive pronoun. amo, _adv._, no, not, negative; _pron._, your. anauhcampa, iii, . "to all four quarters of the water," i.e., in all directions. anneuaya, iii, . poetic for _in nehuatl_, "ego ipse." annotata, iii, . poetic for _in no-tauan_, my forefathers. annotequina, iii, . according to the gloss, equivalent to _in tino teuh_, thou my god. annoteua, iii, . poetic for _in no-teuh_, my lord. anomatia, xx, . not to know, to be ignorant of. aoyequene, iii, . for _aoc yequene_, "and also no one." apana, xv, . comp. of _atl_, water, and _pani_, upon, postpos. aquamotla, iii, . from _quammomotla_, to play ball (?). aquitoloc, ii, . a negative, _itoa_, to say, to tell, in the passive preterit. ateucuitlatl, xv, . golden water. comp. of _atl_, and _teocuitlatl_. atilili, viii, . _atilia_, to become clear or light. atl, xiv, . water. in composition, _a_. atliyollo, xx, , . from _atli_, to drink water. (?) aua, iii, . an interjection (?). auatic, iv, . mistress of the waters (_atl_, water). a-uetztini, xi, . from _uetzi_, to fall; "your fall," "your destruction." auiallo, xiv, . from _auia_, to be content, to rejoice. axalaco, xvii, . from _axalli_, a water plant, and loc. term. _co_. ayac, i, , _et sæpe_. nobody, no one. ayauh, iii, . fog, mist; compound form of _ayauitl_. ayauhcalcatl, vi, . one who has charge of the mist. compare _tepancalcatl_, a gardener. ayailicalo, iii, . from _ayauh_, _calli_, the house of mist, but the gloss renders it by _auicalo_, the fresh, dewy house (cf. sah., p. ). aylhuiçolla, iii, . derived by the gloss from _ilhuice_, more, hence, to make to grow, to increase. ayouica, vi, . for _ayaic_, never. aytoloc, xviii, ; xx, , . from _itoa_, to say, to tell, with negative prefix. ayya, i, , _et sæpe_; also in the forms _yya_, _ya_, _yyo_, _yye_, _aya_, _ayyo_, etc. an interjection, or shout. c ca. . and, also. . to be. Ça, Çan, vii, . only, solely. cacauantoc, vi, . reduplicated from _caua_, to cease, stop, leave off. cacauatla, xi, . "among the cacao trees." calli, i, , . house; _calipan_, in the house. cana, xii, . somewhere. cane, xii, . for _ca nel_, and truly. caqui, viii, . to hear, to listen. caquia, ii, . from _caqui_, to hear. catlachtoquetl, iii, . apparently compounded of the interrogative _catli_ and _tlacatl_, man, mortal; what mortal? catella, iii, . for _catel_; who indeed? caua, xiv, ; xv, . to cease, to stop; to surpass; to lay down. ce, i, ; xv, . one, a, an. cenpoliuiz, xiii, . from _cempoliui_, to perish wholly. centeutl, vii, ; viii, , ; xiv, ; xix, . prop. name. the god of maize. centla, xiii, . for _centli_, ear of corn, dried corn. centlalia, i, , . to assemble. chacalhoa, xiv, . for _chachaloa_, to tinkle, to resound. chalchimamatlaco, xv, . compound of _chalchiuitl_, jade, turquoise; hence of that color; _mama_, to carry; ref. to betake oneself; _atl_, water; _co_, postposition. chalchimichuacan, xiv, . "the cerulean home of the fishes." chalchiuhecatl, xiv, . from _chalchiuitl_, jade; metaphorically, anything precious. chalmecatl, xviii, . from _chalani_, to beat, to strike. apparently a proper name. chalmecatecutli, xiii, . "ruler of the (drum) beaters." comp. v. . chalima, xiii, . apparently for _chalani_, to strike, to beat, especially a drum. chan, xvi, , ; xvii, . house, home. chicauaztica, iii, ; xiii, , . strongly, boldly, energetically. chicomoztoc, vii, . "at the seven caves." _see_ notes to hymn vii. chicomollotzin, xvi, . _see_ notes, p. . chicueyocan, vi, . in eight folds. from _chicuei_, eight. chicunaui, iv, . nine; but used generally in the sense of "many," "numerous." chimal, xi, . for _chimalli_, buckler, shield. chimalticpac, xviii, . "above the shield." chipuchica, v, . metastasis for _ichpochtica_, from _ichpochtli_, virgin. chiua, iii, . to make, to form, to do. chocaya, iii, , . from _choca_, to weep, to cry out. chocayotica, xii, . adverbial from _choca_: "weepingly." cholola, xiv, ; xx, . proper name. "place of the fugitives." cipactonalla, viii, . from _tonalli_, the sun, day. perhaps a proper name. ciuatontla, vi, . for _ciuatontli_, little woman. coatepec, v, . at the _coatepetl_, or serpent hill. cochina, xiv, . from _cochi_, to sleep. colhoa, xiii, . for _colhoacan_, proper name. coliuacan, xvii, ; xix, . proper name, for _colhoacan_. cotiuana, x, . probably for _xo(xi-on)titaana_, tie hands, join hands. coçauic, iv, , . poetic for _coztic_, yellow; literally, "yellowed," from _coçauia_. cozcapantica, xii, . adverbial, from _cozcatl_, a jewel, fig., an infant. cozcapilla, xii, . from _cozcatl_, _pilli_, "jewel of a babe." cuecuechiuia, v, . from _cuecuechoa_, to shake. cuecuexi, xi, . from _cuecuechoa_, to shake. cueponi, iv, , etc. to bloom, to blossom. cuicatl, i, , _et sæpe_. hymn, song. in compos., _cuic_. e eztlamiyaual, iii, . apparently from _eztli_, blood, race, and _tlamiauati_, to surpass, to excel. h huia, ii, . _see_ _ahuia_. y y, i. for _in_ (_yn_), he, it, the, that, etc. ya. _see_ ayya. yancuic, iv, . new, fresh, green. yancuipilla, xii, . new-born babe. yantata, xiv, . an exclamation. yaquetlaya, i, . apparently a form of _tlayacati_, or of _yaque_, both from the root _yac-_, a point, a prominence, to be prominent. but the etymology is not clear. yauciuatzin, xiii, . _yaotl-cihuatl-tzin_, "the revered war-woman." yauicaya, iii, . from _yauh_, to go. yauilili, xi, . causative form of _yauh_, "to cause to go," to put to flight. yautiua, i, , . freq. from _yaotia_, to fight. yautlatoaquetl, xv, , . _see_ _yautlatoaya_. yautlatoaya, i, ; v. . from _yaotl_, war, _tlatoa_, to speak. _yautlatoani_, ruler in war, was one of the titles of huitzilopochtli. yaxcana, iii, . _axcan_, now. _axcatl_, goods, property. _yaxca_, his, its, property. yayalezqui, iii, , . frequent. of _yaliztli_; to go and come, go back and forth. yca, iv, . with which. icçotl, vi, . a tree planted in front of temples. its bark was used for mats (sahagun). icnocaua, xvi, , . to leave unprotected, as orphans. ye, viii, . already, this, but, nevertheless. yecoa, xiii, ; xiv, . . to have carnal connection. . to end, to finish. yeua, i, , etc. for _yehuatl_, he, it, that. ihuitl, i, ; iv, . a feather; _met._, a model, pattern. ihiya, ii, . apparently for _iye_, yes, affirmative particle. ilhuiquetl, iii, . from _ilhuia_, to say, to call. iliuiz, xv, . thoughtlessly; with negative prefix _a_, not thoughtlessly. ymocxi, i, . poetic for _in micti_, from _mictia_, to slaughter. yoalticatla, viii, . _yoalli-ticatla_, midnight. yoalli, xv, . night. yoatzin, xv, , . reverential of _yoalli_, night. yocoxquia, xix, . peaceably, quietly. yolcan, xviii, . place of birth. yolceuiz, xv, , . to appease, to please. yollotl, iv, . heart, mind, center. itaca, iv, . for _itacatl_, food, sustenance. iteamic, xiv, . from _itta_, to see. itlani, xiv, . _see_ _tlani_. itontecuitl, vi, . explained by the gloss by _in tetecuti_, which i take to be an error for _in teteuctin_. itopanecauiloc, iii, . the gloss gives _ni topan_. the verbal is a passive from _caua_, to leave, to abandon. itta, iv, . to see, to esteem. ytzicotla, ii, . for _uitzicotla_, lit., place abounding in thorns; fig., the south. itzipana, x, . apparently a compound of _ixtli_, face, and _pan_, for the more usual _ixpan_, before, in front of; _ixtli_ in comp. sometimes becomes _itz_, as in _itzoca_, "tener sucia la cara," molina, _vocabulario_. itziueponi, xi, . for _itztle-cueponi_, "resplendent with spears." itzpapalotl, iv, . "the obsidian butterfly," an image of gold and feathers, worn as a royal insignia. _see_ sahagun, lib. vii, cap. . yua, iii, . to send. yuitla, xiii, . _see_ _ihuitl_. yuiyoc, ii, , , . from _yuiyotl_, a feather, _yuiyoa_, to be dressed in feathers, or feather garments. ixtlauatl, iv, . open field, uncultivated region. yyaconay, i, . for _ayac-on-ay_, as appears by the gloss. yya. _see_ ayya. izqui, xiv, . as many as. iztac, iv, , . white. iz tleica, vi, ; xv, . "here is why." the interrogative changed into the predicative form. _see_ paredes, _compendio_, p. . m ma, vi, . . sign of negative, no, not. . sign of imperative. macaiui, xvii, , . from _macoa_, and _i_, to drink. maceualli, vi, . subjects, servants. maceuh, xx, . from _maceua_, to seek for, to obtain. mach, xiv, . intensive particle. machiyotla, ii, , . for _machiotl_, sign, example. macoa, i, ; xvii, . to aid, to assist. macxoyauh, xviii, . by the gloss, for _ma-xi-yauh_, imper. of _yauh_, to go. malinalli, xiii, . a broom. malli, ii, , , . captive; one taken by hand. mama, xiv, . to carry a load on the shoulders. mamalia, xix, . to penetrate. mamauia, i, . to frighten, frequentative-causative, from _maui_, to fear. maololo, xiv, . from _ma-ololo_, to cover with the hand. mati, ii, . to know. matiuia, xiv, . for _matihuia_, from _mati_. matlauacal, vii, . a net-basket. ma-tonicaya, x, . let it shine, let it be bright; from _tona_. mauia, ii, , , . to give into the hands of, to deliver up. maui noyol, xiv, . to fear in my heart. mauiztli, vi, , xiii, . an honor (_cosa de estima_, _molina_). a person of honor. mazatl, iv, . (doubtful.) deer; any large wild animal. mecatla, vi, . for _mecatl_, cord, rope. milacatzoa, i, . _mo-ilacatzoa_, to twine oneself, as a serpent around a tree; refers to the _xiuhcoatl_, fire-serpent, of huitzilopochtli. mimicha, iv, . fish, for _michin_. mimilcatoc, vi, . twisted, twined. miquiyecauiz, xiv, . compound of _miqui_, to die, and _yecaui_, to cease; "to cease dying." mitoaya, i, . for _mo-itoa-ya_, it is said, they said. mixcoatepetl, xix, . the mountain or town of mixcoatl. mixcoatl, xiii, . a proper name. mixiui, xii, . to accouch, to bear a child. mixtecatl, i, . a proper name. the mixteca lived on the pacific coast, to the southwest, and were not of nahuatl lineage. mixiuiloc, v, . from _mixiui_, to accouch, to bear a child. mo-cuiltonoa, vi, . to rejoice or enjoy greatly. moneçoya, xviii, . from _neçi_, to appear. mo-neuila, xiii, . from _eua_, to rise up, to come forth. mo-quetzquetl, iii, . for _m-oquequetz_, frequent. of _quetza_; to flow forth, to run from and out. a poetic form, not uncommon. moquichtiuiui, v, . _oquichuia_, to suffer manfully. mo-teca, xiv, . they assemble; impers. from _teca_, to place oneself, to lie down. moteua, xv, . perhaps from _itoa_, to say, "it is said." mo-tlaquechizca, xiii, , , . strengthened form of _tlaquechia_, to rest upon; to bear down upon; to press upon. mo-tlaqueuia, xi, . to seek people, or to hire them to work injury to others. mo-tonacayouh, iii, . our flesh; the usual form is _tonacayo_. moxayaual, v, . from _yaualoa_, to wander about. moxocha, iv, , . probably a compound of _moxochitl-cha-yaui_, to sow flowers. mozcaltizqui, iv, . from _mo-izcali_, to resuscitate, to animate. n nacha, iii, . for _nachcan_, there, in that place. nacochtla, xiv, . the ears. nahuia, iii, . from _naui_, four. nanquilia, vii, ; xix, . to answer. nauaco, xi, . "with (my) skill." naualpilli, iii, . "master magician;" said by the gloss to be a name of tlaloc. sahagun gives this as one of the gods of the goldsmiths (lib. ix, cap. ). naualachic, xiv, . skilfully; from _naualchiua_, to do something skilfully. nauaquia, xiv, . perhaps for _nahuaque_, an epithet of divinity. nauhxiuhtica, iii, . "after four years" (molina). neçazualcactla, xviii, . from the gloss equivalent to _neçaualacautla_, from _neçaualiztli_, fast, fasting, and _caua_, to leave. nechyatetemilli, xiii, . reverential of _temi_, to lie down, to fill. necuilia, x, . to bring some one. nella, iii, . for _nelli_, truly. nen, adv. i, . in vain, of no advantage. nenequia, xv, . to oppose, to be angry with. nenoualico, xi, . see _onoalico_. _ne_ is the impersonal, pronominal prefix. nepaniui, viii, . to join, to unite oneself to. nepanauia, iii, . _nepan_, thither, and _yauh_, to go. nepapan, ii, ; xiv, . diverse, varied. ne-qui-macui, vii, . "i take them by the hand." explained by the gloss to be an archaic (_chicimeca_) expression used in leading or guiding (in dance or song). niuaya, x, . for _ni-ihua-ya_, i sent (some one). ni-yocoloc, iii, . passive preterit from _yocoya_; _yocolia_, to be made, composed, created. no. . possess, pron. my, mine. . adv. also, yet. noca, i, . of me, my, mine. nohuihuihuia, i, . poetic form for _neuiuilia_, to equal some one. nomactemi, xiii, , . _no-maitl-c-temi_, my hand it fills, = with full hands. nomauilia, x, . to do a thing personally. nomiuh, xviii, . _no-omitl_, my bone, point, arrow. nopeltzin, xiii, . _no-pilli-tzin_, "my revered lord." no-tauane, vi, . our fathers. no-tecua, vi, . for _nic-tecuia_, i tie it, i make it fast. the gloss, _amo-tecuhuan_, is not intelligible. no-teuh, i, ; xx, , . "my god." noyoco, xi, . apparently for _niyoco_, "with me alone." noyollo, xv, . from _yollotl_, heart, soul, courage, etc. o oc, ii, . yet, besides this. ocelocoatl, iii, . "tiger snake." ocoyoalle, viii, . "the night pine." apparently a proper name. ocutitlana, xi, . "among the pine woods." oholopa, ii, . poetic compound of _ololoa_, to cover, to dress, and _oppa_, twice. ollama, xiv, . to play at ball; from _olli_, a ball. olya, xviii, . a form from _ololoa_, to cover or clothe oneself. omei, xiii, . for _ome_, two; the gloss reads _matlactli ome_, twelve. on, i, , _et sæpe_. a particle, merely euphonic, or signifying action at a distance. onca, _sæpe_. there. onoalico, xi, . proper name, derived from _onoua_, the impersonal form of _onoc_, and meaning "a peopled place," a thickly inhabited spot. the terminal, _co_, is the postposition, at. opuchi, xviii, . "left-handed;" by the gloss = _tiacauh_, brave, valiant. oquixanimanico, x, . a form in the second person plural, compounded of _quiça_ and _mani_, "coming forth, scatter yourselves around." otlacatqui, xiv, , . _ilacati_, to be born. otli, viii, . path, road. ouayyeo, i, . an interjection. oya, _sæpe_. . an interjection. . preterit of _yauh_, to go. oyatonac, ii, , . for _otonac_, from _tona_, to shine. oztomecatl, xiv, . a merchant. p petlacalco, xx, . from _petlatl_, mat, _calli_, house, and _co_, post-position. peua, vi, . to begin. picha-huazteca, i, . proper name, "the frozen huastecs," perhaps those living on the high sierra, who were the nearest to the nahuas. pillachiualoyan, xiv, . locative from _pilli-chiua_, to engender offspring. piltzintecutli, ix, ; xiv, . lord of the youths or children, _piltzintli_. pipiteca, i, . those having charge of the spies, from _pipia_, to spy. pipitla, xx, . reduplicated locative from _pilli_, a child. pinauhtia, vi, . to make ashamed. pinauia, ii, ; iii, , . to affront, to put to shame; to censure, to blame. poliuiz, xv, . from _poloa_, to destroy. pomaya, i, ; xi, . apparently for _panauia_, to conquer. potocaya, xiii, , . _potli_, companion. potonia, iv, ; xiv, . to be liberal, to give equally or freely; to adorn with feathers. poyauhtla, iii, . among the fogs, from _poctli_, smoke, fog, mist; _atl_, water. pupuxotiuh, i, . a gerundive form from _popoxoa_, to till, to work the soil; here used figuratively. q quacuillo, iii, ; xx, . from _qua_, to eat. quatonalla, xviii, . "head bright," the helmet on the head. quaui, xiii, . a shortened form of _quauiuitl_, in the same verse; compound of _quauhtli_, eagle, _iuitl_, feather; a decoration explained in the gloss, usually called the _quauhtzontli_, eagle crest. quauinochitla, xi, . "among the tuna trees." quauiquemitl, ii, . from _quauhtli_, eagle, _quemitl_, clothing, garb. quechol, xiv, , . a bird. quentia, xv, . to dress oneself. quetl, ii, . poetic for _quetza_, to rise, to come out of or from. see gloss to iii, . quetza, xiv, . to arise from. quetzalaueuetl, xv, . of _quetzal_, beautiful, and _aueuetl_, the water cypress, fig. chief, lord. quetzalcalla, iii, . "the house of the quetzal," beautiful as the quetzal bird. explained in the gloss to be the place of joy. quetzalcoatli, xi, ; xiv, . proper name. quetzalcocox, vii, ; viii, . the pheasant. queyamica, iii, . for _quenamican_, how there? queyanoca, i, . according to the gloss, equivalent to _onoca_, from _onoc_. quiauiteteu, viii, . rain gods; _quiauitl_, rain; _teteu_, plural of _teotl_, god. quilaztla, xiii, . for quilaztli, another name of cihuacoatl. quilazteutl, xviii, . _see_ _quilaztla_. quinexaqui, vii, . explained by the gloss by _oniualleuac_, i came quickly (_eua_, in composition, signifies precipitation). hence it is a form from _yauh_, _yaqui_. quiyauatla, vi, . poetic for _quiauitl_, rain. t tamoanchan, iv, , etc. "we seek our home," a name applied to the earthly paradise. see p. . teacuitlaquemitl, xv, . golden garb. teca, iii, . to spread out, especially of liquids. tecpanteutl, xvii, , . "palace god." teicnellili, vi, . a benefit, an advantage. teizcaltequetl, iii, . that which gives wisdom and life. "teizcali, cosa que da doctrina, y aviva, y da entendimiento" (molina). telipuchtla, ii, , , . for _telpochtli_, a youth. temacouia, vi, . from _temaca_, to give, to deliver into the hands of. temoquetl, iii, . from _temoa_, to seek, _quiza_, to go forth. tenamitl, i, . the wall of a city; hence, a town or city. tepanecatl, xi, . "dweller in the palace." a proper name. tepanquizqui, i, . a substitute, one who represents another. tepetitlan, v, . "among the mountains." tepeuh, xx, , . from _peua_, to begin. tepeyocpa, xv, . from _tepetl_, _pan_. tequiua, ii, ; v, , from _tequiutl_, task, labor, but explained by the gloss as equivalent to _tepeua_, to overthrow, to conquer. tetemoya, ii, , . frequentative from _temo_, to descend, to come down, _tetemo_. tetoma, xviii, . from _toma_, to open, to send forth, to let loose. tezauhpilla, iii, . "master of fear." tetzauiztli, i, . an object which causes fear. a name of huitzilopochtli. see tezozomoc, _cronica mexicana_, cap. vi. teuaqui, ii, , . from _teotl_, god, _aqui_, to enter, to penetrate. teucontlipaca, iv, . explained by the gloss as _teucumitl icpac_, upon the thorn bush _teocumitl_, espina grande, molina). but i should think it to be a compound of _teotl_, _conetl_, _icpac_, "upon the son of the goddess." the son of teteunan was especially centeotl, god of maize. teueuel, v, . poetic from _ueue_, the ancients, the elders. teumechaue, iv, , , , ; viii, ; xix, . perhaps from _teo-ome-chayaue_, "the twice divine seed-thrower," or _teometl-chayaue_, the planter of the divine maguey. teumilco, xiii, . from _teotl_, _milli_, _co_, "in the divine cornfield," fig. reference to the battlefield. teutiualcoya, iii, . the gloss reads _teuitualcoya_, from _teotl_, god, _ittualo_, passive of _itta_, to see. teu-tlaneuiloc, iii, . explained by the gloss as equivalent to _onetlanauiloc_, an impersonal, passive, preterit, from _naua_, "it was danced." the peculiar sacred dance called _tlanaua_, performed by young girls, is described by sahagun, lib. ii, cap. . teutlalipan, iv, . in the divine earth. teyomi, vii, . from _teyo_, esteemed, honored. tezcatlipuca, xix, . proper name of a divinity. tezcatzintli, xix, . proper name from _tezcatl_, mirror. tezcatzonco, xvii, ; xix, . apparently the name of a part of the temple. tianquiz, xiv, . the market place. tiçatl, iv, . chalk; fig., model, pattern. timalla, xviii, . form of _timalloa_, to swell, to increase; fig., to rejoice, to glorify oneself. tlacaluaz, xiv, . for _tlacaluaztli_, a blow-pipe. tlacati, xv, , . for _tlacatl_. tlacatl, ii, ; xiii, . mortal, creature, person. tlaçaz, xix, . from _tlaça_, to overturn. tlachco, xiv, . the place of the ball play. tlachinaya, xiv, . from _tlachia_, to see. tlachtli, vii, . the ball. tlacochcalco, ii, ; x, . from _tlacochtli_, arrow, or generally, weapon, _calli_, house, _co_, post-position, in "the hall of weapons," or arsenal. it was a room in that part of the temple dedicated to huitzilopochtli, and was filled with arrows, spears, etc. sahagun, lib. viii, cap. . tlaçolteutla, xiv, . name of a mexican goddess. tlacoyoalle, xiv, . at midnight. tlacyaniuitza, ix, . probably for _tlayauani ni-huitz_, i come dancing, as a dancer. tlaixtotoca, x, . _ixtotoca_, to search for. tlalli, xiv, . to place oneself; earth, ground. tlalocan, iii, ; xvi, . the home of tlaloc. see p. . tlaloc tlamacazque, viii, , , . "dispensers of the benefits of tlaloc"; the name applied to the priests of this divinity. tlalpa, xiv, . from _tlalli_, earth, and _pan_. tlaltecutli, iv, . _tlalli_, _tecutli_; lord of the earth or land. tlamacazecatlo, xix, . for _tlamacaztecatl_, one concerned with the priestly office. tlamocoyoualca, xix, , . apparently from _tlamaca_, to serve. tlani, xiv, . below; _i-tlani_, below it. tlanuati, viii, , . to send. tlapani, xviii, . to break. tlapitza, xiv, . a flute. tlapoalli, iii, . to number, to reckon. tlapomaya, _see_ _pomaya_. tlaquaua, xv, , . to make strong, or hard. tlatia, xv, . . to hide oneself. . to burn oneself. tlatoa, xiv, , . to sing, to chant, to speak. tlatol, iii, . for _tlatolli_, speech, discourses, prayers. tlatonazqui, xiv, . from _tona_, to shine. tlauana, xv, . to drink wine (_octli_), tlauia, xv, . to appear red or shining. tlauizcalle, xiv, ; xix, . master of the house of the dawn. the terminal _ê_ signifies an active possessive. tlayauican, ix, . the dancing-place; from _tlayaua_, to dance in a certain manner. tlaxotecatl teuhtla, i, . _see_ tlaxotla. tlaxotla, i, . passive form from _tlaça_, to hurl, to throw. huitzilopochtli was specifically "the hurler." _see_ notes to hymn i. toçiquemitl, i, . from _to-citli-quemitl_, vestment of our ancestress. tocniuaya, viii, . _to-icniuh_, our friend. tocuilitla, ii, . _see_ tocuilechcatl. toçiuitica, xiv, . from _to-citli-yuitl_, with adverbial ending; "in the feather garb of our ancestors." tocuilechcatl, ii, . _to_, our, _cuilia_, to paint, adorn; "our adornment." to-naca, xiii, . "our flesh." tonanaya, xiii, . reduplicated for _tonaya_, to shine forth. tonaqui, i, . a form from _tona_, to shine. tonana, iv, . "our mother;" _nantli_. topaniaz, ix, . the gloss reads more correctly, _no umpa niaz_, "also there i shall go." totoch, x, ; xvii, title. _tochtli_, a rabbit; the name of a god of wine; also, of a day of the week. toyauan, i, , . _to-yauan_, our enemies. (_see_ olmos. _gram._, p. .) tozquiuaua, xix, . from _tozquitl_, voice. tzioac, xiii, . for _tzioactli_, a sacred tree; here apparently fig. for a sacred person. tzioactitlan, vii, . "in the tzihuac bushes;" the tzihuac was a kind of maguey of a sacred character. _see_ my _ancient nahuatl poetry_, p. . tziuaquimiuh, vii, . "my havresac made of tzihuac fibres." tzocotzontla, xx, . from _tzocoton_, little, _tzontli_, hair. tzonimolco, vi, . "where the hair spreads abroad." the name of the hall sacred to the god of fire in the temple. the expression refers figuratively to the flames blazing upwards like hair from a head. tzotzonia, xix, . to play on an instrument. u ualitla, xv, . comp. of _uallauh_ and _itla_. uallaçic, viii, . from _uallauh_, to come, and _acic_, which adds the sense of approaching near. ualmeua, xii, . to cry lustily. ueca, x, . far. uel, or huel, adv., i, . well. uelmatia, iii, . to appear well, to be well. ueponi, vii, . _uepollotl_, kin, relations. uexcaitoa, ii, . to offer harm, to curse. uicacapa, iv, . towards, to. uitzalochpan, xiii, . compound of _huitz_, to come, and _tlaloa_, to run. uitzetla, ii, . for _uitzlan_, in at the south, or the place of thorns. uitznauac, ii, . for huitznauac. _see_ notes to hymn ii. uitztla, xiii, . according to the gloss to v. , this is a poetic form for _uictli_, a hoe, the native agricultural implement. x xamontoca, iv, . _xi-am-on-itta_, from _itta_, to look, to see. compare the gloss. xatenonotza, vi, . for _xi-tenonotza_, call ye upon, pray ye to. xayaualli, xiii, . from _xayaua_, to adorn oneself in the ancient manner. xeliui, xviii, . to split, to divide. ximocaya, iii, . rendered by the gloss as equivalent to _ximoayan_, the paradise of souls; _see_ my _ancient nahuatl poetry_, p. . ximiçotica, xvi, , . from _iça_, to wake up, awake. xiuh, iv, . green; grass. xiuacalco, iii, . from _xiuh_, _calli_, _co_, in the green house; the gloss explains it by _acxoyacalco_, "in the house of the wild laurel," or decorated with wild laurel, a plant probably sacred to tlaloc. xiuicoatl, xv, . grass snake, or green snake. from _xiuitl_, _coatl_. xiyanouia, iii, . imperative from _yauh_, to go. xochinquauitl, xiv, . the flower-tree. xochiquetzal, xiv, . proper name of a deity. xochitla, iv, , etc. flowers, place of, or abundance of. from _xochitl_. xochitlicacan, xiv, , . the place of flowers. xoconoctli, xix, . from _xocotl_, fruit, apple. xocoyeua, xix, . from _xococtl_, fruit. xolotl, xiv, . a servant, a page. xoyauia, ix, . from _xoyaui_, to begrime, to spoil; _xoyauian_, the place of blackness, or of decay. xoxolcuicatl, vi, . from _xolotl_, servant, page, and _cuicatl_, song. index. abundance, the fabled house of, amanteca, amantlan; a quarter of the city of tenochtitlan, amimitl, the god: hymn to, his functions, ancient god, the, a name of the god of fire, "ancient nahuatl poetry," quoted, arrows: the house of, god of, artists, the goddess of, atlaua, the god: hymn to, signification of, auroras, the four, ayopechtli _or_ ayopechcatl, a goddess: hymn to, functions of, aztec: mythology, paradise of, nation, wars of, ball, the game of, bibliotheca laurentio-mediceana, bread and water, fasting on, bustamente, his edition of sahagun's _historia_, cardinal points as symbols, chalchiucihuatl, a name of the goddess chicomecoatl, chalmecatl, name of a deity, chichimecs, an ancient tribe, chicomecoatl, the goddess: hymn to, functions of, her names, chicomolotl, a name of the goddess chicomecoatl, chicomoztoc, the "seven caves," childbirth, goddess of, chimalman, the goddess of, chimalipan, the virgin-mother, cholula or chollolan, a place name, cihuacoatl, the goddess: hymn to, functions of, cinteotl or centeotl, the god, his birthplace, his functions, cipactonalli, a fabled personage, clavigero, quoted, coatepec, the sacred serpent mountain, codex ramirèz, the, codex telleriano-remensis, the, codex vaticanus, the, colhuacan: first king of, derivation of, reference to, colors, symbolism of, cuauhtitlan, the annals of, cuezaltzin, a name of the god of fire, dance: the jar, of the "four auroras," death-song, a, drum, use of the, drum-beating, goddess of, drunkenness, deities of, duran, diego, quoted, eagle's crest, as ornament, earth: goddess of the, heart of the, eight, as a sacred number, emerald, the lady of the, feathers: as ornaments, symbol of the spirit, fertility, genius of, fire, the mexican god of, fire-stick, the, fish-spear, god of the, "five flowers," the, a plant, flames, the hall of, flowers: the god of, plumage of, as symbols, food, the goddess of, four, as sacred number, gods: mother of the, home of the, green corn, goddess of, guadalupe, our lady of, hair, as a symbol of flames, heads, serpent of seven, hearts of victims torn out, hieroglyphic books, native, huasteca, a tribe, huehueteotl, a name of the god of fire, huitzilopochtli: hymn to, his functions, description of his idol, festival of, temple of, mother of, huitznahuac: war song of, brother of huitzilopochtli, hurler, the; epithet applied to huitzilopochtli, ichpochtli, the virgin goddess, illustrations, colored, inquisition, action on sahagun's historia, intoxicating drink, the gods of, itzpapalotl, a goddess, ixcoçauhqui, the god of fire, hymn to, jade, ornaments of, mentioned, jourdanet, dr., his translation of sahagun's _historia_, kingsborough, lord: his edition of sahagun's _historia_, his _mexican antiquities_, lightning, as a serpent, lying-in, goddesses of. _see_ childbirth. macuilxochitl: name of a deity, hymn to, maguey, brought from paradise, maize: the god of, goddess of, maya tribes in mexico, mazateca, a certain tribe or caste, merchants, the god of, mexicans, the, mexicans, poetry of, mexico, ancient, mimixcoa. _see_ mixcoatl. mirror, the use of, mist, the house of, mixcoatl, the god: hymn of, his functions, hill of, mixcoatepec, mountain so called, mixteca } : a nation, mixtecatl } mixtecapan, a locality, mother of the gods, "our mother," the virgin, nahua, the, as tribal name, nahuatl language, the, mss., naualpilli, "noble magician," a name of tlaloc, night, the god of, nonoalco, a place name, "obsidian butterfly," a kind of ornament, olmos, quoted, opochtli, the god of netmakers, otomis, the tribe so-called, war song of, otontecutli, the god: hymn to, his functions, paradise, the terrestrial, paynal, the god, parturition, goddess of. _see_ childbirth. picha-huasteca, a tribe, pipitlan, a place name, pipiteca, a nomen gentile, poetry, ancient mexican, pulque, the god of, quechol bird, the, quetzal bird, the, quetzalcoatl: priests adopt his garb, as speaker, his companion, quilaztli: name of a goddess, related to atlaua, rain, the god of, rain gods, the, the house of, reproduction, the goddess of, sacrifices, human, sahagun, bernardino de: ms. of his _historia_, his remarks on the chants, action of inquisition on, quoted, serpent: the lightning, mountain, the serpent woman, serpent's blood, swallowing of, of seven heads, seven, as a sacred number, simeon, remi, his notes to sahagun's _historia_, slaves, sacrifice of, soul, place in aztec mythology, south, the, as origin of deities, sun-god, the, tamoanchan: its signification, the houses of, teatlahuiani, a name of the god of the pulque, temple of tenochtitlan, tenochtitlan, ancient name of the city of mexico, temple of, tepeyacac, temple at, tequechmecaniani, a name of the god of drunkenness, teteuinan, hymn of, tezcatlipoca, the god, tezcatzoncatl, god of the pulque, hymn to, tezcatzontli, thorns, diviners with, tlaloc, the god: song of, house of, functions of, figure of, tlalocan, the terrestrial paradise, guide to, explained, tlazolteotl, the love goddess, toçi, our mother, a goddess, toltecs, the fabulous nation of, torquemada, quoted, totec, the god: hymn to, a companion of quetzalcoatl, totochtin, gods of intoxication, tochtli, the rabbit, as a god of drunkards, tonan _or_ tonantzin, the goddess, travelers, the deity of, tulan, the site of, turquoises as ornaments, twins, the goddess of, tzatzitepec, the hill of proclamation, tziuactitlan, a place name, tzocatzontlan, a place name, uitznahuac. _see_ huitznabruac. venus impudica, the mexican, vitzilopochtli. _see_ huitzilopochtli. war: the god of, goddess of, water cypress, the, waters, master of the, woman, sacrifice of, xilonen, goddess of green corn, xippe totec, the god, hymn to, xiuhtecutli, a name of the god of fire, xochipilli, the god of flowers: hymn to, functions of, synonym, xochitlycacan, name of the earthly paradise, its meaning, xochiquetzal, the goddess: hymn to, functions of, reference to, yacatecutli, god of travelers, hymn to, yoatzin, the god of night, youallauan, the nocturnal tippler, high priest of totec, [illustration: a mangue indian reciting a loga. see page xxv.] brinton's library of aboriginal american literature. number iii. the gÜegÜence; a comedy ballet in the nahuatl-spanish dialect of nicaragua. edited by daniel g. brinton ams press new york copyright, d. g. brinton. . library of aboriginal american literature. no. iii. edited by d. g. brinton, m.d. philadelphia: . preface. the play which is presented in this volume is the only specimen known to me of the native american comedy. it is of comparatively recent origin, and is composed in a mixed dialect, a jargon of low spanish and corrupt aztec (nahuatl); but, both in its history and spirit, it bears so many marks of native composition, and is so characteristic of the sort of humor popular with the tribes from whom it was obtained, that it fairly merits a place in this series of publications. the text was obtained in nicaragua, by the late dr. carl hermann berendt. but no translation of any part of it and no notes upon it were found among his papers. the responsibility for the rendering rests, therefore, with myself. it has presented extreme difficulty, owing to the imperfect condition of the text, the deterioration of the nahuatl words and forms, the antiquated and provincial senses of the spanish words, and the obscure local references introduced. i would rather speak of my work as a loose paraphrase, aimed to give the general sense and humorous tone of the original, than as a faithful translation. the text has been printed precisely as in the manuscript, even obvious errors in spelling and punctuation having been preserved. suggestions with reference to these are made in the notes. for assistance in translating the spanish text, i would acknowledge my indebtedness to professor adolfo pierra, of philadelphia, and dr. f. c. valentine, of new york, both of whom have passed considerable periods in central america. _philadelphia, november, ._ contents. page _introduction._ § . _the nahuas and mangues of nicaragua._ v location of the nahuas of nicaragua, v derivation of the word _nicaragua_, v origin of the nicaraguan nahuas, vi location of the mangues, viii why called _chorotecas_, viii relationship to the chapanecs, ix culture level of the nahuas, x of the mangues, x disappearance of their languages, xi comparison of the nahuatl of nicaragua and of mexico, xiii comparison of the mangue with the chapanec, xiii differences between nicaraguan and pure nahuatl, xiv comparison of the mangue or chapanec, of central america, with the aymara, of peru, xv development of the nahuatl-spanish jargon, xvii specimens of it, xvii § . _the bailes or dramatic dances of nicaragua._ xix oviedo's description, xx symbolism of the dance, xxii benzoni's description, xxii gage's remarks, xxii historical character of the dances, xxiii five classes of dances, xxiii purpose and characters, xxiv the logas, xxv las inditas, xxv the chinegritos, xxvi the negritos, xxvi toro-guaca and other dances, xxvi the drama of the ollita, xxvii § . _nicaraguan musical instruments and music._ xxviii the marimba, its form and origin, xxviii the drum, xxx the ollita or musical jar, xxxi the pito or whistle, xxxiii specimens of airs, xxxiv the long flute, xxxv the juco, xxxv the quijongo or carimba, xxxvi the chilchil or ayacachtli, xxxvi the cacho, xxxvii character of native music, xxxvii air of the malinche, xxxviii choruses and cofradias, xxxviii melodies from the güegüence, xl § . _history of the "baile del güegüence."_ xli whence the text was obtained, xli time and manner of its rehearsal, xli age of the play, xlii reasons for considering it a native production xlii how different from the spanish comedy, xliii native plots of similar character, xliv native comedians, xlv § . _the dramatis personæ of the güegüence._ xlv the güegüence, xlv derivation of the name, xlv character, xlv malicious humor, xlvi costume, xlvi don forcico and don ambrosio, xlvi contrast of actions, xlvii the governor tastuanes, xlvii derivation of the name, xlvii minor characters, xlvii the lady suchi malinche, xlvii derivation of the name, xlvii the mules, xlvii their costume, xlviii § . _epitome of the story of the güegüence._ xlviii the gÜegÜence; a comedy. _notes to the güegüence._ _vocabulary._ _index._ list of illustrations. page frontispiece. a mangue indian reciting a loga. _from an original sketch by dr. berendt._ map of the location of the nahuas of nicaragua and their neighbors. xii ancient dance in nicaragua. xxii _from oviedo's historia._ a marimba player and his instrument. xxix _from von tempsky's mitla._ ancient aztec musician. xxx _from duran's historia._ nicaraguan indians playing on the drum. xxxii _from an original sketch by dr. berendt._ earthenware musical jar from nicaragua. xxxiii _from a drawing by dr. berendt._ earthenware whistle from nicaragua. xxxiii _from a drawing by dr. berendt._ native flute melodies. xxxiv _from ms. of dr. berendt._ whistles from nicaraguan burial mounds. xxxv _from report of dr. j. f. bransford._ the quijongo of nicaragua. xxxvi _original drawing from description._ aztec mourner singing and playing. xxxvii _from aztec codex in the aubin collection._ air of malinche. xxxviii _from morelet's voyage._ melodies from gÜegÜence. xl _original furnished by dr. e. flint._ earthenware cup from nicaragua. lxxviii _from a sketch by dr. berendt._ a nicaraguan plough. lxxx _from squier's nicaragua._ a machete. lxxxi _from an original sketch._ introduction. § . _the nahuas and mangues of nicaragua._ among the outlying colonies of that important people whose chief seat was in the valley of mexico, and who are variously known as aztecs, mexicans or nahuas, were several in central america. "one of these," writes mr. squier, "occupied the principal islands in the lake of nicaragua, the narrow isthmus which intervenes between that lake and the pacific, and probably a portion of the country to the southward, as far as the gulf of nicoya. their country was less than a hundred miles long, by twenty-five broad; yet here they preserved the same language and institutions, and practiced the same religious rites, with the people of the same stock who dwelt more than two thousand miles distant, on the plateau of anahuac, from whom they were separated by numerous powerful nations, speaking different languages, and having distinct organizations."[ ] this nahuatl tribe gave the name to the province, _nicaragua_, this being, according to some early authorities, the personal appellation of their chief at the epoch of their discovery, in , and, according to others, their national name.[ ] for no sufficient reasons, mr. squier applied to them the term _niquirans_, and dr. berendt _nicaraos_, but it seems better to retain, as distinctive for them, the name _nicaraguans_, or, more specifically, "the nahuas of nicaragua." "nicaragua" is undoubtedly a nahuatl word, but, as the letter _r_ is not found in that language, the precise original form is uncertain. father francisco vasquez explained it as a compound of the nahuatl _nican_, "here," and _anahuacos_, "here dwell those from anahuac;"[ ] or it may be from _nican_ and _nahua_ (plural form of _nahuatl_), "here dwell those speaking the nahuatl tongue;" or, as a personal name of a chief, it may be _ni calaquiya_, "i entered into, or took possession." how it happened that this fragment of the aztec nation had become detached from the main body and resident so far from its central seat, has not been clearly explained. mr. squier and some others have maintained the hypothesis that the migration of all the aztec tribes was from south to north, and that their scattered members in central america were bands which had stopped on the road.[ ] this opinion, however, is refuted by the evidence of language, and also by the unanimous traditions of the aztecs themselves, both in nicaragua and in mexico. the nicaraguans had a very positive recollection that their ancestors came from mexico, driven forth by scarcity of food, and that they wandered along the pacific shore to the locality in which the spaniards found them.[ ] they remembered the names of their ancient home, or, rather, of their ancient kindred, and gave them as _ticomega_ and _maguateca_, locating them toward the west ("hacia donde se pone el sol"). it is easy to recognize in these words the aztec terminations signifying _gens_ or tribe, _mecatl_ and _tecatl_, which in the plural drop the _tl_. nor can we be far wrong in identifying _magua_ with the aztec _maque_, upper, above, and _tico_ with _tiachcauh_, elder brother, and in translating these names, the one as "the upper people," _i. e._, the dwellers on the lofty interior plateau, and "our elder brothers," _i. e._, the senior and ranking clans of their tribe, who remained in anahuac.[ ] besides these traditions, the nicaraguans showed their close relationship to the aztecs by a substantial identity of language, mythology, religious rites, calendars, manners and customs. we have, fortunately, an unusual mass of information about them, from an examination of their leading men by the chaplain francisco de bobadilla, in , who took down their replies with as much accuracy as we could expect, and whose narrative has been preserved by the historian oviedo. they also had retained a knowledge of the mexican hieroglyphics, and wrote, in books of paper and parchment, their laws and ritual, their calendars and the boundaries of their lands.[ ] while this aztec band thus acknowledged themselves to be intruders, such appears not to have been the case with their immediate neighbors to the northeast and southwest. these were of one blood and language, and called themselves _mánkeme_, rulers, masters, which the spaniards corrupted into _mangues_.[ ] the invading aztecs appear to have split this ancient tribe into two fractions, the one driven toward the south, about the gulf of nicoya, the other northward, on and near lake managua, and beyond it on fonseca bay.[ ] probably in memory of this victory, the nicaraguans applied to them the opprobrious name _chololteca_, "those driven out," from the nahuatl verb _choloa_, and the suffix _tecatl_, which was corrupted by the spanish to _chorotecas_.[ ] the name does not by any means intimate that the mangues came from cholula in mexico, as some ancient, and some modern, writers have hastily supposed;[ ] nor is it a proof that they spoke an aztec dialect, as ternaux compans has asserted.[ ] so far is this from being the case, the mangue has no sort of affinity with the nahuatl, and must stand wholly asunder from it in the classification of american tongues. it has, indeed, a relative to the north, and a close one, the chapanec or chiapenec,[ ] spoken by the inhabitants of three small villages in chiapas, the largest of which has given its name to the province. these chapanecs, by their traditions, still clearly remembered at the time of the conquest, and preserved by the historian remesal, migrated from nicaragua to their more northern home. as they had no connection with the aztecs, so, also, they were wholly without affinities with the great maya stock, which extended far and wide over central america, although the contrary has been recently stated.[ ] in fact, among the five different languages which were spoken in the present province of nicaragua at the time of the discovery, not one belonged to any branch of the maya group.[ ] my present theme does not extend to a discussion of these various tongues, nor take me further into the ethnology of their locality. it has to do solely with these two nations, the nicaraguans and the mangues. the culture-level of the former was nearly as high as that found in the valley of mexico. they had a settled government, constructed edifices of stone, sculptured idols, utensils and ornaments out of the same material, were skilled in ceramics, deft in weaving cotton cloth and reed or grass mats, able in war, and thoughtful enough to puzzle their first european visitors with questions as to the stars and the earth, the beginning and the end of things.[ ] careful archaeologists in our own day have searched the territory they inhabited, and many museums contain specimens of what they accomplished in the direction of the arts, and testify to a respectable degree of intellectual advancement.[ ] we know less about the mangues. they are mentioned as differing in religious rites from the nicaraguans, and the impression is conveyed that they were in a more primitive condition, but yet with fair claims to be ranked among the cultivated nations of the new world. among them, in fact, dr. berendt located one of the "centres of ancient american civilization," and considered the definite solution of their affiliations as one of the problems of the first order in the ethnology of america.[ ] the spanish historians relate that they had hieroglyphic books, like the mexicans; that they were rather light in color, careful in dress, setting much store by their long hair, which they sedulously combed, and had an autocratic military government. their country was thickly peopled, especially that portion of it between the lakes. the district of managua was almost like a continuous town, so closely were the native houses placed together for nearly ten miles. in fact, it was called one city by the earliest explorers, and oviedo, who takes pains to criticise these for their tendency to exaggeration, estimated the population of this limited district, at the time of the conquest, at forty thousand souls.[ ] at present, scarcely any pure-blood remnants of either of these nations can be found, and both languages are practically extinct. when mr. squier visited nicaragua, in , he obtained, with great difficulty, a short vocabulary of the nahuatl dialect, spoken on the island of ometepec, in lake nicaragua; and, in , dr. berendt, only at the cost of repeated efforts, succeeded in securing from a few survivors of advanced ages a moderately full collection of mangue words and sentences.[ ] [illustration: map of the location of the nahuas of nicaragua and their neighbors.] to illustrate the practical identity of the nahuatl of nicaragua with that of anahuac, and the mangue of nicaragua with that of chiapas, i will insert two short lists of common words with their equivalents in those four dialects. the first is from mr. squier's works above referred to, the second from the manuscripts of dr. berendt now in my possession. _comparison of the nahuatl of nicaragua and of mexico._ english. nahuatl of nicaragua. nahuatl of anahuac. god, teot. teotl. man, tlacat. tlacatl. woman, ciuat. ciuatl. head, tzonteco. totzontecon. foot, hixt. ycxitl. dog, izcuindi. itzcuintli. deer, mazat. mazatl. rabbit, toste. tochtli. fire, tlet. tletl. water, at. atl. house, calli. calli. maize, centl. centli. rain, quiavit quiahuitl. flower, sochit. xochitl. wind, hecat. ehecatl. snake, coat. coatl. eagle, oate. quauhtli. flint, topecat. tecpatl. mountain, tepec. tepec. one, ce. ce. two, ome. ome. three, ye. yei. four, nau naui. five, macuil. macuilli. _comparison of the mangue with the chapanec._ english. mangue of nicaragua. mangue of chiapas. man (homo), ndijpu. dipaju. man (vir), nyu'a. n[)o]jue, naha. woman, najui. najui. father, gooha. youa, poua. mother, ngumu. goma. head, gu t[chi]ima t[chi]ima. eye, nahte. nate. ear, nyujui. noj[)u]a. foot, ngra. taku. ruler (or chief), mánkeme. d[chi]amá _or_ mangheme. dog, nyumbí. numbí. mouse, nangi. nangi. bird, nyuri. nuri. snake, nule. nulú. fire, nyayu. n[)i][)i]ú. water, nimbu. nimbu. house, nangu. nangu. maize, nama. nama. wind, nit[)i]ú. tijú. hill, diri, tiri. dili. one, tike. tike. two, jami. jumiji. three, hajmi. jamiji. four, haeme. j[)u]amiji. five, jagusmi. ja[)o]miji. it needs but a cursory glance at these lists to see that, while there is scarcely a dialectic difference between the two nahuatl columns, and again between the two mangue columns, there is absolutely no point of contact between mangue and nahuatl. the chief differences between nicaraguan and pure nahuatl were, that the former changed the double consonant _tl_ into _t_, or dropped it altogether; that the _c_, _ch_ and _q_ were confounded; that, in the conjugation, they dropped the prefix _tla_, which in pure nahuatl is employed to indicate that the inanimate object of the verb is not expressed; that certain terminal consonants, as _x_, were dropped; and apparently that the sounds of _s_ and _r_, not known to the tongue in its purity, were introduced. the linguistic relations of the mangue or chapanec tongue have never been ascertained. i have compared it with the principal stocks in the northern continent, as well as with the great tupi-guarani stem, which has extensive affiliations in central america, but without discovering any analogies of value. it does appear, however, to have a certain, though far from close, relationship to the aymara tongue, spoken in the peruvian andes, and especially in the vicinity of lake titicaca, the celebrated site of a remarkable ancient civilization. the following list of common words seems to indicate this. the aymara is taken from the dictionary of that tongue, by father ludovico bertonio, while the dialects of the mangue are discriminated by n, for nicaraguan, and c, for chapanec. _comparison of the mangue, or chapanec, of central america, with the aymara, of peru._ english. mangue or chapanec. aymara. father, poua (c). pucara. man, naha (c). chacha. child, nasungi (n). iñasu. ear, nyuhui (n). hinchu. eye, nahte (n). nahui. bone, nyui (n). cayu. fire, niiu (c), nyayu (n). nina. water, nimbu (c). vma. river, naju (c). mayu, jahu. wind, tihu (c). thaa. feathers, lari (c). lauralua (colored). maize, nama (c). ccama. earth, nekapu (c). ñeke, clay, yapu, soil. sky, naku paju (c). hanac (_or_ alakh) pacha. blind, saapi (c). saapi. dumb, napamu (c). amu. great, yáka (c). haccha. bitter, átsi (c). cata. dead, tuhua (c). hihua. to eat, koita (n). kauita (to eat apples, etc). food, nomota (c). mamata. to go, ota (c). aatha. thou, çimo (c). huma. you (pl), çimecmo (c). humasa. there are also various grammatical similarities between the two tongues. both are highly synthetic; in both the division of nouns is "vitalistic," that is, into animate and inanimate; the numeral system is in both the decimal; in both the possessive pronoun follows the noun; both possess the inclusive and exclusive plural; and others could be mentioned. it is known that the aymara partakes largely of the elements of the qquichua, and by some is classified merely as a dialect of that tongue. such similarities as appear to exist between mangue and aymara are, however, less with the words and forms common to these two peruvian idioms, but rather more with those wherein the aymara differs from the qquichua. with the trenchant differences above indicated, between the nahuatl and the mangue, it is the more singular to observe how the nahuatl obtained the preponderance. we may attribute this to the superior fighting power of the aztec invaders; to the fact that many of the native allies of the spanish could speak that tongue and not the mangue; that the early missionaries came from mexico; or, that the nahuatl was promptly reduced to writing, while the mangue was not; or to all these causes combined.[ ] certain it is, that at an early date a mixed dialect came into vogue, both in the mangue districts of nicaragua and elsewhere in central america, composed of a broken-down nahuatl and a corrupt spanish, which, at first, served as a means of communication between the conquerors and their subjects, and later became, to some degree, the usual tongue of the latter. the aztecs of pure blood spoke contemptuously of this jargon as _in macehuallatolli_, the language of slaves, and father carochi, writing little more than a century after the conquest, condemned it as a hodge-podge of spanish and aztec, unintelligible in either tongue.[ ] this jargon was carried into the various nations who came into contact with the spaniards and half-breeds, and hence we may find scattered words traceable to it in many of their tongues, and sometimes formulas of a religious, social or business character.[ ] this is strikingly exemplified among the mangues, and the fact is one of considerable interest in connection with the literary production which is the main topic of this volume. even to a recent day, in remote haciendas of the province of masaya, among the descendants of the mangues, the traveler might hear the grace before meals, and other short formulas of the church, spoken in this mixed patois. the following is a specimen:-- _jesu criste no tecuase + tunanse santa maria + el apostol santa clara nos bendiga esta comida que tienen parte y poder._ amen. here, _no tecuase_ is the nahuatl _no tecuyotzin_, our lord, and _tunanse_ is for _tonantzin_, our lady, or mother. another specimen is:-- _marias te cuasti + marias ticuisti guanse dios + y espiritu santo._ the correct reading of which should probably be-- _maria tocihuatzin, maria toquitznitli, yhuan in dios, yhuan in espiritu santo._ this nahuatl-spanish jargon became the _lingua franca_ of large districts of central america and mexico. it was the current tongue of the half-breeds, and to this day is the patois of the muleteers who carry on the sparse commerce of the interior mountainous regions. many of its spanish elements are ungrammatical, and others are long since obsolete in the classical tongue. it is interlarded with words and whole phrases borrowed from the aztec, but with such mutilations that they are scarcely, or not at all, recognizable. words from other native languages have crept in, which adds to the difficulty of its lexicography. as for the construction, it became looser and looser, until, in some phrases, all inflectional elements disappear, and there is a naked juxtaposition of nominal and verbal roots, the relation of which must be guessed simply from their sequence. probably in none of the spanish provinces has the castilian suffered more from such admixture than in nicaragua. the foreign words are there so numerous that the country patois becomes nearly unintelligible to one acquainted only with the spanish of the academy. here is the verse of a song, for example, in that dialect, which will illustrate how far the amalgamation with the native tongues has gone. the words in italic are either nahuatl or mangue:-- "_casahuyano_, mi amor, por vos esté _payaneado_. no seas _tilinte_, mi bien." "se _selegue_, dueño amado." "my love, between girlhood and womanhood, my heart is breaking for you. do not be severe, my loved one." "i am yet unripe, my beloved master."[ ] another song, in which the lover expresses the strength of his devotion with more force than elegance, has the following verse:-- "o fuera yo _carángano_, en tus _cojines_ me metería para servirte todo el dia. te ama este zángano." which may be freely rendered-- "were i a little louse, i'd go in your puffed and plaited hair; with you all your toil i'd share; this lazy fellow loves you so." the _carángano_ is the name of a species of louse, and the _cojines_ are the little pads or cushions which women wear in their hair. in this dialect several satirical and political songs have been composed, and, indeed, the licentiate geronimo perez, of masaya, is stated to have printed in it a political pamphlet, which i regret not to have been able to obtain. such is the jargon in which the _güegüence_ is written, and although this medley of tongues can claim no position of dignity in the hierarchy of languages, it has its own peculiar points of interest, as illustrating the laws of the degradation--which is but another term for the evolution and progress--of human speech. to understand its origin and position as a literary effort, we must review the development of scenic representations in that part of the new world. § . _the bailes, or dramatic dances of nicaragua._ the historian, fernandez de oviedo, who was in nicaragua in , gives a long account of the dramatic representations, or rites, accompanied by songs, dances and masked actors, which he witnessed among the natives of both nahuatl and mangue lineage in that province. they took place at stated seasons, and at certain epochs in the year. the name which he gives as that by which they were locally known is _mitote_, which is the aztec _mitotl_, a dance. he himself calls them _areytos_, a haytian word from the arawack _aririn_, to sing, and _bailes_, which is spanish, from a classical root, and means dances. one which he saw at tecoatega, at that time a nahuatl village, was celebrated at the close of the cacao harvest and in honor of the god of that plant. it offered a curious symbolism, which makes us keenly regret the absence of a full explanation by some learned native. in the centre of the village square a straight pole was set up about forty feet in height. on its summit was placed the image of the god, brilliantly colored, in a sitting position. around the top of the pole a stout grass rope was tightly wound, its two free ends passing over a wooden platform. when the ceremony began, about seventy men appeared, some dressed as women, some with masks and head-dresses of feathers, and all painted skillfully on the naked flesh to imitate handsome costumes. they danced in pairs, and sang in chorus certain songs, to the sound of the sacred drums. after about half an hour, two boys, who had been attached to the free ends of the rope, threw themselves from the platform into the air, in such a manner that they turned round and round the pole, unwinding the rope, and thus gradually descended toward the ground. one boy held in one hand a bow, in the other, some arrows; his companion held in one hand a fan or plume of feathers, in the other a mirror, such as the natives made of polished obsidian. as they descended, which, says the narrator, required about as long a time as one might repeat the creed five or six times, the dancers ceased their song, and only the players on the instruments, some ten or a dozen in number, continued their noise. but, just as the boys, by the increasing length of the unwound cord, touched the soil, all present set up a great shout, and the festival ceased.[ ] the cut which i have inserted is taken from oviedo's history, and represents the performance. [illustration: ancient dance in nicaragua.] to one familiar with nahuatl symbolism, the meaning of this ceremony is, in a general way, obvious. the seated divinity on the summit of the pole represents the god of fertility throned in the heavens. the two boys are the messengers he sends to earth; the arrows refer to the lightnings which he hurls below; the feather fan typifies the breezes and the birds; the mirror, the waters and rains. after the mortals have prayed in chants, for a certain season, the god sends his messengers; men wait in suspense their arrival, whether it shall be for good or for ill hap; and as they reach the earth, a shout of joy is raised, for the food has ripened and been gathered in, and the harvest-home is ended. in the same century the traveler giralamo benzoni, who visited nicaragua about , was much impressed with the native dances. at certain ones, as many as three or four thousand indians assembled, some dancing, others playing on drums, while others, who formed the chorus, carried on the singing. the dancers displayed great agility, and practiced a large variety of figures. they were ornamented with feathers and plumes, and strings of shells were attached to their arms and legs.[ ] the mangues of chiapas, or the chapanecs, near relatives, as we have seen, of the mangues of nicaragua, were famous in the days of thomas gage, the english priest, who traveled through mexico and nicaragua about ,[ ] for their dexterity in games and the elaborate scenery of their dramatic representations. "as for acting of plays," he says, "this is a common part of their solemn pastimes." this passion for scenic performances was by no means peculiar to these tribes. it extended throughout almost the whole of the red race, and there are many relics of it which have survived. the older authors refer to it frequently, and the early missionaries, finding that they could not extinguish it, sought to turn it to good account by substituting for the native plays, which were idolatrous or licentious, moral and instructive pieces. they encouraged the more intelligent natives and half-breeds to prepare such, and they were acted in connection with church festivals. but it would be an error to suppose that these attempts succeeded completely in abolishing the older forms, or quenched entirely the tribal historical character of these ceremonies. even within our own generation the contrary of this has been recognized by close observers. thus the _cura_ of jutiapa, a town in guatemala, don jose antonio urrutia, wrote, in : "in most of the indian towns the custom is still general of preserving a knowledge of great events in their history by means of representations, called _bailes_ (dances), which are, in fact, dances in the public squares, on the days or evenings of great solemnities. it is most interesting for one who understands something of the language to participate in these _bailes_, as he can thereby obtain some knowledge of the most remote traditions and events in the history of the indians."[ ] confining our attention to the limits of nicaragua, we find that the different _bailes_ represented there within the memory of persons still living may be arranged in five different classes:-- . simple dances. . dances with songs. . dances with prose recitation. . scenic recitations with music, by a single actor. these are called _logas_. . complete dramas, with music, ballets, dialogue, and costumes. most of these have a religious purpose. thus, it is still a common custom, in case of sickness or impending danger, to make a vow that, in case of escape, the person will dance before the image of some saint on a certain day, at a certain place, usually at a festival.[ ] such dances are sometimes accompanied with songs or chants of praise, or are performed in silence. the performer is usually masked or in costume. it would be erroneous to suppose that there is much gaiety in their dances. at least, it is not apparent to foreign eyes. the music is monotonous and almost lugubrious, the singing is all in the minor key, and the motions are dull, mechanical and ungraceful. a european traveler has, indeed, characterized these spectacles rather as an exhibition of profound melancholy, than outbursts of merriment, and has instanced them as a proof of the psychical inferiority of the race![ ] some of them, even to this day, as continued by the lower half-caste population, are accused of an indecency which may be a reminiscence of ancient indian religious rites;[ ] for we know that the native nicaraguans celebrated a festival strictly similar to that in ancient babylon, so condemned by the prophet, during which every woman, of whatever class, had the right to yield her person to whom she would, without incurring blame or exciting jealousy. the _logas_ seem to be peculiar to the mangues. a small theatre is extemporized, music is provided, and the actor comes forward, arrayed in some odd garb, and recites a sort of poem, with gestures and dancing movements. the text of one of these was obtained at namotivá by dr. berendt, and is in my possession. it is entitled, _loga del niño dios_, and contains about two hundred lines. the language is a corrupt spanish, with a number of mangue words interspersed. the exordium reads-- "atienda, señores, pongan atencion del mangue tiyo pegro la conversacion." the theme is an address to the patron saints and the infant jesus, but the tone is that of a burlesque, rather than a serious composition. the costume of the orator, and his surroundings, the little theatre, the holy infant, etc., are represented in the frontispiece to this work, from a sketch taken from life.[ ] frequently a number of persons join in the dance. such is one, still occasionally seen, called _las inditas_, the little indian girls. the period of its celebration is on the day of st. jerome. the women are masked, and wear a loose mantle, a skirt with lace edging, a sash of rose color, and a hat with feathers. they carry bouquets and have a silk handkerchief fastened around the waist, the ends meeting over the hips. the men are in grotesque costumes, with ugly masks. they dance in couples, but without touching each other. the music is the marimba and the guitar. the songs usually turn on some matter of local interest. another favorite dance is the _baile de chinegritos_, celebrated by the mangues. this name is applied to the masqueraders who take part in it. they wear a cap of black straw, and the body is naked to the waist, and painted. each carries a stick or the dried yard of a bull, and in turn lifts a companion from the ground and strikes him with the whip. one, who keeps himself apart from the rest, is called the _rucia_, or _yeguita_, the mare. he is in a framework of cane adorned with women's skirts and colored handkerchiefs, supposed to represent some animal. there is no fixed day for the dance, but it is usually carried out in fulfillment of a vow. a variety of this _baile_, called _chinegritos à caballo_, is performed by mounted actors, in brilliant costumes, with gaily caparisoned horses. they are accompanied by music, and draw up in front of a house, where they sing a song with a monotonous chorus, _le-le-le-le-le-le-le-li-u_. the _baile de negritos_ is celebrated on the festivals of st. james and st. anna. the participants are on horseback, themselves and their steeds adorned with bright-colored sashes and garlands of flowers. they all wear the _mosote_, or black straw hat, from which this and the preceding dance derive their names.[ ] the songs which they sing are called _ensaladas_, salads or medleys, and usually contain personal allusions. the _baile de toro-guaca_, the dance of the graveyard bull,[ ] as it may be rendered, is presented on the festival of the virgin, of st. jerome, and other days, in accordance with a vow. it requires fourteen dancers and seventeen masqueraders. the "bull" is represented by a framework of reeds, surmounted by a pair of horns and gaily decorated. other such exhibitions are called the _baile de diablitos_, _baile de la yeguita_, _baile de san roman_, _baile de san martin_, _baile del toro y venado_, _baile del mantudo_ (in which a desperado, with numerous _chichiltes_, small bells, appears), besides some representations of bible scenes, as the combat between david and goliath, etc. although most of these are accompanied by songs, and some by dialogues, they do not seem to reach to the height of a plot, or to the depicting of character or emotion. beside them, however, and no doubt to take the place of original compositions of a similar kind, were complete dramatic creations. many of these were religious or historical plays, arranged by the clergy, and offer little of interest. but some were of a secular character, and appear to refer to historical events. one was the _ollita_ or _cañahuate_. it was acted in the mangue tongue at masaya as late as , but the text is, unfortunately, lost. the _ollita_ is the name of the whistling jar, on which, and on the drum, a lugubrious musical accompaniment was played. the name _cañahuate_ is said to have been that of a dialect of the mangue. the plot turned on a proposed marriage between an old man, richly dressed in spanish garb, and a native princess. the chorus and assistants carried bows, arrows and quivers, which would seem to point to an early date as that of the supposed transaction. § . _nicaraguan musical instruments and music._ the musical instruments of the natives of nicaragua, mentioned by oviedo, are drums, flutes of reeds, and _excoletes_, or trumpets. this, however, by no means exhausted the list, and several others of similar powers have been retained to the present day, and have been referred to by travelers as local curiosities. thus, mr. squier writes as follows, in describing a festival in leon de nicaragua: "it is impossible to describe the strange instruments. one consisted of a large calabash, over which was stretched the skin of some animal; this, when pressed in, recoiled with a dull, sullen noise, like the suppressed bellow of a wild beast, and the wail of some of the long reeds was like that of a man in the agonies of a violent death."[ ] the memoranda that i have obtained from various sources enable me to supply this omission of the distinguished traveler, and to make out the following list, which probably is not exhaustive. the most elaborate is the _marimba_. some writers say that both the name and instrument are of african derivation, having been introduced by the negroes. others assert that the indians have known the marimba time out of mind, and undoubtedly invented it. certain it is, that they develop singular skill in its management. a good description and illustration of it are given by von tempsky, from whose work i extract them.[ ] "they [the indians of central america] are still very fond of dancing, and are very good musicians, performing on a peculiar instrument, a native invention of antique date, the marimba. a long, horizontal stick supports a number of jicaras (or long, cylindrical calabashes), arranged near one another, according to size, from two feet in depth to four or three inches. over the mouth of each of them is drawn a thin piece of bladder, and over it, at the distance of a quarter of an inch, are flat pieces of a very hard wood, arranged like the claviature of a piano. these oblong pieces of wood are supported on a frame of light wood, joined to the long stick that supports the row of jicaras underneath. two light legs sustain the little piano, partly on the ground, and a hoop connects it with the player, who sits within the hoop, pressing it on a bench. [illustration: a marimba player and his instrument.] "two long drumsticks, with balls of india rubber at their heads, are in the hands of the player, who strikes double notes at every touch of the wooden claviature, with the resounding jicaras underneath. the sound of this instrument is charming, clear, limpid in its tones, like the intonation of a harp string of wire. the indians produce the justest and sweetest double notes, and blend a rattling tune together in very harmonious chords. their talent for playing this instrument by ear is astonishing; in a day, they will pick up the most difficult air, and play it with a good deal of expression, accompanied with a chant of their own composition." instead of calabashes, earthen jars of various sizes are occasionally used to suspend beneath the key pieces; or, what in some districts is equally common, they are vertical tubes of cedar wood (_cedrela odorata_). as described by the traveler morelet, these tubes are twenty-two in number, all of equal diameter, varying in length from ten to forty centimeters, and forming three complete octaves without semitones.[ ] in many of the _bailes_ this is the favorite means of music, and it is often associated with the guitar. that it was not unknown to the ancient aztecs seems shown from the following drawing from an original mexican painting in duran's _historia_, where the player does not appear to be striking a drum, but the keys of the marimba, or an instrument of that nature. [illustration: ancient aztec musician.] the _drum_ was, and remains, a favorite instrument in central america. it is usually formed of a hollow piece of wood, which is struck with sticks. in nicaragua, however, some of the natives use a short piece of bamboo, over the ends of which a skin is stretched. [illustration: nicaraguan indians playing on the drum.] this is held in the left hand and struck with the tips of the fingers or the knuckles of the right hand, keeping time to the chant or song of the performer, while he throws himself into striking and extraordinary attitudes. the illustration on the preceding page, from a sketch by dr. berendt, shows their manner of performing on this instrument. these two varieties of drums were also known to the ancient mexicans. they called the one which was struck with the hand the _huehuetle_, "ancient object," and that played by sticks, _teponaztli_. the _ollita_, or little jar, is an instrument still remembered in nicaragua, and the drama, in the mangue dialect, to which i have referred, bearing this name, proves that it was familiarly known at managua early in this century. its sound is described as grave and suitable to serious emotions. the identical _ollita_ which was used in this drama was preserved long after the last performance of the play (about ), in the chest of the _cofradia_ of san jose, in managua; but like so many other valuable relics, it disappeared in the disturbances of the republic. from the name, and from what was told of its powers, it was evidently not merely a whistle, but a sort of earthenware flute. such were known in peru, and precisely in nicaragua, on the island of ometepec, inhabited at the conquest by the nahuas, such a musical jar was discovered of late years, and was examined and its musical capacity described by dr. berendt in the following words:-- "held with the two hands, the lower side turned upward, and the four holes managed with two fingers on each side, blowing in the mouth piece yields six different notes. any two holes covered give the tonica, one only covered the secunda, all open the tertia, and by hard blowing a forced quarta; while all closed produces the dominant (quint) in the underlying octave. three holes closed yield notes not in concordance with the others, varying between an imperfect sext and a diminished septima of the lower octave. but those mentioned as in accordance permit the playing of many varied tunes." the shape of this jar is shown in the following cut, which was prepared for an interesting article on indian music by mr. edwin a. barber, in the _american naturalist_. [illustration: earthenware musical jar from nicaragua.] it was capable of rendering various simple tunes. (see page xxxiv.) [illustration: earthenware whistle from nicaragua.] the _pito_, or whistle, was a simpler instrument than the _ollita_. it, also, was frequently made of baked clay, and in odd shapes. the one shown in the following cut was found on the island del zapatero, in lake nicaragua, which was also a possession of the nahuas. two apertures lead into the cavity of the instrument. when they are closed with the fingers, a higher note is produced than when they are open. [illustration: native flute melodies.] in the investigations prosecuted in nicaragua by dr. j. f. bransford, he discovered many of these whistles in ancient burial mounds. indeed, in the district of nicoya, inhabited at the period of the conquest by the mangues, he states that "every body appeared to have been interred with a small earthen vessel and a whistle."[ ] the latter are usually of odd shapes, representing some animal. the following cuts are taken from his report:-- [illustration: whistles from nicaraguan burial mounds.] the long _flute_, either of cane, or of earthenware, was found in common use by the early explorers in central america, mexico and florida. the nahuas of nicaragua do not seem to have made so much use of it as their relatives in mexico. the _juco_ is employed in the noisier dances, such as the _baile de diablitos_. it is a drinking gourd (_nambira_), or jar, over the aperture of which is stretched a skin. this is crossed by a cord, to which is attached a small piece of wood, which serves as a clapper when the instrument is shaken. the _quijongo_ is a stringed instrument, made by fastening a wooden bow with a stretched cord over the mouth of a jar. a hollow reed, about five feet long and an inch and a half thick, is bent by a wire attached to the ends. this wire is then tied to the reed at one-third the distance from one end, and at the same point, on the convex surface of the reed, a gourd, or thin earthen jar, is fastened, with its mouth downward. the notes are produced by striking the two sections of wire with a light stick, and at the same time the opening of the jar is more or less closed by the palm of the left hand, thus producing a limited number of notes, which are varied by changing the intervals. [illustration: the quijongo of nicaragua.] among the nahuatl tribes of the balsam coast, this is called the _carimba_. it appears to have been an aboriginal invention, although some writers have asserted that the aztecs had no knowledge of any stringed instrument. something like a harp, however, is represented in the following cut, from the aztec funerary ritual, where a priest or hired mourner is shown, chanting the praise of the departed, and accompanying his words with music, on what appears to be a rude stringed instrument. (see page xxxvii.) the _chilchil_ is a small bell, a number of which are strung together and shaken. this is an ancient aztec instrument, the term for it in nahuatl being _ayacachtli_. the _cacho_ is a sort of trumpet, constructed of a horn. a blast upon it can be heard a long distance, and it has thus become a measure of length, a _legua de cacho_ being the distance at which one can hear the horn when lustily blown. it is said to be rather longer than a spanish league. [illustration: aztec mourner singing and playing.] as to the value of the music which was obtained from these instruments, it is difficult to arrive at an opinion from capable judges. nearly all who have been in a position to study the subject have lacked acquaintance with the scientific principles and developmental history of music as an art. hence it has usually been stated, and accepted without inquiry, that the aborigines of america were exceedingly deficient in musical ability, and that their best efforts rarely went beyond creating discordant noise. late investigations by competent critics have disproved this opinion, and show that the melodies of the natives are in accordance with a recognized scale, though not that to which we are accustomed. for a parallel we must go back to the ancient phrygian and lydian measures, where we shall find a development of the art in a similar direction to that among the natives of this continent.[ ] as is remarked by mr. a. s. gatschet, "although the indian uses all the seven notes of our musical scales, he avoids many of our melodial sequences; the majority of his tunes follow the _dur_ or _sharp_ scales, and the two-eighths or two-fourths measure."[ ] in central america, the native race has a keen musical sense. von tempsky found that they learned by ear, with great ease, the compositions of bellini; and in vera paz and among the lacandons, morelet heard upon the _chirimoya_, an aboriginal wind instrument, an air which he characterizes as "very remarkable" and "extremely touching." what brings this air into relation to my present theme is the singular fact that it was known as _la malinche_, but morelet could not learn from what connection.[ ] quite possibly it was from the character of that name in the play of _güegüence_. [illustration: malinche.] in the public _bailes_ in ancient times, as we are informed by both oviedo and benzoni, the musicians were separated from the singers and other performers, forming an actual orchestra, and this is also intimated in the güegüence. having thus the position of a class by themselves, it may fairly be presumed that they cultivated with assiduity their peculiar art. in later days, the _cofradias_, the brotherhoods and sisterhoods organized in connection with the churches, made it part of their business to learn singing and music, so as to take part in the celebration of church festivals. it was through these _cofradias_ that the art of playing on the ancient instruments was preserved. by the loss of influence of the church at the separation of the colonies from the mother country, the _cofradias_ were mostly dissolved.[ ] the music which accompanies the ballets in the güegüence has been written down, and is familiar to many in nicaragua. i have obtained a portion of it, through the obliging efforts of dr. earl flint, of rivas, an earnest cultivator in the field of archaeological research. the score appears, however, on examination by competent persons, to be probably of spanish origin, and it would not be worth while to give more than a specimen of it. (see p. xl.) [illustration: melodies from gueguence.] § . _history of the_ "_baile del güegüence._" among the scenic representations which have been preserved by the descendants of the mangues, in the ancient province of masaya, the only one of length which has been committed to writing is the _baile del güegüence, ô macho-raton_. several copies of this exist in manuscript, and from a comparison of two of them the late dr. c. h. berendt obtained, in , the text which is printed in this volume. but he did not obtain, nor did he attempt himself, any translation of any portion of it. he states, positively, that the nahuatl parts are not understood by the natives themselves at the present day. its antiquity and authorship are alike unknown. it is certain that it was acted before the beginning of the present century, but with this single fact its external history ceases. within the memory of those now living, this _baile_ has occasionally been acted in fulfillment of a religious vow pronounced in some emergency of life or affairs. the period selected for its performance is, usually, at the festival of st. jerome, september th. the preparations for it are elaborate and expensive. in former times the rehearsals took place daily, sometimes for as much as six or eight months before the public performance. the actors provided their own costumes, which required a considerable outlay. there were, however, always plenty of applicants, as it was not only considered an honor to take part, but also, the patron or patroness of the festival, who had pledged himself to give the drama, was expected to furnish refreshments, in the way of food and drink, at each rehearsal. as the appetites were usually keen, and the libations liberal, it was almost ruinous for one of moderate means to undertake it. for that reason, as dr. earl flint writes me, it has now been dropped, and will probably not again be brought out, at least, in full. how far beyond the close of the last century we should place the composition of the güegüence is a difficult question. dr. berendt, basing his opinion on what he could learn by local tradition, on the archaisms of the spanish construction, and on other internal evidence, referred it in general terms to the first periods (_los primeros siglos_) of the spanish occupation. it is probable that we may assign the early portion of the eighteenth century as the latest date for its composition, and there is some evidence, which i shall refer to in the notes to the text, that a more remote period is not improbable. of course, it does not contradict this that a few modern expressions have crept into the text. nothing else could be expected. no hint as to the author is anywhere found. there are, however, reasons which i consider weighty ones, to believe that it is the production either of a native indian or a half-caste. several of them are of a negative character, and i will give these first. all the dramas, so far as i know, which were introduced by the spanish priests as substitutes for the native _bailes_, are either religious or instructive in aim. as the germans say, they are strongly _tendenciös_. such are the _baile de st. martin_, which gives scenes from the life of the saint, and in which a wheel, called the _horquilla_, covered with feathers and flowers, is drawn along; the _baile de los cinco pares de francia_, which sets forth the conquest of the infidel moors by the christians, both of which plays have been popular in nicaragua; among the kekchis, of coban, the _baile de moros y cristianos_, similar to the last mentioned; the _zaki-koxol, ô baile de cortes_, in kiche, a copy of which i have, and the like. but in the _güegüence_ there is absolutely no moral purpose nor religious tone; so much, indeed, of the reverse, that we cannot conceive of its introduction by a priest. on the other hand, had it been composed by a secular spanish writer, we should hardly fail to find it, in a general way, modeled after the stock spanish comedy. it differs, however, in several striking and fundamental features, from the spanish models, and these differences are precisely those which would flow from the native habits of thought. i would note, first, that while females are introduced, they are strictly _mutæ personæ_, even the heroine not speaking a word; that there are no monologues nor soliloquies; that there is no separation into scenes, the action being continuous throughout; that there is neither prologue, epilogue nor chorus; and especially that the wearisome repetition of the same phrases, and by one speaker of what a previous one has said--a marked characteristic of the native scenic orations[ ]--are all traits which we can scarcely believe any spaniard sufficiently cultivated to write at all, would exhibit. furthermore, the "business" of the play is strictly within the range of the native thought and emotion. the admiration of the coarse cunning and impudent knavery of güegüence is precisely what we see in the modern camp-fire tales of michabo among the algonkins, of tezcatlipoca among the aztecs, and of a score of other heroes. it is of a piece with the delight which our own ancestors derived from the trickeries of reynard the fox. the devices for exciting laughter are scarcely more than three in number; one the assumed deafness of the güegüence, the second, a consequence of this, that he misunderstands, or pretends to, the words of the other actors, thus giving rise to amusing quid-pro-quos, and third, the introduction of obscene references. of course, i am aware that these are the stock resources of many european low comedians; but i also consider it a fact of very considerable importance in deciding the probable authorship of the play, that all of these, especially the first two, are prominently mentioned by old authors, as leading devices of the native nahuatl comedies. thus, benzoni and coreal tell us that in the _bailes_ in nicaragua, which they witnessed, some of the actors pretended to be deaf, and others to be blind, so as to excite laughter by their mistakes.[ ] and father diego duran tells us of a native mexican comedy, upon which this of güegüence may, perhaps, have been founded, full of songs and coarse jests,[ ] in which the clown pretends to understand at cross purposes what his master orders, transforming his words into others like them. as to the general leaning to indecent gestures and jokes, it is frequently commented on by the missionaries, and given as a reason for discountenancing these exhibitions. the absence of all reference to the emotions of love, and the naive coarseness indicated in the passages about women, point rather to a native than a european hand. they are in remarkable contrast to the spanish school of comedy.[ ] the neglect of common rules of spanish construction seems to arise from the ignorance of one imperfectly acquainted with the language, rather than of deliberate purpose. it must also be remembered that this piece was one acted altogether by the native indians, and not by the spanish population. nor are we without examples of persons of native lineage preparing comedies for their fellows. about , bartholome de alva, a descendant of the native kings of tezcuco, wrote three comedies, in nahuatl, drawing his plots from lope de vega. it is quite as likely that another alva rose from the nahuas of nicaragua, and prepared for their amusement the production i now present. for these various reasons i class it among aboriginal productions. § . _the dramatis personæ of the güegüence._ the central figure of the drama, and the personage from whom it derives its name, is _the güegüence._ this is a nahuatl word, from the root _hue_, old; _huehue_ is "old man;" to this is added what grammarians call the "reverencial" termination _tzin_, denoting reverence or affection, and we have, intercalating the euphonic _n_, _huehuentzin_, which, in the vocative, becomes _huehuentzé_. it means, therefore, "the honored elder," or "the dear old man," and may be used, as it is in the play, either as a proper name or as a common noun. in his description of the nahuas of nicaragua, oviedo gives the word _huehue_, and tells us that it was applied to certain old men of influential position, who were elected by the natives as rulers of the villages, and that they in turn selected the war-chief, whose duty it was to look to the defence of the community. the name was, therefore, one familiar to the nicaraguans, though the character would seem to be drawn as a burlesque or satire. he is, in fact, anything but a respectable person. his indifference to truth, his cynical impudence, his licentious jokes about and before his sons, and the unscrupulous tricks of which he boasts, are calculated to detract from the element of the comic in his portraiture, for those who have been accustomed to the higher productions of humor. but it would be an error to allow this sentiment to affect much our estimate of the influence of the play. as lessing very well observes, the true value of comedy is to train us to see the ridiculous and the absurd, wherever it is, in flagitious as well as in merely inconsiderate actions, as thus the observer is prompted to morality as well as forethought.[ ] as i have said, his character is a marked type of the peculiar form of humor which the native mind preferred, and of the class of actions in which it especially found amusement, to wit, in that jocularity which is assumed to deceive and get the better of one's neighbor. this is strikingly shown by the number of words in the nicaraguan patois which express such actions. thus, _chamarrear_ is to take advantage of some one by a joke; _trisca_ is a conversation in which some one is made ridiculous; _féfere_ is an idle tale with which a hearer is cajoled; _dar un caritazo_ is to deceive a person by a trick, etc. this is the humor in the güegüence. the old man nearly always has a selfish aim to gain by his jokes and his stories; they are intended to further his own interests, and, at the close of the play, he, on the whole, comes out victorious by these questionable measures. as the drama was formerly represented, the güegüence wore the most magnificent apparel of any of the actors. chains of gold, strings of silver coins, and ornaments of steel draped his person. indeed, all the participants vied with each other in extravagant costumes. their garments were fantastically adorned with feathers and flowers, and set off with sashes and handkerchiefs of brilliant colors. the two sons of güegüence, _don forcico_ and _don ambrosio_, are drawn in as strong contrast as possible. the former follows the paternal example faithfully, and sustains his parent in all his tricks and lies; the latter as invariably opposes and exposes the old man's dishonesty. the bitter words which pass between them, however, must not be taken in dead earnest; they, too, are only half serious, and do not lead to any separation of interests. the _governor tastuanes_ appears on the scene in spanish costume, with a staff and sabre. his name, however, seems to be from the nahuatl, probably a corruption of _tlatoani_, chief, lord.[ ] he is little more than a lay figure, designed to draw forth the ruses of güegüence. the _alguacil_, the _secretary_ and _registrar_ appear in what is supposed to be full official dress, with their staffs of office. the _mutæ personæ_ of the drama are the women and the _machos_, or mules. of the former, only one is named, the lady _suchi-malinche_, daughter of the governor. she enters clothed in a sort of tunic, fastened to her person with gay silken sashes; chains of gold and costly jewels adorn her garments, and a wreath of flowers crowns her hair. the latter may be a reference to her name. _suchi_ is a corruption of the nahuatl _xochitl_, flower; _malinche_, it may be remembered, was the name of the famous indian girl who served cortes as interpreter in his first campaign in mexico, and became his mistress. some have supposed that it was a corruption of the spanish christian name _marina_, but, as señor icazbalceta has conclusively shown, it is the name of one of the days of the aztec month, _malinalli_, with the termination _tzin_, signifying affection. it was the custom in mexico and central america, and still is in many parts, for the natives to name their children after the day on which they were born, led thereto by certain ancient astrological notions.[ ] in nicaragua, _malinche_ is also the name of a tree, a species of _poinciana_, which bears a handsome red flower. the _machos_, or mules, are twelve or more in number. they give the second title to the piece,_ el macho raton_, an appropriate translation of which i am at a loss to give. literally it means "the male mouse." as used at present, it signifies a masker, or masquerading dress. an acquaintance, who has lived in nicaragua, tells me that he has heard the children call out: "see, there goes the _macho-raton_," which would prove to be an indian in a fantastic costume. in the play, they wear heads of skins, imitating those of mules, surmounted with horns of goats, and a _petaca_, or wicker basket frame draped with sashes, etc. in their hands they carry bells. among the ancient nahuas, and probably to this day, there were various curious superstitions relating to mice. if they gnawed a hole in the dress of a wife, her husband took it as a sign that she had been unfaithful to him; and she entertained the same suspicion were his garments attacked. when food was attacked by mice, it indicated that the people of the house would be falsely accused of something.[ ] § . _epitome of the story of the güegüence._ [sidenote: p. .] the governor and the alguacil meet and enter into conversation. the governor directs that the songs and dances which are for the diversion of the royal council should cease, and bewails its poverty. [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] he also directs that no one shall be allowed to enter his province (or presence?) without a permit from the patrol. the alguacil complains that their poverty is so great that they have no fit clothing, and lays the blame on güegüence. the governor refers to güegüence in severe terms, and orders that he be brought before him, by any means. güegüence, who with his two sons is within earshot, hears the governor's orders, and pretends to think that it refers to a calf or a colt. [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: pp. - .] [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] the alguacil announces himself as a servant of the governor. güegüence professes to understand that it is a female servant who desires to see him. the alguacil corrects him in this, and informs him that he is to fly to the governor. güegüence takes the word in its literal sense, and chaffs about an old man flying. the alguacil suggests to him that he had better learn how to salute the governor properly on entering his presence, and offers to teach him the customary salutation for a consideration. this proposal güegüence accepts, but chooses to misunderstand the considerations suggested by the alguacil, and replies in a series of quid-pro-quos and gibes. at last, he produces some money, which, however, he will not pay over until the alguacil gives the promised instruction. the alguacil recites the formal salutations, which güegüence pretends to misunderstand, and repeats, instead, some phrases of similar sound, which are discourteous to the governor. for this the alguacil threatens to whip him, and on güegüence continuing in his taunts, gives him two blows, and recommences his lesson. [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] at this juncture the governor appears, answers güegüence's salute, and asks him why he has entered the province without a permit. at first güegüence answers by relating how he had traveled without a permit in other provinces. finding this does not meet the case, he seeks to turn the inquiry by a dubious story how a girl once gave him a permit for something besides traveling. the governor, not choosing to be put off with this, güegüence proposes they shall be friends, and that the governor shall have some of the immense riches and beautiful clothing which güegüence possesses. the governor expresses some doubt as to this wealth, and proposes to examine, apart, güegüence's oldest son, don forcico. [sidenote: p. .] he does so; and don forcico corroborates, in the most emphatic terms, the statements of his father: "the day and the night are too short to name all his possessions." [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] the governor remains, however, uncertain about the truth, and requests a similar private talk with güegüence's younger son, don ambrosio. the latter tells a very different story, asserting that all his father's boasts were lies, and that he is, in fact, a poor, old, thieving ragamuffin. güegüence, who overhears him, rails at him as a disgrace to the family; and don forcico assures the governor, in very clear terms, that don ambrosio has none of güegüence's blood in his veins. [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] to settle the question, güegüence proposes to show the governor the contents of his tent-shop, and has the two boys bring it forward and raise the sides. he then offers the governor several impossible things, as a star, which is seen through the tent, and an old syringe, which he suggests might be profitably applied to the royal council. as the governor replies roughly, geügüence at once changes the subject to a laudation of the remarkable skill of don forcico in many vocations. the governor is interested and proposes to inquire of don forcico himself as to the truth of this. the latter repeats the boasts, and on the governor inquiring as to whether he knows some diverting dances, with his father and his brother, he dances a ballet. [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] the governor wishes to see another ballet, which the three perform, also; and this is followed by two others, in which the governor and alguacil also take part. [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] following these the governor asks for the masquerade of the _macho-raton_, or the mules. they are led in by don forcico, and march around the stage. güegüence avails himself of this auspicious moment to ask for the hand of the lady suche-malinche, the governor's daughter. the governor sends the alguacil for the chief secretary, who returns with suche-malinche and other young women. the secretary describes what an elegant costume is expected of the son-in-law of the governor, and the latter suggests that güegüence has cast his eyes too high. the old man explains that it was not for himself, but for don forcico, that the request was made, and pretends to feel quite badly about the marriage. he, nevertheless, brings up the young women, one by one, who are rejected by don forcico, with very uncomplimentary remarks, until suche-malinche comes forward, who pleases him, and with whom he is married. the governor then suggests that güegüence treat the council with some spanish wine. this the old man does not find it convenient to understand, and when he can no longer escape, and is at a loss where to obtain the liquor, is relieved by don forcico, who has secured it in a questionable manner. [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] [sidenote: p. .] the mules, that is, the masqueraders who represent them, are then brought up, and as güegüence examines first one and then another, they give him opportunity for a series of extremely broad jokes and vulgar allusions. finally, the loads are placed on the mules, the boys mount them and move off, while güegüence, having offered his wine to the governor, the secretary, the registrar and the alguacil, who each in turn tell him to be off, leaves the stage shouting to his sons that they will all have a rouse that will cost them nothing. footnotes: [ ] e. g. squier, _the states of central america_, p. (london, ). [ ] the conquest of nicaragua is described by oviedo, _historia general de las indias_, lib. xxix, cap. xxi, and herrera, _decadas de indias_, dec. iii, lib. iv, and see dec. iv, lib. viii, cap. x. [ ] "_nicaragua_ es lo mismo que _nica anahuac_, aqui estan los mexicanos ò anahuacos." fray francisco vasquez, _cronica de la provincia de guatemala_, parte ii, lib. v, cap. i (guatemala, ). the form _nicarao_, adopted by dr. berendt, is certainly corrupt, as the termination of a proper name in _ao_ is not found in correct nahuatl. squier's term _niquirans_ was adopted by him from a misreading of oviedo, and has no authority whatever; so, also, his attempted discrimination between chorotegans and cholotecans, as both these are forms of the same word. [ ] "the hypothesis of a migration from nicaragua and cuscatlan to anahuac is altogether more consonant with probabilities, and with traditions, than that which derives the mexicans from the north."--e. g. squier. _notes on central america_, p. . it is difficult to understand how mr. squier could make this statement in the face of the words of herrera and so many other writers. [ ] "la gente de esta tierra decia, que havia descendido de la mexicana; su trage, i lengua, era casi, como el de mexico."--herrera, decada iii, lib. v, cap. xii. "dicèn, que huvo en los tiempos antiguos, en nueva españa una gran seca, por lo qúal se fueron por aquella mar austral à poblar à nicaragua."--id. dec. iii, lib. iv, cap. vii. torquemada, specifically quoting the traditions obtained from the oldest natives, states that the nicaraguans came from anahuac at no remote epoch.--_monarquia indiana_, lib. iii, cap. xl. see, also, gomara, _hist. de las indias_, cap. . [ ] prof. buschmann, who obtained these names in a garbled form from ternaux-compans' translation of oviedo, gave them up as insoluble, while recognizing their value as indicating the wanderings of the nicaraguans. "unglücklicherweise," he says, "sind jene zwei namen von so ungünstigem gehalte, das ich nichts aus ihnen hervorlocken kann."--_ueber die aztekischen ortsnamen_, p. (berlin, ). [ ] the careless statement of the historian herrera, that it was only the chorotegans who had such books, can be corrected from his own volumes, and also from the explicit words of oviedo and gomara. compare herrera, dec. iii, lib. iv, cap. vii, with oviedo, _hist. de las indias_, lib. xlii, cap. i, and gomara, _hist. de las indias_, cap. . [ ] the word _mánkeme_ is a derivative from _[chi]imá_, the head, whence the chapanec _d[chi]ämä_, the ruler or head man, and _mand[chi]ämä_, master, chief, in which word _ma_ is a possessive prefix, and _n_ a particle, sometimes relative, sometimes euphonic, of exceedingly frequent use in this tongue. it may be compared to the nahuatl _in_. [ ] this latter, or a portion of them, inhabiting a hilly country south of masaya, were called _dirians_, from the mangue word _diri_=, a hill, a name which has improperly been extended to the whole tribe. [ ] the "compulsive" form of the verb _choloa_, to run away, is _chololtia_, to cause to run away, to drive out. no doubt the name of cholula (cholollan) in mexico is of the same derivation, but it arose from a different, though similar, historical event. [ ] torquemada appears to have been the first to make this guess; and it has recently been advocated by dr. valentini, _the olmecas and the tultecas_, p. (worcester, ), and was also sanctioned by dr. berendt. [ ] in a note to his translation of oviedo's _nicaragua_. [ ] the proper spelling is "chapanec." it is not an aztec word, but from the mangue tongue, in which _chapa_ means the ara, or red macaw, their sacred bird. the name was derived from that of the lofty peak on which their principal town in chiapas was situated--_chapa niiu_, the ara of fire. [ ] in mr. bancroft's _native races of the pacific states_, vol. v, p. . [ ] the contrary of this has been very positively stated by dr. valentini (_ubi supra_). the only evidence he brings forward is the word _calachuni_, for chieftain, applied by gil gonzalez to one of the rulers in nicaragua. this is, no doubt, the maya _halach uinic_, holy man, but gonzalez wrote in , and this word was adopted by the spaniards in , during grijalva's expedition to yucatan, as the accounts show, and was promiscuously applied, just as _cacique_, _canoe_, etc., from the haytian dialect. a careful analysis of all the native words in oviedo's account of nicaragua does not show a single maya affinity. [ ] the chief asked gonzalez if, at the end of the world, the earth would be overturned, or would the sky fall? how large are the stars, why they move, and what keeps them in their courses? when, and how do the sun and moon change their brightness? why is the night dark and the winter cold, since light and warmth are so much better? (herrera, decad. iii, lib. iv, cap. v.) [ ] the leading authorities on the antiquities of nicaragua are e. g. squier, _nicaragua, its people, scenery and monuments_, together with his numerous other works pertaining to central america; and the reports of dr. earl flint and dr. j. f. bransford, to the smithsonian institution. dr. habel and dr. berendt also made numerous investigations, but their reports have not appeared in adequate detail. [ ] see his essay, _remarks on the centres of ancient american civilization in central america, and their geographical distribution, in the bulletin of the american geog. soc. no. , ._ [ ] _historia general de las indias_, lib. xlii, cap. v. [ ] the older writers have left scant information about these idioms. oviedo preserved thirty or forty nahuatl words, most of which have been analyzed by buschman; and benzoni, in a brief passage, notes the identity of the nicaraguan and mexican. "chiamano li signori tutruane, il pane tascal, and le galline totoli, and occomaia tanto vuol dire como aspetta un poco e al infirmita mococoua and al ballare mitote." _la historia del mondo nuovo_, p. . it is said that a _doctrina_ was printed in the mangue; but the only work on that tongue i know of is the _apuntamientos de la lengua mangue_, by don juan eligio de la rocha (ms. masaya, ) a fragment of which is in my possession. dr. s. habel, who visited nicaragua in , in spite of the greatest efforts, was unable to find a single person speaking nahuatl; they told him it was all forgotten.--_archæological and ethnological investigations in central and south america_, p. (washington, ). [ ] the superior position of the nahuatl among the nicaraguan languages was noted by benzoni, in his visit to that country, as early as about . he observes: "parlano in nicaragua quatro lenguaggi, pero la meglio è la messicana, laquale si stende piu di mille e cinquecento miglia di paese and è la piu facile da imparare."--_istoria del nuovo mondo_, p. (venetia, ). [ ] "una mezcla de castellano y mexicano, que ni en uno ni en otro idioma se entiende."--_compendio del arte de la lengua mexicana_, pp. , . [ ] speaking of the natives of nicaragua and honduras, father francisco vasquez says: "muchos de aquellos indios por la comunicacion que tienen con gente ladina de las estancias vecinas alcanzan mucho de la lengua castellana."--_historia de la provincia de guatemala._ parte ii, lib. v, trat. i, cap. (guatemala, ). [ ] this verse is from a song by dr. gollena, a highly appreciated poet of guatemala, who has written, but i believe never published, some poems in the nicaraguan dialect. [ ] oviedo, _historia general de las indias_, lib. xlii, cap. xi. precisely this baile, or one altogether like it, is described by diego duran as common in mexico in his day (about ). he writes: "tambien usaban bailar al rededor de un volador alto vistiendose como pájaros y otras veces como monas volaban de lo alto de el dejandose venir por unas cuerdas que en la punta de este palo estan arolladas, desliándose poco à poco por un bastidor que tiene arriba," etc.--_historia de las indias de nueva españa._ tomo ii, p. (mexico, ). [ ] _historia del nuovo mondo_, fol. (venetia, ). benzoni gives a wood cut exhibiting the dances, but it is not instructive. another traveler, françois coreal, claimed to have visited nicaragua about , and also describes the native dances, but in words so similar to benzoni that it is an evident plagiarism.--_relation des voyages de françois coreal aux indes occidentales_, tome i, p. (amsterdam, ). [ ] thomas gage, _a new survey of the west indies_, p. ( th ed. london, ). [ ] letter to the london _athæneum_, , p. . oviedo also states that the songs sung at certain _bailes_ were of an historical character, intended to recall the important incidents in personal and tribal history, "que les quedan en lugar de historia é memoria de las cosas pasadas."--_historia general de las indias_, lib. xlii, cap. xi. [ ] "hay santos à quienes se hace el voto, en caso de enfermedad ú de desgracia de ir á _bailar_ ante su imagen, en tal pueblo, el dia de su fiesta, cuando le sacan procesionalmente."--pablo levy, _notas geograficas y económicas sobre la republica de nicaragua_, p. (paris, ). [ ] "welligt blijkt de geesteloosheid dezer menschen nit niets zoo zeer als uit hunne dansen, een vermaak, hetwelk trouwens vrij zeldzaam onder hen is. bij het eentoonige geluid van een paar fluiten, en het kloppen op een hol blok hout, draaijen mannen en vrouwen afzonderlijk, langzaam en bedaard, in alle rigtingen herom, en schijnen veeleer diepe treurigheid dan vreugde aan den dag te leggen."--j. haefkens, _centraal amerika_, p. (dordrecht, ). [ ] such dances are the "bailes usados en el populacho, y que estan muy lejos de brillar por su desencia," referred to by don pablo levy, _notas_, etc., _sobre nicaragua_, p. . [ ] the word _loga_ is, i have no doubt, a corruption of the spanish _loa_. the _loas_ in spain were at first rhymed prologues to the plays, but later took a more dramatic form and "differed little from the farces that followed them." see george ticknor, _history of spanish literature_, vol. ii, pp. - ( th edition). [ ] "_mosote._ un casco ô gorra de cabuya teñida negra, con cola à trensa, usada en el baile de los _chinegritos_."--berendt, mss. [ ] "_guaca._ montecillo de sepultura de los inhabitantes antiguos. cueva; madriguera de animales. hoyo subteraneo para madurar ô guardar frutas y verduras."--berendt, mss. [ ] _nicaragua, its people, scenery and monuments_, vol. i, p. . [ ] _narrative of incidents on a journey in mexico, guatemala and san salvador_, pp. - (london, ). the smithsonian institution contains a good specimen of the marimba. [ ] arthur morelet, _voyage dans l'amerique centrale_, tome ii, pp. , (paris, ). [ ] _archæological researches in nicaragua_, p. (washington, ). [ ] the most satisfactory discussion of native music is that by theodore baker, _ueber die musik der nord amerikanischen wilden_ (leipzig, ). mr. edwin a. barber has also contributed some valuable articles on the subject. [ ] _the american naturalist_, february, . [ ] _voyage dans l'amerique centrale_, tom. ii, p. . [ ] so little is understood about the system of the _cofradias_, and the point is one of so much importance in the study of the organization of spanish ecclesiasticism in america, that it is worth while to explain it. they are created by the priest of a parish, in such number as he sees fit, and each bears the name of a saint or religious occurrence. each should have, of male members, a major domo, a steward (_prioste_), and four or more appointees (_diputados_). they attend the priest, serve in the church, aid in the offices of religion, have a monthly mass, act as choristers, etc., at fixed periods. of female members there should be the patroness (_patrona_ or _capitana_), and the _alguazila mayor_, each of whom should have two special attendants, and there should be other members. their duties are to sweep the church, deck it with flowers when necessary, and aid the male members in their duty. each _cofradia_ should have its strong box and financial resources, independently, and the major domo is expected to keep a book accounting for the funds. i have in my possession such a volume, in the chapanec language, the _libro de cuentas de la cofradia del rosario_, . from ten to fifty cofradias were formerly attached to one church, but the modern curas complain that they can no longer be kept up. "es verdad," exclaims the worthy presbyter navarro, "que los sres. curas, mis antecessores, y yo, hemos procurado organizarlas de nuevo, pero es moralmente impossible."--_memoria de la parroquia de villa nueva_, p. . (guatemala, ). [ ] see, for example, the _rabinal-achi, ou le drame-ballet du tun_, in kiche, published by the abbé brasseur de bourbourg, and the translation of the song of the uluas of nicaragua given by pablo levy.--_notas sobre la republica de nicaragua_, p. (paris, ). [ ] "il y en a qui font les sourds, d'autres les aveugles. ils rient, ils crient, et font en un mot toute sorte de singeries."--_voyages de françois coreal aux indes occidentales depuis jusqu'en ._ tom. i, p. (amsterdam, ). borrowed, probably, from benzoni, who says the same. [ ] "habia un baile y canto de truhanes en el cual introducian un bobo que fingia entender al reves lo que su amo le mandaba, trastocandole las palabras."--p. f. diego duran, _historia de las indias de la nueva españa_, tomo ii, p. (mexico, ). [ ] as mr. george ticknor very pointedly says, in speaking of the spanish drama:--"above all, it was necessary that it should be spanish; and therefore, though its subject be greek or roman, oriental or mythological, the characters represented were always castilian, and castilian after the fashion of the seventeenth century,--governed by castilian notions of gallantry, and the castilian point of honor."--_history of spanish literature_, vol ii, p. ( th edition). [ ] speaking of the comedy, he says:--"ihr wahrer allgemeiner nutzen liegt in dem lachen selbst, in der uebung unserer fähigkeit das lächerliche zu bemerken; es unter allen bemäntelungen der leidenschaft und der mode, es in allen vermischungen mit noch schlimmern oder mit guten eigenschaften, sogar in den runzeln des feierlichen ernstes, leicht und geschwind zu bemerken."--_hamburgische dramaturgie_, stück. [ ] _tlatoani_ means, literally, "the speaker," from _tlatoa_, to speak, to ask, but it is translated by the spanish lexicographers "gran señor." the chiefs were probably so called, from their right of speech in the assemblies. benzoni gives something like this as the title of the nicaraguan chiefs. "chiamano li signori tutruane," which i suspect is a misprint for _tattruani_.--_istoria del mondo nuovo_, p. (venetia, ). [ ] icazbalceta's discussion of the name may be found in his notes to the _diálogos de francisco cervantes salazar_, p. (mexico, ). malinalli is the twelfth day of the mexican month. according to duran, the word means underbrush (_matorral_), and the prognostic was, that those born on that day should have an annual attack of sickness, like this underbrush, which dries up, or loses its leaves yearly.--_historia de la nueva españa_, tomo ii, p. (mexico, ). [ ] see the rare work of fray joan baptista (often spelled bautista). _advertencias para los confessores de los naturales_, vols. , (mexico, en el convento de sanctiago tlatilulco, año ). the gÜegÜence. a comedy ballet in the nahuatl-spanish dialect of nicaragua. baile del gÜegÜence ó macho-raton. personas. el gobernador tastuanes. el alguacil mayor. el gÜegÜence. don forcico. don ambrosio. doÑa suchi-malinche. el escribano real. el regidor de cana. the ballet of the gÜegÜence; or, the macho-raton. dramatis personÆ. the governor tastuanes. the chief alguacil. the gÜegÜence. don forcico, his elder son. don ambrosio, his younger son. the lady suchi-malinche. the royal secretary. the registrar. baile del gÜegÜence. se da principio bailando, y habla el _alguacil._ matateco dio mispiales, señor gobernador tastuanes. _gobernador._ matateco dio miscuales quilis no pilse capitan alguacil mayor ya tiguala neme? _alguacil._ mascamayagua sor. gob^r tastuanes. dan vuelta bailando y habla el _alguacil._ matateco dio mispiales, señor gobernador tastuanes. _gobernador._ matateco dio miscuales quilis no pilce capitan alguacil mayor: no pilces simocague campamento señores principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos necana y paltechua linar mo cabildo real. en primer lugar tecetales seno mesa de oro, seno carpeta de bordado, seno tintero de oro, seno pluma de oro, seno salvadera de oro, y no mas hemo papel blanco y paltechua sentar mo cabildo real. dan vuelta bailando y habla el _alguacil._ matateco dio mispiales, señor gobernador tastuanes. _gobernador._ matateco dio miscuales quilis no pilces capitan alguacil mayor. the comedy-ballet of gÜegÜence. (the alguacil and governor enter, dancing.) _alg._ i pray god to protect you, governor tastuanes. _gov._ i pray god to prosper you, my son, captain chief alguacil; are you well? _alg._ at your service, governor tastuanes. (they dance around the stage.) _alg._ i pray god to protect you, governor tastuanes. _gov._ i pray god to prosper you, my son, captain chief alguacil: my son, suspend in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs, ballets, and such pleasant matters of amusement to the royal court. it is a great shame that we have no golden table, no embroidered table-cloth, no golden inkstand, no pen of gold, no golden sand-box, not even white paper, and such like suitable things, for a session of the royal court. (they dance around the stage.) _alg._ i pray god to protect you, governor tastuanes. _gov._ i pray god to prosper you, my son, captain chief alguacil. _alguacil._ ya lichua linar mo cabildo real. en primer lugar tecetales seno mesa de oro, seno carpeta de bordado, seno tintero de oro, seno pluma de oro, seno salvadera de oro, no mas hemo papel blanco y paltechua sentar mo cabildo real. _gobernador._ no pilces cap^n alg^l m^{or} simocagüe campamento sres. principales sones, mudanzas, velancicos necana y paltechua seno la ronda quinquimagua licencia galagua no provincia real. _alguacil._ mascamayagua sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. matateco dio mispiales srs. principales sones, mudanzas, velancicos necana y paltechua seno la ronda del señor gobernador tastuanes. aqui se toca la ronda, dan vuelta bailando y habla el _alguacil._ sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, ya nemo niqui nistipampa, ya nemo niqui samo la ronda, son rastros y pedazos de cinchones rompidos de corage, sombrero de castor rompido de corage, no mas hemo mantera de revoso, no mas hemo capotin colorado á sones panegua sesule güegüence, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ no pilces cap^n alg^l m^{or} asamatimaguas consentidor, afrentador, ticino mo cabildo real. _alguacil._ acaso no me de consentidor ticino mo cabildo real. _alg._ something to amuse the royal court. it is a great shame that we have no golden table, no embroidered table-cloth, no golden inkstand, no pen of gold, no golden sand-box, not even white paper, and such like suitable things, for a session of the royal court. _gov._ my son, captain chief alguacil, suspend in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs, ballets, and such matters, unless the patrol gives a permit to enter my royal province [for that purpose]. _alg._ yours to command, governor tastuanes. i pray god to protect you. the leading men [shall give no] music, dances, songs, ballets, and such things, without [the permission of] the patrol of governor tastuanes. (the patrol is sounded and they dance.) _alg._ governor tastuanes, i am here, as is proper, but the patrol is not; their girdles are in rags and tatters, and their hats smashed in from their frays, and we have not a single saddle cloth or red cloak better, perhaps, than that good-for-nothing güegüence, governor tastuanes. _gov._ my son, captain chief alguacil, you must bring that pimp, that impudent fellow, that charlatan, before the royal court. _alg._ perhaps that pimp and charlatan won't come with me to the royal court. _gobernador._ no pilces cap^n alg^l m^{or} simocagüe campamento sres. principales sones, mudanzas, velancicos necana y paltechúa sesule güegüence, ó de la cola, ó de las piernas, ó de las narices, ó de onde dios te ayudare, cap^n alg^l m^{or}. _alguacil._ mascamayagua, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, sones, mudanzas, velancicos necana. _güegüence._ ¡ha muchachos, güil ternero, (ó) güil potro para quichuas rebiatar de la cola, ó de las piernas, ó de las narices? _d. ambrosio._ asi lo mereces, güegüence embustero. _güegüence._ ¿me hablas, don forcico? _d. forcico._ no, tatita, seran los oidos que le chillan. _güegüence._ ¿me hablas, don ambrosio? _d. ambrosio._ ¿quien te ha de hablar, güegüence embustero? _güegüence._ como no, mala casta, saca fiestas sin vigilias en los dias de trabajos. ora quien vá, quien quiere saber de mi nombre? _alguacil._ un criado del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gov._ my son, captain chief alguacil, suspend in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs, ballets, and such things, [and bring] that good-for-nothing güegüence, either by the tail, or the legs, or the nose, or by whatever god will help you [to bring him], captain chief alguacil. _alg._ at your service, governor tastuanes, the music, dances, songs, ballets [will be suspended]. _güegüence._ ho, boys! is it a calf or is it a colt that is to be tied behind by the tail, or the legs, or the nose? _don ambrosio._ that's what you deserve, güegüence, you old humbug. _güe._ do you speak to me, don forcico? _don forcico._ no, little papa, perhaps it's your ears that are buzzing. _güe._ do you speak to me, don ambrosio? _don am._ who would speak to you, güegüence, you old humbug? _güe._ why not, you bad breed, you lazy loafer on working days? who is it now who wants to know my name? _alg._ a servant of the governor tastuanes. _güegüence._ como que criada, güil chocolatera, ó güil lavandera, ó componedera de la ropa del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes? _alguacil._ chocolatera ó lavandera no; criado del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _güegüence._ pues que criada, güil cocinera ó güil componedora del plato del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes? _alguacil._ asuyungua me negua, no me cele componedora del plato, capitan alguacil mayor del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _güegüence._ ha! cap^n alg^l m^{or} del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes: o amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or} del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, asa campamento insigna vara? _alguacil._ asa neganeme, güegüence. _güegüence._ asetato, amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}. _alguacil._ asetato, güegüence. _güegüence._ amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, y que dice el sor. gobernador tastuanes? _alguacil._ que vayas corriendo y volando, güegüence. _güegüence._ corriendo y volando? como quiere que corra y vuela un pobre viejo, lleno de dolores y continuas calamidades? _güe._ what sort of a servant-girl is it, the chocolate maker, the washwoman, or the clothes patcher of the governor tastuanes? _alg._ neither waiter-girl nor washwoman; a servant of the governor tastuanes. _güe._ then which servant-girl, cook or grub-fixer of the governor tastuanes? _alg._ let me disclose myself; i have nothing to do with the grub-fixer; i am the captain chief alguacil of the governor tastuanes. _güe._ ha! captain chief alguacil of the governor tastuanes! o friend captain chief alguacil of the governor tastuanes, your official staff is perhaps at your quarters? _alg._ perhaps i may offer you one, güegüence. _güe._ take a seat, friend captain chief alguacil. _alg._ take a seat, güegüence. _güe._ friend captain chief alguacil, and what has governor tastuanes to say? _alg._ that you go to him a-running and a-flying, güegüence. _güe._ a-running and a-flying? how does he expect a poor old man, full of pains and aches, to run and amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or} y un silguero que está en la portada del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, que es lo que hace? _alguacil._ cantando y alegrando á los señores grandes. _güegüence._ ese es mi consuelo y mi divertimiento. amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or} con que corriendo y volando? _alguacil._ corriendo y volando, güegüence. _güegüence._ ¡ha, muchachos! me hablan? _d. ambrosio._ quien te ha de hablar, güegüence embustero? _güegüence._ ¿me hablas, don forcico? _d. forcico._ no, tatita, seran los oidos que le chillan. _güegüence._ ese será, muchachos. pues ten cuenta con la bodega, que voi á ver si puedo volar. _alguacil._ ha, güegüence, con que modo y con que cortecilla te calas, qui provincia real del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes? _güegüence._ pues, y como, amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}? _alguacil._ primero ha de ser un velancico, y paltechúa consolar el cabildo real del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. fly? friend captain chief alguacil, and a linnet that reaches the door of governor tastuanes, what does it do there? _alg._ it sings and amuses the grandees there. _güe._ that is my consolation and delight. friend captain chief alguacil, how about this running and flying? _alg._ a-running and a-flying, güegüence. _güe._ ho, boys! do you speak to me? _don. am._ who wants to speak to you, güegüence, old humbug? _güe._ do you speak to me, don forcico? _don for._ no, little papa, perhaps it's your ears that are buzzing. _güe._ that may be, boys. well, then, look after the shop, and i will go and see if i can fly. _alg._ ho, güegüence! in what style, and with what etiquette, are you going to enter the royal presence of the governor tastuanes? _güe._ well, now, how should i, friend captain chief alguacil? _alg._ first, there should be a song, and such like, to amuse the royal court of the governor tastuanes. _güegüence._ velancico, amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, pues simocagüe campamento sres principales sones, mudanzas, velancicos necana y paltechua consolar mo cabildo real del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _alguacil._ mascamayagua güegüence. matateco dio mispiales sres. principales sones, mudanzas, velancicos necana y paltechua sesule güegüence. dan vuelta los dos bailando y habla el. _alguacil._ ha, güegüence, ya estamos en el paraje. _güegüence._ ya estamos con coraje. _alguacil._ en el paraje. _güegüence._ en el obraje. _alguacil._ en el paraje. _güegüence._ en el paraje. pues, amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, no me enseñará con que modo y con que cortecilla he de entrar y salir ante la presencia real del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes? _alguacil._ si, te enseñaré, pero no de balde; primero ha de ser mi salario. _güegüence._ pescados salados? ha, muchachos! ahí estan las redes de pescados salados? _güe._ a song, friend captain chief alguacil; then suspend in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs, ballets, and such things, to amuse the royal court of the governor tastuanes. _alg._ at your service, güegüence. i pray god to protect the leading men [and they will suspend] the music, dances, songs, ballets, and such like, for this good-for-nothing güegüence. (they dance around the stage.) _alg._ ha, güegüence! here we are at the place. _güe._ here we are, with heart of grace. _alg._ at the place. _güe._ to work apace. _alg._ at the place. _güe._ at the place. now, friend captain chief alguacil, won't you teach me with what style, and with what etiquette, i ought to go in and come out of the royal presence of the governor tastuanes? _alg._ yes, i'll teach you; but not for nothing. first, i want my salary. _güe._ salted fish? ho, boys! are the nets of salted fish here? _d. forcico._ ahi estan, tatita. _d. ambrosio._ que redes de pescados salados has de tener, güegüence, embustero? _güegüence._ como no! mala casta, ojos de sapo muerto! amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, ya estamos desaviados de los pescados salados. _alguacil._ acaso no me cele de pescados salados, güegüence. _güegüence._ pues, y como, amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}? _alguacil._ reales de plata, güegüence. _güegüence._ ha! redes de platos. a! muchachos, ahí estan las redes de platos? _d. forcico._ ahi estan, tatita. _güegüence._ pues, amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, ya estamos aviados de platos. y como de que platos quiere? de la china, ó de barro? _alguacil._ ayugama, no me cele de platos, güegüence. _güegüence._ pues, y como, amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}? _alguacil._ pesos duros, güegüence. _don for._ here they are, little papa. _don amb._ what nets of salted fish do you pretend to have, güegüence, you old humbug? _güe._ why not, you bad breed, you evil-eyed brat? friend captain chief alguacil, we are just now out of salted fish. _alg._ perhaps i don't care for salted fish, güegüence. _güe._ well, what then, captain chief alguacil? _alg._ pieces of eight, güegüence. _güe._ ha! dishes and plates. ho, boys! have we some dishes and plates? _don for._ here they are, little papa. _güe._ well, then, captain chief alguacil, we are supplied with plates. what kind of plates do you want, china plates or earthen plates? _alg._ neither one nor the other. i don't care for plates, güegüence. _güe._ well, what then, captain chief alguacil? _alg._ hard pieces, güegüence. _güegüence._ ha! quesos duros de aquellos grandotes. a, muchachos, ahi estan los quesos duros que trajimos de sobornal? _d. forcico._ no, tatita; se los comió mi hermanito, don ambrosio. _d. ambrosio._ que quesos duros has de tener, güegüence, embustero? _güegüence._ como no, mala casta, despues que te los has comido. amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, ya estamos desaviados de los quesos duros, porque ahi traigo un muchacho tan ganzo, que no me deja nada. _alguacil._ acaso no me cele de quesos duros, güegüence. _güegüence._ pues, y como, amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}? _alguacil._ doblones de oro y de plata, güegüence. _güegüence._ ha! dobles. a! muchachos, sabes doblar? _d. forcico._ si, tatita. _güegüence._ pues dobla, muchachos, dios persogue á mi amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, que ahora endenantes estuvimos tratando y contratando con el, y ya se lo llevó una bola de fuego á mi amigo. _alguacil._ para tu cuerpo, güegüence. acaso no me cele de dobles. _güe._ ha! hard cheeses; those big ones. ho, boys! have we those hard cheeses which we brought along as extras? _don for._ no, little papa, my little brother, don ambrosio, ate them up. _don am._ what hard cheeses do you pretend to have, güegüence, you old humbug? _güe._ why not, you bad breed, since you ate them up? friend captain chief alguacil, we are just now out of hard cheeses, because i have a boy here who is such a hog that he leaves me nothing. _alg._ perhaps i don't care for hard cheeses, güegüence. _güe._ well, what then, captain chief alguacil? _alg._ i want toll of gold and silver, güegüence. _güe._ ha! toll. ho, boys! do you know how to toll? _don for._ yes, little papa. _güe._ well, then, toll away, boys, for god has got after my friend the captain chief alguacil, with whom we were talking and bargaining a moment ago, and has carried off my friend in a ball of fire. _alg._ may it burn your body, güegüence. perhaps i don't care for tolling. _güegüence._ pues, y como, amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}? _alguacil._ doblones de oro y de plata, güegüence. _güegüence._ doblones de oro y de plata! pues hableme recio, que como soi viejo y sordo, no oigo lo que me dicen; y por esas tierras adentro no se entiende de redes de platos, ni de pescados salados, ni de quesos duros, ni de dobles, sino onzas de oro y moneda de plata. y, vamos, ¿cuanto quiere? _alguacil._ todo lo que hubiere en la bodega, güegüence. _güegüence._ ¿todo, todo?--¿no me dejas nada? _alguacil._ nada, nada, güegüence. _güegüence._ ni batuchito? _alguacil._ ni batuchito, güegüence. _güegüence._ ya lo ven, muchachos, lo que hemos trabajado para otro hambriento. _d. forcico._ así es, tatita. _d. ambrosio._ así lo mereces, güegüence, embustero. _güegüence._ arra ya, mala casta, comeras tus uñas. _güe._ well, what then, friend captain chief alguacil? _alg._ doubloons of gold and silver. _güe._ doubloons of gold and silver! then speak loud, for i am old and deaf; and in these inland places people know nothing of nets of plates, and of salted fish, nor about hard cheeses, nor about tolls, but only about ounces of gold and coins of silver. well, let us come to it, how much do you want? _alg._ everything in the shop, güegüence. _güe._ everything? everything? you won't leave me anything? _alg._ nothing, nothing, güegüence. _güe._ not so much as an empty box? _alg._ not even an empty box, güegüence. _güe._ now, boys, you see how we have worked to feed another hungry fellow. _don for._ so it is, little papa. _don am._ so you deserve, güegüence, you old humbug. _güe._ get out, you bad breed, you shall eat your finger nails. _d. ambrosio._ las comeremos, güegüence. _güegüence._ pues, ponga las manos: y las dos manos pone el hambriento, y que buenas uñas se tiene mi amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, parecen de perico-ligero! a! una bomba caliente para estas uñas! _alguacil._ para tu cuerpo, güegüence. _güegüence._ pues, tome! uno, dos, tres, cuatro. ha! mi plata, muchachos! cuatro cientos y tantos pesos le he dado á mi amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}--vd., amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, no sabe cual es real, ni cual es medio. _alguacil._ como no? si, entiendo de todo, güegüence. _güegüence._ la mitad de este medio hacen dos cuartillos; un cuartillo dos octavos, un octavo dos cuartos, un cuarto dos maravedis, cada maravedi dos blancos. _alguacil._ pues, échelos todos. _güegüence._ pues, enséñeme. _alguacil._ pues, azetagago. _güegüence._ pues, maneta congon. _alguacil._ matateco dio mispiales, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _don am._ let us eat them, güegüence. _güe._ then put out your hands, and let this hungry fellow put out both his hands; and my! what fine nails has my friend, the captain chief alguacil! they are like those of a scratching monkey! ho, there! a hot shot for these nails! _alg._ may it burn your body, güegüence. _güe._ well, here then [_shows four coins_]. one, two, three, four. ha! my money, boys! four hundred and some odd dollars i have given to my friend, the captain chief alguacil. but you, friend captain chief alguacil, you don't know a real from a half a one. _alg._ why not? i understand all about them, güegüence. _güe._ the half of this half real makes two cuartillos; a cuartillo is two octavos; an octavo is two quartos; a quarto is two maravedis; and each maravedi is two blancos. _alg._ well, then, down with them all. _güe._ well then, teach me. _alg._ well, then, pay attention. _güe._ well, then, show me. _alg._ i pray god to protect you, governor tastuanes. _güegüence._ matateco dio cuascuane cuascuane tastuanes. _alguacil._ matateco dio mispiales, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _güegüence._ matateco dio panegüe palegüe tastuanes. _alguacil._ hace porfiado, güegüence; vd. ha menester una docena de cueros. _güegüence._ docena de cueros? ha, muchachos, nos faltan reatas ó cobijones. aqui el amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or} nos ofrece una docena de cueros. _d. forcico._ si, tatita. _güegüence._ amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, y como de que cueros, ¿de crudia ó de gamusa? _alguacil._ mas azetagago, güegüence. le da dos rejazos. _güegüence._ arra ya, con que bueno, despues de pagado me has azotado; esos no son cueros, esos son azotes. _d. ambrosio._ así lo mereces, güegüence, embustero. _alguacil._ matateco dio mispiales sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, quinimente motales, quinimente moseguan, alcaldes ordinarios de la sta. hermandad, regidores y notarios y depositarios. _güe._ i pray god will make you sing, tastuanes. _alg._ i pray god to protect you, governor tastuanes. _güe._ i pray god to overcome tastuanes. _alg._ you are stubborn, güegüence, you need a dozen hidings. _güe._ ho, boys! do we need some lines or covers? our friend here, the captain chief alguacil, offers us a dozen hides. _don for._ yes, little papa. _güe._ how about those hides, friend captain chief alguacil, are they green or dressed? _alg._ find out more about them, güegüence. (gives him two blows.) _güe._ get out! what right have you to beat me when i have paid? these are not hides, they are blows. _don am._ so you deserve, güegüence, you old humbug. _alg._ i pray god to protect the governor tastuanes, those who carry his messages and transact his business, the regular alcaldes of the holy brotherhood, the registrars, eguan noche mo cabildo real del sor gob^{or} tastuanes. _güegüence._ amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, si de balde le he dado mi dinero, si estos son mis lenguajes asonesepa negualigua seno libro de romance, lichúa rezar escataci, iscala ñonguan iscumbatasi à campaneme tastuanes? _alguacil._ asaneganeme, güegüence. _güegüence._ si cana amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or} -- -- -- -- -- matateco dio mispiales, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ matateco dio miscuales quilis güegüence yatiguala neme? _güegüence._ ya nemo niqui nistipampa quinimente moseguan. alcaldes ordinarios de la santa hermandad, regidores y notarios (y) depositarios(.) eguam noche mo cabildo real del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ pues, güegüence, quinquimagua licencia te calas qui provincia real? _güegüence._ valgame dios, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, pues que es menester licencia? _gobernador._ es menester licencia, güegüence. _güegüence._ o valgame dios, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes! cuando yo notaries and archivists, [by day] and night, in the royal court of governor tastuanes. _güe._ friend captain chief alguacil, i have given my money for nothing, if these are to be my words; and shall i not bargain for a book in spanish, to read these prayers out of when i come before tastuanes? _alg._ perhaps i may offer you one, güegüence. _güe._ if anywhere, friend captain chief alguacil--[_the governor enters abruptly._] i pray god to protect you, governor tastuanes. _gov._ i pray god to prosper you, güegüence; are you well? _güe._ i am here, as is proper, [and i pray god to protect] those who transact the business, the regular alcaldes of the holy brotherhood, the registrars, notaries and archivists, [by day] and night, in the royal court of governor tastuanes. _gov._ well, güegüence, who has given you a permit to enter this royal province. _güe._ god bless me, governor tastuanes, what is it to need a permit? _gov._ a permit is necessary. _güe._ o! god bless me, governor tastuanes; when i anduve por esas tierras adentro, por la carrera de mexico, por la veracruz, por la vera paz, por antepeque, arriando mi recua, guia muchachos, opa don forcico llega donde un mesonero tupile traiga una docena de huevos, vamos comiendo y descargando y vuelto á cargar, y me voy de paso, y no es menester licencia para ello, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ pues aqui es menester licencia para ello, güegüence. _güegüence._ valgame dios, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, viniendo yo por una calle derecha me columbró una niña que estaba sentada en una ventana de oro, y me dice: que galan el güegüence, que bizarro el güegüence, aqui tienes bodega, güegüence, entra, güegüence, siéntato, güegüence, aqui hay dulce, güegüence, aqui hay limon. y como soy un hombre tan gracejo, salté á la calle con un cabriolé, que con sus adornos no se distinguia de lo que era, lleno de plata y oro hasta el suelo, y así una niña me dió licencia, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ pues una niña no puede dar licencia, güegüence. _güegüence._ o valgame dios, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, no seremos guancos, no seremos amigos, y seremos de sones sepanegaligua, no fardesia de ropa; en primer lugar cajoneria de oro, cajoneria de plata, ropa de castilla, ropa de contrabando, güipil de pecho, güipil de pluma, medias de seda, zapatos de oro, sombrero de castor, estriberas de was traveling up country, on the road to mexico, through vera cruz, and vera paz, and antepeque, driving my mules, leading my boys, twice don forcico comes across a constable innkeeper who brings us a dozen eggs; and we go on eating and unloading, and we load up again, and i go right along, and there is no need of a permit for it, governor tastuanes. _gov._ well, here there is need of a permit for it, güegüence. _güe._ god bless me, governor tastuanes, as i was coming up a straight street, a girl who was sitting in a golden window descried me, and says to me: "what a fine fellow is güegüence; how gallant is güegüence; here's the shop for you, güegüence; come in, güegüence; sit down, güegüence; there's sweatmeats here, güegüence; there's a lemon here." and, as i am such a funny fellow, i jumped off, with my riding cloak on, so full of ornaments that you could not tell what it was, covered with gold and silver to the ground; and that's the way a girl gave me a permit, governor tastuanes. _gov._ well, a girl can't give a permit [here], güegüence. _güe._ o! god bless me, governor tastuanes, we won't be fools; no, we will be friends, and we will bargain about my packs of goods. in the first place, chests of gold, chests of silver, cloth of spain, cloth from smugglers, vests, feather skirts, silk stockings, golden shoes, beaver lazo de oro y de plata, ya pachigüe muyule sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ pachigüete no pachigüete, güegüence, asamatimagas, (a sones) se palparesia motel polluse d. forcico y d. ambrosio timaguas y verdad, tin riquezas y hermosuras tumile mo cabildo real. _güegüence._ no chopa quimate mollule, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ no chiquimate, güegüence. _güegüence._ pues si cana amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, simocagüe nistipampa, sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana, y palparesia d. forcico timaguas y verdad, tin hermosura, tin bellezas tumiles mo cabildo real. _gobernador._ no pilse cap^n alg^l m^{or} simocagüe campamento sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana y palparesia d. forcico timagas y verdad, tin hermosura, tin belleza tumile mo cabildo real. _alguacil._ mascamayagua sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. matateco dio mispiales sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana y palparesia d. forcico timaguas y verdad. aqui el alguacil saca à d. forcico p^a hablar con el gob^{or}. _d. forcico._ matateco dio mispiales, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. hats, stirrup straps of gold and silver lace, as may satisfy the clever governor tastuanes. _gov._ no, i am not satisfied with what you say, güegüence. don forcico and don ambrosio must give a truthful account to our royal court, whether you have riches and abundant treasures. _güe._ do you not know it already, clever governor tastuanes? _gov._ i do not know it, güegüence. _güe._ then, if friend captain chief alguacil will suspend, in my presence, the music, dances, songs and ballets of the leading men, don forcico will give a truthful account to the royal court about my riches and abundant treasures. _gov._ my son, captain chief alguacil, suspend in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs and ballets, and don forcico will give a truthful account to the royal court about their riches and abundant treasures. _alg._ at your service, governor tastuanes. i pray god to protect the leading men, and [they suspend] the music, dances, songs and ballets, and don forcico will give a truthful account. (the alguacil takes don forcico aside to talk with the governor.) _don for._ i pray god to protect you, governor tastuanes. _gobernador._ matateco dio miscuales quilis don forcico ya tiguala neme. _d. forcico._ ya nemo niqui nistipampa, quinimente motales, quinimentes moseguan, alcaldes ordinarios de la sta. hermandad, regidores, notarios y depositarios. eguan noche mo cabildo real del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ pues, don forcico asamatimaguas semo verdad a sones sepaguala motalce güegüence quichua contar güil hombre rico, tin riquezas, tin hermosura, tin belleza, en primer lugar cajoneria de oro, cajoneria de plata, doblones de oro, monedas de plata, hay me sagua don forcico. _d. forcico._ o valgame dios, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, es corto el dia y la noche para contar las riquezas de mi padre; en primer lugar cajoneria de oro, cajoneria de plata, ropa de castilla, ropa de contrabando, estriberas de lazo de oro y de plata, ya pachigüe muyule sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ pachigüete no pachigüete pues, don forcico, á sones se palparesia tu hermanito don ambrosio timaguas y verdad tin riquezas y hermosuras tumiles mo cabildo real. _d. forcico._ sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, sicana amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, mayague campamento sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana y palparesia mi hermanito don ambrosio timaguas y verdad. _gov._ i pray god to prosper you, don forcico; are you well? _don for._ i am here, as is proper, [and i pray god to protect] those who carry the messages, those who transact the business, the regular alcaldes of the holy brotherhood, the registrars, notaries and archivists, [by day] and night, in the royal court of governor tastuanes. _gov._ well, don forcico, you are to tell me the truth about the stories which güegüence tells, saying that he is a rich man, and has property, and handsome and beautiful things; in the first place, chests of gold, chests of silver, doubloons of gold, coins of silver; so tell me clearly, don forcico. _don for._ o! god bless me, governor tastuanes, the day and the night are too short to tell you all the riches of my father. in the first place, chests of gold, chests of silver, cloth of spain, cloth from smugglers, stirrup straps of lace of gold and silver, as may satisfy the clever governor tastuanes. _gov._ no, not satisfied yet, don forcico; for next, your little brother, don ambrosio, will give a truthful account to the royal court about these riches and abundant treasures. _don for._ governor tastuanes, if friend captain chief alguacil will suspend in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs and ballets, my little brother, don ambrosio, will give a truthful account. _gobernador._ no pilse cap^n alg^l m^{or}, simocagüe campamento sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana, y palparesia su hermanito d. ambrosio timaguas y verdad tin riquezas, tin hermosuras. _alguacil._ mascamayagua sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. matateco dio mispiales sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana, y palparesia don ambrosio timaguas y verdad. aqui el alg^l saca à d. ambrosio p^a hablar con el gob^{or}. _d. ambrosio._ matateco dio mispiales, sor. gobernador tastuanes. _gobernador._ matateco dio miscuales, quilis don ambrosio, ya tiguala neme? _d. ambrosio._ ya nemo niqui nistipampa quinimente motales, quinimente moseguan alcaldes ordinarios de la sta. hermandad, regidores y notarios, y depositarios. eguan noche mo cabildo real del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ pues don ambrosio asamatimaguas semo verdad á sones (se) paguala motalce güegüence quichua contar güil hombre rico. en primer lugar cajoneria de oro, cajoneria de plata, ropa de castilla, ropa de contrabando, güipil de pecho, güipil de pluma, medias de seda, zapatos de oro, sombrero de castor, estriberas de lazo de oro y de plata, muchintes hermosuras quichua contar sesule güegüence hoy melagüe don ambrosio. _gov._ my son, captain chief alguacil, suspend in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs and ballets, and his little brother, don ambrosio, will give a truthful account of the riches and treasures. _alg._ at your service, governor tastuanes. i pray god to protect the leading men, [and they suspend] the music, dances, songs and ballets, and don ambrosio will give a truthful account. (the alguacil takes don ambrosio aside to talk to the governor.) _don am._ i pray god to protect you, governor tastuanes. _gov._ i pray god to prosper you, don ambrosio; are you well? _don am._ i am here, as is proper, [and i pray god to protect] those who carry the messages, those who transact the business, the regular alcaldes of the holy brotherhood, the registrars, notaries and archivists, [by day] and by night, in the royal court of governor tastuanes. _gov._ well, don ambrosio, you are to tell me the truth about the stories which güegüence relates, saying that he is a rich man. in the first place, [that he has] chests of gold, chests of silver, cloth of spain, cloth from smugglers, vests, skirts of feathers, silk stockings, golden shoes, a beaver hat, stirrup straps of lace of gold and silver, quantities of pretty things, as that good-for-nothing güegüence relates; so tell me clearly, don ambrosio. _d. ambrosio._ valgame dios, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, vergüenza me da contar las cosas de ese güegüence embustero, pues solo está esperando que cierre la noche para salir de casa en casa á hurtar lo que hay en las cocinas para pasar el, y su hijo don forcico. dice que tiene cajoneria de oro, y es una petaca vieja totolatera, que tiene catre de seda y es un petate viejo revolcado, dice que tiene medias de seda y son unas botias viejas sin forro, que tiene zapatos de oro, y son unas chancletas viejas sin suelas, que tiene un fusil de oro, y es solo el palo, porque el cañon se lo quitaron. _güegüence._ ve, que afrenta de muchacho, hablador, boca floja! revientale, hijo, la cabeza, que como no es hijo mio me desacredita. _d. forcico._ quitate de aquí, mala casta! no se espante sor. gob^{or} tastuanes en oir á este hablador, que cuando yo anduve con mi padre por la carrera de mexico y cuando venimos ya estaba mi madre en cinta de otro, y por eso salió tan mala casta, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _güegüence._ sor. gob^{or} tastuanes ya pachigüe muyules teguane motel poyuce don forcico contar tin hermosuras, tin bellezas, tumiles mo cabildo real. _gobernador._ pachigüete no pachigüete, güegüence, asamaquimate mollule mo cabildo real. _don am._ god bless me, governor tastuanes, i am ashamed to talk about the affairs of this old humbug, güegüence, for he is only waiting until it is dark, to go from house to house, stealing whatever is in the kitchens, to keep him and his son, don forcico, alive. he says he has a chest of gold, and it is an old bird-basket; that he has a silken cot, and it is a dirty old mat; he says he has silk stockings, and they are old leggings, without lining; that he has golden shoes, and they are worn out slippers, without soles; that he has a golden gun, and it is only a wooden stock, because they took the barrel away from him. _güe._ heavens! what an impudent boy, a babbler, a lying tongue! break his head, my boy, for no son of mine would slander me in that way. _don for._ get out of here, you bad breed. don't be shocked, governor, to hear this babbler; for when i went with my father on the road to mexico, when we came back my mother was big by another, and that is why this one is such a bad breed, governor tastuanes. _güe._ governor tastuanes, now are you not satisfied completely about us, by what don forcico told the royal court, that i have quantities of pretty and beautiful things? _gov._ no, not satisfied; the royal court would like to know it. _güegüence._ no chiquimate mollule sor. gob^{or} tastuanes: pues mayagüe amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, campamento srs. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana y palparesia mo tinderia turna güiso mo cabildo real. _gobernador._ no pilse cap^n alg^l m^{or}, simocagüe campamento sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana, y paltechua consolar sesule güegüence(.) eguan mo tinderia y paltechua consolar mo cabildo real. _alguacil._ mascamayagua, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. matateco dio mispiales sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana y palparesia tinderia mo cabildo real. da vuelta el güegüence y los muchachos bailando con la tienda, y habla el _güegüence._ matateco dio mispiales, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, asanega neme mo tinderia matamagüeso mo cabildo real. alzen muchachos, miren cuanta hermosura. en primer lugar cajoneria de oro, cajoneria de plata, güipil de pecho, güipil de pluma, medias de seda, zapatos de oro, sombrero de castor, estriberas de lazo de oro y de plata, muchintes hermosuras, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, asaneganeme ese lucero de la mañana que relumbra del otro lado del mar, asanecaneme esa jeringuita de oro para ya remediar el cabildo real del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ para tu cuerpo, güegüence. _güe._ the clever governor tastuanes does not know it. well, then, let friend captain chief alguacil suspend in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs, ballets and talk, and i will open my tent to the royal court. _gov._ my son, captain chief alguacil, suspend in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs, ballets and such like, to please this good-for-nothing güegüence, and he will show his tent, to please the royal court. _alg._ at your service, governor tastuanes. i pray god to protect the leading men, [and they suspend] the music, dances, songs, ballets and talk, [to show] the tent to the royal court. (güegüence and the boys dance around the stage with the tent.) _güe._ i pray god to protect you, governor tastuanes. let me offer you my tent, to show to the royal court. heft it, boys. see what pretty things! in the first place, a chest of gold, a chest of silver, vests, feather skirts, silk stockings, golden shoes, a beaver hat, stirrup straps of lace of gold and silver, quantities of pretty things, governor tastuanes. let me offer you this star of the morning, which shines from the other side of the sea; let me offer you this syringe of gold, with which to medicate the royal court of the governor tastuanes. _gov._ may it be for your own body, güegüence. _güegüence._ como este mi muchacho tiene tantos oficios, que hasta en las uñas tiene encajados los oficios. _gobernador._ seran de arena, güegüence. _güegüence._ pues mas ha sido escultor, fundidor, repicador, piloto de alturas de aquellos que se elevan hasta las nubes, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ esos no son oficios de continuo, güegüence. _güegüence._ pues mas ha sido carpintero, hacedor de yugos aunque sean de papayo, hacedor de arados, aunque sean de tecomajoche ya pachigüe muyule sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ ya pachigüete no pachigüete, pues güegüence asanese palparesia mo don forcico timaguas y verdad tin oficios. _güegüence._ pues si cana amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}. mayague nistipampa sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana y palparesia don forcico timaguas y verdad tin oficios. _alguacil._ mascamayagua, güegüence. matateco dio mispiales sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana y palparesia d. forcico mo cabildo real. vuelve el alguacil à sacar à d. forcico. _güe._ it is wonderful how many trades this boy of mine has. he is deep in trades to his fingers' ends. _gov._ they are of no account, güegüence. _güe._ why, he has been a sculptor, a metal founder, a bell-ringer, and a pilot to the heights which rise above the clouds, governor tastuanes. _gov._ these are not permanent employments, güegüence. _güe._ then he has been a carpenter, a maker of yokes, though of papaya wood, a maker of plows, though of temple tree wood. this should satisfy the clever governor tastuanes. _gov._ no, i am not yet satisfied. let güegüence tell his son, don forcico, to give a truthful account of his trades. _güe._ then, if friend captain chief alguacil will, in my presence, cause the leading men to suspend the music, dances, songs and ballets, don forcico will give a truthful account of his trades. _alg._ at your service, güegüence. i pray god will protect the leading men, [and they suspend] the music, dances, songs and ballets, for the talk of don forcico to the royal court. (the alguacil brings don forcico forward.) _d. forcico._ sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, hasta en las uñas tengo encajados los oficios. _gobernador._ seran de arena, don forcico. _d. forcico._ pues mas he sido escultor, fundidor, repicador, piloto de alturas de aquellas que se elevan hasta las nubes, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ pachigüete no pachigüete, pues don forcico asamaguimate mollule tin mudanzas, tin sapatetas mo cabildo real. _d. forcico._ o valgame dios, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, sicana amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, campamento sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana tin corridos y palechua consolar mo cabildo real. _gobernador._ no pilse cap^n alg^l m^{or} simocagüe campamento sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana y palparesia lichua consolar sesule güegüence. _alguacil._ mascamayagua sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. matateco dio mispiales sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, velancicos, necana y palparesia consolar mo cabildo real sesule güegüence. primera bailada del corrido, y habla el _don for._ governor tastuanes, i am deep in trades to my finger ends. _gov._ they are of no account, don forcico. _don for._ why, i have been a sculptor, a metal founder, a bell-ringer, and a pilot to the heights which rise above the clouds, governor tastuanes. _gov._ no, i am not satisfied, since don forcico should also know some clever dances and caperings, [to amuse] the royal court. _don for._ o! god bless me, governor tastuanes, if friend captain chief alguacil [will suspend] in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs and ballets, they shall have some running dances and such things, to amuse the royal court. _gov._ my son, captain chief alguacil, suspend in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs, ballets and talk, in order that this good-for-nothing güegüence may amuse [the royal court]. _alg._ at your service, governor tastuanes. i pray god to protect the leading men, [and they suspend] the music, dances, songs, ballets and talk, in order that the good-for-nothing güegüence may amuse the royal court. (first ballet with the running dance.) _güegüence._ sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, ya pachigüe mollule tigüita tin mudanzas, tin sapatetas, lichua consolar mo cabildo real. _gobernador._ pachigüete no pachiguete, güegüence, asamaquimate muyule, asanese palparesia motel poyuse don forcico y don ambrosio à consolar el cabildo real. _güegüence._ no chopa quimate muyule, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ no chopa quimate güegüence. _güegüence._ mayague amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, campamento sres. principales, sones, corridos, necana y paltechua consolar don forcico eguan d. ambrosio mo cabildo real. _gobernador._ no pilse cap^n alg^l m^{or}, simocagüe campamento sres. principales, sones, corridos, necana y paltechua consolar don forcico eguan don ambrosio mo cabildo real. segunda bailada del güegüence, y los dos muchachos. _güegüence._ sor gob^{or} tastuanes, ya pachigüe mollule tigüita tin mudanzas, tin sapatetas lichua consolar mo cabildo real. _gobernador._ pachigüete no pachigüete, güegüence. _güegüence._ sor. gob^{or} tastuanes asamaquimate mollule tin mudanzas, tin sapatetas sones san martin, à lichua consolar don forcico eguan don ambrosio mo cabildo real. _güe._ governor tastuanes, now you are satisfied that they have dances and caperings to amuse the royal court. _gov._ no, i am not satisfied. i would know thoroughly what don forcico and don ambrosio can do to amuse the royal court. _güe._ do you not know it, governor tastuanes? _gov._ i do not know it, güegüence. _güe._ let friend captain alguacil major [suspend] in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs and such like, that don forcico and don ambrosio may amuse the royal court. _gov._ my son, captain chief alguacil, suspend in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances, songs and such like, that don forcico and don ambrosio may amuse the royal court. (second ballet of güegüence and the two boys.) _güe._ governor tastuanes, now you are certainly satisfied that they have dances, have caperings, to amuse the royal court. _gov._ no, i am not satisfied, güegüence. _güe._ governor tastuanes may certainly know that don forcico and don ambrosio have dances and caperings, to the tune of st. martin, to amuse the royal court. _gobernador._ no chopa quimate mollule güegüence. no pilse cap^n alg^l m^{or} simocagüe campamento sres. principales, sones san martin a lichua consolar mo cabildo real sesule güegüence. aqui se toca s. martin y dan vuelta todos bailando. _gobernador._ a güegüence ya pachigüe muyule tigüita tin sapatetas lichuas consolar mo cabildo real. _güegüence._ pachigüete no pachigüe, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes asamaquimate muyule sones portorico no amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or} à lichua consolar don forcico, y don ambrosio mo cabildo real. _gobernador._ no pilse cap^n alg^l m^{or}, simocagüe campamento sres. principales, sones portorico lichua consolar sesule güegüence. aqui se toca un ton antiguo y dan vuelta todos bailando. _gobernador._ a güegüence ya pachigüe muyule tigüita tin sapatetas lichua consolar mo cabildo real. _güegüence._ pachigüete no pachigüe, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, que unos van para atras, y otros para delante. _gobernador._ eso no lo sé, güegüence. pues, güegüence, asamaquimate muyule, tin mudanzas, tin sapatetas semula macho-raton à lichua consolar mo cabildo real. _gov._ i do not certainly know it. my son, captain chief alguacil, suspend in the quarters of the leading men [the music, etc.], that this good-for-nothing güegüence may amuse the royal court with the tune of st. martin. (the tune of st. martin is played, and they all dance around.) _gov._ now, güegüence, i am satisfied that they have caperings to amuse the royal court. _güe._ but i am not satisfied; and, governor tastuanes, my friend, captain chief alguacil, might like to know how don forcico and don ambrosio can amuse the royal court, to the tune of porto rico. _gov._ my son, captain chief alguacil, suspend in the quarters of the leading men [the music, etc.], that this good-for-nothing güegüence may console [us] with the tune of porto rico. (an ancient tune is played, and they all dance around.) _gov._ now, güegüence, i am satisfied that they have caperings to amuse the royal court. _güe._ but i am not satisfied, governor tastuanes, as some go from behind and others from in front. _gov._ i know nothing about that, güegüence. now, güegüence, whether they have dances, caperings, like the _macho-raton_, to amuse the royal court? _güegüence._ sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, ya bueno amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, campamento sres. principales, sones, mudanzas, necana, à lichua consolar semula macho-raton mo cabildo real. a, muchachos! que es de los machos? _d. forcico._ ahí estan, tatita. aqui se toca la valona para los machos, y habla el _güegüence._ sor. gob^{or} tastuanes ya pachigüe mollule, tin mudanzas, tin sapatetas, tin remates, tin corcobios semula macho-raton. _gobernador._ pachigüete no pachigüe, güegüence. _güegüence._ pues sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, no haremos un trato y contrato, que el sin tuno, sin tunal de eguan mo doña suche-malinche? _gobernador._ no chopa quimate muyule, güegüence. _güegüence._ no chiquimate, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ no pilse cap^n alg^l m^{or} simocagüe campamento el señor escribano real, chigüigua no provincia real lichua obedecer eguan mo doña suche-malinche. va el alguacil à hablar con el escribano real. _alguacil._ matateco dio mispiales, sr. escribano real. _güe._ governor tastuanes, and good friend captain chief alguacil, [suspend] in the quarters of the leading men the music, dances and songs, in order that we may amuse the royal court with the _macho-raton_. ho, boys! how about the mules? _don for._ here they are, little papa. (the valona is played for the mules.) _güe._ governor tastuanes, you are certainly satisfied that they have dances, caperings, finishing touches and curvetings, like the _macho-raton_. _gov._ no, i am not satisfied, güegüence. _güe._ well, then, governor tastuanes, shall we not make a trade and a treaty between him, without a folly or a fig-tree, and the lady suche-malinche? _gov._ do you not know of it already, güegüence? _güe._ i do not know it, governor tastuanes. _gov._ my son, captain chief alguacil, suspend [the labor] in the quarters of the royal secretary, and let him obey our order to enter my royal presence, with the lady suche-malinche. (the alguacil goes to speak with the royal secretary.) _alg._ i pray god to protect you mr. secretary. _escribano._ matateco dio miscuales, quilis cap^n alg^l m^{or}, ya tiguala neme? _alguacil._ ya nemo niqui nistipampa sor. escribano real, negua ligua y provincia real, del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, lichua obedecer eguan mo doña suche-malinche. _escribano._ pues, no pilse cap^n alg^l m^{or} simocagüe campamento sres. principales, sones, rujeros, y paltechua obedecer eguan mo doña suche-malinche. _alguacil._ mascamayagua, sor. escribano real. aqui se toca el rujero, dan vuelta bailando los dos y habla el _escribano._ matateco dio mispiales, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _gobernador._ matateco dio miscuales quilis sor. escribano real, ya tiguala neme? _escribano._ ya nemo niqui nistipampa lichua obedecer, eguan mo doña suche-malinche. _gobernador._ pues, sor. escribano real, asanegaguala sesule güegüence güil hombre rico, eguan mo doña suche-malinche. _escribano._ sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, asanegualigua vestir saya de la china, güipil de pecho, güipil de pluma, medias de seda, _sec._ i pray god to prosper you, captain chief alguacil; are you well? _alg._ i am, as is proper, mr. secretary. you will enter the royal presence of governor tastuanes, to obey his orders, and also the lady suche-malinche. _sec._ well, then, my son, captain chief alguacil, suspend in the quarters of the leading men the music, the shoutings, and such like, that i may obey, with the lady suche-malinche. _alg._ at your service, mr. secretary. (the rujero is played, and the two dance around.) _sec._ i pray god to protect you, governor tastuanes. _gov._ i pray god to prosper you, mr. secretary; are you well? _sec._ i am, as is proper, [and come] to obey your orders, with the lady suche-malinche. _gov._ well, mr. secretary, there is a bargain between this good-for-nothing güegüence, who is a rich man, and the lady suche-malinche. _sec._ governor tastuanes, let the bargain be for clothing, a petticoat from china, vest, feather skirt, silk stockings, zapatos de oro, sombrero de castor, para monistilco al sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. se vuelve el escribano à su lugar, bailando con el alguacil. _gobernador._ ha, güegüence, asiguala lichua escojer mosamonte. _güegüence._ ¿desmonte? _gobernador._ mosamonte, güegüence. _güegüence._ yo no he hecho trato ni contrato con el sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, solo que sea mi muchacho. _gobernador._ eso no lo sé, güegüence. _güegüence._ ha, muchachos, que trato y contrato tienes con el sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _d. forcico._ de casarme, tatita. _güegüence._ de casarte! ¿y tan chiquito te atreves à casarte, muchacho? _d. forcico._ si, tatita. _güegüence._ y con quien me dejas, muchacho? _d. forcico._ con mi hermanito, don ambrosio. _güegüence._ que caso me hará ese jipato! shoes of gold, a beaver hat, for a son-in-law of governor tastuanes. (the secretary returns to his place, dancing with the alguacil.) _gov._ ha, güegüence! it angers me that you choose so presumptuously. _güe._ trumpery? _gov._ presumptuously, güegüence. _güe._ i have not made any trade or treaty with the governor tastuanes; it must be my boy. _gov._ i don't know about that, güegüence. _güe._ ho, boys! what trade or treaty have you with the governor tastuanes? _don for._ for me to get married, little papa. _güe._ for you to get married! what, boy! a little chap like you dares to get married? _don for._ yes, little papa. _güe._ and with whom are you going to leave me boy? _don for._ with my little brother, don ambrosio. _güe._ what care will that imp take of me? _d. ambrosio._ y yo tambien me quiero casar. _güegüence._ para eso seres bueno. don forcico asiguale lichúa escojer mosamonte. ve, que bizarra dama aqui, muchacho. _d. forcico._ no está de mi gusto, tatita. _güegüence._ porque, muchacho? _d. forcico._ porque está muy pachaca, tatita. _güegüence._ pues, que es iguana ó garrobo para que esté pachaca? quien la echó á perder, muchacho? _d. forcico._ mi hermanito, don ambrosio. _güegüence._ para eso será bueno este soplado, ojos de sapo muerto, por eso está tan apupujado. ve, que bizarra maneca, muchacho. _d. forcico._ si está aventada, tatita. _güegüence._ quien la aventó, muchacho? _d. forcico._ mi hermanito, don ambrosio. _güegüence._ como aventastes esta dama, don ambrosio? _don am._ and i too want to get married. _güe._ you're good enough for that. don forcico makes a bargain to choose presumptuously. see what a gay lady is here, my boy? _don for._ she is not to my taste, little papa. _güe._ why not, my boy? _don for._ because she is too much stuffed, little papa. _güe._ is she, then, an iguana or a garrobo, that she is stuffed? who has spoiled her, my boy? _don for._ my little brother, don ambrosio. _güe._ for that the bloated fellow is good enough, the evil-eyed brat; that is the reason he is so played out. see, here's a gay cake-baker my boy. _don for._ she _is_ puffed up, little papa. _güe._ who puffed her up, boy? _don for._ my little brother, don ambrosio. _güe._ how did you puff up this lady, don ambrosio? _d. ambrosio._ de dormir con vos, güegüence. _güegüence._ callate, mala casta. ve que bizarra dama, esta otra, muchacho. _d. forcico._ esta, sí, está de mi gusto, tatita. _güegüence._ sabes escojer, no muchacho, pero no sabes escojer un buen machete para hacer un buen desmonte. _d. forcico._ tambien, tatita. _güegüence._ sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, mosegua trato y contrato. _gobernador._ no mocegua, güegüence. _güegüence._ no mocegua, sor. gob^{or} tastuanes; lo que siento es mi muchacho que se me pierde. _gobernador._ eso no lo sé, güegüence. aqui se casan, y habla el. _gobernador._ no pilse cap^n alg^l m^{or} chigüigua mo provincia real, campamento sesule güegüence lichua obedecer con una yunta de botijas de vino de castilla para en chocolá y paltechua brindar mo cabildo real. _regidor._ simocagüe, sor. alg^l m^{or}.--mayagüe, amigo sesule güegüence. en nombre mo cabildo real te damos los _don am._ it came from sleeping with you, güegüence. _güe._ shut up, you bad breed. see, my boy, what a gay lady this other one is. _don for._ this one? yes, she suits me, little papa. _güe._ you know how to choose, my boy; but you don't know how to choose a good axe to make a good clearing. _don for._ that also, little papa. _güe._ governor tastuanes, let us make a trade and a treaty. _gov._ i will make it, güegüence. _güe._ i will make it, governor tastuanes. what i feel is the loss of my boy. _gov._ i don't know about that, güegüence. (the marriage takes place.) _gov._ my son, captain chief alguacil, let it be known in the quarters of my royal province that this good-for-nothing güegüence is going to treat the royal court to a yoke of jars of spanish wine. _reg._ suspend [business], mr. chief alguacil, and attend, friend good-for-nothing güegüence. in the name of the royal court, we give the congratulations, and also parabienes de eguan mo doña suche-malinche, de inmenso que goce con don forcico, tu hijo, güegüence. _alguacil._ ha, güegüence, asanegualigua y provincia real del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes y paltechua obedecer con una yunta de botijas de vino de castilla en chocolá y paltechua brindar mo cabildo real del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _güegüence._ ha, muchachos, ya lo ven, aviados estamos. bueno es, ser casado, pero ahora se nos ofrece un gran trabajo. ya viene el provincial y no tenemos provision. amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, á onde dejó al provincial, en managua ó en nindiri? _alguacil._ acaso no me cele de provincial, güegüence; una yunta de botijas de vino. _güegüence._ ya lo ven, muchachos, una yunta de bueyes, y ha de ser con carreta. _alguacil._ acaso no me cele de bueyes ò de carreta, güegüence. una yunta de botijas de vino de castilla para en chocolá brindar su cabildo real sor. gob^{or} tastuanes. _güegüence._ ya lo ves, muchacho, en que empeño me metes, con ser casado. ya ves la providencia que pide el sor. gob^{or} tastuanes, una yunta de botijas de vino de castilla para en chocolá del sor. gob^{or} tastuanes; te atreves á buscarla ó á sacarla, muchacho? to the lady suche malinche, that she may enjoy herself hugely with don forcico, your son, güegüence. _alg._ ha, güegüence! it is known in the royal province of the governor tastuanes that you are to obey him, and treat the royal court of the governor tastuanes to a yoke of jars of spanish wine. _güe._ ho, boys! you see we are already provided for. it is a fine thing to be married, but now we have a big job on hand. the provincial is coming, and we have not prepared for him. friend captain chief alguacil, where did you leave the provincial, in managua or in nindiri? _alg._ perhaps i don't care about the provincial; a yoke of wine-jars. _güe._ now you see, boys, a yoke of oxen, and, no doubt, the cart as well. _alg._ perhaps i don't care about carts or oxen, güegüence; a yoke of jars of spanish wine for a lunch, to treat the royal court of governor tastuanes. _güe._ now, boy, you see in what a bother you put me by getting married. now you see the contribution which the governor asks, a yoke of jars of spanish wine for the governor's lunch. are you equal to hunting for it, or to getting it, boy? _d. forcico._ no tengo de onde, tatita. _güegüence._ para escojer mosamonte si eres bueno. te atreves a buscar una yunta de botijas de vino de castilla, don ambrosio? _d. ambrosio._ no tengo de onde, güegüence. _güegüence._ que cosa buena has de hacer, mala casta! con que, ¿no te atreves, muchacho? _d. forcico._ no, tatita. _güegüence._ pues á ganar ò á perder voy à buscar la yunta de botijas de vino. _d. forcico._ no vaya, tatita, ya me avié de la yunta de botijas de vino. _güegüence._ a onde te aviastes, muchacho? _d. forcico._ en casa de un amigo. _güegüence._ quien te enseño hacer amigo? _d. forcico._ usted, tatita. _güegüence._ calla, muchacho, que dirá la gente que yo te enseño á hacer amigo? _don for._ i don't know whence, little papa. _güe._ you are bold enough to choose [a wife] presumptuously. are you bold enough to hunt up a yoke of jars of spanish wine, don ambrosio? _don am._ i don't know where, güegüence. _güe._ what are you good for, you bad breed? well, don't _you_ dare to, boy? _don for._ no, little papa. _güe._ well, then, be it to win or lose, i shall go in search of the wine myself. _don for._ don't go, little papa, i have already provided the wine. _güe._ where did you get it, boy? _don for._ in the house of a friend. _güe._ who taught you to make a friend? _don for._ you, little papa. _güe._ shut up, boy. what will the folks say [if they hear] that i taught you to make a friend? _d. ambrosio._ y pues no es verdad que enseñas á malas mañas á tu hijo? _güegüence._ arra ya, mala casta! malas mañas como las tienes vos. amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}, ya estamos aviados de la yunta de botijas de vino, no habrá un macho de la cofradia ò de la comunidad? _alguacil._ vean, que fama de hombre de bien! _güegüence._ soy hombre de bien. traigo mis machos, pero estan algo raspados desde su cruz hasta su rabo a lichuas diligencia, amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}. ha, muchachos, que es de los machos? _d. forcico._ ahi, estan, tatita. aqui dan una vuelta bailando y cojen los machos. _d. forcico._ ya estan cojidos los machos, tatita. _güegüence._ encojidos? será de frio. _d. forcico._ los machos ya estan cojidos. _güegüence._ cojudos? pues no eran capones. _d. forcico._ cojidos los machos, tatita. _don am._ and is it not true that you teach your son evil ways? _güe._ get out, you bad breed; you are the one with evil ways. friend captain chief alguacil, we have now provided the wine. have you not a mule of the brotherhood, or of the village? _alg._ see, what a reputation for an honest man! _güe._ i am an honest man. i have my own mules, but they are a little raw, from withers to crupper, in consequence of my energy, captain chief alguacil. ha, boys! what about the mules? _don for._ here they are, little papa. (they dance around the stage and lead in a number of masks, dressed as mules.) _don for._ the mules are now driven up, little papa. _güe._ shriveled up? that must be from cold. _don for._ i say the mules are driven up. _güe._ livin' studs? then they were not altered. _don for._ the mules are driven up. _güegüence._ cojidos los machos? pues hableme recio! a onde estan los machos? _d. forcico._ aquí estan, tatita. _güegüence._ que macho es este puntero, muchacho? _d. forcico._ el macho viejo, tatita. _güegüence._ y este otro macho? _d. forcico._ el macho guajaqueño. _güegüence._ y este otro macho? _d. forcico._ el macho mohino. _güegüence._ y este otro macho? _d. forcico._ el macho moto. _güegüence._ ¿ya aparejaron, muchachos? _d. forcico._ no, tatita, aparejeselos vd. _güegüence._ todo lo ha de hacer el viejo. _d. forcico._ sí, es mejor, tatita. _güe._ driven up, are they? speak out loud to me. where are the mules? _don for._ here they are, little papa. _güe._ which mule is this thin one, boy? _don for._ the old mule, little papa. _güe._ and this other mule? _don for._ that is the dried-up one. _güe._ and this other? _don for._ that is the quarrelsome mule. _güe._ and this other one? _don for._ the rowdy mule. _güe._ are they harnessed, boys? _don for._ no, little papa; harness them yourself. _güe._ the old man has to do everything. _don for._ yes, it's better, little papa. _güegüence._ ya está sana la cinchera de este macho, muchacho? _d. forcico._ ya está, tatita. _güegüence._ y este otro macho ¿ya esta sana la riñonada? _d. forcico._ ya está, tatita. _güegüence._ que sana ha de estar, muchacho, si asi tanta estaca tiene por delante? a onde se estacó este macho, muchacho? _d. forcico._ en el potrero, tatita. _güegüence._ eso merece por ralirse del potrero á otro potrero. y la vaticola de este macho, ya está sana, muchacho? _d. forcico._ ya está, tatita. _güegüence._ que sana ha de estar, muchacho, si le ha bajado la flucion por de bajo de las piernas y la tiene muy hinchada? reviéntalo, muchacho. _d. forcico._ reviéntelo vd, tatita. _güegüence._ ahi se reventará solo, muchacho, que falta? _d. forcico._ alzar el fardo, tatita. _güe._ is the girth-gall of this mule well yet, boy? _don for._ it is, little papa. _güe._ and this other mule, is its backband-gall well yet? _don for._ it is, little papa. _güe._ how can it be well if it has such a stick in front of it? where did this mule run such a stick in itself, boy? _don for._ in the colt yard, little papa. _güe._ that is what it deserved for running from one pasture to another. and the crupper-gall of this other mule, is it now well, boy? _don for._ it is, little papa. _güe._ how can it be well, boy, if the inflammation has passed down beneath the legs, and there's a great swelling there? burst it open, boy. _don for._ burst it open yourself, little papa. _güe._ it will burst of itself, boy. what's wanting now? _don for._ heave up the pack, little papa. _güegüence._ ¿calentar el jarro? _d. forcico._ alzar el fardo. _güegüence._ ha! el fardo! a onde está el fardo? _d. forcico._ aqui está tatita. _güegüence._ a mi tiempo, cuando fui muchacho, el tiempo del hilo azul, cuando me vei en aquellos campos de los diriomos alzando aquellos fardos de guayabas,--no muchachos? _alguacil._ date priesa, güegüence. _güegüence._ me llevas preso? porque, amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or}? _alguacil._ que te des priesa! _güegüence._ dejeme acordar de mi tiempo, que con eso me consuelo. ha! muchachos, para onde vamos, para atras ò para delante? _d. forcico._ para delante, tatita. _güegüence._ pues, á la guia, muchachos. aqui se montan los muchachos en los machos. _güegüence._ muchachos, ¿no habrá un peinador para brindar el cabildo real del sor gob^{or} tastuane? _güe._ heat up the flask? _don for._ heave up the pack. _güe._ o! the pack. where is the pack? _don for._ here it is, little papa. _güe._ in my time, when i was a boy, in the time of the blue thread, when i was in those plains of the diriomos, lifting those packs of guayabas--isn't it so, boys? _alg._ hurry up, güegüence. _güe._ you take me up? what for, friend captain chief alguacil? _alg._ i mean hurry up. _güe._ let me recall old times, that i may console myself with that. say, boys, do we go in front or behind? _don for._ in front, little papa. _güe._ then go ahead, boys. (the boys mount the mules.) _güe._ boys, isn't there a cheeky fellow to toast the royal court of the governor tastuanes? _d. forcico._ si, hay, tatita. _güegüence._ señor gob^{or} tastuanes, asaneganeme castilla en chocola de vino. _gobernador._ siguale, güegüence. _gobernador._ sor. escribano real, asaneganeme castilla en chocola de vino. _escribano._ siguale, güegüence. _güegüence._ sor. regidor real, asaneganeme castilla en chocola de vino. _regidor._ siguale, güegüence. _güegüence._ amigo cap^n alg^l m^{or} asaneganeme castilla en chocola de vino. _alguacil._ siguale, güegüence. _güegüence._ pues nosotros, á la gorra, muchachos! fin. _don for._ yes, there is, little papa. _güe._ governor tastuanes, let me offer you some spanish wine, as a treat. _gov._ follow him, güegüence. _güe._ mr. secretary, let me offer you some spanish wine, as a treat. _sec._ follow him, güegüence. _güe._ mr. registrar, let me offer you some spanish wine, as a treat. _reg._ follow him, güegüence. _güe._ friend captain chief alguacil, let me offer you some spanish wine, as a treat. _alg._ follow him, güegüence. _güe._ then, for us, boys; we'll get it for nothing, and drink it ourselves. end. notes. _page ._ the dramatis personæ. these have been discussed in the introduction, page xlv. i may add that the "regidor de cana" may be for "regidor decano." otherwise i do not see a meaning to it. the term "alguacil" might be translated "constable," or "bailiff." _page ._ the salutations exchanged between the alguacil and governor are repeated frequently between the characters. in the first, the words would seem to be the nahuatl _matataca_, to beg, to pray, and _miecpialia_, to watch over, to protect; in the reply, for the latter is substituted _miequilia_, to prosper, followed by _qualli_, good, or well. the terminal _s_, in _mispiales_, _miscuales_, is probably a remnant of the spanish _os_, you. _no pilse_ is the vocative _nopiltze_, my dear son, compounded of the inseparable possessive pronoun of the first person, _no_, and _tepiltzin_, an affectionate or reverential form, from the root _pilli_. the expression need not be taken as literally meaning relationship, as the nahuas used the formula _nopiltzintzinê_ in addressing all persons of position. "_ma moyolicaizin_, _nopiltzintzine_, seas bien venido, ó ilustre señor." carochi, _gram. mex._, p. . _ya tiguala neme_, i take to be _yê tiqualli tinemi_, in which _yê_ is a particle of contraposition, and both the adjective-adverb _qualli_, and the verb _nemi_, to live, to be, are preceded by the second personal pronoun _ti_. the compound _mascamayagua_ appears to be from _maxca_, yours, literally, your thing (_mo_, your, _axca_, thing), and the optative particle _mayecuele_, equivalent to the spanish _ojalá_; hence the meaning is "yours to command," or "at your service." in his next words the governor uses a phrase which is repeated by various speakers with a "damnable iteration" throughout the comedy. _simocague_ would, in pure nahuatl, be _ximocauoltia_, the imperative second person singular, of the compulsive form of _mocaua_, to cease, to stop, or to suspend something. the noun _mocacaua_ is the word for the pauses or intervals in music. the reason for the frequent repetition of the request, i suppose to be that in the ancient exhibitions of the drama numerous assistants joined in dancing, singing and playing on musical instruments; and when a specified ballet was to be performed, or an important conversation to be repeated, they were courteously addressed, and requested to be silent for a time. dr. valentine tells me that in guatemala the term _gente principal_ is commonly used to designate the most prominent inhabitants of a pueblo. _necana y paltechua_, nahuatl words, united by the spanish conjunction. the former is nah. _nequaniliztli_, dancing motions; the latter, elsewhere written _palechua_ and _paleguisa_, is a corruption of _paleuqui_, suitable, or appropriate things. _hemo_, a form of sp. _hemos_, is an antiquated expression for _tenemos_. the word _mo_ in the expression _mo cabildo real_ may be the spanish _mio_, my; or the nah. _mo_, thy, thine. the _cabildo_ was originally the chapter of a religious house, and later a council, but at present it is applied in central america to the municipal courts, and the house in which they sit. _page ._ in the second reply of the alguacil on this page there are evidently several words omitted which i have supplied in brackets in the translation. the same has occurred elsewhere, and it was to be expected, as nearly all the nahuatl expressions have become unintelligible to the native population of the present generation. as most of these formulas are repeated several times, we can approximate to what the full expression should be. _ya nemo niqui nistipampa_, is a frequent reply in the play to a formal salutation of a superior. i have translated it as some corruption of the nahuatl words, _yê nemonequi nixtlipampa_, literally, "my presence is proper," _i. e._, "i am present before you, as is my duty." the alguacil, as having charge of the patrol, hastens to speak of its wretched uniform. the adjective _sesule_, constantly applied to güegüence, evidently in a depreciatory manner, is probably from the nah. _tçulli_, worthless. _page ._ while the governor and alguacil are conversing, güegüence and his sons enter, and overhear the last directions of the governor. all three understand whom he means, but it is the cue of güegüence to assume a different signification. to the brusque rejoinder of don ambrosio he pretends to be deaf, and this feigned difficulty of hearing is depended on as one of the main elements of the comic throughout. the epithet _mala casta_, of bad blood, as applied by güegüence to his own (putative) son, becomes intelligible later in the play, where it is stated that he was begotten during his legal father's absence in mexico. _embustero_, which i have rendered "humbug," is more exactly a boasting, bragging charlatan. dr. valentine suggests "blower," in the slang sense of that word. _page ._ _asuyungua._ the numerous words which begin in _asu_, _asa_, and _ase_, seem to be compounds with the nah _aço_, "perhaps," used in introducing a positive statement mildly, or in presenting a question in the form of an assertion, as _aço amo timoçahua_, "perhaps you have not fasted," meaning "you surely have not." (carochi.) it is usually combined with other particles, and the analysis of such compounds in the altered form presented in the text becomes exceedingly uncertain. after the announcement of his person and official position by the alguacil, güegüence repeats his titles in a tone of affected admiration, and inquires after his staff of office, which was not visible. this staff was all-important to the dignity of an alcalde or alguacil. in nahuatl this official is called _topilê_, he who carries the staff, from _topilli_, staff. _page ._ güegüence, who has no desire to appear before the governor, makes an excuse that he will learn how to fly, and is about leaving, when he is called back by the alguacil. the words _te calas_, _qui provincia real_, should probably read, _ticalaquia presencia real_, the first from _calaquia_, to enter, as on page . _page ._ having agreed to take a lesson in etiquette, güegüence pretends quite to misunderstand the alguacil, when he claims pay for his instructions. _redes_, "nets" of salted fish. the reference is to the method adopted by the indians of central america in carrying burdens. this is in a net which is suspended between the shoulders by means of a strap which passes across the forehead. such a net is called in nicaragua _matate_, and in pure nahuatl, _matlauacalli_; the strap or band by which it is supported is the _mecapal_, nah. _mecapalli_. when the material to be transported is a fluid, a jar of earthenware is suspended in the same manner. a small earthenware cup, found in nicaragua exhibits this, and also some ingenuity of arrangement. it represents a woman, with one of these jars on her back, seated. (see p. .) _page ._ _ojos de sapo muerto_, lit. "eyes of a dead toad." such eyes were considered to exercise an evil influence, and to bring bad luck. _page ._ _doblar._ this spanish word means to toll a bell, as at a death. güegüence chooses to understand the alguacil's demand for _doubloons_ to be a request to _doblar_, and hastens to announce to his sons that the alguacil has suddenly died. [illustration: cup from nicaragua.] _page ._ the coins which güegüence names are those of the old spanish currency. a cuarto was a brass piece, equal to a half-penny english, or one american cent (delpino, _spanish and english dictionary_, .) it was worth four maravedis, and eight cuartos equaled a _real de vellon_. the phrase _maneta congon_ is of uncertain signification. i have translated the first word as the imperative form of _nextia_, to show, to disclose; _congon_ may perhaps be a corruption of _conetontli_, boy. the alguacil now begins his instruction, and repeats, for the benefit of güegüence, the proper salutation which should be used in addressing the governor. the old man pretends to misunderstand them, and makes use of other words, similar in sound, but of an insulting signification. i have not succeeded in showing, in the english text, this play upon words. _page ._ _asonesepa negualigua_, etc. this passage has proved unintelligible to me, and the rendering is little more than a guess. the phrase is the same as at the foot of p. . in the midst of the conversation the governor suddenly appears, and güegüence turns to him with the customary and proper salutation, thus showing that his desire for instruction from the alguacil was a sham. on the phrase _te calas qui provincia real_, see the notes to page . _page ._ _mesonero_, a person who owns or has charge of a _meson_, a house in which the poorer classes of travelers sleep, providing their own food, and that of their beasts (dr. valentine). for _tupile_ see vocabulary. _antepeque_ or tecoantepeque, the seaport of guaxaca. thomas gage, who visited it in , wrote of it: "this port of tecoantepeque is the chief for fishing in all that country; we met here in the ways, sometimes with fifty, sometimes with a hundred mules together, laden with nothing but salt fish for guaxaca, the city of angels, and mexico."--_a new survey of the west indies_, p. . (london, .) _dulces_ are sweetmeats of various kinds, eaten usually between meals. squier remarks: "the spanish taste for 'dulces' long ago passed into a proverb, but it rather surpasses itself in nicaragua. the venders of 'dulces', generally bright indian girls, gaily dressed, and bearing a tray, covered with the purest white napkins, and temptingly spread upon their heads, pass daily from house to house; and it is sometimes difficult, and always ungallant, to refuse purchasing something from their stock."--_nicaragua_, vol. i, p. . the punctuation toward the foot of the page should probably be, "_no seremos guancos; no; seremos amigos_," etc. the _guipil de pecho_ is the short upper jacket worn by the women. a _guipil de pluma_ is a skirt woven of feathers. in ancient times, these garments, skillfully constructed of the beautiful plumes of tropical birds, were esteemed as the most valued articles in the treasures of kings, and the most magnificent of royal costumes. the art of feather-weaving continued for some generations after the conquest. indeed, as late as one family in mechoacan preserved it. the reference to it in the text, however, is a sign of antiquity, as it has long since disappeared in central america. see an interesting monograph on the subject by the eminent french antiquary, ferdinand denis.--_arte plumaria; les plumes, leur valeur et leur emploi dans les arts au mexique, au perou, etc._ paris, . _page ._ much of this page is rendered with doubtful accuracy, as the text is very obscure. _page ._ _hay me sagua_, the same as _hoy melague_, p. ; hoy, spanish, now, to-day, _melaua_, nah., to speak out, or openly. _page ._ the reference to the star would seem to be that when the tent is opened a star is visible through it, which güegüence offers to the governor. _para tu cuerpo_, "an extremely filthy expression." (dr. valentine.) _page ._ _seran de arena._ "they may be of sand," _i. e._, they are of no value or importance. _yugos de papayo_, yokes of papaw wood, a soft wood, worthless for the purpose, as is also the wood of the tecomajoche, the _plumeria_, for plows. the intimation is that don forcico was smart enough to cheat his customers. the nicaraguan plow is a wooden instrument of the most primitive construction. the following cut from mr. squier's work represents one. [illustration: a nicaraguan plow.] _page ._ the tunes mentioned, the st. martin, the valona, the porto rico and others, are still preserved in nicaragua. _page ._ _sin tuno, sin tunal._ an obscure phrase which none of my advisers can explain. _tuna_ is the prickly pear, _tunal_, the plant that bears it, various species of _opuntia_. _tuna_, in the university slang, means beggarly, reckless; "estudiantes de la tuna," mendicant or vagabond students. (see don j. arias giron, _costumbres salamanquinas_.) _page ._ when the governor uses the nahuatl word _mocemati_, presumptuously, güegüence feigns to understand him to say _desmonte_, which means, in nicaraguan spanish, a clearing, and also the worthless waste products thrown out of a mine. _page ._ güegüence leads in several girls, and presents them to don forcico, which gives the pair an opportunity for some coarse jokes. _pachaca_, stuffed up, here meant in the sense of being with child. _iguana ô garroba_, the latter the male of the iguana, a thick tree lizard of the tropics. _aventada_, puffed up, taken in the same sense as _pachaca_. _page ._ the _machete_, which i have translated "axe," is a long, heavy knife or cutlass, in extensive use in spanish america, for domestic and agricultural purposes. it is shown in the following cut. [illustration: the machete.] _una yunta de botijas de vino_, a yoke or brace of wine jars, probably so called from having been carried by a neck yoke, one suspended on each side. _page ._ the alguacil speaks to güegüence of toasting, _brindar_, the court, and güegüence feigns to hear him speak of the _provincial_ or ecclesiastical officer in charge of the province. it is an example of assonance which is lost in the translation. managua and nindiri are towns in the mangue district of nicaragua. see the map on page xii. the next affected misunderstanding of the old man is to take _una yunta de botijas_, a yoke of bottles, for _una yunta de bueyes_, a yoke of oxen. _page ._ _hacer amigo_, to make a friend. this is the phrase which is used by courtezans with reference to securing a male patron to pay their expenses, and for that reason güegüence affects to be shocked by the employment of it by don forcico. _page ._ the words of the alguacil, "what a reputation, etc.," are with reference to the charge of don ambrosio, that güegüence had taught his son evil ways. the introduction of the mules, _i. e._, the actors dressed as mules, as described on page xlviii, is the occasion of several extremely obscene puns and allusions. _page ._ _potrero_, colt-yard, or pasture-lot, a play on the similarity of the word to _puteria_, a brothel. the estaca referred to is, of course, an obscene allusion, as is also the _fluccion por debajo de las piernas_, _i. e._, the scrotum. _page ._ _el tiempo del hilo azul._ this idiom has foiled all whom i have consulted. dr. valentine thinks it refers to the season of the year when the verdure reappears after the drouth. f. diego duran states that the village conjurors were accustomed to suspend charms to the necks of boys by blue and green threads. (_historia de las indias de la nueva españa._ tom. ii, p. .) thus understood, the time of the blue thread would be equivalent to boyhood. _campos de los diriomos._ the mangue word _diriomo_ means the hill of abundance, or of great fertility. the locality so named is shown on the map, page xii. _guayaba._ this is the fruit of the guayabo tree, the _psidium pyriferum_. it is red in color, and about the size of a small apple. _page ._ _a la gorra_, literally "for the cap," an idiom meaning that one receives something merely for taking off the cap; a gratuity. dr. valentine, however, writes me: "i understand _nosotros á la gorra_ to mean 'then we shall have to do without.'" vocabulary of _nahuatl and provincial, unusual or antiquated spanish words_. a apupujado, sp. worn out, played out. arra! "get up! get along!" a cry of the muleteers to their animals. asa--. the various words beginning thus are compounds commencing with the nah. _aço_, which expresses a doubt, or implies a question, == perhaps, maybe. olmos says: "quiere decir _por ventura_, respondiendo ô dudando."--_gram. nahuatl_, p. . asama--. this prefix to various words is the nah. _açoma_, which is a strengthened form of _aço_.--carochi, _gram. mex._, p. . the syllable _ma_ is also the sign of the imperative. asamaquimate, nah. a compound of _açamo_, as above, and _mati_, to know. the _qui_ is the objective pronoun of the third singular, him, her, it, that; but its employment in this connection is incorrect. asamatimaguas, _or_ --timagas, nah. probably from _açoma_ (see above), and either _temachtico_, to come to teach, or tell; or _temaca_, to give something to a person. asanecaneme, _see_ asaneganeme. asanegaguala, _see_ asanegualigua. asaneganeme, nah. probably _aço ni ca nemactia_, the last word meaning to give or offer something to another, "perhaps i may offer something," == "may i offer you some?" asanegualigua, nah. probably _aço_ and _necuilhuia_, to deal, bargain, treat for. asanese, nah. p. . a compound of _aço_ and some unknown word. probably == _asones_, q.v. asetato, sp. ant. and prov. for _sientate_, sit down. asiguala, nah. from _aço_ and perhaps _qualani_, to grow angry (?). asones, nah. from _aço_, and probably _nechca_ or _nepa_, adverbs of place and time, "these," "then," "once," "formerly." sometimes it is written _à sones_, and _asonesepa_. asuyungua, nah. compound of _aço_ and _noyuhqui_, thus, in this manner (? cf. carochi, _gram. mex._ p. ). ayugama, nah. == _ayoccampa_, nowhere, not at all, never. azetagago, nah. apparently a corrupt form from _acicacaqui_, to understand. b batuchito, sp. prov. a small box, in which money, etc., is kept. c cabildo, sp. a chapter; a council. in central america, the municipal court. see p. . cabriolé, sp. a kind of riding coat; "a narrow riding coat without sleeves." (delpino, _span. dict._) campaneme, ?. p. . probably for _campamento_. cana, nah. a particle, expressing doubt, "any time," "anywhere." _cuix cana otimoyolcuiti_, have you confessed anywhere? it cannot begin a sentence, but must always follow some other word (carochi, _gram. mex._, p. ). cele, sp. prov. a form of _zelar_, to be zealous for, to be anxious for; _no me cele_, i do not very strongly desire; used ironically. chiguigua, nah. perhaps _ti calaquia_, you will enter in. chiquimate, nah. from _mati_, to know, _qui_, objective. chopaquimate, nah. _quimati_, see above. _chopa_ and _chi_ seem to be personal forms. chocola, nah. _chocolatl_, a drink made from cacao. it has been doubted whether there was a nahuatl word in this form. don jesus sanchez denies it in his _glosario de voces castellanas derivadas del idioma nahuatl_, sub voce (mexico, ). but its pure nahuatl origin seems to be established by another writer (_an. del museo nacional de mexico_, tom. iii, p. ). from the text, its meaning was in a wider sense a refection in general, just as the english word "tea" means a meal. cinchera, sp. the portion of the body of a horse or mule where the saddle girth is fastened. cobijones, sp. large leather coverings to protect goods, etc. cojudo, sp. not castrated. applied to the entire horse, etc. columbrar, sp. to descry, to discern at a distance. "lo que veo y columbro, respondió sancho," etc.--don quixote, pt. i, cap. xxi. congon, nah. p. . perhaps _conetontli_, a boy, or young person. consentidor, sp. a conniver, procurer, pimp. corcobios, sp. curvetings, gambolings. applied to the steps in certain dances. corridos, sp. running steps, or motions, in certain dances. cuascuane, nah. from _cuicani_, to sing, chant. d desmonte, sp. a clearing; the refuse from a clearing, or from a mine. see note, page . e eguan, nah. a form of _ihuan_, and, as well as. escataci, p. (?). g galagua, nah., _calaquia_, to enter, to come into. ganzo, sp. prov. a goose; a fool; also a glutton. garrobo. a large species of tree lizard; the male of the iguana (berendt, _lengua castellana de nicaragua_, mss). guajaqueño, nah. from _quauhuaqui_, to appear thin and dry, like a stick. guancos, sp. prov. for _guanacos_, foolish, silly persons. güil, sp. prov. probably for _que es el_, or _quel_, who is the, or which? guipil, nah. a form of _gueipil_, or _huipilli_. the short skirt, without sleeves, used by the indian women. "camisa de algodon sin mangas."--jesus sanchez, _glosario de voces castellanas derivadas del náhuatl_, s.v. guiso, _see_ tomaguiso. l lichua, nah. probably an abbreviated form from _tla achiua_, to do, or make something; _lichua obedecer_, to make to obey. linar, sp. prov. to please, amuse, == _consolar_, for which it is used in some districts. (berendt.) m machete, sp. prov. a heavy knife, or sort of cutlass (a biscayan word). see page . macho, sp. a male of any animal, especially of a mule; used generally for mule in the güegüence. macho-raton, sp. literally, "the male mouse," but in nicaragua applied to a fantastic costume, and hence to the play, or _baile_, in which it is worn. see page xlvii. it may also mean a mouse-colored jack. maneca, nah. from _mana_, to make maize cakes, or tortillas; _manacan_, one who likes to make such (cf. carochi, _gram. mex._, p. ). maneta, nah. probably the imperative form of _nextia_ (_mâ xi nextia_), to show, to disclose or inform. mascamayagua. nah. a compound of _maxca_ (== _mo, axca_) thine, it is thine (literally, thy thing), and _mayacuele_, the optative particle, or else _ma ayc caui_, thine always. it is evidently equivalent to "yours to command," "at your service," etc. matamagueso, _see_ tumaguiso. matateco, nah. slightly altered form of _matataca_, to beg, to pray, possibly by the addition of the spanish personal pronoun, i, "yo." mayagua, _or_ mayague, nah. apparently the sign of the optative, _mayacuele_, and expressive of a wish; _yecuel_, in nah., also conveys the idea of promptness and earliness (carochi, _gram. mex._, p. ). melague, _or_ melagua, nah. a form of _melaua_, to say clearly, to speak openly. the termination _que_, in nah., marks the plural of certain nouns and tenses. miscuales, nah. from _miequilia_, to prosper, augment, increase. mispiales, nah. from _miecpialia_, to watch over, guard, protect. in both the above words, the prefix is _miec_, much, used as an intensive particle. mo, nah. second person, sing., of the inseparable possessive pronoun, _no_, my, _mo_, thy, _y_, his, _to_, our, _amo_, your, _yn_, their. _mo_ is also the reflexive pronoun of the third person singular, and appears to be occasionally used in the güegüence as the possessive of the third person, probably from analogy with the spanish _su_. mocegua, _or_ mosegua, nah. apparently from _mocenchiua_, to unite in doing something. the _n_ is euphonic, the composition being _ce_, one, and _achiua_, to do. mohino, sp. applied to a mule proceeding from a stud and a jenny; also, peevish, cross. mollule, _or_ muyule, nah. apparently from _molotl_, smart, clever, crafty; itself a derivative from _yollo_, able, ingenious, talented. monistilco, nah. apparently from _monetli_, son-in-law, with the postposition _co_, for, by, etc. mosamonte, nah. _mocemati_, presumptuously, too boldly. motales, _or_ motalce, nah. derivatives, apparently, from _motlaloa_, to run, to carry messages, with the signification messengers. motel, nah. p. . an interrogative negative particle, properly _monel_. moto, sp. prov. noisy, rowdyish; a noisy, blustering person. "el muchacho mal criado que motea." (berendt, _la lengua castellana de nicaragua_, mss.) muchintes, the sp. _mucho_, much, with the nah. augmentative termination _tzin_, == very much, very extensive. or else, the pure nah. _muchintin_, all, plural of _muchi_.--olmos, _gram. nahuatl_, p. . mudanzas, sp. prov. the motions in a dance. muyule, _see_ mollule. n necana, nah. from _nequanaliztli_, dancing motions, as are used in _bailes_. neganeme, _see_ asaniganeme. negua, nah. if a separate word, this is probably from _neci_, to disclose oneself, to show oneself; it is, however, a doubtful expression. negualigua, nah. from _necuilhuia_, to bargain, to deal for. neme, nah. from _nemi_, to live, to be (sp. _estar_), to dwell. nemo, _see_ niqui. niqui, nah. found in the construction _nemo niqui_, which should probably read _ni monequi_, it is proper for me, becoming or necessary. sp. _me conviene_. nistipampa, nah. the postposition _pampa_, _ixtli_, the face, and the first possessive pronoun _no_. the compound means "i, present," or "in my presence." carochi, _gram. mex._, p. . no, nah. first person, singular, of the inseparable possessive pronoun. see _mo_. it is also used for the spanish negative, _no_, not, throughout the play. Ñonguan, page . an unknown word which, from its initial nasal, has the appearance of being from the mangue tongue, in which this sound is very common. o opa, nah., _oppa_, twice. p pachaca, nah. a derivative from _pachiui_, to stuff with food, to satisfy the appetite, etc. the verbal nouns ending in _ca_ or _can_ usually signify place where, but this is to be considered a verbal adjective, from the pluperfect _pachiuhca_. pachigue, _or_ pachiguete, nah. from _pachiuitia_, to satisfy a person. the frequent expression, _pachigue no pachiguete_, should probably be punctuated _pachigue_? _no pachigutee_, == satisfied? no, you do not satisfy me. paguala, p. , nah. a truncated word. compare _a sones sepaguala_, p. , and _a sonesepa negualigua_, p. . palegue, _see_ panegue. palparesia, nah. from _papal_, or _papallotl_, talk, conversation. sp. _parleria_. no doubt an onomatopoietic word, like the english babble, hebrew, babel, which it resembles, both in pronunciation and meaning. paltechua, nah. from _paleuhqui_, favorable, advantageous or appropriate things. see page . paneguia, _or_ panegue, _or_ palegue, nah. from _panauia_, to get the better of another, to overcome, conquer. the termination, _gue_, or _guia_, in this and other verbal forms, is one of past time in the nahuatl. see carochi, _gram. mex._, p. . peinador, p. . perhaps the spanish word so spelled, which means a hairdresser, and hence an effeminate person. but it may be a spanish form from the nah. _pinauhtia_, to put another to the blush, or out of countenance, the compulsive form of _pinaua_, to be ashamed. perico ligero, sp. prov. in nicaragua, the night-monkey, _cercoleptes caudivolvulus_, which has sharp claws. it is elsewhere applied to a species of parrot, and to the bee bear, _myrmecophaga_, (berendt, _lengua castellana de nicaragua_, mss). petaca, nah. from _petlacalli_, a box, trunk or chest; especially a square basket, with a lid; "cajon quadrangular con tapa, hecho de palma" (berendt, _id_). petate, nah., _petlatli_, the native rug or mat, woven of palm leaves or rushes. pilse, nah., _piltzin_, son, vocative, _piltze_. see page . polluse, _or_ poyuse, nah. apparently a form of poa, to tell, relate, give an account, preterit, _pouh_, _pouhca_. q qui, sp., who; also at times for sp. _aqui_, here. quichuas, nah. probably a derivative from _achiua_, to do or make. compare _lichua_. quilis, nah., _qualli_, good, well. quinimente, nah., _quin_, he, those, _aquin_, who. it would seem to be a demonstrative form, but its analysis is obscure. quinquimagua, nah. a compound of _macua_, to give, to concede, with the pronouns _quin_ or _aquin_. r rebiatar, sp. prov. to tie behind, as the muleteers tie one mule in the line to the mule in front of it. recua, sp. prov. a team, or line, of mules. remates, sp. prov. the finishing steps, or closing figures of a dance. riñonada. the hinder portion of a horse or mule, over which passes one of the harness straps. rujeros, sp. prov. for _rugidos_, bellowings or shoutings. the name of a tune. s sagua, p. . a mutilated word; see _melague_. sapatetas, sp. prov. for _zapatetas_, from _zapato_, a shoe. shoe-slappings, the name of the figures in a rough, noisy dance. samo, nah., p. . probably some compound of _amo_, no, not. semula, sp. prov. for _similar_, like, similar to. seno, sp. prov. for _sin_, without. sepaguala, nah. see _paguala_. sepanegaligua, nah. a compound of _calaquia_, to enter, with some prefix, as _cepan_, together, or _ixpan_, in the presence of some one. sesule, nah. a compound of _tçulli_, good for nothing, worthless, perhaps with _ce_, one, or _te_, some one. it is an adjective, applied in a depreciatory manner to the güegüence. sicana, nah. see _cana_. silguerio, sp. prov. for _xilguero_, a linnet, or thrush. simocague, nah. imperative form of _mocaua_, to pause, suspend, cease. see page . sobornal, sp. the excess or addition to a load. sones, sp. tunes, music. t tatita, sp. little papa. a diminutive of endearment. it could also be derived from the nah. _tatli_, father. tecetales, _or_ tesetales, nah. from _tetzauia_, to be a shame, to be scandalous. tecomajoche, nah., _tecomatl_, vase, _xochitl_, flower; a tree bearing small white flowers, a species of _plumiera_, allied to the east indian "temple tree." teguane, nah. form of _tehuantin_, pronoun, first person plural, we, us. ticino, nah., _ticitl_, a native doctor, a charlatan; one who casts lots for divination; a personal form, from _ticiti_, might be _ticitoni_. tiguala, nah. a compound of _ti_, thou, and _qualli_, good or well. see note, page . tiguita, nah. a word of uncertain meaning, pages , , in the phrase _mollule tiguita_. it may be a first person plural, from _quixtia_, _tic quixtia_, we do our duty, we do our best. timaguas, nah. either from _temaca_, to give something to another; or from _temachti_, a teacher, an instructor. tin, sp. a form for _tener_, to have. it stands in different passages for _tiene_, _tenemos_, and _tienen_, and is a good illustration of the wearing away of forms in this mixed dialect. tinderia, sp. for _tenderia_, a shop, booth or tent, in which wares are displayed for sale. totolatera, nah. from _tototl_, a bird or fowl; _petaca totolatera_, a basket for carrying fowls. tumaguiso, nah. a compound of _tuma_, to untie, open, and _quiça_, a verbal termination, which signifies a performance of the action of the verb to which it is added.--olmos, _gram. nah._, p. . tumiles, nah. an adjective from the same root as _tomanaliztli_, fatness, corpulence, and signifies abounding, abundant. tunal, sp. prov., from a haytian (arawack) word. it means a plantation of the native american cactus figs, or prickly pears. see page . tupile, nah. an officer of justice, an alcalde or alguacil. from _topilê_, he who carries a staff; _topilli_, staff, this being the badge of the office. v vaticola, sp. prov. the posterior of an animal; the crupper region. possibly from _veta di cola_, vein of the tail. velancicos, sp. prov. for _villancicos_, rustic songs sung at the doors of the brotherhoods (_cofradias_) at certain festivals (berendt, _leng. castel. de nicaragua_, mss). y ya. interjection. you there! yes, there! index. alva, b. de, xlv. anahuac, v, vi, vii. antepeque, arawack language, xx. ayacachtli, the, xxxvi. aymaras, xv. aztecs, v, xvi. migrations of, vi. baker, theodore, xxxviii. bancroft, h. h., ix. baptista, j., xlviii. balsam coast, the, xxxvi. barber, e. a., xxxiii, xxxviii. benzoni, g., xi, xvi, xxii, xliv. berendt, c. h., v, vi, xi, xxv, xxxi, xli. bertonio, l., xv. bobadilla, f. de, vii. brantford, dr. j. f., x, xxxv. brasseur de bourbourg, xliii. buschmann, vii, xi. cacho, the, xxxvii. canahuate, dance, xxvi. carimba, the, xxxvi. carochi, h., xvi, , . chapanecs, h., viii, ix, xxii, xxxix. chiapanec, see chapanecs. chiapas, ix. chilchil, the, xxxvi. chinegritos, los, xxvi. chirimoya, the, xxxviii. cholotecans, vi, n, viii. cholula, derivation, viii. chorotegans, _see_ cholotecans. cofradias, the, xxxix. coreal, f., xxii, xliv. cuscatlan, vi. delpino, f., . denis, f., . dirians, viii. drums, xxx. duran, d., xxi, xxx, xliv, xlviii, . feather weaving, . flint, dr. earl, x, xxxix, xli. flutes, xxxv. fonseca bay, viii. gage, thomas, xxii, . gatschet, a. s., xxxviii. giron, j. a., . gollena, dr., xviii. gomara, vii. güegüence, play described, xli. derivation, xlv. story of, xlviii. haefkens, j., xxiv. honduras, xvii. icazbalceta, j. g., xlviii. juco, the, xxxv. kekchis, xlii. kiches, xliii. lacandons, xxxviii. las inditas, xxx. lessing, g. c., xlvi. levy, pablo, xxiv, xxx, xliii. logas, xxv. machete, the, . macho-raton, the, xlviii. maguateca, vii. malinche, air of, xxxviii. managua, lake, viii. province, xi, xxxi. mangue language, xi, xiii. mangues, v, viii, xxii. marimba, the, xxviii. masaya, viii, xvii. mayas, ix. mice, superstitions about, xlviii. morelet, a., xxx, xxxviii. nahuas, v. nahuatl language, v, vi, xiii. nahuatl spanish jargon, xxi. namotiva, xxx. navarro, j. m., xxxix. negritos, dance, xxvi. nets, for burdens, . nicaragua, v. derivation of, vi. lake of, v, xi. nicaraguans, vi. nicaraos, vi. nicoya, gulf of, v, viii, xxxv. niquirans, v, vi. ollita, dance of, xxvi. ollita, instrument, xxxi. ometepec, island, xi, xxxi. oviedo, f. de, v, viii, xi, xix, xxi. perez, geronimo, xix. peru, xv, xxxi. pito, the, xxxiii. plow, nicaraguan, . qquichua language, xvi. quijongo, the, xxxvi. remesal, p. f., ix. rocha, j. e. de la, xii. salazar, f. c., xlviii. squier, e. g., v, vi, x, . suchi-malinche, derivation of, xlvii. tastuanes, derivation of, xlvii. tecoatega, xx. tecoantepeque, . tempsky, von, xxviii, xxxviii. ternaux-compans, vii, ix. ticknor, george, xxv, xliv. ticomega, vii. titicaca, lake, xv. toro-guaca, dance of, xxvi. torquemada, vii, ix. uluas, xliii. urrutia, j. a., xxiii. vasquez, f., vi, xxii. valentine, f. h., , . valentine, p. j. j., ix. vera paz, province, xxxviii. whistles, xxxiii, xxxv. zapatero, island, xxxiii. transcriber's note: original spelling has been preserved, as have any inconsistencies. minor punctuation errors have been repaired. in this etext a superscript character is represented by ^. two superscripted letters are surrounded by { }. file was produced from images generously made available by the canadian institute for historical microreproductions (www.canadiana.org)) [transcriber's note: this is an updated version of an e-text originally produced in november ; see end of text for additions and corrections. the e-text consists of two separately published books: _spellings for the schools in the chipeway language_ _sketch of grammar of the chippeway language_ in the first book (spellings...), the hyphen - is used to separate syllables. in the second book (grammar...) the hyphen seems to represent the glottal stop. in the word lists of the first book, the first entry in each column was sometimes-- but not consistently-- capitalized. this capitalization has been retained, whether or not the e-text layout replicates the original. a few punctuation marks in the paradigms and vocabulary lists have been supplied or regularized. other errors and anomalies are listed at the end of the e-text. bracketed text is in the original unless otherwise noted.] * * * * * * * * * * * * * * spellings for the schools in the _chipeway language._ ah-ne-she-nah-pay, oo-te-ke-too-we-nun; kah-ke-ke-noo-ah-mah-ween-twah e-kewh, ka-nah-wah-pahn-tah-gigk mah-ze-nah-e-kun. york, u. canada: printed for the canada conference missionary society. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z & , ; : . ? ! - spellings. _words of one syllable._ kah neeje squahch nah keeje shwahs sah weeje quaich wah moose paske keene koose kaugk neene noose mongk weene meezhe shongk meene peezhe jeese owh neezhe aahe howh weezhe tdush ewh moozhe _words of two syllables accented on the second._ ah keh ah toon me nick ah keeng e mah me quom ah kik e kewh me zeh ah mik e newh me squeh ahn doohm e qua me tigk ah nungk i yahdt nah maih ah owh kah yawsk ne gigk ah pa ke tahn ne peh ah pweh ke quis ne peeng ah sin ke nwazhe ne sing ah tick mah quah _words of two syllables, accented on the second._ ne sweh oo ninje qui yuck oo chawzhe oon taus shing quawk oo kaudt oo pin shing koub oo kowh oo saum shing kaugk oo kun oo zidt tah zheh oo mah oo skonzhe te pigk oo nick oo taih wah zhusk _words of two syllables accented on the st & nd._ ah zheh ke kooh me kaunce a shkum ke zhick me nance a sance ke zis me quaich a squach ki ya me quon a tah koo koosh me tdush a yaudt mah che me owh a zheh mah kuk me zhusk che mon mah mick nah nindt che pywh mah noo na kowh kah che mahn tdah na yaub ka kate ma quah ne win ka gooh me chim ning kah ke kah me kun _words of three syllables accented on the st & nd._ noo sa poo neh wa quain noo tdin se peh wau poose noo tding sah keh we kah noong koom sau kie we nin oo jee she shebe we yause pah mah tain ta we pidt pa kah wa nain ween sah pe toon _words of three syllables, accented on the second and third._ ah je chaugk ah zhoo gun nah kah mooh ah kah mingk a me quahn ne zhe kaih ah neen teh a yah chick oo me meh ah ne moosh a yah yun oo nah kun ah ne peesh a zhah yun oo ne shkaudt ah noo kee ka yah peh oo que son ah pa kish mah ke sin oon tah shahn ah quing koos mah ne toonce oo ske zhick ah she kun mah ne toosh oo se tongk ah wah kahn mah ske moodt pe je nuck ah wa seeh me ke seh shah wain tung ah yah pa me sah owh shah wa nim _words of three syllables, accented on the second and half accent on the third._ e nah shka mah noo min me she nuck e qua sance me quain tun me tig koonce e shkoo ta me sah poose mun tah min ke na pigk me she min nah ma koos ke noo zhai me she kaih nah ma pin _words of three syllables accented on the first and third._ pah ke tin wau be gun wau bah maudt wau be min _words of three syllables accented on the last._ ah nah quodt ke she kuck pe pah kim e we te ko se non pe she keh ing koo che me nah wah sah ke maih ing koo twaus me ne zis sah ke toodt ish pe ming me ze saih se wah quahn ka ah koo moo koo mon shah kah nosh kah kah keh mun ne too shong qua sheh kah nah ka mun ne toogk shoo ne yah kah ke nick nah koo shah tah be schooch kah ke nah nah too way tah que shin kah shah kance neen ah windt ta pain tungk kah sah meh ne se tum ta pwa tungk kah moo keede ning ke che tain ta seh kah we kah noo se non wah ne toodt ka ka keh nowh ah quay wah wah noon ka koo weene oo che pway wa koo nain ka ke quait oo ke mah wa wa neh ke me wun oo me squeem weje e shin ke nah wah pah pah say wig ke waum ke ke che pe me zeh we nah wah ke she kudt pe na sheeh we wah quahn _words of four syllables, accented on the second and fourth._ ah chit ah mooh oo mah kah keh ah kuck koo jeesh oo mong ke zheh ah sun ah kooh oo tah pe nick ah wah se seh oo tah pe nun e nah pe yook oo ta e min ke pah e kun oo que se mon ke pim oo say oo wig ke waum ke tah e kun pah ske se gun me squah ta seh she kah kah winzhe ne pwah kah win ta pwa tah wick ne wah pah tahn wah oo na seh oo ka yah wis _words of four syllables accented on the sixth._ ah quah tah sheeh na pwah kah chick ah se ke nauk pah kah ah quaih ah zhah wah maig too too shah boo ain tah che yungk waug ke koo mon ke zhe tah yook wah wah ska sheh maun nah ta nis _words of five syllables, a full accent on the last, and half accent on the second._ ah kin tah soo win neeng ke te mah kis ah nah me ah win ne skah te se win ah ne she nah pay nin tah wa mah took ah quah ne pe sahn ne te ke koo took ah sin ne se kah oo kah ke qua win ke moo te schke win oo zhe pe e kun ke nah we schke win pah kun te se win mah ze nah e kun pah pah ke wah yahn me ne te we nun shah wa ne te win me skoo te se min sah ke e te win me tig quah ke zin ween tah mah we shin mon nain e te win we too kah we shin ne kah ne se took _words of five syllables, accented on the first, the third and last._ pa zhe go kah zhee peen tah kah ta waun oo ke mah we win oo te ke too win she pe koo pah tick wah ne squa se win _accented on the two first and last._ too toosh pim me tay _words of six syllables accented on the third and last._ kah ke pah te se win kah ke qua we ne neh kah nah wah pa me shin kah nah wa ne me shin mah noo min e ka zheeh mah kah ta e ne neh e she wa pe se win ta pwa yain tah moo win _accented on the second and last._ ke too ke mah me non kah ke pah te se win na nahn tah we e waidt oo mah ze nah e kun wah wah pe ko noo jeeh _accented on the third and two last._ ka ke noo ah mah kaidt mah che ah ye e wish ah koo koo pe nah gun ah wah che wun nah gun _accented on the th and last._ ahn e me tah koo zin. the lord's prayer. _ke-sha-mun-ne-too oo-que-son oo-tah-nu-me-tah-koo-se-win._ neeng-ke-che noo-se-non, ish-pe-ming a-yah-yun. ka-che-mun-ne-too-we-ne-kah-soo-yun. ke-ke-che-ke-too-ke-mah-we-win pe-tah-we-she-nom. a-na-ne-me-wong-kane oo-mah-ke-zhe ah-keeng ne-kah-e-she-wa-pe-se-min; tah-pe-schooch a-she-wa-buk e-we-ty ish-pe-ming. me-she-she-nom ka-ne-tah-soo ke-she-kuk me-chim pe-mah-te-se-win. ki-ya pa-kah-shah-wa-ne-me-she-nom che-sah-ke-che-wa-pe-nah-mah-we-yong mah-che-ah-ye-e-wish, nah-sahb-e-koo a-she shah-wa-ne-mong-ke-twah oo-kooh kah-pah-tah-e-yah-me-ke-chik, ki-ya keen e-she-shah-wa-ne-me-she-nom. ka-goo we-kah ing-koo-chee ah-ne-e-she-we-she-she-kah-kane che-nah-ne-sah-ne-se-yong; mah-noo sah-koo kah-ke-nah shah-koo-te-nah-mah-we-she-nom mah-che-ah-ye-e-wish. keen-mah-ween ke te-pain-tahn ke-che-oo-ke-mah-we-win, ki-ya euh ke-che-e-she-wa-pe-se-win, ki-ya euh ah-nah-me-ah-win ka-che-me-nwa-tah-quok, kah-ke-nik ki-ya kah-ke-nik.--amen. grace before meat. ah-noo-shoo-tah-mah-ka-win, che-pwah-we-se-ningk. o ke-sha-mun-ne-too ish-pe-ming a-yah-yun, shah-wain-tah-mah-we-she-nom mahn-tdah me-chim-pe-mah-te-se-win, kah-pah-ke-te-nah-mah-we-yongk; me-tdush ka-oon-je-mah-skah-we-se-yongk che-ah-noo-ke-tah-koo yun; me-owh jesus christ a-spa-ne-moo-yongk. amen. grace after meat. ah-noo-shoo-tah-mah-ka-win, kah-e-squah, we-se-ningk. o ke-sha-mun-ne-too, neeng-keche noo-se-non, me-quaich wa-wa-neh kah-we-se-ne-yongk noo-koom, ki-ya ain-tah-soo-ke-she-kuck shah-wain-ne-me-yongk; me-sah-owh jesus christ kah-ke-nigk ka-ah-pa-ne-moo-yongk. amen. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * sketch of grammar of the chippeway language, to which is added a vocabulary of some of the most common words. by john summerfield, alias, sahgahjewagahbahweh. cazenovia: press of j. f. fairchild & son. . advertisement. the following pages were written as an exercise for my leisure hours, while attending the oneida conference seminary during the past winter. as it is the first attempt that, to my knowledge, has ever been made to reduce the chippeway language to any system, it cannot be expected to be otherwise than imperfect, and perhaps may hereafter be found to be, in some respects, erroneous. it is, however, as free from errors as my present means have enabled me to make it. it has been printed at the request of my friends, by a fellow student, at his own suggestion and expense. j. summerfield. cazenovia, april , . sketch of grammar, &c. the letters used in the chippeway language, are twenty-one, viz. a, a; b, b; c, c; d, d; e, e; g, g; h, h; i, i; j, j; k, k; m, m; n, n; o, o; p, p; q, q; s, s; t, t; u, u; w, w; y, y; z, z. f, l, r, v, and x, are not used. there are, in the chippeway language, ten parts of speech, namely, the _article_, the _noun_, the _pronoun_, the _adjective_, the _verb_, the _participle_, the _adverb_, the _preposition_, the _conjunction_, and the _interjection_. of the article. there is but one article, used definitely both in the masculine and neuter genders, viz. owh, the, m.; ewh, the, n. of nouns. a noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, eneneh, man; kahdahnahqueeng, kingston; metig, tree. nouns are of two sorts, common and proper. common nouns stand for kinds containing many sorts, or for sorts containing many individuals under them; as, ahwaseeh, animal; eneneh, man; kegownh, fish; penaseh, bird. proper nouns are the names appropriated to individuals, as, charles, cazenovia, ganges. [n.b. proper names, with a few exceptions, are the same as in english.] to nouns belong gender, person, number, and case. gender. gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. nouns have three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. the masculine gender denotes males; as, eneneh, man. the feminine gender is applied to animals, fishes, and birds; as, nahbak, a she bear, &c. the neuter gender denotes things without sex; as, wewahquon, a hat. number. number is the distinction of objects as one or more. nouns are of two numbers, the singular and the plural. the singular number implies but one object; as, mahzenahegun, a book. the plural number implies more than one; as, mahzhenahegahnun, books. case. nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. the nominative case simply expresses the name of a thing, &c.; as, owh quewesanceoobahkahmegezeh, the boy plays. the possessive case expresses the relation of property or possession, and always ends with the letter _o_; as, noosayo wegewaum, my father's house. the objective case expresses the object of an action or of relation; as john owejeahn charles, john assists charles. nouns may be declined in the following manner: singular. plural. _nom. case_, eneneh, man. enenewug, men. _poss. case_, eneneho, man's. enenewugo, men's. _obj. case_, eneneh, man. enenewug, men. of pronouns. a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid repeating the same word; as, pahpenatum eneneh, the man is happy; pahpenatum, he is happy. personal pronouns. there are three personal pronouns, viz. neen, i; keen, thou; ween, he; with their plurals, nenahwind, we; kenahwah, ye or you; wenahwah, they. personal pronouns have person, number, gender and case. the persons of pronouns are three in each number, viz. neen, i, is the first person, } keen, thou, is the second person, } singular. ween, he, is the third person, } nenahwind, we, is the first person, } kenahwah, you, is the second person, } plural. wenahwah, they, is the third person, } _number._--pronouns have two numbers, the singular and the plural. _case._--pronouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. pronouns cannot be declined. the cases of each person have the same form. first person. _singular._ _plural._ _nom._ neen, i. nenahwind, we. _poss._ neen, mine. nenahwind, ours. _obj._ neen, me. nenahwind, us. of adjectives. an adjective is a word added to a noun to express its quality; as, quahnoj eneneh, a good man; menwawezheh eneneh, an industrious man. adjectives are not varied to agree with their nouns, nor do they have any regular comparison. the following is a list of numeral adjectives: pazhick, neezhe, nesweh, newin, nahnun, ingoodwahsweh, neswahsweh, shahsweh, shongsweh, metahsweh, metahsweh ahshepazhick, ---- ahsheneezhe, ---- ahshenesweh, ---- ahshenewin, ---- ahshenahnun, ---- ahsheingoodwahsweh, ---- ahsheneswahsweh, ---- ahsheswahsweh, ---- ahsheshongsweh, nestahnah, nestahnah ahshepachick, ---- ahsheneezhe, ---- ahshenesweh, ---- ahshenewin, ---- ahshenahnun, ---- ahsheingoodwahsweh, ---- ahsheneswahsweh, ---- ahsheshahsweh, ---- ahsheshongsweh, nesemetahnah, nemedahnah, nahnemedahnah, ingoodwahsemedahnah, neswahsemedahnah, swahsemedahnah, shonggahswehmedahnah, ingoodwak, nezhwak, neswak, newak, nahnwak, ingoodwahswak, nezhahswak, shawhswak, shongahswak, medahswak, neezhemedahswak, medahswehdahswak, , nestahnahdahswak, , nemedahnahdahswak, , of verbs. a verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer; as, nedahyah, i am; nedebahkoonewa, i rule; nedebahkoonegoo, i am ruled. verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. a verb active expresses an action, and necessarily implies an agent and an object acted upon; as, nezhahgeah james, i love james. a verb passive expresses passion or a suffering or the receiving of an action, and implies an object acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted upon; as, chezhahwaneding, to be loved; john oojezhahwanemah neen, john is loved by me. a verb neuter expresses neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being; as, nenebah, i sleep; nenahmahdub, i sit. verbs have number, person, mood and tense. number and person. verbs have two numbers, the singular and the plural. there are three persons in each number; as, pers. _singular._ _plural._ . nezhahwanega, i love. nezhahwanegamin, we love. . kezhahwanega, thou lovest. kezhahwanegaim, you love. . zhawanega, he loves. zhahwanegawug, they love. mood. the moods are five, indicative, subjunctive, imperative, potential, and the infinitive. the indicative declares or affirms positively, or it asks a question; as, zhahwanega, he loves; zhahwaneganah? does he love? the subjunctive expresses action or passion in a doubtful manner; as, kespin zhahwanegaid, if he loves. the imperative is used for commanding, exhorting, and entreating; as, mahjahn keen, depart thou; noodahmooyook, do thou listen. the potential implies possibility, liberty, power, will; as, tahgemewan kahnahbuge, it may rain; kegahwesenemin kiya kahmenequamin, we shall eat and drink. the infinitive simply expresses the signification of the verb; as, cheezechegang, to do; chegegedoong, to speak. tense. verbs have six tenses, the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first and second future tenses. the present tense represents a present action as taking place at the time in which it is mentioned; as, nebop, i laugh; newob, i see; nedenadum, i think. the imperfect tense denotes past action or event however distant, finished, but without defining the exact time of its completion; as, oodanongezahbahneeg ahpe naquaskahwod, they were travelling to the town when he met them. the perfect tense refers not only to what is past but also conveys an allusion to the present time; as, ahzheh negegezhetoon nemahzhenahegun, i have finished my letter. the pluperfect tense represents a thing, not only as past, but also as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence; as, ahzehnegegezhetonahbun letter chebwabedahgweshing, i had finished my letter before he arrived. the first future tense represents the action as yet to come, either with or without respect to the precise time when; as, owh kezis tahbemookahum wahbung, the sun will rise to-morrow. the second future tense represents a future action that will be accomplished before another future action; as, negahwesenenahbun nahwahquaig, i shall have dined at twelve o'clock. a verb is conjugated in the following manner: to love.--indicative mood. _present tense._ _sing._ . nezhahwanega, i love. . kezhahwanega, thou lovest. . zhahwanega, he loves. _plur._ . nezhahwanegamin, we love. . kezhahwanegaim, ye or you love. . zhahwanegawug, they love. _imperfect._ _sing._ . negezhahwanega, i loved. . kegezhahwanega, thou lovedst. . kezhahwanega, he loved. _plur._ . negezhahwanegamin, we loved. . kegezhahwanegaim, ye or you loved. . kezhawanegawug, they loved. _perfect._ _sing._ . ahzehnegezhahwanega, i have loved. . ahzehkegezhahwanega, thou hast loved. . ahzehkezhahwanega, he has loved. _plur._ . ahzehnegezhahwanegamin, we have loved. . ahzehkegezhahwanegaim, ye or you have loved. . ahzehkezhahwanegawug, they have loved. _pluperfect._ _sing._ . ahzehnegezhahwaneganahbun, i had loved. . ahzehkegezhahwaneganahbun, thou hadst loved. . ahzehkezhahwanegabun, he had loved. _plur._ . ahzehnegezhawanegaminahbun, we had loved. . ahzehkegezhahwanegamwahbun, you had loved. . ahzehkezhahwanegabahneeg, they had loved. _first future._ _sing._ . negahzhahwanega, i shall or will love. . kegahzhahwanega, thou shalt or wilt love. . tahzhahwanega, he shall or will love. _plur._ . negahzhahwanegamin, we shall or will love. . kegahzhahwanegaim, you shall or will love. . tahzhahwanegawug, they shall or will love. _second future._ _sing._ . negahzhahwaneganahbun, i shall have loved. . kegahzhahwaneganahbun, thou wilt have loved. . tahzhahwanegabun, he will have loved. _plur._ . negahzhahwanegaminahbun, we shall have loved. . kegahzhahwanegamwahbun, you will have loved. . tahzhahwanegabahneeg, they will have loved. imperative mood. _present tense._ _sing._ . tahgahneenegazhahwanega, let me love. . zhahwanegain, or } love thou, or do thou love. kezhahwaneganah, } . tahgahween tahzhahwanega, let him love. _plur._ . tahgahnenahwind } let us love. gahzhahwanegamin, } . zhahwanegayook, or } love ye or you, or kezhahwanegaimnah, } do you love. . tahgahwenahwah } let them love. tahzhahwanegawug, } potential mood. _present tense._ _sing._ . nedahzhahwanega, i may love. . kedahzhahwanega, thou mayest love. . tahzhahwanega, he may love. _plur._ . nedahzhahwanegamin, we may love. . kedahzhahwanegaim, you may love. . tahzhahwanegawug. they may love. _imperfect tense._ _sing._ . nedahgezhahwanega, i might love. . kedahgezhahwanega, thou mightest love. . tahgezhahwanega, he might love. _plur._ . nedahgezhahwanegamin, we might love. . kedahgezhahwanegaim, you might love. . tahgezhahwanegawug, they might love. _perfect tense._ _sing._ . nedahgewezhahwanega, i may have loved. . kedahgewezhahwanega, thou mayst have loved. . tahgewezhahwanega, he may have loved. _plur._ . nedahgewezhahwanegamin, we may have loved. . kedahgewezhahwanegaim, you may have loved. . tahgewezhahwanegawug, they may have loved. _pluperfect tense._ _sing._ . nedahgewezhahwaneganahbun, i might have loved. . kedahgewezhahwaneganahbun, thou mightest have loved. . tahgewezhahwanegabun, he might have loved. _plur._ . nedahgewezhahwanegaminahbun, we might have loved. . kedahgewezhahwanegamwahbun, you might have loved. . tahgewezhahwanegabahneeg, they might have loved. subjunctive mood. _present tense._ _sing._ kespin zhahwanegayaun, if i love. kespin zhahwanegayun, if thou lovest. kespin zhahwahnegaid, if he loves. _plur._ kespin zhahwanegayong, if we love. kespin zhahwanegayaig, if you love. kespin zhahwanegawod, if they love. infinitive mood. _pres._ chezhahwanegang, to love. _perf._ chegezhahwanegang, to have loved. _fut._ ahyegwahwezhahwanegang, to be about to love. participles. _present,_ zhahwaneding, loving. _perfect,_ zhahwanemind, loved. conjugation of the verb to be. indicative mood. _present tense._ _sing._ nedahyah, i am. kedahyah, thou art. ahyah, he is. _plur._ nedahyahmin, we are. kedahyaum, ye or you are. ahyahwug, they are. _imperfect tense._ _sing._ nedahyahnahbun, i was. kedahyahnahbun, thou wast. ahyahbun, he was. _plur._ nedahyahmenahbun, we were. kedahyahmwahbun, you were. ahyahbahneeg, they were. _perfect tense._ _sing._ negeahyahnahbun, i have been. kegeahyahnahbun, thou hast been. keahyahbun, he has been. _plur._ negeahyahmin, we have been. kegeahyaum, you have been. keahyahwug, they have been. _pluperfect tense._ _sing._ nedahgeweahyahnahbun, i had been. kedahgeweahyahnahbun, thou hadst been. keweahyahbun, he had been. _plur._ nedahgeweahyahmin, we had been. kedahgeweahyaum, you had been. keahyahbahneeg, they had been. _first future tense._ _sing._ negahahyah, i shall be. kegahahyah, thou wilt be. tahahyah, he will be. _plur._ negahahyahmin, we shall be. kegahahyaum, you will be. tahahyahwug, they will be. _second future tense._ _sing._ negahgeahyahnahbun, i shall have been. kegahgeahyahnahbun, thou wilt have been. tahgeahyahbun, he will have been. _plur._ negahgeahyahmenahbun, we shall have been. kegahgeahyahmwahbun, you will have been. tahgeahyahbahneeg, they will have been. imperative mood. _sing._ tahgahnenegahahyah, let me be. ahyaun kegeahyahun, be thou or do thou be. tahgahweendahahyah, let him be. _plur._ tahgahnenahwindnegahahyahmin, let us be. ahyahyook, be ye or you or do you be. tahgahdahahyahwug, let them be. potential mood. _present tense._ _singular._ koonemah-nedahahyah, i may be. koonemah-kedahahyah, thou mayst be. koonemah-dahahyah, he may be. _plural._ koonemah-nedahahyahmin, we may be. koonemah-kedahahyaum, you may be. koonemah-dahahyahwug, they may be. _imperfect tense._ _singular._ koonemah-nedahgeahyah, i might be. koonemah-kedahgeahyah, thou mightest be. koonemah-tahgeahyah, he might be. _plural._ koonemah-nedahgeahyahmin, we might be. koonemah-kedahgeahyaum, you might be. koonemah-tahgeahyahwug, they might be. _perfect tense._ _singular._ koonemah-nedahgeahyahnahbun, i may have been. koonemah-kedahgeahyahnahbun, thou mayst have been. koonemah-tahgeahyahbun, he may have been. _plural._ ---- nedahgeahyahminnahbun, we may have been. ---- kedahgeahyahmwahbun, you may have been. ---- tahgeahyahbahneeg, they may have been. _pluperfect tense._ _singular._ ---- nedahgeweahyahnahbun, i might have been. ---- kedahgeweahyahnahbun, thou mightest have been. ---- tahgeweahyahbun, he might have been. _plural._ ---- nedahgeweahgahmenanbun, we might have been. ---- kedahgeweahyahmwahbun, you might have been. ---- tahgeweahyahbahneeg, they might have been. subjunctive mood. _present tense._ _sing._ kespin ahyahyaun, if i be. kespin ahyahyun, if thou be. kespin ahyaud, if he be. _plur._ kespin ahyahyong, if we be. kespin ahyahyaig, if you be. kespin ahyahwaud, if they be. _imperfect tense._ _sing._ kespin ahyahyahbaun, if i were. kespin ahyahyahbun, if thou wert. kespin ahyahpun, if he were. _plur._ kespin ahyahyongebun, if we were. kespin ahyahyaigoobun, if you were. kespin ahyahwahpun, if they were. infinitive mood. _present._ cheahyong, to be. _perfect._ chegeahyong, to have been. participles. _pres._ ahyong, being. _perf._ ahyod, been. conjugation of the passive verb to be loved. indicative mood. _present tense._ _singular._ nezhahwanemegoo, i am loved. kezhahwanemegoo, thou art loved. zhahwanemah, he is loved. _plural._ nezhahwanemegoomin, we are loved. kezhahwanemegoom, you are loved. zhahwanemahwug, they are loved. _imperfect._ _singular._ nezhahwanemegoonahbun, i was loved. kezhahwanemegoonahbun, thou wast loved. zhahwanemahbun, he was loved. _plural._ nezhahwanemegoomenahbun, we were loved. kezhahwanemegoomwahbun, you were loved. zhahwanemahbahneeg, they were loved. _perfect._ _singular._ negezhahwanemegoo, i have been loved. kegezhahwanemegoo, thou hast been loved. kezhahwanemah, he has been loved. _plural._ negezhahwanemegoomin, we have been loved. kegezhahwanemegoom, you have been loved. kezhahwanemahwug, they have been loved. _pluperfect._ _singular._ negezhahwanemegoonahbun, i had been loved. kegezhahwanemegoonahbun, thou hadst been loved. kezhahwanemahbun, he had been loved. _plural._ negezhahwanemegoomenahbun, we had been loved. kegezhahwanemegoomwahbun, you had been loved. kezhahwanemahbahneeg, they had been loved. _first future._ _singular._ negahzhahwanemegoo, i shall be loved. kegahzhahwanemegoo, thou wilt be loved. tazhahwanemah, he will be loved. _plural._ negahzhahwanemegoomin, we shall be loved. kegahzhahwanemegoom, you will be loved. tahzhahwanemahwug, they will be loved. _second future._ _singular._ negahgezhahwanemegoo, i shall have been loved. kegahgezhahwanemegoo, thou wilt have been loved. tahgezhahwanemah, he will have been loved. _plural._ negahgezhahwanemegoomin, we shall have been loved. kegahgezhahwanemegoom, you will have been loved. tahgezhahwanemahwug, they will have been loved. imperative mood. _singular._ tahgahnenegah zhahwanemegoo, let me be loved. tahgahkegah zhahwanemegoo, be thou loved or do thou be loved. tahgahween tahzhahwanemah, let him be loved. _plural._ tahgahnenahwind } let us be loved. negahzhahwanemegoomin, } tahgahkenahwah kahzhahwanemegoom, be you loved or do you be loved. tahgahwenahwah tahzhahwanemahwug, let them be loved. potential mood. _present tense._ _singular._ nedahkoonemahzhahwanemegoo, i may be loved. kedahkoonemahzhahwanemegoo, thou mayest be loved. tahkoonemahzhahwanemah, he may be loved. _plural._ nedahkoonemahzhahwanemegoomin, we may be loved. kedahkoonemahzhahwanemegoom, you may be loved. tahkoonemahzhahwanemahwug, they may be loved. _imperfect tense._ _singular._ nedahgekoonemahzhahwanemegoo, i might be loved. kedahgekoonemahzhahwanemegoo, thou mightest be loved. tahgekoonemahzhahwanemah, he might be loved. _plural._ nedahgekoonemahzhahwanemegoomin, we might be loved. kedahgekoonemahzhahwanemegoom, you might be loved. tahgekoonemahzhahwanemahwug, they might be loved. _perfect tense._ _singular._ nedahgekoonemahkezhahwanemegoo, i may have been loved. kedahgekoonemahkezhahwanemegoo, thou mayest have been loved. tahgekoonemahkezhahwanemah, he may have been loved. _plural._ nedahgekoonemahkezhahwanemegoomin, we may have been loved. kedahgekoonemahkezhahwanemegoom, you may have been loved. tahgekoonemahkezhahwanemahwug, they may have been loved. _pluperfect tense._ _singular._ nedahgekoonemahkezhahwanemegoonahbun, i might have been loved. kedahgekoonemahkezhahwanemegoonahbun, thou mightest have been loved. tahgekoonemahkezhahwanemahbun, he might have been loved. _plural._ nedahgekoonemahkezhahwanemegoomenahbun, we might have been loved. kedahgekoonemahkezhahwanemegoomwahbun, you might have been loved. tahgekoonemahkezhahwanemahbahneeg, they might have been loved. subjunctive mood. _present tense._ _singular._ kespin zhahwanemegooyaun, if i be loved. kespin zhahwanemegooyun, if thou be loved. kespin zhahwanemind, if he be loved. _plural._ kespin zhahwanemegooyong, if we be loved. kespin zhahwanemegooyaig, if you be loved. kespin zhahwanemindwah, if they be loved. _imperfect tense._ _singular._ kespin zhahwanemegooyahbaun, if i were loved. kespin zhahwanemegooyahbun, if thou wert loved. kespin zhahwanemindebun, if he were loved. _plural._ kespin zhahwanemegooyonggebun, if we were loved. kespin zhahwanemegooyaiggoobun, if you were loved. kespin zhahwanemindwahbun, if they were loved. infinitive mood. _present._ chezhahwanemegoong, to be loved. _perfect._ chegezhahwanemegoong, to have been loved. participles. _present._ zhahwanemegoong, being loved. _perfect._ zhahwanemind, loved. of participles. a participle is a word derived from a verb, and has the nature of a verb and also of an adjective. verbs have two participles, the present and the perfect. the present participle denotes action or being continued, but not finished. it generally ends in _ing_, _eng_, or _g_; as, tebahkooneding, ruling, &c. the perfect participle denotes action or being, finished. this can also be distinguished by its ending in _ed_ or _d_; as pahpid, laughed; shoshomequanid, smiled. of adverbs. an adverb is a word used to modify the sense of a verb, &c.; as, kagate quahnoj eneneh, a truly good man. list of adverbs: . ingooding, once; neshing, twice; nesing, thrice. . netum, first; esquache, lastly. . omah, here; ahnedeh, where; negoojee, somewhere; kahweenegoojee, nowhere; ishpeming nahkayah, upward; nesahye-ee nahkayah, downward; esquayong nahkayah, backward; negaun nahkayah, forward, &c. . noogoom, now; chekezheguk, to-day; mawezhah, long ago; pejenahgooh, yesterday; noomahyah, lately; wahbung, to-morrow; bahmah, by and by; kahmahsheh, not yet; kahyahsekah, instantly; waweeb, immediately. . pahgee, little; ahneenmenik, how much. . koonemah, perhaps; mekahweh, perchance. . kagate, verily; aahe, yes, &c. . kah, no; kahweengahnahga, not at all. . ahneen, how; ahneeshnah, why; ahnahpe, when. . nahwuj, more; kagahkoo, most. of prepositions. prepositions serve to connect words with one another and to show the relation between them; as, cazenove angkeojemahjahkezhodt york, he went from cazenovia to york. list of prepositions: pahzhejahye-ee, over; ahnahmahye-ee, under; shepahye-ee, through; ishpeming, above; nesahye-ee, below; keoonjee, from; peoonjee, from; ahwashema, beyond; chegahye-ee, near; negaun, before; ishquayong, behind; wahsah, off; oogejahye-ee, on or upon; magwaahye-ee, among; ahzheh, after; ahpahgahjeahye-ee, against; ahgahmahye-ee, across; kewetahye-ee, around; nahwahye-ee, amidst; enahkayah, toward, &c. of conjunctions. a conjunction is a word used to connect sentences, so as out of two to make one. conjunctions are of two sorts, the copulative and the disjunctive. the following are some of the conjunctions: _cop._ kiya, and; kespin, if; owh, that; nahyanze, both; dushween, then; ahpe, since; mesah, therefore; ahnesh, wherefore. _dis._ atah, but; ahzheh, as; dush, than; koone, though; mahmesahwahwah, unless; kespuge, except; pooch, yet. of interjections. an interjection is a word used to express the sudden emotions of the speaker; as, tahwah! pemahdezewin nelojegootoge! alas! i fear for life! o neboowin! ahneshekewesahgandahmoowin? o death! where is thy sting? list of interjections: _earnestness_ or _grief_; o! ah! tahwah, alas! _joy_; yahhahne! yahhahne! &c. _wonder_; mahmahkahdahkahmig, strange! hahe, hah! _aversion_; saih! ahwas, away! _attention_; nah, hark! nahbin, behold! _surprise_ or _fear_; ingee! tauneyohne! yohe! _laughter_; ha! ha! ha! _requesting silence_; easta, hist! pezahnahbin, silence! _calling_; ahneene, halloo! _salutation_; mequaich, welcome! a fable--[translated from the english.] owh wahgoosh kiya ewh mask. kegahweendahmoonin kache dahkooahyod ahdesookaun, kecheoneshesheh dushweengooh. wahgoosh ingooding keezhahgoobun haberdashero dahdahwawegahmig. emah metahskahkahmig ahyahtanegoobun kache gwahnahjewong mask, keoonje ozhechegahdagoobun ahwegah cheahyood mamahjenood ahpe herongh azhe obahkahmegezhejin. ewh mask egewh mawezhah, meowh ahpe owh ahdesookaun tebaindahgowk, ahgwahnahung kahkenah ewh ostegwan dahgooh helmiting, kiya kahwekah mamahjenood ezheoobahkahmegezhese ayahsenenegoon. mahmahdah wechegawenebun, owhdush ezhechegang kahweendush kedahwahbahdah zhenon ewh odangowh owh wabahkahmegezid, kiya koonemah anahnookewenegwain nahchebahpid or mahwid, ewh mask ahpun ewh nahsob azhenahgowk. owh wahgoosh kahgezheyaindum, wahjapezeh. oge quakenon ewh mask menahwah kiya menahwah. oge gahnahwahbahdaun emah ahgwahjeeye-ee, kiya gahnahwahbahdaun emah peenjahye-ee. ewh ahgwahjeeye-ee keche shooshoo ahyahgoobun kiya kegezhechegahdagoobun! ewh peenjahye-ee webahgoobun. kagate onesheshin oostegwan ayaug omah, ekedoo owh wahgoosh; kagate mejenahwa yahdahkahmig kahwenaindib ahyahsenoog! nahnind quahnoj quewesansug ahyahwug kiya equasansug kemahzheh ekoogenedwah oowh enaindahmoowod kahween kagoo ohbahbah mahndahsenahwah, ewh atah oobeshegadahgoosewenewah, ahgoonwatahtesuwod kagoo chekekadahmoowod medush azhe quakeskahwod enahkahkayah wahwazheowening. koonemah eneneh odah ahtood ewh onindj emah ostegwahning onowh pazhik kiya tahekedooh kahekedood owh wahgoosh kagate sahquahnoj owh oostegwan omah ayog kagate sah mejenah wayahdahkahmig ahyah senoog ewh wenaindib. eneneh tahezhah ishpeming, ahyahnzig menoo bemahdezewin, ahyahnzig kechetwahwezewin, ahyahnzig ogemahwewin, ahyahnzig kekenooahmahdewin, ahyahwahsig wejekewayun; kah dushween tahezhahsee ewhety ishpeming ahyahwahsig christ. a man may go to heaven without health, without wealth, without honor, without learning, without friends; but he can never go to heaven without christ. of the formation of words. it is difficult with us to speak the words themselves.--the words _odoon_, _onik_, _okod_, _ozid_, _okun_, do not mean respectively, _mouth_, _arm_, _leg_, _foot_, _bone_; but _his mouth_, _his arm_, _his leg_, _his foot_, _his bone_. by leaving out the letter _o_ we have the words _mouth_, _arm_, _&c._ themselves: thus, _doon_, _nik_, _kod_, _zid_, _kun_. the former is the usual way of speaking, the latter is correct. by the following illustration it will be better understood how words are formed: _my_ _thy_ or _your_ _his_ nindj, _a hand_, nenindj, kenindj, onindj, nik, _an arm_, nenik, kenik, onik, doon, _a mouth_, nedoon kedoon, odoon, bid, _a tooth_, nebid, kebid, owebid, daih, _a heart_, nedaih, kedaih, odaih, kown, _a liver_, nekown, kekown, okown, kun, _a bone_, nekun, kekun, okun, skunze, _a nail_, neskunze, keskunze, oskunze, kod, _a leg_, nekod, kekod, okod, bowm, _a thigh_, nebowm, kebowm, obowm, dis, _a navel_, nedis, kedis, odis, pun, _a light_, nepun, kepun, opun, zid, _a foot_, nezid, kezid, ozid, yos, _flesh_, neyos, keyos, oweyos, yowh, _a body_, neyowh, keyowh, oweyowh, oose, _father_, noose, koose, osun, gah, _mother_, negah, kegah, ogeen, siyahn, _brother_, nesiyahn, kesiyahn, osiyayun, shema, _sister_, neshema, keshema, oshemayun, tahwug, _an ear_, netahwug, ketahwug, otahwug. vocabulary. [transcriber's note: alphabetization is as in the original.] a. aahe, adv. yes ahbenoojhee, n. a child ahbewin, n. a room ahnind, adj. some ahpe, adv. then, when ahkeh, n. the earth ahkeeng, in the earth ahzheh, adv. after ahneendeh, adv. where? ahyahyun, v. art thou ahweyah, n. a certain one ahnung, sing. } n. a star ahnungoog, plu. } ahyah, v. he is, was ahneen, adv. how? ahwon, n. fog, dew, mist ahsin, n. a stone ahnweh, n. a bullet ahnahquod, n. a cloud ahnookewin, n. a work ahnemeke, n. thunder ahkoozewin, n. sickness ahpahbewin, n. a saddle, or a thing to sit on ahpwahgun, n. a pipe ahnahpe, adv. when ahgwahnahung, pt. covered ahgwahjeeng, outdoors ahpequashemoon, n. pillow ahkookoobenahgun, } n. a basket, the latter signifies a vessel ahwahjewahnahgun, } to carry or gather with ahnahmeahwin, n. religion aindahnahbid, v. sitteth aindahyaun, n. my house or home aiskum, adv. more anwahchegaid, n. a prophet amequahn, n. a spoon atah, conj. but ahsamah, n. tobacco ahnahmahkahmig, } under the earth or ground ahnahmahkeeng, } ahgahming, n. other side ahyahmook, v. receive it, or take it ahshum, v. feed him, or give him something to eat ahgahwahta, n. a shadow ahwashema, prep. beyond ahgwewin, n. a garment ahgookayowh, n. a bait, or something to allure animals to a snare ahgahjewin, n. bashfulness ahquahnebesohn, n. rainbow azhenekahdaig, } n. name of a thing or place. in asking a question adahming, } we say what is the name of that thing or place? ahgwahjeeye-ee, n. outside anahnookewenegwain, business, or it was his business anaindahmon, n. thy will azheahyog, v. as it is azhegooh, v. as we azhemahmahjenoojin, part. played or acted ahgoonwatahdezoowod, v. they refuse ahyahsenenegoon, when there is none or no ainind, pt. called ahwas, adv. away ahsub, n. a net ahyog, is here ahpugn, adv. always, usually, the same ahmooh, n. a bee ahmik, n. a beaver ahnim, n. a mean fellow ahnit, n. a spear ahnebeesh, n. a leaf ahnwabewin, n. a rest ahnahmeawegahmig, n. a church, meeting-house, or praying-house ahskekoomon, n. lead ahskahtowhe, n. a skin or hide asquach, adv. falsely, vain ahdesookaun, n. story, fable ahnwahtin, not boisterous ahwebah, n. or adj. calm ahkahkahzha, n. coal ahyegagah, adv. soon, directly ahnoodezeh, adv. greedy ahnowh, prep. though ahtoon, put it down ahneenmenik, adv. how much ahneendeh, adv. where ahneendehnahkayah, adv. which way ahnahmahye-ee, prep. under ahpahgahjeahye-ee, prep. against ahyahwug, v. there are ahgahmahye-ee, prep. across ahneeshnah, adv. why ahdick, n. a rein-deer ahjedahmoo, n. a red squirrel ahsahnahgoo, n. a black squirrel ahgwegoos, n. a chip-monk ahkuckoojeesh, n. a ground-hog ahdoomahkoomasheeh, n. a monkey, which signifies louse catcher or hunter ahnemoosh, n. a dog aasebun, n. a raccoon aayabegoo, n. an ant aayanee, n. opossum ahzhahwahmaig, n. a salmon ahshegun, n. rock-bass ahgwahdahsheh, n. sun-fish ahwahsesee, n. cat-fish ahmahkahkee, n. a toad ahgoonaqua, n. tree-toad ahndaig, n. a raven ahshahgeh, n. a crane ahsegenak, n. a black-bird ahjegahdashib, n. water-hen ahsenesekab, n. gravel ahkik, n. a kettle ahbewh, n. a paddle ahzod, n. poplar ahneshenahbay, n. an indian man apahgeeshemoog, n. west ahahwa, n. a species of duck ahwahkaun, n. cattle ahgahwosk, n. gypsum ahshahwask, n. a sword ahgwesemon, n. a pumpkin ahgwejekinzhaegun, n. an and-iron ahskebug, n. a green leaf ahgahwahtaown, n. an umbrella ahdahwaweneneh, n. a merchant ahkahnok, n. a corn-cob azheshahwask, n. a rifle ahnejemin, n. pease auskig, n. a seal ahgookewahsegun, n. sealing-wax ahpahgedoon, v. throw it b. bakah, v. to stop bahmah, adv. by and by bazhig, adj. one bahtay, n. smoke bahgaun, n. a nut bahbegwon, n. a bugle bakahnuk, adj. the other bahnahjetoon, v. destroy it bahtahzewin, n. sin bahgundahegawegahmig, n. a barn, or a house to thresh grain in bewegahegun, n. a chip bemahdezewin, n. life beezhahyaun, v. if i come bemoosain, v. to walk bewahbik, n. iron bedoon, v. bring it, or fetch it benetoon, v. clean it boodahwahgun, n. chimney, fire-place bewuyh, n. fur c. chegahye-ee, prep. near cheahnwabing, v. to rest cheshahdahegun, n. broom, sweeping instrument chepahping, pt. laughing chebwah, prep. before chebuyh, n. a corpse, dead body chemaun, n. a boat, a canoe chemenewung, v. to yield fruit chese, n. a turnip chahchaum, v. to sneeze cheahyong, v. to be d. dush, conj. but dushween, adv. then, there. weendush, and he; owhdush, and the; medush, and then; egewhdush, and they doombenon, v. to lift doon, n. a mouth dahdahwawegahmig, n. a store or shop danguyh, n. the face e. eneneh, n. a man enenewug, n. men equa, n. a woman equawug, n. women equasance, n. a girl, or little woman emeh, adv. there (near,)--sometimes means, into, or in the ewhety, adv. there (distant,) in that place egewh, pro. them enah! int. hark! see! enewh, pro. these ezhah, v. to go ewh, a. the eskooday, n. fire esquache, adj. last ezhahdah, v. let us go esquahdaim, n. a door enaindahmoowin, n. mind, thought, will ekedoowin, n. a word eebahdun, n. butter enenahbik, n. a rock enenahtig, n. a maple-tree ezhechegaid, n. means or manner ekedooh, v. to say, or he said enahkayah, prep. towards ewedehnahkayah, adv. that way enaindahming, pt. thinking equah, n. a louse. h. how, v. let us hah! int. the same as ha! in english. i. ishpeming, n. heaven, or above inggoojhee, adv. somewhere ingoodwahsweh, adj. six ishpemesahgoong, n. chamber ingoodwak, adj. one hundred inggooding, adv. once inggwahekaun, n. the grave innoozoowahgun, n. a name-sake ingee! int. this word is used by children when they are afraid of something that is large inggoodoogunze, n. a cluster of fruit. k. keshamunedoo, n. merciful spirit or being kechemunedoo, n. god, or great good spirit kecheahjechaugk, n. great holy spirit kecheogemah, n. king, or great chief kedemahganemeshin, have mercy on me kegekaindaun, v. thou knowest kechegahmeh, n. a lake kegezhaib, n. the morning ketegahnans, n. a garden kedahyah, v. thou art kedahyaum, v. you are ke-ne-nah? is it you? kahween, adv. no sir, no, no kah, adv. no keen, pro. you, or thou koosay, n. sing. your father koone, n. snow kezis, n. the sun kiya, conj. and kegwis, n. your son kegah, n. your mother ketegaun, n. a field kahkenah, adj. all, whole koosenon, n. our father koosewah, n. pl. your father koosemah, v. may, might kahgequawin, n. law kahbabeboon, all winter kahbanebin, all summer kahgenig, adv. forever kahwekah, adv. never kagooshish, n. something kebemoosay, v. he walked kedaun, n. your daughter kezheguk, n. day kezhik, n. sky kahweenegoojee, adv. nowhere kegedoon, v. to speak, (in the imperative mood.) ke-ekedooh, v. he said kedenin, i tell you keskeezhik, n. your eye kooskoozin, v. to awake kespin, conj. if kesenah, adj. cold kagooh, shall not keche, adj. great kechauze, n. your nose ketegaweneneh, n. a husbandman keskejewahyaun, n. a waist-coat kewadenoong, n. north kekewaown, n. a flag kagate, adv. truly, verily koondun, v. swallow it kahmahsheh, adv. not yet kahskahdin, v. to congeal, to freeze kagooween, you shall not, or thou shall not kagebahdezid, n. a fool kenebood, pt. died kategang, v. to sow or plant keskahkezhegang, v. to reap kahgega, adj. eternal kazhedin, adv. immediately keahgoonwatum, v. he denied ketezeh, } adj. old kekahe, } kegaung, n. a virgin kegowh, n. a fish keskemon, n. a whet-stone keskeboojegun, n. a saw kechepezoon, n. a girdle, a sash, a belt kebeshang, adj. deaf kepahgah, adj. thick kebesquang, adj. hoarse kesahgehenah? do you love me? kenahweskewin, n. falsehood kashahweahyah, adj. loose kondahegwahsowin, n. thimble, an instrument used to push with in sewing kahyahtenewaid, n. a mid-wife kahezhewabuk, it was so kekenahwahjechegun, n. a sign or mark kegedooweneneh, n. a speaker or lawyer kahgahgewinze, n. hemlock kahgahgeh, n. wind-pipe kekindewin, n. a covenant kezebegahegahnahboo, n. soap suds kahskahkoonegun, n. corn-crib kahskahegun, n. a scraper koozhe, n. a beak koonekahdin, n. frost, snow kechemekun, n. a high-way kagah, adv. mostly kahweengagoo, n. nothing kegahweendahmoon, i will tell you kahgequaweneneh, n. an exhorter, or preacher kegowhyekaweneneh, n. a fisherman kekaindahmoowad, v. to learn, to know kahgahnahga, do not kemahzeh, adv. badly kegezhechegahdagoobun, pt. completed kahgezheyaindum, adj. sagacious kagahgoo, adv. almost kahyask, n. a gull kahgahgehshee, n. a crow kookoosh, n. a hog kookookoo-ooh, n. an owl kenoozha, n. a pike kewetahye-ee, prep. around kedahgahbezhew, n. a wild-cat kaugk, n. a porcupine kahgebahdezewin, n. foolishness keskekechegun, n. a partition m. mahnedoo, n. a spirit mahjahn, v. march on mahzhenahegun, n. a book, paper, &c. mahjemunedoo, n. an evil spirit, or the devil mahzhenenee, n. an image mahskemoodance, n. satchel mahkahday, n. powder, or black megwon, n. a feather, quill mekun, n. a road mejim, n. food mezhusk, n. hay, weed, grass menesis, n. hair, of the head mequom, n. ice metig, n. a tree mesheh, n. fire-wood metigmahkuk, n. a trunk meowh, only, the one to whose minjemeneshin, v. hold me metigmahkezin, n. shoe, or wooden shoe me-ewhmenek, it is enough mahdwayahbegahegun, n. a fiddle, or a sonorific instrument, whose strings are capable of vibrating megezeh, n. an eagle moozhuk, adv. often mookoomon, n. a knife moozwahgun, n. scissors menookahmeh, n. spring, a season of the year menahwahzeh, adj. cheerful mequamdun, v. remember it mezhenahwa, n. a disciple mahkundwaweneneh, n. a robber mahmahweh, adv. together mezheshenon, v. give us mesquagin, n. purple mahkahdaeneneh, n. a black man mahkahdaequa, n. a black woman mawezhah, adv. anciently, long ago metegwob, n. a bow moskin, n. full mahdwawa, n. a sound menoodahchin, adv. enough menekaun, n. seed menequang, v. to drink mahskoosen, n. a marsh, a bog, a fen mamangwah, n. a butterfly mahskeeg, n. a swamp mahmahjenoowin, n. miracle mahnahtaneseweneneh, n. a shepherd mahskahwezewin, strength mahjetong, v. to begin mahkuk, n. a pail, or box mahkahkoosug, n. a barrel megahzooweneneh, n. a soldier, a man of war, or a fighting man mahmahkahdezing, v. to boast megoos, n. an awl menis, n. an island mahwewin, v. to cry memenik, v. be quiet mahskekeh, n. medicine mahnedoosh, n. an insect, a worm mahbah, this one mesahkoodoonahgun, n. beard, the hair that grows on the lips and chin mondahmin, n. corn mechekahnok, n. a fence metegoominzhe, n. an oak mahskooda, n. plains, flats, or level ground mahgeahyah, adj. big mahgoobedoong, v. to squeeze mayahgezid, n. a stranger menahwah, adv. again, more and more mamahjenoojin, v. he played metahskahkahmig, n. the ground, or on the ground menoomenik, adj. sufficient mamahjenood, n. an actor magwaahye-ee, prep. among mahnahtanis, n. a sheep meshebezhee, n. a lion mahengun, n. a wolf mesahbooze, n. a goat mahquah, n. a bear moaze, n. a moose mahskoodaysay, n. a quail mahnoomenekashee, n. a mud-hen mezhesay, n. a turkey mesahmaig, n. a whale mahzhahmagoos, n. trout mahnoomin, n. rice mezheh, adv. everywhere magwah, adv. while manmooyahwahgaindahmoowin, n. thankfulness meshejemin, n. a currant, (fruit) mahzahn, n. a thistle mahjegooday, n. a petticoat menekahnekah, adv. seedy mejenahwayahdahkahmig, n. pity mahmahdahwechegawenebun, it was a strange custom menesenoo, n. a hero mesquahsin, n. brick, which signifies, red stone mesahowh, that is moosay, n. a worm moong, n. a loon meene, n. a kind of fruit mahjekewis, adj. the eldest meskoodesemin, n. a bean mategwahkezinekaid, n. a shoe-maker menahwenahgowd, v. look pleasant meneweyook, v. be fruitful megeskun, n. a hook mezesok, n. a horse-fly mahwahdooskahegun, n. a rake mookoojegun, n. a plane, or drawing-knife mahskemood, n. a bag moonegwana, n. a meadow-lark meshawa, n. an elk mahskekeweneneh, n. a physician. n. nebahgun, n. a bed, a place to sleep on newewesin, i want to eat nonggon, adj. light nee, } pro. i, me, my ne, } negah, n. my mother neezhe, adj. two nesweh, adj. three newin, adj. four nahnun, adj. five newob, v. i see noongoom, adv. now nahgudge, adv. little while nedaih, n. my heart nekod, n. my leg noodin, n. wind nahdin, v. go and fetch it nezid, n. my foot nagowh, n. sand noodosh, adj. least neenatah, but me, only me nezhekaih, adj. alone netum, adj. first negaun, prep. before nahpahna, n. flour nahsahkoonun, open it nebahkahda, i am hungry nahbahgesug, n. a board nahgahmoowin, n. a hymn, or a song nahme-eding, pt. meeting nahongahnik, n. a maid nahwahye-ee, n. diameter nejekewa, n. a comrade nejee, n. a friend nanahdahwe-ewaid, n. a saviour nahbequon, n. a vessel, a ship nahbequahneshee, n. a sailor, or a man that sails or attends ships nebewah, n. many nahboob, n. soup neweahyahwah, i want him nasawin, n. breath nedezedaahe, v. i dare nahzequaegun, n. a curry-comb nekebee, covered with water, or overflowed nayob, back again nahgowh, n. a sleeve nedenaindum, v. i think nahwahquay, n. the middle of the day, noon neskahdezewin, n. anger nasagwahbedaoonance, n. a pin, which signifies to prick with negekaindaun, v. i know nebwahkahwin, n. wisdom newahwezhandum, v. i am glad nahmahdahbin, v. sit thou nahmahdahbing, v. to sit noodahgoozing, pt. roaring nedekedoowin, my word negetim, i am lazy nezheka, adv. apart nesahye-ee, adv. down negaunnahkayah, adv. forward nesahye-ee, prep. below nahwahye-ee, prep. amidst nahmaih, n. a sturgeon nahmabin, n. mullet nekah, n. a wild goose nahkayah, n. a way nebeh, n. water nebeeng, in the water o. ogemah, n. a chief oojechog, n. a soul oondaus, v. to come omah, adv. here owh, a. the oowh, pro. this oogooh, pro. those, their oogemekaun, he found it oogeoozhetoon, he made it oodahpenun, take it oonekig, n. a parent oopegagun, n. a rib opequoj, n. an air-bladder oonzegun, n. a boiler, or a kettle oodanggowh, n. his face, --[_for an explanation of this and several of the following words, see page _] [transcriber's note: see section "formation of words," immediately before vocabulary list.] oochauze, n. his nose oodoon, n. his mouth onowh, n. his cheek ostegawn, n. his head oskezhizk, n. his eye omahmowh, n. eyebrow odanegoom, n. nostril odaih, n. heart onik, n. arm otahwug, n. ear okod, n. leg ozid, n. foot onoogun, n. hip onindj, n. hand ojetud, n. tendon oquagun, n. neck opequon, n. back obowm, n. thigh okahkegun, n. breast ozhebeenguyh, n. tear omesud, n. paunch odoosquahyob, n. vein okun, n. bone odaewaun, n. their heart oskunze, n. nail of the finger and the hoof of a horse, or all kinds of hoofs odaun, n. daughter ootanowh, n. town, city, village, however we say kecheotanowh for great town or city, by adding nance, it means small town or village odataig, n. gills of a fish onejegun, n. fin of a fish ozhegown, n. tail of a fish okodahkik, n. a pot, a kettle that has legs, or a leg-kettle oozaum, adv. too much oogee, pro. he opin, n. a potatoe obewuyh, n. fur omemee, n. a pigeon onegwegun, n. a wing oskenahway, n. a youth, a young man odahbaun, n. a sled ongwahmezin, be ye faithful oogaah, n. pickerel ogejebeeg, surface of the water ozhahwahnoong, n. south okayahwis, n. herring oojeeg, n. a fisher ogah, n. mother oose, n. father opecheh, n. a robin onesheshid, a clever one ookoozhe, n. a beak oskezegookahjegun, n. spectacle onahgooshig, n. the evening okahquon, n. shin ogeeozheaun, he made them ogeeozhetoon, he made it oskunzhekahjegun, n. a horse-shoe oombahquahegun, n. a lever p. pabahmahjemood, n. a messenger poonahkunjegun, n. anchor pookedoonze, n. a pear pahdahkemoojeskahjegun, n. a spur pewakoodahmahgun, n. shavings pahketaegun, n. a hammer pemenegun, n. a gimlet, an auger penahquahn, n. a comb pezhekeence, n. a calf pesahkahmegeboojegun, n. a harrow pequahegun, n. a hill pabahbahgahne, n. a pancake pazhegwahnoong, one place panggwon, adj. dry pahquonge, n. a stump pahgasaun, n. a plum pahpenadumoowin, n. happiness pahquazhegun, n. bread pahskezegun, n. a gun pahquazhegunush, n. wheat pahnezid, adj. holy pazhegoogahzhee, n. a horse or an animal not cloven-footed pashebeegun, n. a rule peshegaindahgoozewin, n. glory pepoon, n. winter pezahneewawin, n. peace pahzegween, v. to arise penasewug, n. fowls pewahbum, v. come and see him pewahbundun, v. come and see it pajeewe, adj. weak pesahgeskebik, n. darkness pesekun, put it on peenzekahwahgun, n. a coat or loose garment pahwahbekezegun, n. a stove or an iron box that is capable of being warmed through pahzhejeahje-ee, prep. over peendahgun, n. a pocket or pouch peendig, n. inside paquahkoostegowng, block-headed pequahquod, n. a ball or knot poodahwain, make fire poodahjegun, n. a musical or blowing instrument pookedaemin, n. a mandrake pahmetahgun, n. a servant pahbegwah, adj. rough pahquahskezhegun, n. a scythe papahmebahegood, n. a rider, a name for a dragoon pamahdezid, the living pahsquagin, n. leather pahbahgewahyaun, n. a shirt, calico pengwahshahgid, adj. naked pezindun, v. to hear, to listen pinggweh, n. ashes pungee, adj. little, not enough peendegaye-ee, prep. within pegiwh, n. gum, wax pemeday, n. oil, grease pequok, n. an arrow pooch, v. must pahkahahquay, n. a cock,--this bird has derived its name from its crowing; so nearly all birds pahpahsay, n. a wood-pecker; this, from its pecking penaih, n. a partridge pahkaunnahkayah, adv. another way q. quatahmegwaindahgoozid, n. the almighty quewesance, n. a boy quahnoj, adj. good quakenun, turn it over quesqueshin, n. a whistle quahbahegun, n. a shovel quahnahjewun, adj. handsome quaich, adj. tenth quiyuk, adv. straight, right quaichegooh, just as s. shahgooda-a, n. a coward shahwanemeshin, bless me shewetahgun, n. salt shahwemin, n. a grape shemahgun, n. a shield shooneyah, n. silver, money shenganedewin, n. hatred sahnahgud, adj. difficult sahkahown, n. a cane sanahbanh, n. silk, or ribin sasahbob, n. a rope, thread shongahswak, adj. nine hundred shewahbik, n. alum, or iron of an acid taste shewon, adj. sour shonggahsweh, adj. nine sebeeh, n. a river sebeeng, in the river shegah, n. a widow shinggwok, n. a pine tree shahgahnosh, a white man shinggoos, n. a weasel shonggwasheh, n. a mink shepahye-ee, prep. through shegog, n. a skunk shesheeb, n. a duck sahgahquahegun, n. a nail shegwanahbik, n. a grind-stone shegwanahwis, n. fish-worm shesheeb-ahkik, n. a tea-kettle; (see shesheeb and ahkik,) sahgedoonabejegun, n. a bridle sahgahegun, n. a screw shegahgahwinze, n. an onion shahboonegaunce, n. a needle, it signifies to pull or push through t. tahnahgwud, v. appear tedebawe, n. the shore tebahegezeswon, n. a watch or clock tabanegaid, n. lord tabahkoonewaid, n. a judge or ruler tebahkoonegawin, n. judgment tabwayaindahmoowin, n. a creed takoonewaid, n. a constable tabwawin, n. truth tahbeskooch, v. to equal tahweahyah, n. space tabwatun, v. believe thou tebahegun, n. a measure; by adding ce, we have, cup toodooshahboo, n. milk tawaegun, n. a drum; (see mahdwayahbegahegun,) tegowh, n. a wave tebik, n. night tahgah, v. to let tahwah, int. alas! u. undoom, call him umba, come and let us go w. wah, pro. what wahwon, n. an egg weyos, n. flesh, meat webid, n. a tooth ween, pro. him wewon, his wife waquain, pro. whoever wewahquon, n. a hat wahbegun, n. clay wahsayah, n. light wagoonan, what is it? wekah, long before wahbemin, n. an apple weendun, tell it wanain, who is it? weyowh, n. a body wahjewh, n. a mountain or hill wahowh, pro. this wenegun, n. marrow wenesis, n. hair wanankeen, who art thou? wesabgun, adj. bitter wagoosing, n. the son wahbeda, v. to ripen wenin, n. fat wahnekaun, n. a ditch wahbezewin, n. paleness weenzhoob, n. gall wenud, adj. dirty wahwahbegoonojhee, n. a mouse wahsahkoonajegun, n. a candle, or a thing that produces light wahsachegun, n. a window wahbahnahnug, n. the morning-star wahsahmoowin, n. lightning wesenewagun, n. a table, or something to eat on wegewaum, n. a house wetookahweshin, help me wetoopahmeshin, eat with me wanepuzhe, adv. freely wahyaskud, in the beginning weendahmahweshin, tell me wahgedahkahmig, on land wawaneh, thank you wahsahgung, n. pepper, or a bitter substance wahskoobung, adj. sweet wekahnesun, his brother wahwazhetaun, v. prepare thou wahnahgak, n. bark wahbemoojechaugown, n. a looking-glass; something used to see the image in weendegooh, n. a giant weyahgahsahne, n. dust wedookoodahdedah, let us help each other wequajeoong, v. to struggle wenaindib, n. brains wahbezhasheh, n. a martin wahwahskasheh, n. a deer wahwahtaseh, n. a lightning-bug wahwahyayah, adj. round wahgoosh, n. a fox wahnesquazewin, n. carelessness wahgahquod, n. an axe wahbahbik, n. tin wahbejeskezhegwa, adj. wall-eyed wob, v. to see wahzeswon, n. a nest wahbooyon, n. a blanket wahnechega, v. to misdo wahnewenon, v. to mislead wahbemenahboo, n. cider wesahgok, n. ash wegwos, n. birch tree, and its bark wegoobeminze, n. bass-wood wak, n. spawn z. zhahwanedewin, n. love zahzahgewejegun, n. an offering zagezewin, v. to fear zegahundahgawin, n. baptism zhahgemaih, n. a musketoe zheezebahquod, n. sugar. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * _notes on updated text_ this section comes from a reader who knows considerably more ojibwe than the transcriber (who knows none at all): _orthography_ (forms in "chipeway spellings" : equivalent in fiero orthography) ah : a, aa, aanh au, aw : aa aih : e, enh a, ai, -ay : e e, eh : i, ii ee, eeh : ii, iinh i : i, ii, ay oo : o, oo ooh : o, oo, oonh ou : -- o : a, aa u : a, w w-, -wh : w y : y, ay ch, j : j, ch ck : k k, g, gk : g, k m, -hm : m n : n -nce : -ns p, b, -be : b, p qu : gw, kw s, z, -se : s, z sh, zh, -zhe : zh, sh sk, sch : sk, shk sp : shp squ : skw, shkw st : sht t, d, -dt, -te, -de, td- : d, t _author of spelling book:_ i am convinced that 'spelling' is by peter jones, as he was commissioned to put together a spelling book on june , , and presented the manuscript to a printer in york on june , , for the methodist indian missionary school he ran, which conference missionary society was a methodist society. also, in his book _life and journals of kah-ke-wa-quo-na-by_, in the journal entry for the th, it says, "arrived at york in the afternoon, and commenced getting a small indian spelling book, which i had written, printed at mr. mckenzie's office." and considering "spelling" was only printed pages-- sheets of paper--that, i think, does qualify as "a small indian spelling book." _syncope:_ several words are presented in a partial syncope form. for example, _gagiinawishkiwin_ to mean a fib, a lie or a falsehood, in the partial syncope form is _ggiinawishkiwin_, and the full syncope form is _ggiinwishkwin_. summerfield presents this word as _kenahweskewin, n. falsehood_, which seems to match the partial syncope form of the word. however, if this partial syncope is noted, so should the dozen or so other words shown in partial syncope. * * * * * * * * * errors and anomalies _spelling book_: [title page] ah-ne-she-nah-pay, [-nah-pa] kah-ke-ke-noo-ah-mah-ween-twah [ka-ke-ke-] [words of one syllable] squahch [squach] shwahs [shwas] [words of two syllables accented on the st & nd] kah che [ka che] [words of three syllables accented on the last] ko se non [koo se non] words of four syllables accented on the sixth. [_text unchanged: probably error for "on the first"_] [six syllables] [accented on the second and last] wah wah pe ko noo jeeh [koo noo jhee] [lord's prayer] oo-tah-nu-me-tah-koo-se-win. [oo-tah-ne-me-] ne-kah-e-she-wa-pe-se-min [-we-pe-se-min] nah-sahb-e-koo [nah-sab-e-koo] [grace before meat] me-chim-pe-mah-te-se-win [me-chim pe-mah-] kah-pah-ke-te-nah-mah-we-yongk [ke-te- nah] ka-oon-je-mah-skah-we-se-yongk [ka-oon-je mah-skah-] jesus christ a-spa-ne-moo-yongk [a-pa-ne-] [grace after meat] [_first line as printed:_ ah-noo-shoo-tah -mah--ka-win, kah--e-squah, we-se-ningk.] ka-ah-pa-ne-moo-yongk [-ne-moo yongk] _grammar book_: nestahnah ahshepachick [_spelling as in original: expected form is "-zhick"_] necessarily implies an agent and an object acted upon [an abject] [fable] quakeskahwod enahkahkayah wahwazheowening [_text reads enahka-/yah at line break_] [vocabulary] ahnweh, n. a bullet [ahnewh] dahdahwawegahmig, n. a store or shop [dahdahwawegahnig] kenahweskewin, n. falsehood [_printed as shown: better form is "kkenahweskewin"_] mahnedoo, n. a spirit [s spirit] mahdwayahbegahegun, n. a fiddle ... capable of vibrating [cabable] mezheshenon, v. give us [mezheshenom] nasagwahbedaoonance, n. a pin, which signifies to prick with [signifiies] pegiwh, n. gum, wax [pegwih] wak, n. spawn [_printed as shown: should be "wahk" or "wauk"_] _missing letters:_ the second page of the "fable" is imperfectly reproduced, so the end of each printed line is conjectural. the text is shown here as printed, with added letters in [brackets]. line-end hyphens represent word breaks, not glottal stops. kiya kegezhechegahdagoobun! ewh peenjahye-ee weba[h-] goobun. kagate onesheshin oostegwan ayaug omah, eke[-] doo owh wahgoosh; kagate mejenahwa yahdahkahmi[g] kahwenaindib ahyahsenoog! nahnind quahnoj quewesansug ahyahwug kiya equa[-] sansug kemahzheh ekoogenedwah oowh enaindahmoowo[d] kahween kagoo ohbahbah mahndahsenahwah, ewh ata[h] oobeshegadahgoosewenewah, ahgoonwatahtesuwod kagoo chekekadahmoowod medush azhe quakeskahwod enahka[hka-] yah wahwazheowening. koonemah eneneh odah ahtoo[d] ewh onindj emah ostegwahning onowh pazhik kiya tahe[-] kedooh kahekedood owh wahgoosh kagate sahquahno[j] owh oostegwan omah ayog kagate sah mejenah wayahda[h-] kahmig ahyah senoog ewh wenaindib. the esperanto teacher, a simple course for non-grammarians. by helen fryer. tenth edition. (b.e.a. publications fund--no. ). all profits from the sale of this book are devoted to the propaganda of esperanto. london: british esperanto association (incorporated), , hart street, w.c.i. * * * * * presentation. perhaps to no one is esperanto of more service than to the non-grammarian. it gives him for a minimum expenditure of time and money a valuable insight into the principles of grammar and the meaning of words, while enabling him, after only a few months of study, to get into communication with his fellow men in all parts of the world. to place these advantages within easy reach of all is the aim of this little book. written by an experienced teacher, revised by mr. e. a. millidge, and based on the exercises of dr. zamenhof himself, it merits the fullest confidence of the student, and may be heartily commended to all into whose hands it may come. w. w. padfield. preface. this little book has been prepared in the hope of helping those who, having forgotten the lessons in grammar which they received at school, find some difficulty in learning esperanto from the existing textbooks. it is hoped it will be found useful not only for solitary students, but also for class work. the exercises are taken chiefly from the "ekzercaro" of dr. zamenhof. the compiler also acknowledges her indebtedness especially to the "standard course of esperanto," by mr. g. w. bullen, and to the "esperanto grammar and commentary," by major-general geo. cox, and while accepting the whole responsibility for all inaccuracies and crudenesses, she desires to thank all who have helped in the preparation, and foremost among them mr. w. w. padfield, of ipswich, for advice and encouragement throughout the work, and to mr. e. a. millidge, for his unfailing kindness and invaluable counsel and help in its preparation and revision. manner of using the book. the student is strongly advised to cultivate the habit of thinking in esperanto from the very beginning of the study. to do this he should try to realise the idea mentally without putting it into english words, e.g., when learning the word "rozo" or "kolombo," let him bring the object itself before his mind's eye, instead of repeating "'rozo', rose; 'kolombo', pigeon"; or with the sentence "'la suno brilas', the sun shines," let him picture the sun shining. having studied the lesson and learned the vocabulary, he should read the exercise, repeating each sentence aloud until he has become familiar with it and can pronounce it freely. then turning to the english translation at the end of the book, he should write the exercise into esperanto, compare it with the original, and re-learn and re-write if necessary. although this method may require a little more time and trouble at first, the greater facility gained in speaking the language will well repay the outlay. after mastering this book the student should take some reader, such as "unua legolibro," by dr. kabe, and then proceed to the "fundamenta krestomatio," the standard work on esperanto, by dr. zamenhof. a very good esperanto-english vocabulary is to be found in the "esperanto key," / d., or in "the whole of esperanto for a penny." the origin and aim of esperanto. a few words as to the origin of esperanto will perhaps not be out of place here. the author of the language, dr. ludovic zamenhof, a polish jew, was born on december rd, , at bielovstok, in poland, a town whose inhabitants are of four distinct races, poles, russians, germans, and jews, each with their own language and customs, and often at open enmity with each other. taught at home that all men are brethren, zamenhof found everywhere around him outside the denial of this teaching, and even as a child came to the conclusion that the races hated, because they could not understand, each other. feeling keenly, too, the disabilities under which his people specially laboured, being cut off by their language from the people among whom they lived, while too proud to learn the language of their persecutors, he set himself to invent a language which should be neutral and therefore not require any sacrifice of pride on the part of any race. interesting as is the story of zamenhof's attempts and difficulties, it must suffice here to say that at the end of the new language was sufficiently advanced for him to impart it to schoolfellows like-minded with himself, and on december th of that year they feted its birth, and sang a hymn in the new language, celebrating the reign of unity and peace which should be brought about by its means, "all mankind must be united in one family." but the enthusiasm of its first followers died down under the derision they encountered, and for nine years more zamenhof worked in secret at his language, translating, composing, writing original articles, improving, polishing, till in he published his first book under the title of "an international language by dr. esperanto." ("esperanto" means "one who hopes"). that the idea which impelled the young zamenhof to undertake such a work is still the mainspring of his devotion to the cause is shown by the following extract from his opening speech at the second international esperanto congress in :--"we are all conscious that it is not the thought of its practical utility which inspires us to work for esperanto, but only the thought of the important and holy idea which underlies an international language. this idea, you all know, is that of: brotherhood and justice among all peoples." and, again, in his presidential address at the third esperanto congress, held this year ( ) at cambridge, he said, "we are constantly repeating that we do not wish to interfere in the internal life of the nations, but only to build a bridge between the peoples. the ideal aim of esperantists, never until now exactly formulated, but always clearly felt, is: to establish a neutral foundation, on which the various races of mankind may hold peaceful, brotherly intercourse, without intruding on each other their racial differences." sur neuxtrala lingva fundamento, komprenante unu la alian, la popoloj faros en konsento unu grandan rondon familian. (on the foundation of a neutral language, understanding one another, the peoples will form in agreement one great family circle). helen fryer. december, . the alphabet. sounds of the letters. in esperanto each letter has only one sound, and each sound is represented in only one way. the words are pronounced exactly as spelt, every letter being sounded. those consonants which in english have one simple sound only are exactly the same in esperanto; they are--b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, r, t, v, z (r must be well rolled). q, w, x, y are not used. c, g, h, s, which in english represent more than one sound, and j are also used with the mark ^-- c cx, g gx, h hx, j jx, s sx. c - (whose two english sounds are represented by k and s) has the sound of ts, as in its, tsar. cx - like ch, tch, in church, match. g - hard, as in go, gig, gun. gx - soft, as in gentle, gem, or like j in just, jew. h - well breathed, as in horse, home, how. hx - strongly breathed, and in the throat, as in the scotch word loch. (ask any scotsman to pronounce it). hx occurs but seldom. it is the irish gh in lough, and the welsh ch. j - like y in yes, you, or j in hallelujah, fjord. jx - like s in pleasure, or the french j, as in dejeuner, jean d'arc. s - like ss in ass, less, never like s in rose. sx - like sh in she, shall, ship, or s in sugar, sure. in newspapers, etc., which have not the proper type, cx, gx, hx, jx, sx are often replaced by ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, or by c', g', h', j', s', and ux by u. ux - is also a consonant, and has the sound of w in we, as euxropo, or u in persuade. the vowels a, e, i, o, u have not the english, but the continental sounds. a - always like a in ah! or in tart. e - like e in bend, but broader, like e in there. i - is a sound between ee in meet and i in is. o - like o in for, or in the scottish no, or au in aught. u - like oo in boot, poor. a, e, i, o, u are all simple sounds, that is, the mouth is kept in one position while they are being sounded. in learning them lengthen them out, and be careful not to alter the position of the mouth, however long they are drawn out. in the compound sounds given below the shape of the mouth changes; to get the correct pronunciation sound each letter fully and distinctly, gradually bringing them closer until they run together, when they become almost as follows:-- aj - nearly like ai in aisle, or i in nice, fine. ej - nearly like ei in vein. oj - nearly like oy in boy, or oi in void. uj - nearly like uj in hallelujah. aux - like ahw, or nearly ou in house, pronounced broadly, haouse. eux - like ehw, or ey w in they were, ayw in wayward. practise saying aja, eja, oja, uja, auxa, euxa several times quickly. then gradually drop the final a. accent. the accent or stress is always placed on the syllable before the last, as es-pe-ro, es-pe-ran-to, es-pe-ran-tis-to, es-pe-ran-tis-ti-no; ju-na, ju-nu-lo, ju-nu-la-ro. all the syllables must be clearly pronounced, not slurred over. exercise in pronounciation. a - (as in bath), pat-ra, la-na, a-gra-bla, mal-var-ma, kla-ra, pa-fa-do. e - (as in bend), be-la, mem, fe-nes-tro, ven-dre-do, tre-e-ge, le-te-ro. i - (as in see), mi, i-li, i-mi-ti, vi-zi-ti, trin-ki, in-sis-ti. o - (as in for), ho-mo, ro-zo, ko-lom-bo, dor-mo (the r rolled), mor-to, po-po-lo. u - (as in boot), u-nu, dum, bru-lu, sur-tu-to, vul-tu-ro, mur-mur-i. aj - (as in nice), ajn, kaj, raj-to, taj-lo-ro, faj-ro, be-laj. ej - (as in play), vej-no, hej-mo, plej, hej-to. oj - (as in boy), pat-roj, foj-no, ho-mojn, koj-no, soj-lo, kon-koj. uj - (as in hallelujah), tuj, cxi-uj, ti-uj. aux - (as in cow), an-taux, laux-bo, fraux-li-no, kaux-zi, auxs- kul-tu, aux-di. eux - (like ehw), eux-ro-po, neux-ral-gi-o, eux-kar-is-to, reux-ma-tis-mo. c - (= ts, bits), ce-lo, fa-ci-la (=fa-tsee-la), be-le-co (be-le-tso), ofi-ci-ro, pa-co, ci-ko-ni-o, co-lo. cx - (= tch, match), cxu, ecx, cxe, cxam-bro, cxer-pi, tran-cxi, ri-cxa. g - (as in good), lon-ga, le-gi, ge-nu-o, gen-to, gli-ti, gro-so. gx - (as in gem), gxe-mi, gxis, gxar-de-no, sa-gxa, man-gxi, re-gxo. h - (breathed), ha-ro, hi-run-do, ha-rin-go, his-to-ri-o, he-de-ro, him-no. hx - (in throat), hxe-mi-o, hxo-le-ro, me-hxa-ni-ko, e-hxo, hxa-o-so. j - (like y), ju-na, ma-jes-ta, sin-jo-ro, ka-je-ro, jes, ja. jx - (= zh), bon-ajx-o, jxe-ti, jxur-na-lo, jxus, jxaux-do, jxa-lu-zo. s - (ss), su-per, ses, sta-ri, trans, ves-pe-ro, svin-gi. sx - (sh), fre-sxa, sxe-lo, ku-sxi, sxtu-po, sxvi-ti, sxve-li. kz - ek-zer-co, ek-zem-plo, ek-za-me-no, ek-ze-ku-ti, ek-zi-li, ek-zis-ti. kv - kvar, kvin, kvi-e-ta, kvan-kam, kver-ko, kva-zaux. gv - gvi-di, lin-gvo. kn - kna-bo, kne-di. sc - (sts), sci-o (sts-ee-o), sce-no (stse-no), scep-tro, eks-ci-ti (eks-tsee-tee), eks-cel-en-co (eks-tsel-en-tso), sci-en-co (stsee-en-tso). cen-to, sen-to; ce-lo, se-lo, sxe-lo; co-lo, ko-lo; ci, cxi; ec, ecx; kru-co, kru-cxo; pa-go, pa-gxo; re-gi, re-gxi; se-gi, se-gxo; ho-ro, hxo-ro; pe-si, pe-zi; ste-lo, sxte-lo; san-go, sxan-go; ver-so, ver-sxi; dis-i-ri, dis-sxi-ri; gus-ta, gxus-ta; stu-po, sxtu-po; sta-lo, sxta-lo; pos-to, posx-to; re-ser-vi, re-zer-vi; ru-gxi-gi, ru-cxi-gxi; ri-cxi-gi, ri-cxi-gxi, ri-cxe-co; fti-zo. a-e-ro, oce-a-no, fe-i-no, gxu-i, pe-re-i, pe-re-u; fo-i-ro, cxi-u-ja-ra, vo-joj, tro-u-zi, for-ram-pi, ku-i-ri; skva-mo, zo-o-lo-gi-o, en-u-i, de-tru-u, sxpru-ci, ru-i-ni; jan-u-a-ro, feb-ru-a-ro, li-e-no, ho-di-aux, hi-e-raux, hun-gar-u-jo, ne-a-po-lo, sci-u-ro. * * * * * note.--a useful mnemonic for the esperanto vowels is par, pear, pier, pore, poor, but the sounds should not be dragged. it is helpful to note that the english words "mate, reign, pane, bend; meet, beat, feel, lady; grow, loan, soft; mute, yes, mule" (as pronounced in london and south of england), would be written in esperanto thus:--"mejt, rejn, pejn, bend; mijt, bijt, fijl, lejdi; groux, louxn, soft; mjut, jes, mjul". lesson . words. in esperanto a word generally consists of an unchanging part or root, which expresses the idea, and an ending which shows the use of the word, that is, whether it is a name, a describing word, etc. by changing the ending the use of the word is changed. notice carefully the words given below which end in "o". it will be seen that they are all names. in esperanto every name ends in "o". (in grammar names are called nouns). notice further the words which end in "-as." they all express doing or being (action or state), which is going on at the present time, or which is a custom at the present time. the words "a," "an," are not expressed; "the" is translated by "la". vocabulary. patro : father. cxambro : room. frato : brother. fenestro : window. filo : son. libro : book. teodoro :theodore. krajono : pencil. tajloro : tailor. plumo : pen. leono : lion. cxapelo : hat. besto : animal. domo : house. kolombo : pigeon. arbo : tree. birdo : bird. rozo : rose. estas : is, are, am. floro : flower. apartenas : belongs. pomo : apple. brilas : shines. suno : sun. kusxas : lies. tero : earth, ground. staras : stands. sxtono : stone. la : the. de : of, from. kaj : and. kie : where. jes : yes. kio : what thing. ne : no, not. jen estas : here is. al : to, towards. cxu : whether (asks a question). sur : on. antaux : before, in front of. en : in. apud : by, near, beside. (the [uppercase] shows the accented syllable). patro kaj frato. leono estas besto. rozo estas floro kaj kolombo estas birdo. la rozo apartenas al teodoro. la suno brilas. la patro estas tajloro. kie estas la libro kaj la krajono? jen estas pomo. sur la tero kusxas sxtono. sur la fenestro kusxas krajono kaj plumo. la filo staras apud la patro. jen kusxas la cxapelo de la patro. la patro estas en la cxambro. antaux la domo staras arbo. kio estas leono? kio estas rozo? kio brilas? kio estas la patro? kie estas la patro? kio estas sur la fenestro? kie estas la plumo? cxu leono estas besto? jes, leono estas besto. cxu rozo estas birdo? ne, rozo ne estas birdo, rozo estas floro. lesson . every "describing" word, that is, every word which tells the kind or quality of a person or thing, ends in "a," as "granda", large; "rugxa", red. (a describing word is called an adjective). vocabulary. bela : beautiful. juna : young. blanka : white. matura : mature, ripe. blua : blue. nova : new. bona : good. nutra : nutritious. fidela : faithful. pura : pure, clean. forta : strong. ricxa : rich. fresxa : fresh. sana : well (healthy). cxielo : sky, heaven. negxo : snow. festo : holiday. pano : bread. frauxlino : maiden lady, miss papero : paper. homo : man (human being). tablo : table. hundo : dog. vino : wine. infano : child. onklo : uncle. johano : john. pli : more. kajero : exercise book. ol : than. lakto : milk. sed : but. mano : hand. tre : very. la patro estas sana. infano ne estas matura homo. la cxielo estas blua. leono estas forta. la patro estas bona. la mano de johano estas pura. papero estas blanka. blanka papero kusxas sur la tablo. jen estas la kajero de la juna frauxlino. sur la cxielo staras la bela suno. la papero estas tre blanka, sed la negxo estas pli blanka. lakto estas pli nutra, ol vino. la pano estas fresxa. la onklo estas pli ricxa, ol la frato. jen kusxas rugxa rozo. la hundo estas tre fidela. la libro estas nova. lesson . when the name (noun) is required to denote more than one of the persons or things for which it stands, "j" is added to it, as "rozoj", roses; "kolomboj", pigeons; and then every "describing" word (adjective) which belongs to it must also have "j", as "rugxaj rozoj", red roses; "la kolomboj estas belaj", the pigeons are beautiful. (when the noun stands for "more than one," it is said to be plural. "j" is the sign of the plural). vocabulary. jaro : year. agrabla : agreeable, pleasant. kanto : song. akra : sharp. knabo : boy. delikata : delicate. lilio : lily. flugas : fly, flies. trancxilo : knife. diligenta : diligent. dento : tooth. lundo : monday. vendredo : friday. mardo : tuesday. sabato : saturday. merkredo : wednesday. dimancxo : sunday. jxauxdo : thursday. la birdoj flugas. la kanto de la birdoj estas agrabla. kie estas la knaboj? la patroj estas sanaj. infanoj ne estas maturaj homoj. leonoj estas fortaj. la manoj de johano estas puraj. jen estas la kajeroj de la junaj frauxlinoj. la onkloj estas pli ricxaj, ol la fratoj. la hundoj estas tre fidelaj. blankaj paperoj kusxas sur la tablo. en la cxambro estas novaj cxapeloj. kie estas la akraj trancxiloj? bonaj infanoj estas diligentaj. jen kusxas puraj, blankaj, delikataj lilioj. la dentoj de leonoj estas akraj. lesson . mi : i. ni : we, ci : thou. vi : you. li : he. ili : they. sxi : she. si (see lesson ). gxi : it oni : one, they, people. (the above words are called pronouns because they are used instead of repeating the noun). by adding "a" the pronouns are made to denote a quality, in this case possession, as "mia libro", my book; "via pomo", your apple; "ilia infano", their child. mia : my, mine. nia : our, ours. cia : thy, thine. via : your, yours, lia : his. ilia : their, theirs. sxia : her, hers. sia (see lesson ), gxia : its. when the name to which these "pronoun-adjectives" belong is plural they must of course take "j", as "miaj libroj", my books; "viaj pomoj", your apples; "iliaj infanoj", their children. in speaking of relations and parts of the body "la" is often used instead of "mia", "lia", etc., as "la filo staras apud la patro", the son stands by the (his) father. for "mine," "ours," etc., "mia", "nia", etc., may be used either with or without "la", as "la libro estas mia", or "la libro estas la mia", the book is mine. "oni" is used for "one, they, people", when these words are indefinite in meaning, as in the sentences:--here one can speak fearlessly, "tie cxi oni povas maltime paroli", they say that he is rich, "oni diras, ke li estas ricxa", people often eat too quickly, "oni ofte mangxas tro rapide." vocabulary. avo : grandfather. venkas : conquers. amiko : friend. mangxi : to eat. gxardeno : garden gxentila : polite. knabino : girl. silente : silently. ruso : russian. kiu : who, which (that). sinjoro gentleman, mr., sir. cxiu : each one, every. vero : truth. cxiuj : all, all the. venas : comes. la plej : the most. iras : goes. tiel : as, so. legas : reads. kiel : as. skribas : writes. nun : now. ploras : cry, cries. ankaux : also. volas : wills, wishes. cxiam : always. diras : says. el : out of. sidas : sits. cxar : because, for. mi legas. vi skribas. li estas knabo, kaj sxi estas knabino. ni estas homoj. vi estas infanoj. ili estas rusoj. kie estas la knaboj? ili estas en la gxardeno, kie estas la knabinoj? ili ankaux estas en la gxardeno. kie estas la trancxiloj? ili kusxas sur la tablo. la infano ploras, cxar gxi volas mangxi. sinjoro, vi estas negxentila. sinjoroj, vi estas negxentilaj. oni diras; ke la vero cxiam venkas. la domo apartenas al li. mi venas de la avo, kaj mi iras nun al la onklo. mi estas tiel forta, kiel vi. nun mi legas, vi legas, kaj li legas, ni cxiuj legas. vi skribas, kaj la infanoj skribas, ili (vi) cxiuj sidas silente kaj skribas. mia hundo, vi estas tre fidela. li estas mia onklo, cxar mia patro estas lia frato. el cxiuj miaj infanoj, ernesto estas la plej juna. lia patro kaj liaj fratoj estas en la gxardeno. sxia onklo estas en la domo. kie estas viaj libroj? niaj libroj kusxas sur la tablo; iliaj krajonoj kaj ilia papero ankaux kusxas sur la tablo. kiu estas en la cxambro? kiuj estas en la cxambro? la sinjoro, kiu legas, estas mia amiko. la sinjoro, al kiu vi skribas, estas tajloro. kio kusxas sur la tablo? lesson . the use of final "n". in order to understand the meaning of a sentence it is necessary to be able to recognise clearly and unmistakably what it is that is spoken about, that is, what the "subject of the sentence" is. in english this is often to be recognised only by its position in the sentence. for instance, the three words--visited, john, george, can be arranged to mean two entirely, different things, either "john visited george," or "george visited john." [footnote: in teaching esperanto to children it is well to make sure before going further that they thoroughly understand, what the subject is. the subject is that which we think or speak about. the word which stands for it is the subject of the sentence. the children may be required to underline the subject of each sentence in a suitable piece of prose or verse.] in esperanto the sense does not depend on the arrangement-- "johano vizitis georgon" and "georgon vizitis johano" mean exactly the same thing, that john visited george, the "n" at the end of "georgon" showing that "georgon" is not the subject. there is no want of clearness about the following (esperanto) sentences, absurd as they are in english:-- la patron mordis la hundo. the father bit the dog. la infanon gratis la kato. the child scratched the cat. la birdojn pafis johano. the birds shot john. la musojn kaptis la knabo. the mice caught the boy. la kokidon mangxis la onklo. the chicken ate the uncle. la bildon pentris la pentristo. the picture painted the painter. la fisxojn vendis la fisxisto. the fish sold the fisherman. in these sentences the subjects are at once seen to be "hundo, kato, johano, knabo, onklo, pentristo, fisxisto", for the final "n" in "patron, infanon, birdojn, musojn, kokidon, bildon, fisxojn", distinguishes these words from the subject. this use of "n" renders clear sentences that are not clear in english. "john loves mary more than george" may mean "more than john loves george" or "more than george loves mary." in esperanto it is quite clear. "johano amas marion, pli ol georgo" means "more than george loves mary," because "georgo" is the subject of the second (elliptical) sentence, but "johano amas marion, pli ol georgon" means "more than john loves george," because the final "n" in georgon shows this to be not the subject. there are cases, however, in which it is not necessary to add "n", the noun or pronoun being distinguished from the subject in another way. examples are found in the first exercise:--"sur la tero" kusxas sxtono, "on the ground" lies a stone. "antaux la pordo" staras arbo, "before the door" stands a tree. notwithstanding their position, "ground" and "door" are seen to be not the subject, because before them are the words "on," "before," which connect them with the rest of the sentence--it is "on the ground," "before the door." so with other sentences. the words "on", "before", and others given [in lesson ] are called prepositions ("pre" = before). the noun or pronoun which follows them can never be the subject of the sentence. remember, then, that "n" is added to every noun and pronoun, "other than the subject", unless it has a preposition before it. [footnote: (i.). the explanation usually given for the use of final "n" is, that "n" is added to nouns and pronouns (a) in the accusative case (the direct object), (b) when the preposition is omitted. the explanation given above seems to me, however, to be much simpler. (ii.). another use of final "n" is given later [lesson , lesson ] ] when the noun takes "n", any adjective which belongs to it must also take "n", as, "li donas al mi belan rugxan floron", he gives me a beautiful red flower. "li donas al mi belajn rugxajn florojn", he gives me beautiful red flowers. vocabulary. letero : letter. mateno : morning. litero : letter of alphabet. multaj : many. festo : festival, holiday. obstina : obstinate. tago : day. gxoja : joyful, joyous. nokto : night. hela : bright, clear. amas : loves. pala : pale. vidas : sees. deziras : desires, wishes. konas : knows. eraras : errs, is wrong. havas : has, possesses. vokas : calls. luno : moon. hejtas : heats. stelo : star. hodiaux : to:day. vintro : winter. malpli : less. forno : stove. kiam : when. edzino : wife. kia : what (kind). mi vidas leonon (leonojn). mi legas libron (librojn). mi amas la patron. mi konas johanon. la patro ne legas libron, sed li skribas leteron. mi ne amas obstinajn homojn. mi deziras al vi bonan tagon, sinjoro. bonan matenon! gxojan feston (mi deziras al vi). kia gxoja festo (estas hodiaux)! en la tago ni vidas la helan sunon, kaj en la nokto ni vidas la palan lunon kaj la belajn stelojn. ni havas pli fresxan panon, ol vi. ne, vi eraras, sinjoro, via pano estas malpli fresxa, ol mia. ni vokas la knabon, kaj li venos. en la vintro oni hejtas la fornojn. kiam oni estas ricxa, oni havas multajn amikojn. li amas min, sed mi lin ne amas. sinjoro p. kaj lia edzino tre amas miajn infanojn; mi ankaux tre amas iliajn (infanojn). mi ne konas la sinjoron, kiu legas. lesson . we have seen already (lesson ) that the words which end in "-as" express the idea of "doing" (action) or of "being" (state), and that they assert that this action or state is going on, or is a custom, at the present time, as "mi vidas", i see; "sxi estas", she is; "ili suferas", they suffer, they are suffering. to say that the action or state took place at some "past" time, "-is" is used, as "mi vidis", i saw; "sxi estis", she was; "ili suferis", they suffered, they were suffering. to say that the action or state will take place at some time to come, in the future, "-os" is used, as, "mi vidos", i shall see; "sxi estos", she will be; "ili suferos", they will suffer, they will be suffering. (words which assert something, or which express the idea of doing or of being, are called verbs). (the root only of the verbs will now be given in the vocabulary without the termination). vocabulary. historio : history. dorm- : sleep. kuzo : cousin. vek- : wake. plezuro : pleasure. sercx- : seek. horlogxo : clock. fin- : end. laboro : work. tim- : fear. popolo : a people. ating- : reach to. virino : woman. surda : deaf. agxo : age. muta : dumb. jaro : year. dolcxa : sweet. permeso : permission. tri : three. respond- : answer. dek-kvin : fifteen. far- : do, make. kial : why. forpel- : drive away. hieraux : yesterday. ricev- : receive, get. morgaux : to-morrow. don- : give. antaux : before. trov- : find. post : after. renkont- : meet. jam : already. salut- : greet, salute. jam ne : no more. rakont- : relate, tell. ankoraux : still, yet. vizit- : visit. kial vi ne respondas al mi? cxu vi estas surda aux muta? kion vi faras? la knabo forpelis la birdojn. de la patro mi ricevis libron, kaj de la frato mi ricevis plumon. la patro donis al mi dolcxan pomon. jen estas la pomo, kiun mi trovis. hieraux mi renkontis vian filon, kaj li gxentile salutis min. antaux tri tagoj mi vizitis vian kuzon, kaj mia vizito faris al li plezuron. kiam mi venis al li, li dormis, sed mi lin vekis. mi rakontos al vi historion. cxu vi diros al mi la veron? hodiaux estas sabato, kaj morgaux estos dimancxo. hieraux estis vendredo, kaj postmorgaux estos lundo. cxu vi jam trovis vian horlogxon? mi gxin ankoraux ne sercxis; kiam mi finos mian laboron, mi sercxos mian horlogxon, sed mi timas, ke mi gxin jam ne trovos. se vi nin venkos, la popolo diros, ke nur virinojn vi venkis. kiam vi atingos la agxon de dek-kvin jaroj, vi ricevos la permeson. lesson . confusion is apt to occur in english in the use of the words "him, her, it, them; his, hers, its, their", e.g., "john loves his brother and his children." whose children, john's or his brother's? "the boys brought to their fathers their hats." whose hats, the boys' or their fathers'? "she gave her sister her book." whose book? her own or her sister's? this confusion is avoided in esperanto by the use of, the pronoun "si" ("sin"), meaning "himself, herself, itself, themselves", and "sia," meaning "his own, her own, its own, their own." "si" ("sin, sia") refers to the "subject" of the sentence in which it occurs; therefore in the sentence "john loves his brother and his son," it must be "johano amas sian fraton kaj sian filon" if it is his own (john's) son, because john is the subject, but we must say "lian filon" if the brother's son is meant. "la knaboj alportis al siaj patroj siajn cxapelojn" means "the boys brought to their fathers their own (the boys') hats," because "boys" is the subject, but if we mean "the fathers' hats" it must be "iliajn cxapelojn." "she gave to her sister her book" must be "sxi donis al sia fratino sian libron" if it were her own book, but "sxi donis al sia fratino sxian libron" if it were her sister's book. "li diris al si"... means "he said to himself," but "li diris al li" means that he said it to another person. "si", "sia", can only "refer to" the subject, it cannot be the subject itself or any part of it; therefore we must say "sinjoro p. kaj lia edzino tre amas miajn infanojn", because the subject is "sinjoro p. kaj lia edzino." "mem," self, is only used for emphasis, "e.g.", "mi mem," my (own) self. vocabulary. gasto : guest. montr- : show. vespero : evening. fleg- : tend, take care of mangxo : meal. re-ven- : come back. pupo : doll. pri : concerning, about. aventuro : adventure. gxis : until, as far as. palaco : palace. tute : quite, wholly. zorg- : take care of. tute ne : not at all. gard- : guard. kun : with. am- : love. el : out of. akompan- : accompany. el-ir- : go out of. lav- : wash. mi amas min mem, vi amas vin mem, li amas sin mem kaj cxiu homo amas sin mem. mi zorgas pri sxi tiel, kiel mi zorgas pri mi mem, sed sxi mem tute ne zorgas pri si, kaj tute sin ne gardas. miaj fratoj havis hodiaux gastojn; post la vespermangxo niaj fratoj eliris kun la gastoj el sia domo kaj akompanis ilin gxis ilia domo. mi lavis min en mia cxambro, kaj sxi lavis sin en sia cxambro. la infano sercxis sian pupon; mi montris al la infano, kie kusxas gxia pupo. [footnote: notice the use of the present "kusxas," "lies", after the past "montris," "showed", because at the time the action of "showing" took place the action of "lying" was then actually going on.] sxi rakontis al li sian aventuron. sxi revenis al la palaco de sia patro. siajn florojn sxi ne flegis. mia frato diris al stefano, ke li amas lin pli, ol sin mem. lesson . the cardinal numbers are:-- unu : kvar : sep : dek : du : kvin : ok : cent : tri : ses : naux : mil : , the numbers above are written and read exactly as they are set down in figures:-- , dek unu; , dek du; , dek tri; , dek naux. the "tens" are written as one word, , dudek; , tridek; , nauxdek; , dudek tri; , kvardek sep; , okdek kvin; , cent tridek ses; , ducent (as one word) ok; , tricent kvindek naux; , , mil unu; , , dumil okcent sepdek sep; , mil nauxcent sep. notice that there is a separate word for each figure except , nulo. vocabulary. busxo : mouth. forges- : forget. orelo : ear. kre- : create. fingro : finger. estu : should be. horo : hour. facile : easily. minuto : minute. sankta : holy. sekundo : second. unuj : some. monato : month. alia : other. semajno : week. cxio : everything, all. dato : date (of month, etc.). multe : much, many. pov- : can, be able. per : by means of, through, with. promen- : take a walk. nur : only. konsist- : consist. malbona : bad. elekt- : choose, elect. kristnaska tago : christmas day. januaro : january. julio : july. februaro : february. auxgusto : august. marto : march. septembro : september. aprilo : april. oktobro : october. majo : may. novembro : november. junio : june. decembro : december. du homoj povas pli multe fari, ol unu. mi havas nur unu busxon, sed mi havas du orelojn. li promenas kun tri hundoj. li faris cxion per la dek fingroj de siaj manoj. el sxiaj multaj infanoj unuj estas bonaj kaj aliaj malbonaj. kvin kaj sep faras dek du. dek kaj dek faras dudek. kvar kaj dek ok faras dudek du. tridek kaj kvardek kvin faras sepdek kvin. mil okcent nauxdek tri. li havas dek unu infanojn. sesdek minutoj faras unu horon, kaj unu minuto konsistas el sesdek sekundoj. a. the ordinal numbers, first, second, etc., are formed by adding "a" to the cardinal numbers, as "unua", first; "dua", second; "tria", third; "kvara", fourth; "deka", tenth; "centa", hundredth; "mila", thousandth. the compound numbers are joined together by hyphens, and "a" is added to the last, as "dek-unua", eleventh; "la tridek-nauxa pagxo", the thirty-ninth page; la "cent-kvardek-kvina psalmo", the th psalm. being adjectives, the ordinal numbers take the plural "j" and accusative "n" when necessary. the ordinals are used to tell the hour, as "estas la trio, horo", it is o'clock. the cardinal numbers are used for the minutes, as "a quarter past three" is "la tria horo kaj dek-kvin"; "ten minutes to five," "la kvara horo kaj kvindek". januaro estas la unua monato de la jaro, aprilo estas la kvara, novembro estas la dek-unua, kaj decembro estas la dek-dua. la dudeka (tago) de februaro estas la kvindek-unua tago de la jaro. la sepan tagon de la semajno dio elektis, ke gxi estu pli sankta, ol la ses unuaj tagoj. kion dio kreis en la sesa tago? kiun daton ni havas hodiaux? hodiaux estas la dudek-sepa (tago) de marto. kristnaska tago estas la dudek-kvina (tago) de decembro, novjara tago estas la unua de januaro. oni ne forgesas facile sian unuan amon. lesson . the names of certain quantities are formed from the cardinal numbers by adding "o", as "dekduo", a dozen; "dudeko", a score; "cento", a hundred; "milo", a thousand. these names, as well as names of quantities generally, require to be followed by "da", of, as "dekduo da birdoj", a dozen (of) birds, but "dekdu birdoj", twelve birds; "dudeko da pomoj", a score of apples; "cento da sxafoj", or "cent sxafoj", a hundred sheep; "milo da homoj", a thousand people; "miloj da homoj", thousands of people. when these expressions form the object of the verb, it is the name of the number which takes "-n", not the noun which follows "da", as "li acxetis dudekon da sxafoj", he bought a score of sheep. for "firstly, secondly", etc., "-e" is added to the number, as "unue", firstly; "kvine", fifthly; "deke", tenthly. (see lesson ). vocabulary. urbo : town. acxet- : buy. logxanto : inhabitant. dank- : thank. kulero : spoon. pet- : beg, request. forko : fork. bezon- : want, need. mono : money. kost- : cost. prunto : loan. poste : afterwards. metro : metre. tiu cxi : this. sxtofo : stuff. por : for. franko : franc (about d.). re- : prefix, meaning again atakanto : assailant. or back. pago : payment. tial : therefore. miliono : a million. aux : or. prunt- : lend. da : of (after a quantity). mi havas cent pomojn. mi havas centon da pomoj. tiu cxi urbo havas milionon da logxantoj. mi acxetis dekduon da kuleroj, kaj du dekduojn da forkoj. mil jaroj (aux, milo da jaroj) faras miljaron. unue mi redonas al vi la monon, kiun vi pruntis al mi; due mi dankas vin por la prunto; trie mi petas vin ankaux poste prunti al mi, kiam mi bezonos monon. a. to express a certain part or fraction, "-on-" is added to the number specifying what part, as / , unu "duono"; / , unu "triono"; / , unu "kvarono"; / , unu "dekono"; / unu "milono"; / , unu "milionono". these words, being nouns, take "j" and "n" when required-- / , "tri dekonoj"; / , "dudek-sep ducentonoj"; / , "deknaux milonoj. mi mangxis tri kvaronojn de la kuko", i ate three-quarters of the cake (see lesson ). to express so many times a number "-obl-" is added to the number, as "duobla", double; "dekoble", ten times; "trioble kvar estas (or "faras") dekdu", three times four are twelve; "sepoble ok faras kvindek ses", seven times eight make fifty-six. to express "by twos, by tens", etc., "-op-" is added to the number, as "duope", by twos, or two together; "dekope", by tens; "kvindekope", by fifties, fifty together, or fifty at a time. tri estas duono de ses, ok estas kvar kvinonoj de dek. kvar metroj da tiu cxi sxtofo kostas naux frankojn, tial du metroj kostas kvar kaj duonon frankojn (aux da frankoj). unu tago estas tricent-sesdek-kvinono, aux tricent-sesdek-sesono de jaro. kvinoble sep estas tridek kvin. por cxiu tago mi ricevas kvin frankojn, sed por la hodiauxa tago mi ricevis duoblan pagon, t.e. (= tio estas) dek frankojn. tiuj cxi du amikoj promenas cxiam duope. kvinope ili sin jxetis sur min, sed mi venkis cxiujn kvin atakantojn. lesson . verbs (continued), -i, -u. in the examples already given the verbs ending in "-as", "-is", "-os" express "action" or "being" ("state") going on in present, past, or future time, as "mi skribas", i am writing; "li legis", he read; "ni iros", we shall go. if we wish merely to express the idea of action or state indefinitely, without reference to any time or any subject, the verb must end in "-i," as "vivi", to live; "mi deziras lerni", i wish to learn; "ni devas labori", we must work. (this is called the indefinite or infinitive mood (manner of expression), because not limited by reference to time or subject). to give an "order" or "command", or to express "will, desire, purpose", etc., the verb must end in "u", as "donu al mi panon", give (to) me bread; "iru for", go away; "estu felicxa", may you be happy! "vivu la regxo!" (long) live the king! in such cases as tell "him to come", i want "you to sing", allow "her to speak", we have to use a second sentence with the verb ending in "u", and beginning with "ke", that, as "diru al li, ke li venu", tell (say to) him, that he come; "mi deziras, ke vi kantu", i wish, that you sing; "permesu al sxi, ke sxi parolu", allow her, that she speak. sentences like the last are often contracted, only the last subject and verb being used, as "sxi parolu", let her speak; "gxi kusxu", let it lie; "ni iru", let us go; "ili dormu", let them sleep. "cxu vi volas ke mi tion faru?" do you wish me to do that? "cxu mi tion faru?" shall i do that? vocabulary. nomo : name. rajd- : ride. vesto : coat, clothing. las- : let, leave. kandelo : candle. kur- : run. dometo : cottage. parol- : speak. akvo : water. viv- : live, have life. spegulo : looking-glass. rest- : rest, remain. est- : be. honesta : honest. tusx- : touch. inda : worthy. auxskult- : listen. atenta : attentive. pardon- : pardon. kara : dear. uz- : use. gaja : gay, cheerful. ordon- : order. tia : such. babil- : chatter. longa : long. send- : send. sincera : sincere. trink- : drink. for : away, forth. vol- : will, wish. forte : strongly. bat- : beat. sole : alone. kuragx- : have courage donu al la birdoj akvon, cxar ili volas trinki. aleksandro ne volas lerni, kaj tial mi batas aleksandron. kiu kuragxas rajdi sur leono? mi volis lin bati, sed li forkuris de mi. al leono ne donu la manon. rakontu al mia juna amiko belan historion. diru al la patro, ke mi estas diligenta. diru al mi vian nomon. ne skribu al mi tiajn longajn leterojn. montru al mi vian novan veston. infano, ne tusxu la spegulon. karaj infanoj, estu cxiam honestaj. ne auxskultu lin. li diras, ke mi estas atenta. li petas, ke mi estu atenta. ordonu al li, ke li ne babilu. petu lin, ke li sendu al mi kandelon. la dometo estas inda, ke vi gxin acxetu. sxi forte deziris, ke li restu viva. li venu, kaj mi pardonos al li. ni estu gajaj, ni uzu bone la vivon, cxar la vivo ne estas longa. li ne venu sole, sed alvenu kun sia plej bona amiko. mi jam havas mian cxapelon; nun sercxu vi vian. lesson . verbs (continued), -us. sometimes we want to express a "supposition", to say that something "would" take place, supposing that something else, which is not likely to occur, were to do so, or that something "would have" taken place if something else which did not occur had done so. in this case the verb must end with "-us", as, if i were well (which i am not) i should be happy (which also i am not), "se mi estus sana, mi estus felicxa". if he knew (supposition) that i am here (a fact) he would immediately come to me (supposition), "se li scius, ke mi estas tie cxi, li tuj venus al mi". compare the two following sentences:-- (i.). "kvankam vi estas ricxa, mi dubas, cxu vi estas felicxa", though you are (in fact) rich, i doubt whether you are (in fact) happy, (ii.). "kvankam vi estus ricxa, mi dubas, cxu, vi estus felicxa", though (supposing that) you were rich, i doubt whether you would be happy. vocabulary. lernanto : pupil. pen- : endeavour. leciono : lesson. imit- : imitate, instruanto : teacher, kvazaux : as if. sci- : know. io : something. pun- : punish. efektive : really. estim- : esteem. supren : upwards. lev- : lift, raise. kvankam : though. ten- : hold, keep. se : if. se la lernanto scius bone sian lecionon, la instruanto lin ne punus. se vi scius, kiu li estas, vi lin pli estimus. ili levis unu manon supren, kvazaux ili ion tenus. se mi efektive estus bela, aliaj penus min imiti. ho! se mi jam havus la agxon de dekkvin jaroj! lesson . when we tell of someone doing a certain action we often want to allude to some circumstance concerning that action, such as the time, or place, or manner in which it was done, that is, when, or where, or how it was done. in the sentences--yesterday i met your son, "hieraux mi renkontis vian filon"; he will go in the evening, "li iros vespere"; they sat there, "ili sidis tie"; she will remain at home, "sxi restos hejme"; good children learn diligently, "bonaj infanoj lernas diligente"; i will do it with pleasure, "mi faros gxin plezure", the words "hieraux, vespere", show the time, "tie, hejme", show the place, and "diligente, plezure", show the manner of the action. (because these words relate to the verb they are called adverbs). adverbs may be formed from any word whose sense admits of it, and especially from adjectives, by means of the termination "e", as "bona", good, "bone", well; "antaux" before, "antauxe", previously or formerly; "mateno", morning, "matene", in the morning; "sekvi", to follow, "sekve", consequently. when we want the adverb to show "direction towards" any place, time, etc., either actually or figuratively, "n" is added, as "li alkuris hejmen", he ran home. "ili levis unu manon supren", they raised one hand upwards. "antauxen"! forward! ("n" is also added to nouns to show direction towards. "li eniris en la domon", he entered into the house). some adverbs are used with adjectives and other adverbs to show the "degree" of the quality, quantity, etc., as the paper is "very" white, la papero estas "tre" blanka. "too" much speaking tires him, la "tro" multa parolado lacigas lin. i am "as" strong "as" you, mi estas "tiel" forta, "kiel" vi (estas forta). he came "very" early, li venis "tre" frue. the following words are in themselves adverbs, and need no special ending:-- vocabulary. hodiaux : to-day. tre : very. hieraux : yesterday. tro : too. morgaux : to-morrow. tute : quite. baldaux : soon. nur : only. ankoraux : yet. nepre : surely, without fail. jam : already. preskaux : nearly. jxus : just (time). apenaux : scarcely. nun : now. almenaux : at least. tuj : immediately. ambaux : both. denove : again, anew. ankaux : also. cxi denotes proximity. ne : not. jen : here, there, lo, behold. jes : yes. for : away, forth. ja : indeed. pli : more. ecx : even. plej : most. cxu : whether, asks a question. plu : further. ju ... des : the more...the more. comparisons are made with-- "pli...ol", more than: "lakto estas pli nutra ol vino", milk is more nutritious than wine. "malpli...ol", less than: "vino estas malpli nutra ol lakto", wine is less nutritious than milk. "la plej", the most, "la malplej", the least: "el cxiuj liaj amikoj johano estas la plej sagxa, kaj georgo la malplej sagxa", of all his friends john is the wisest, and george the least wise. "ju pli...des pli", the more...the more: "ju pli li lernas, des pli li deziras lerni", the more he learns, the more he wishes to learn. "ju malpli...des malpli", the less...the less: "ju malpli li laboras, des malpli li ricevas", the less he works, the less he gets. "ju pli...des malpli", the more...the less: "ju pli li farigxas granda, des malpli li estas forta", the taller he becomes, the less strong he is. "ju malpli...des pli", the less...the more: "ju malpli li pensas, des pli li parolas", the less he thinks, the more he talks. for comparisons of equality, as...as, so...as, see lesson . vocabulary. pordo : door. sav- : save. kontrakto : contract. dauxr- : last, continue. pastro : pastor, priest. trancx- : cut. fero : iron. ekrigard- : glance. bastono : stick (rod). flu- : flow. stacio : station. ag- : act (do). stacidomo : station. logx- : live, lodge. hejmo : home. brul- : burn (as a fire). furio : fury. vetur- : ride (in a vehicle). sxipano : sailor. aper- : appear. kolero : anger. postul- : require, demand. honesto : honesty. pendig- : hang (something) dangxero : danger. mort- : die. koro : heart. malsana : ill. oficisto : an official. varma : warm. regxo : king. varmega : hot. balo : ball, dance. frua : early. humoro : humour. plue : further. tempo : time. returne : back. sinjorino : lady, mrs. cxar : because, whereas. ferm- : shut. resti kun leono estas dangxere. la trancxilo trancxas bone, cxar gxi estas akra. iru pli rapide. li fermis kolere la pordon. lia parolo fluas dolcxe kaj agrable. ni faris la kontrakton ne skribe, sed parole. honesta homo agas honeste. la pastro, kiu mortis antaux nelonge (antaux ne longa tempo), logxis longe en nia urbo. cxu vi gxin ne ricevis returne? li estas morte malsana. la fera bastono, kiu kusxis en la forno, estas brule varmega. parizo estas tre gaja. matene frue sxi alveturis [footnote: see lesson .] al la stacidomo. pardonu al mi, ke mi restis tiel longe. lia kolero longe dauxris. li estas hodiaux en kolera humoro. la regxo baldaux denove sendis alian bonkoran oficiston. hodiaux vespere ni havos balon. kie vi estas? for de tie-cxi! kien li forveturis? sxi kuris hejmen. ni iris antauxen, kiel furioj. cxio estis bona, kaj ni veturis pluen. la sinjorino ekrigardis returnen. la sxipanoj postulis, ke oni iru returnen. mi gxin pendigis tien cxi, cxar gxi savis mian vivon. mi neniam sendis tien cxi. lesson . mal-, -in-. in esperanto certain syllables which have a definite meaning are placed at the beginning (prefixes) or end (suffixes) of words to alter in some way the meaning of those words. the prefix "mal-" gives an exactly opposite meaning to the word to which it is prefixed, as "dekstra", right (hand); "maldekstra", left (hand); "nova", new; "malnova", old; "helpi", to help, "malhelpi", to hinder; "fermi", to shut, "malfermi", to open. the suffix "-in-" denotes the female sex. from "viro", [footnote: the word "homo" previously given (lesson ) signifies a human being, a person, without reference to sex; "viro" means a man as distinguished from a woman.] a man, we get "virino", a woman; "filo", son, "filino", daughter; "cxevalo", a horse, "cxevalino", a mare; "koko", a cock, "kokino", a hen. vocabulary. kresko : growth. ferm- : shut. haro : hair (substance). help- : help. haroj : hair (of head). farigx- : become. nazo : nose. dekstra : right (hand). vojo : road. meza : middle, medium. viro : man. dika : thick, stout. edzo : husband, mola : soft. nepo : grandson. luma : light (luminous). nevo : nephew. nobla : noble (character). bovo : ox. rekta : straight. vidvo : widower, kurba : curved. fiancxo : fiance. felicxa : happy. nenio : nothing. naskita : born. turment- : torment. fermita : shut. sent- : feel. ecx : even. ben- : bless. longe : for a long time. estim- : have esteem for. denove : anew, again. mia frato ne estas granda, sed li ne estas malgranda, li estas de meza kresko. haro estas tre maldika. la nokto estas tiel malluma, ke ni nenion povas vidi ecx antaux nia nazo. tiu cxi malfresxa pano estas malmola, kiel sxtono. malbonaj infanoj amas turmenti bestojn. li sentis sin tiel malfelicxa, ke li malbenis la tagon, en kiu li estis naskita. ni forte malestimas tiun cxi malnoblan homon. la fenestro longe estis nefermita; mi gxin fermis, sed mia frato tuj gxin denove malfermis. rekta vojo estas pli mallonga, ol kurba. ne estu maldanka. la edzino de mia patro estas mia patrino, kaj la avino de miaj infanoj. mia fratino estas tre bela knabino. mia onklino estas tre bona virino. mi vidis vian avinon kun sxiaj kvar nepinoj, kaj kun mia nevino. mi havas bovon kaj bovinon. la juna vidvino farigxis denove fiancxino. lesson . re-, -ad-, ek-. the prefixes "re-" and "ek-" and the suffix "-ad-" are attached to verbs. "re-" has nearly the same meaning as in english, "back" or "again", as "re-pagi", to pay back; "re-porti", to carry back; "re-jxeti", to throw back; "re-salti", to rebound; "re-kanti" to sing again; "re-legi", to read over again. "-ad-" denotes the continuance or continued repetition of an action; it means "goes on doing", or "keeps on doing", or "is in the habit of", or in the past "used to", as "spiri", to breathe, "spirado", respiration; "movi", to move, "movado", continued movement; "fumi", to smoke, "fumado", the habit of smoking; "auxdi", to hear, "auxdado", the sense of hearing. "ek-" has the opposite meaning to "-ad-"; it signifies the beginning of an action, or a short or sudden action, as "kanti", to sing, "ekkanti", to begin to sing; "ridi", to laugh, "ekridi", to burst out laughing; "krii", to cry or call, "ekkrii", to cry out; "iri", to go, "ekiri", to set out; "dormi", to sleep, "ekdormi", to fall asleep. vocabulary. rivero : river. fal- : fall. lando : land. atend- : wait for, expect. segxo : seat. lacig- : make tired. dauxro : duration. frot- : rub. okupo : occupation. rigard- : look. pluvo : rain. elrigard- : look out of. vagonaro : train. salt- : jump. surprizo : surprise. rapida : quick. diamanto : diamond. klara : clear. fulmo : lightning. lerte : cleverly. lumo : a light. energie : energetically. paf- : shoot. kelke : some. jxet- : throw. cxiuminute : every minute. [p. ] auxd- : hear. tra : through. li donis al mi monon, sed mi gxin tuj redonis al li. mi foriras, sed atendu min, cxar mi baldaux revenos. la suno rebrilas en la klara akvo de la rivero. li reiris al sia lando. sxi rejxetis sin sur la segxon. en la dauxro de kelke da minutoj mi auxdis du pafojn. la pafado dauxris tre longe. lia hierauxa parolo estis tre bela, sed la tro multa parolado lacigas lin. li kantas tre belan kanton. la kantado estas agrabla okupo. per mia mano mi energie lin frotadis. la pluvo faladis per riveroj. cxiuminute sxi elrigardadis tra la fenestro, kaj malbenadis la malrapidan iradon de la vagonaro. mi saltas tre lerte. mi eksaltis de surprizo. mi saltadis la tutan tagon [footnote: see lesson (iii.)] de loko al loko. kiam vi ekparolis, mi atendis auxdi ion novan. la diamanto havas belan brilon. sxi lasis la diamanton ekbrili. du ekbriloj do fulmo trakuris tra la malluma cxielo. lesson . verbs (continued). in all the examples already given the subject of the sentence is the "doer" of the action, but often it is "the one to whom the action is done" who occupies our thoughts, and of whom we wish to speak. this one then becomes the subject, and the form of the verb is changed. instead of saying "the police are searching for the thief," "someone has broken the window," "someone is going to finish the work to-morrow," we say "the thief is being sought for by the police," "the window has been broken," "the work is going to be finished to-morrow." (note the convenience of this form when we do not know or do not wish to mention the doer). in esperanto the terminations "-ata", "being", denoting "incompleteness" or "present" time, "-ita", "having been", denoting "completeness" or "past" time, and "-ota", "about to be" (going to be), denoting "action not yet begun", or "future" time, are added to the root of the verb, as "ami", to love, "amata", being loved, "amita", having been loved, "amota", going to be loved. "la sxtelisto estas sercxata de la policanoj" [footnote: "de" is used after these participles to denote the "doer" of the action.], the thief is being searched for by the police. "la fenestro estas rompita", the window has been broken. "la laboro estas finota morgaux", the work is going to be finished to-morrow. it will be seen that these words ending in "-ata", "-ita", "-ota" describe the subject or show the "condition" or "state" in which the subject is, therefore they are adjectival; the thief is a "searched-for" thief, the window was a "broken" window, the work is a "going-to-be-finished" work (compare the work will be "ready" to-morrow). they are called participles, and being adjectival, take "j" when the noun to which they belong is plural. mi estas tenata ............. i am (being) held. li estis tenata ............. he was (being) held. ni estos tenataj ............ we shall be (being) held. vi estus tenataj ............ you would be (being) held. ke ili estu tenataj ......... that they may be (being) held. estu tenata ................. be (being) held. esti tenata ................. to be (being) held. mi estas vidita ............. i am (in the state of) having been seen, or, i have been seen. li estis vidita ............. he was (in the state of) having been seen, or, he had been seen. ni estos viditaj ............ we shall be (in the state of) having been seen, or, we shall have been seen. vi estus viditaj ............ you would be (in the state of) having been seen, or, you would have been seen. (ke) ili estu viditaj ....... (that) they may be (in the state of) having been seen, or, that they may have been seen. esti vidita ................. to be (in the state of) having been seen, or, to have been seen. mi estas lauxdota .......... i am about (going) to be praised. sxi estis lauxdota .......... she was about (going) to be praised. ni estos lauxdotaj .......... we shall be about (going) to be praised. vi estus lauxdotaj .......... you would be about (going) to be praised. (ke) ili estu lauxdotaj ..... (that) they should be about (going) to be praised. esti lauxdota ............... to be about (going) to be praised. vocabulary. komercajxo : commodity. sciig- : inform. surtuto : overcoat. kasx- : hide. sxuldo : debt. pens- : think. ringo : ring. kapt- : capture. projekto : project. trankvila : quiet. ingxeniero : civil engineer. tuta : all, whole. fervojo : railroad. grava : important. pregxo : prayer. ora : golden. pasero : sparrow. volonte : willingly. aglo : eagle. sekve : consequently. invit- : invite. laux : according to. konstru- : construct. mi estas amata. mi estis amata. mi estos amata. mi estus amata. estu amata. esti amata. vi estas lavita. vi estis lavita. vi estos lavita. vi estus lavita. estu lavita. esti lavita. li estas invitota. li estis invitota. li estos invitota. li estus invitota. estu invitota. esti invitota. tiu cxi komercajxo estas cxiam volonte acxetata de mi. la surtuto estas acxetita de mi; sekve gxi apartenas al mi. kiam via domo estis konstruata, mia domo estis jam longe konstruita. mi sciigas, ke de nun la sxuldoj de mia filo ne estos pagataj de mi. estu trankvila, mia tuta sxuldo estos pagita al vi baldaux. mia ora ringo ne estus tiel longe sercxata, se gxi ne estus tiel lerte kasxita de vi. laux la projekto de la ingxenieroj tiu cxi fervojo estas konstruota en la dauxro de du jaroj; sed mi pensas, ke gxi estos konstruata pli ol tri jarojn. kiam la pregxo estis finita, li sin levis. auxgusto estas mia plej amata filo. mono havata estas pli grava ol havita. pasero kaptita estas pli bona, ol aglo kaptota. lesson . another set of participles is used to describe or show the condition or state of the "doer" of the action, namely "-anta", denoting "incompleteness" or present time, "-inta", denoting "completeness" or past time, and "-onta", denoting "action not yet begun", or future time, as "sur la arbo staras kantanta birdo (aux birdo kantanta"), on the tree is a singing bird (or a bird singing); "en la venonta somero mi vizitos vin", in the coming summer i shall visit you; "la pasinta nokto estis tre pluva", the past night was very wet (rainy). mi estas mangxanta .......... i am (in the act of) eating. li estis mangxanta .......... he was eating. ni estos mangxantaj ......... we shall be eating. vi estus mangxantaj ......... you would be eating. (ke) ili estu mangxantaj .... (that) they may be eating. esti mangxanta .............. to be eating. estu mangxanta .............. be (in the act of) eating. mi estas teninta ............ i am (in the state of) having held, or, i have held. li estis teninta ............ he was (in the state of) having held, or, he had held. ni estos tenintaj ........... we shall be (in the state of) having held, or, we shall have held. vi estus tenintaj ........... you would be (in the state of) having held, or, you would have held. (ke) ili estu tenintaj ...... (that) they may be (in the state of) having held, or, (that) they may have held. esti teninta ................ to be (in the state of) having held, or, to have held. mi estas dironta ............ i am about (going) to say. li estis dironta ............ he was about (going) to say. ni estos dirontaj ........... we shall be about (going) to say. vi estus dirontaj ........... you would be about (going) to say. (ke) ili estu dirontaj ...... (that) they may be about (going) to say. esti dironta ................ to be about (going) to say. the participles are made into nouns by ending them with "o" instead of "a", as "kiam nikodemo batas jozefon, tiam nikodemo estas la batanto, kaj jozefo estas la batato", when nicodemus beats joseph, then nicodemus is the beater, and joseph is the one being beaten. la batanto ...... the one who is beating. la batinto ...... the one who was beating. la batonto ...... the one who is about (going) to beat. la batato ....... the one who is being beaten. la batito ....... the one who has been beaten. la batoto ....... the one who is about to be beaten. note that the participles which have "n" in the termination refer to the "doer"; they are called "active" participles. those without "n" refer to the one to whom the action is done; they are "passive" participles. vocabulary. tempo : time. ripet- : repeat. mondo : world. arest- : arrest. lingvo : language. jugx- : judge. nombro : number. konduk- : lead, conduct. legendo : legend. vojagx- : travel, journey. loko : place. sxtel- : steal. salono : drawing-room. ripoz- : rest, repose. eraro : mistake. diradis : used to say (tell). soldato : soldier. estonta : future (about to be). strato : street. vera : true. pek- : sin. intence : intentionally. fal- : fall. facile : easily. mensog- : tell a lie. antauxe : formerly, previously. pas- : pass (as time passes). dum : while, whilst, during. atend- : wait, expect. neniam : never. sav- : save, rescue. neniu : nobody. danc- : dance. sen : without. kred- : believe. senmove : motionless. fluanta akvo estas pli pura, ol akvo staranta senmove. la falinta homo ne povas sin levi. la tempo pasinta jam neniam revenos; la tempon venontan neniu ankoraux konas. venu, ni atendas vin, savonto de la mondo. en la lingvo esperanto ni vidas la estontan lingvon de la tuta mondo. la nombro de la dancantoj estis granda. gxi estas la legendo, kiun la veraj kredantoj cxiam ripetas. li kondukis la vojagxanton al la loko, kie la sxtelintoj ripozis. al homo, pekinta senintence, dio facile pardonas. la soldatoj kondukis la arestitojn tra la stratoj. homo, kiun oni devas jugxi, estas jugxoto. a. nun li diras al mi la veron. hieraux li diris al mi la veron. li cxiam diradis al mi la veron. kiam vi vidis nin en la salono, li jam antauxe diris al mi la veron (aux, li estis dirinta al mi la veron). li diros al mi la veron. kiam vi venos al mi, li jam antauxe diros al mi la veron (aux, li estos dirinta al mi la veron; aux, antaux ol vi venos al mi, li diros al mi la veron). se mi petus lin, li dirus al mi la veron. mi ne farus la eraron, se li antauxe dirus al mi la veron (aux, se li estus dirinta al mi la veron). kiam mi venos, diru al mi la veron. kiam mia patro venos, diru al mi antauxe la veron (aux, estu dirinta al mi la veron). mi volas diri al vi la veron. mi volas, ke tio, kion mi diris, estu vera (aux, mi volas esti dirinta la veron). lesson . participles can be used as adverbs when they refer to the subject, and tell some circumstance about the action, as "walking along the street, john saw your friend." "walking along the street" tells the circumstance under which the subject, john, saw your friend; therefore "walking" is adverbial--"promenante sur la strato, johano vidis vian amikon." if it were the friend who was walking, it must be "johano vidis vian amikon, promenantan sur la strato." (examine in this way the sentences in the following exercise). vocabulary. braceleto : bracelet. medit- : meditate. sxtelisto : thief. port- : carry. vorto : word. demand- : ask. duko : duke. sxpar- : save. juvelo : jewel. edzigx- : marry. juvelujo : jewel-case. hont- : be ashamed. dolaro : dollar. ir- : go. instruo : instruction. profunda : deep. planko : floor. kelka : some. imperiestro : emperor. ia : some (kind), any (kind). okazo : opportunity, occurrence, kredeble : probably. chance. trans : across. serv- : serve. tio cxi : this (thing). promenante sur la strato, mi falis. trovinte pomon, mi gxin mangxis. li venis al mi tute ne atendite. li iris tre meditante kaj tre malrapide. ni hontis, ricevinte instruon de la knabo. la imperiestra servanto eliris, portante kun si la braceleton. profunde salutante, li rakontis, ke oni kaptis la sxteliston. ne dirante vorton, la dukino malfermis sian juvelujon. laborinte unu jaron, kaj sxparinte kelkajn dolarojn, mi edzigxis kun mia mario. transirinte la riveron, li trovis la sxteliston. rigardinte okaze la plankon, sxi vidis ian libron, forgesitan kredeble de elirinta veturanto. lesson . suffix -ist-. the suffix "-ist-" denotes one who occupies himself with or devotes himself to any special thing, as a business or a hobby, as "jugxi", to judge, "jugxisto", a judge; "servi", to serve, "servisto", a servant; "kuraci", to treat (as a doctor), "kuracisto", a doctor; "lavi", to wash, "lavisto", a laundryman. vocabulary. boto : boot. transskrib- : transcribe, copy. sxuo : shoe. kuir- : cook. maro : sea. veturig- : drive (carriage, etc.). mehxaniko : mechanics. tromp- : deceive. hxemio : chemistry. okup- : occupy, employ. diplomato : diplomatist. teks- : weave. fiziko : physics. diversa(j) : various. scienco : science. simple : simply. dron- : be drowned, sink. je (indefinite meaning). verk- : work mentally, write, [lessons , .] compose. la botisto faras botojn kaj sxuojn. sxtelistojn neniu lasas en sian domon. la kuragxa maristo dronis en la maro. verkisto verkas librojn, kaj skribisto simple transskribas paperojn. ni havas diversajn servantojn--kuiriston, cxambristinon, infanistinon, kaj veturigiston. kiu okupas sin je mehxaniko estas mehxankisto, kaj kiu okupas sin je hxemio estas hxemiisto. diplomatiiston oni povas ankaux nomi diplomato, [footnote: see lesson .] sed fizikiston oni ne povas nomi fiziko, [footnote: see lesson .] cxar fiziko estas la nomo de la scienco mem. unu tagon [footnote: see lesson .] (en unu tago) venis du trompantoj, kiuj diris, ke ili estas teksistoj. lesson . suffixes -ig-, -igx-. "-ig-" means "to make" or "cause" someone or something to be or to do that which the word denotes, while "-igx-" means "to become" so or such oneself. thus from "rugxa", red, we get "rugxigi", to make (something or someone) red, "rugxigxi", to become red oneself, to blush; "klara", clear, "klarigi", to make clear, to explain, "klarigxi", to become clear; "sidi", to sit, to be sitting, "sidigi", to cause someone to sit, "sidigxi", to become seated, to sit down; "kun", with, "kunigi", to connect, "kunigxi", to become connected with; "devi", to have to (must), "devigi", to compel; "fari", to do or make, "farigxi", to become; "for", away, "forigi", make (go) away. vocabulary. printempo : spring. kapo : head. glacio : ice. botelo : bottle. vetero : weather. dev- : have to, must. broso : brush. kurac- : treat as a doctor. relo : rail. pren- : take. rado : wheel. pend- : hang. cxapo : bonnet, cap. blov- : blow. arbeto : little tree. ekbrul- : begin to burn. vento : wind. rid- : laugh. brancxo : branch. romp- : break. vizagxo : face. fluida : fluid. kuvo : tub. kota : dirty, muddy. kolego : companion, colleague natura : natural. hebreo : hebrew. seka : dry. kristano : christian. tamen : however, nevertheless, yet oni tiel malhelpis al mi, ke mi malbonigis mian tutan laboron. forigu vian fraton, cxar li malhelpas al ni. venigu la kuraciston, cxar mi estas malsana. li venigis al si el berlino multajn librojn (multe da libroj). li paligxis de timo, kaj poste li rugxigxis de honto. en la printempo la glacio kaj la negxo fluidigxas. en la kota vetero mia vesto forte malpurigxis; tial mi prenis broson kaj purigis la veston. mia onklo ne mortis per natura morto, sed li tamen ne mortigis sin mem, kaj ankaux estis mortigita de neniu; unu tagon, [footnote: see lesson , note iii.] promenante apud la reloj de fervojo, li falis sub la radojn de veturanta vagonaro, kaj mortigxis. mi ne pendigis mian cxapon sur tiu cxi arbeto; sed la vento forblovis de mia kapo la cxapon, kaj gxi, flugante, pendigxis sur la brancxoj de la arbeto. sidigu vin (aux, sidigxu), sinjoro! lia malgaja vizagxo ridigis lian amikon. la tutan nokton ili pasigis maldorme, kaj ekbruligis pli ol dekses kandelojn. mi senvestigis la infanon de liaj noktaj vestoj, kaj starigis lin en la kuvon; poste mi sekigis lin. li amikigxis kun malbonaj kolegoj. malricxa hebreo volis kristanigxi. la botelo falis kaj rompigxis. sxi farigxis lia edzino. iom post iom, sxi tute trankviligxis. * * * * * notes. .--in "pluvas", it rains; "tondras", it thunders; "estas bela tago", it is a fine day; "estas bele", it is fine; "estas vere, ke...", it is true that..., etc., "it" is left out, because it does not stand for any "thing." the adverbs "bele", "vere", are used because no "thing" is mentioned. .--"ni havas fresxajn lakton kaj panon" means "ni havas fresxan lakton kaj fresxan panon", we have new milk and new bread. "ni havas fresxan lakton kaj panon" means we have bread and new milk. .--"la angla, franca kaj germana lingvoj estas malfacilaj", the english, french and german languages are difficult. "angla", "franca", "germana" do not take "j" because each refers to only one language, while "malfacilaj" refers to all those mentioned. lesson . the words "ia, tia; kial, tial; kiam, cxiam, neniam; kie, kiel, tiel; io, kio, tio, cxio, nenio; kiu, cxiu, neniu", have already been met with. they belong to a series whose use will best be seen from the following examples:-- "ia" denotes kind or quality. "kia" floro estas la plej bela? "ia" kaj "cxia" floro estas beta, "nenia" estas malbela. mi admiras la rozon; "tia" floro la plej placxas al mi. "what (kind of)" flower is the most beautiful? "any kind" and "every kind" of flower is beautiful, "no kind" is ugly. i admire the rose, "that kind of" flower pleases me the most. "ial", motive, reason. "kial" li iros en parizon? mi ne scias; "ial" li foriros, sed "cxial" estus pli bone resti en londono. li deziras foriri, "tial" li foriros. "why" is he going (will he go) to paris? i know not; "for some reason" he is going, but "for every reason" (on every account) it would be better to remain in london. he wishes to go, "therefore" (for that reason) he will go. "iam", time. "kiam" vi venos min viziti? "iam" mi venos, "kiam" mi havos libertempon; vi "cxiam" havas libertempon, mi "neniam". postmorgaux estos festo, "tiam" mi venos. "when" will you come to visit me? "sometime" i will come, "when" (at what time) i shall have a holiday; you "always" (at all times) have a holiday, i "never" (at no time). (the day) after to-morrow will be a festival (a general holiday); i will come "then" (at that time). "ie", place. "kie" estas mia cxapelo? gxi devas esti "ie", sed mi sercxis gxin "cxie", kaj "nenie" mi povas trovi gxin. ha, nun mi ekvidas gxin "tie". "where" is my hat? it must be "somewhere", but i have looked for it "everywhere", and "nowhere" can i find it. ha, now i see it "there". "iel", manner. "kiel" vi faros tion cxi? mi ne scias; mi "cxiel" provis gxin fari, sed mi "neniel" sukcesis. johano sukcesis "iel"; eble li faris gxin "tiel". "how" will you do this? i do not know; i have tried in every way to do it, but i have "in no way" (not at all) succeeded. john succeeded "in some way" (somehow); perhaps he did it "so (in such a way"). "ies", possession. "kies" devo estas tio cxi? eble gxi estas "ties"; sendube gxi estas "ies". "cxies" devo estas "nenies". "whose" duty is this? perhaps it is "that one's (person's)"; doubtless it is "somebody's. everybody's" duty is "nobody's." "io", thing. "kio" malplacxas al vi? nun "nenio" malplacxas al mi, "cxio" estas bona. antaux tri tagoj "io" tre malplacxis al mi, sed mi ne parolas pri "tio" nun. "what" displeases you? now "nothing" displeases me, "all" is well. three days ago "something" greatly displeased me, but i am not speaking about "that" now. "iom", quantity. "kiom" da mono vi bezonas? mi havas "tiom", mi povas prunti al vi "iom", sed ne "cxiom". se mi pruntus al vi "cxiom", mi mem havus "neniom". "how much" money do you need ? i have "so much (that quantity)", i can lend you "some", but not "all". if i were to lend you "all", i myself should have "none". "iu" denotes individuality, person, or thing specified. "kiu" estis cxe la balo? "cxiu, kiu" estis invitita, estis tie, "neniu" forestis. "iu, kiun" mi mem ne konas, venis kun "tiu kiu" vizitis vin hierau. "who" was at the ball? "everybody who" had been invited was there, "nobody" was absent. "somebody, whom" i myself do not know, came with "that person who" visited you yesterday. it will be seen from these examples that the words beginning with "k" either "ask questions" or "refer" to some person or thing before mentioned. those beginning with "t" point to a "definite" time, place, etc. those with "cx" signify "each" or "every", and in the plural "all". those without a letter prefixed are "indefinite", meaning some or any; and those with "nen-" are "negative", meaning "no, none". the words ending in "ia" and those in "iu" can take the plural "j" and accusative "n". the words in "io" take "n", but the sense does not permit of their taking "j". the words in "ie" take the "n" denoting direction. the word "cxi", signifying nearness, is used with the "t" series (words meaning "that"), to denote the one near "i.e., this", as "tio cxi", this thing; "tiu cxi", this person; "tie cxi", or, "cxi tie", here, etc. the word "ajn", ever, is used with the "k" series to give a more inclusive and wider meaning, as "kio ajn", whatever; "kiu ajn", whoever; "kiam ajn", whenever; "kiom ajn", however much. comparisons of equality are made with the words-- "tiel ... kiel", as vi estas "tiel" forta, "kiel" mi, you are "as" strong "as" i. "tia ... kia", as "tia" domo, "kia" tiu, estas malofta, "such" a house "as" that is rare. "sama ... kia", as mia bastono estas "tia sama, kia" la via, my stick is "the same as" yours. "sama ... kiel", as gxia uzado estas "tia sama, kiel" en la aliaj lingvoj, its use is "the same as" in the other languages. vi cxiam laboradas al tiu "sama" celo, "kiel" mi, you are always working towards that "same" end (aim) "as" i. any of the above series of words whose sense admits of it can be used as adjectives, adverbs, etc., and in combination with prefixes, suffixes, or other words, as "cxiama", continual, eternal; "tiea", of that place. "kioma" is used for asking the time, as "kioma horo estas"? what time is it? correlative words. +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | * | k | t | cx | nen- | | |indefinite.|questioning| definite.| inclusive.| negative. | | | | relative. | | | | | |some, any. | what, | that. | each, | no, none. | | | | which. | |every, all.| | |--------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------| | | ia | kia | tia | cxia | nenia | |quality | some kind | what kind |that kind | each kind | no kind | |kind of | any kind | | such |every kind | | | | | | | | | |--------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------| | | ial | kial | tial | cxial | nenial | | motive |for some |for what |for that |for each |for no | | reason | reason | reason | reason | reason | reason | |purpose |for any |why |therefore |for every | | | | reason | | | reason | | |--------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------| | | iam | kiam | tiam | cxiam | neniam | | time | sometime | at what | at that | each time |at no time | | | any time | time | time |every time | never | | | | when | then | always | | |--------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------| | | ie | kie | tie | cxie | nenie | | place |in some | at what | at that | at each | at no | | | place | place | place | place | place | | | somewhere | where | there | at every | nowhere | | | anywhere | | | place | | | | | | | everywhere| | |--------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------| | | iel | kiel | tiel | cxiel | neniel | |manner |in some way|in what way| in that | in each | in no way | | |in any way |how | way | way | nohow | | |somehow, |as, like | so | in every | | | |anyhow | | | way | | |--------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------| | | ies | kies | ties | cxies | nenies | |posses- | someone's | what |that one's|each one's | no one's | | sion | anyone's | person's | |everyone's | | | | | whose | | | | |--------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------| | | io | kio | tio | cxio | nenio | | thing | something | what thing| that | everything| nothing | | | anything | what | thing | | | |--------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------| | | iom | kiom | tiom | cxiom | neniom | |quantity|some(of the| what |that |every |none of the| | | quantity)| quantity| quantity| quantity | quantity | | | | how much |so much |all of the | | | | | | | quantity | | |--------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------| | | iu | kiu | tiu | cxiu | neniu | |inividu-| someone |what person|that |each person| no one | | ality | anyone |which thing| person |everyone | nobody | | | |who which |that | cxiuj = | | | | | |(specified) all, | | | | | | thing | all the...| | +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ vocabulary. ankro : anchor. prov- : attempt, try. maniero : manner, way. sukces- : succeed. riprocxo : reproach. perd- : lose. konscienco : conscience. merit- : deserve. propono : proposal, offer. kompren- : understand. rando : edge. libera : free. sxipo : ship. certa : certain, sure. dubo : doubt. utila : useful. demando : question. fremda : strange. admir- : admire. necesa : necessary. placx- : be pleasing. ekster : beyond, outside. supoz- : suppose. "ia." la maro estas tie pli profunda, ol povas atingi ia ankro. en ia maniero. sen ia riprocxo de konscienco. mi scias, en kia loko mi certe lin trovos. kia estas la vetero? kian malbonon mi al vi faris? tiamaniere li faris cxion. li invitis lin veni en tian kaj tian lokon. ne cxia birdo kantas. ekster cxia dubo. nenia homo meritas tian punon. tiaj libroj estas malutilaj. iafoje li vizitas nin. "ial." ial li ne povis dormi. kial vi ne respondas al mi? mi ne komprenis vian demandon, tial mi ne respondis. la homoj ne komprenas unu la alian, kaj tial ili tenas sin fremde. cxial tio estas la plej bona. "iam." mi iam vin amis. kio vivas, necese devas iam morti. kiam vi foriros? en la luna nokto, kiam cxiuj dormis, tiam sxi sidis sur la rando de la sxipo. estu por cxiam benata! sxi antauxe neniam vidis hundon. vocabulary a. mono : money. monto : mountain. monujo : purse. ganto : glove. juneco : youth. opinio : opinion. reto : net. vocxo : voice. ideo : idea. prezid- : preside. gajno : gain. alpren- : adopt. tauxg- : be fit, suitable. stranga : strange, curious. fart- : be, fare (as to health). komprenebla : understandable. subita : sudden. "ie." kie estas la knaboj? kien vi iris? mi restas tie cxi. li perdis sian monujon ie en la urbo, sed kie li perdis gxin, li ne scias. mi volonte el tie venis tien cxi. li petis sxin, ke sxi diru al li, de kie si venas. [footnote: see note in lesson .] por la juneco cxie staras retoj. cxie estas floroj, kaj nenie oni povas trovi pli belajn. "iel." kiel bela! cxu mi tauxgas kiel regxo? tiel finigxis la felicxa tago. ili brilis kiel diamantoj. kiel vi fartas? iel li malkomprenis min. mia edzino pensis tiel same, kiel mi. mi neniel povas kompreni, kion vi diras. tre stranga kaj neniel komprenebla! mi elektis lin kiel prezidanto. mi elektis lin kiel prezidanton. "ies." kies ganto tiu cxi estas? mi neniam alprenas ties opinion. subite sxi ekauxdis ies fortan malagrablan vocxon. cxies ideo estas diversa. bona amiko, sen kies helpo li neniam ekvidus tiun cxi landon. ies perdo ne estas cxiam ies gajno. ies perdo estas ofte nenies gajno. vocabulary b. ornamo : ornament. hxino : chinese. pupilo : pupil (of eye). decido : decision. centimo : centime. ced- : give up, yield, cede. forto : strength, power. forlas- : forsake, leave. nesto : nest. prudenta : reasonable, prudent. fortuno : fortune. firma : firm, stable. funto : pound (weight or money). sterlinga : sterling. lango : tongue. kontraux : against, opposite. gusto : taste. pro : for, owing to. okulo : eye. "io." mi sentas, ke io okazas. neniam mi ion al vi donis. mi volas fari al vi ion bonan. kio tio cxi estas? kia ornamo tiu cxi estas? kion mi vidas? tio cxi estas cxio, pri kio mi parolis. mi nenion cedos al vi. nenion faru kontraux la patrino. antaux cxio estu fidela al vi mem. sxi eksentis ion tian, kion sxi mem komence ne povas kompreni. "iom." sxi parolis iom kolere. la pupiloj de la okuloj iom post iom malgrandigxis. kiu estas tiom senprudenta, ke li povas gxin kredi? kiom da mono vi havas? mi havas neniom. donu al mi tiom da akvo, kiom da vino. "iu." iu venas; kiu gxi estas? cxu iu kuragxus tion fari? cxiu penis sin savi, kiel li povis. lingvo, en kiu neniu nin komprenos. neniu el ili povis savi la dronanton. li al neniu helpis iam ecx per unu centimo. ni iros cxiuj kune. mi konas neniun en tiu urbo. tio cxi estas super cxiuj homaj fortoj. c. oni petis lin atendi iom kun lia forveturo. tiuj cxi nestoj ofte estas pli grandaj, ol la dometoj de la tieaj homoj. li forveturis kun firma decido forlasi por cxiam tiun cxi sendankan landon. se iu tion vidus, li malbenus la fortunon. mi donus cent funtojn sterlingajn, se bova lango povus havi por mi tian bonan guston kiel por vi. kioma lesson . suffixes -eg-, -et-. the suffixes "-eg-" and "-et-" are opposites; "-eg-" denotes a great size or degree, and "-et-" a small size or degree, of that which the word signifies, as "domo", a house, "domego", a mansion, "dometo", a cottage; "sxnuro", a cord, "sxnurego", a rope, "sxnureto", a string; "monto", a mountain, "montego", a huge mountain, "monteto", a hill; "ami", to love, "amegi", to idolise, "ameti", to have a liking for; "ridi", to laugh, "ridegi", to shout with laughter, to guffaw, "rideti", to smile. "-eg-" and "-et-" denote a greater or smaller size or degree than is expressed by "very large" or "very small". the adjective "ega" means "enormous, huge", and "eta" means "tiny". vocabulary. arbaro : a wood. somero : summer. bruo : noise. kampo : field. kalesxo : carriage. piedego : paw. korto : courtyard. forir- : go away. piedo : foot. murmur- : murmur. teruro : terror. varma : warm. militistaro : army. densa : dense. serio : series. en varmega tago mi amas promeni en arbaro. kun bruo oni malfermis la pordegon, kaj la kalesxo enveturis en la korton. tio cxi estas jam ne simpla pluvo, sed pluvego. grandega hundo metis sur min sian antauxan piedegon, kaj mi de teruro ne sciis, kion fari. antaux nia militistaro staris granda serio da pafilegoj. en tiu nokto blovis terura ventego. kun plezurego. li deziregis denove foriri. tuj post la hejto la forno estis varmega, post unu horo gxi estis nur varma, post du horoj gxi estis nur iom varmeta, kaj post tri horoj gxi estis jam tute malvarma. mi acxetis por la infanoj tableton kaj kelke da segxetoj. en nia lando sin ne trovas montoj, sed nur montetoj. en somero ni trovas malvarmeton en densaj arbaroj. li sidas apud la tablo kaj dormetas. mallargxa vojeto kondukas tra tiu cxi kampo al nia domo. sur lia vizagxo mi vidis gxojan rideton. antaux la virino aperis malgranda, beleta hundo. pardonu, li murmuretis. lesson . suffix -il-. the suffix "-il-" denotes the "instrument" by means of which something is done, as "razi", to shave, "razilo", a razor; "rigli", to bolt, "riglilo", a bolt; "butero", butter, "buterilo", a churn; "kuraci", to treat (as a doctor), "kuracilo", a medicine. vocabulary. viando : meat, flesh. komb- : comb. posxo : pocket. sxtop- : stop up. korko : cork (substance). sxlos- : lock. argxento : silver. glit- : glide, slide. telero : plate. direkt- : direct, steer. sano : health. difekt- : damage. butero : butter. montr- : show. hak- : chop, hew. pes- : weigh something. seg- : saw. tir- : draw, pull. fos- : dig. vetur- : drive (in a vehicle). kudr- : sew. frosta : frosty. tond- : clip, shear. magneta : magnetic. per hakilo ni hakas, per segilo ni segas, per fosilo ni fosas, per kudrilo ni kudras, per tondilo ni tondas. la trancxilo estis tiel malakra, ke mi ne povis trancxi per gxi la viandon, kaj mi devis uzi mian posxan trancxilon. cxu vi havas korktirilon, por malsxtopi la botelon? mi volis sxlosi la pordon, sed mi perdis la sxlosilon. sxi kombas al si la harojn per argxenta kombilo. en somero ni veturas per diversaj veturiloj, kaj en vintro per glitveturilo. hodiaux estas bela frosta vetero; tial mi prenos miajn glitilojn kaj iros gliti. la direktilisto de "pinta" difektis la direktilon. la magneta montrilo. la unua montrilo en la plej multaj malsanoj estas la lango. li metis gxin sur la teleron de pesilo. lesson . suffixes -an-, -estr-. the suffix "-an-" signifies a "member", an "inhabitant" of a country, town, etc., or a member of a party, society, religion, etc. "euxropano", a european; "londonano", a londoner; "urbo", a town or city, "urbano", a citizen; "klubo", a club, "klubano", a member of a club. "ano", a member. "-estr-" denotes the "head" of a state, town, society, etc. "regno", a state, "regnestro", a ruler of a state; "urbestro", the head of a town, a mayor; "lernejo", a school, "lernejestro", the principal or head master of a school; "imperio", an empire, "imperiestro", an emperor. vocabulary. parizo : paris. vilagxo : village. regno : state. obe- : obey. imperio : empire. konfes- : confess, avow, polico : police. acknowledge, profess kristo : christ. (a religion, etc.). lutero : luther. enir- : enter. kalvino : calvin. ruza : sharp (cunning). germano : german. suficxa : sufficient. franco : frenchman. ordinara : ordinary. rusujo : russia. naiva : simple. provinco : province. sagxa : wise. religio : religion. severa : strict, severe. regimento : regiment. justa : just, righteous. lokomotivo : engine. egala : equal. logxio : box (opera), fiera : proud. lodge (freemason, etc.). energia : energetic. la sxipanoj devas obei la sxipestron. cxiuj logxantoj de regno estas regnanoj. urbanoj estas ordinare pli ruzaj, ol vilagxanoj. la parizanoj estas gajaj homoj. nia urbo havas bonajn policanojn, sed ne suficxe energian policestron. luteranoj kaj kalvinanoj estas kristanoj. germanoj kaj francoj, kiuj logxas en rusujo, estas rusujanoj, kvankam ili ne estas rusoj. li estas nelerta kaj naiva provincano. la logxantoj de unu regno estas samregnanoj, la logxantoj de unu urbo estas samurbanoj, la konfesantoj de unu religio estas samreligianoj. tiuj, kiuj havas la samajn ideojn, estas samideanoj. la regnestro de nia lando estas bona kaj sagxa regxo. nia provincestro estas severa, sed justa. nia regimentestro estas por siaj soldatoj kiel bona patro. ili estas egale fieraj, kiel domestrino pri sia domo. sur la lokomotivo la lokomotivestro sidis sola. la imperiestro, akompanata de la imperiestrino, jxus eniris en sian logxion. lesson . suffixes -ar-, -er-. the suffix "-ar-" signifies a collection of the persons or things named, as "arbo", a tree, "arbaro", a wood; "homo", a human being, "homaro", mankind; "militisto", a soldier (from "milito", war), "militistaro", an army; "vorto", a word, "vortaro", a dictionary ("vortareto", a vocabulary); "aro", a flock, "anaro", a company, troop. "-er-" signifies a particle, or one of things of which the name denotes a mass, as "greno", corn, "grenero", a grain of corn; "polvo", dust, "polvero", a speck of dust; "pulvo", gunpowder, "pulvero", a grain of gunpowder; "hajlo", hail, "hajlero", a hailstone; "negxo", snow, "negxero", a snowflake; "koto", mud, "kotero", a speck of mud or dirt. vocabulary. pulvo : gunpowder. sxafo : a sheep. sxtupo : step, stair. fajro : fire. tegmento : roof. met- : put, set. herbo : grass. pasxt- : feed (cause to feed), bruto : brute, beast, head of cattl pasture. lano : wool. sekv- : follow. persono : person. bar- : bar (obstruct). floreno : florin. batal- : battle, fight. sxilingo : shilling. eksplod- : explode. penco : penny. brava : brave. glaso : a glass (tumbler). kruta : steep. brando : brandy. hispana : spanish. tuko : a cloth. vasta : vast, spacious. telertuketo : serviette. precipe : chiefly, particularly. [footnote: see lesson .] preskaux : almost. sxnuro : cord. inter : between, among. sablo : sand. nia lando venkos, cxar nia militistaro estas granda kaj brava. sur kruta sxtuparo li levis sin al la tegmento de la domo. mi ne scias la lingvon hispanan, sed per helpo de vortaro hispana-germana mi tamen komprenis iom vian leteron. sur tiuj cxi vastaj kaj herboricxaj kampoj pasxtas sin grandaj brutaroj, precipe aroj da bellanaj sxafoj. la vagonaro konsistis preskaux nur el personvagonoj. oni metis antaux mi mangxilaron, kiu konsistis el telero, kulero, trancxilo, forko, glaseto por brando, glaso por vino kaj telertuketo. sur la maro staris granda sxipo, kaj inter la sxnuregaro sidis cxie sxipanoj. lia sekvantaro staris en la posto de la logxio. mallumaj montegaroj baras la vojon. floreno, sxilingo kaj penco estas moneroj. sablero enfalis en mian okulon. unu fajrero estas suficxa por eksplodigi pulvon. lesson . suffix -ul-. the suffix "-ul-" denotes a person characterised by the quality, etc., which the word expresses, as "justa", just, righteous, "justulo", one who is just; "babili", to chatter, "babilulo", one who chatters, a babbler; "avara", avaricious, "avarulo", a miser; "kun", with, "kunulo", a companion. vocabulary. legendo : legend. entrepren- : undertake. ombro : shadow. propra : own. rajto : right, authority. avara : avaricious. profeto : prophet. potenca : powerful. mensogo : a lie. infekta : infectious. tagmangx- : dine. cxe : at, with. malricxa sagxulo tagmangxis cxe avara ricxulo. malsagxulon cxiu batas. li estas mensogisto kaj malnoblulo. timulo timas ecx sian propran ombron. tiu cxi maljunulo tute malsagxigxis kaj infanigxis. unu instruitulo entreprenis gravan sciencan laboron. nur sanktuloj havas la rajton enveni tien cxi. li sola estas la grandulo, la potenculo. gxi ne estas la legendo pri la belulino zobeido. post infekta malsano oni ofte bruligas la vestojn de la malsanulo. la malbeno de la profeto staras super la kapo de maldankulo. post kelkaj minutoj la kuragxulo eliris. cxiuj sanktuloj, helpu! lesson . the following words, which have already been used in the previous lessons, are always placed before nouns or pronouns, to show the relation (of position, etc.) between the thing for which the noun stands and another thing or an action. al : to, towards. laux : according to. apud : beside, near, by. per : by means of, with. da : of (indefinite quantity). post : after, behind. de : of from, by. pri : concerning, about. el : out of. por : for, for the sake of. en : in, into, within. sen : without. ekster : outside. super : above, over. gxis : until, till, as far as. sur : on, upon. inter : between, among. tra : through. kontraux : against, opposite. trans : across, on the other side. kun : (in company) with. je (has no definite meaning). (these words are called prepositions, which means placed before). the other simple prepositions are-- anstataux : instead of. po : at the rate of. antaux : before. pro : for (cause), owing to. cxe : at, with. preter : past, beyond, by. cxirkaux : about, around. spite : in despite of. krom : besides, except. sub : under. malgraux : notwithstanding, in spite of. the prepositions "anstataux", "antaux" ("ol"), and "por" are also used before infinitive verbs, as "anstataux diri", instead of saying (to say); "antaux ol paroli", before speaking; "por lerni", in order to learn. in esperanto all the prepositions except "je" have a definite meaning, and care must be taken to use the one which conveys the exact sense. the same word cannot be used for "with" in the two sentences "he went with his father" and "he cut it with a knife," or for "about" in "he spoke about his child" and "they stood about the stove." in the first example "with" his father is "kun", in company with, li iris "kun" sia patro, and "with" a knife is "per", by means of, li trancxis gxin "per" trancxilo. "about," in "about his child," is "pri," concerning, li parolis "pri" sia infano, but "about," in "about the stove," is "cxirkaux," around, ili staris "cxirkaux" la forno. when we cannot decide which is the correct preposition to use in any case, we may use "je," the only preposition which has no special meaning of its own, or the preposition may be left out altogether, and "n" added to the noun or pronoun, provided that no want of clearness ensue (see lesson ), as mi ridas "pro" lia naiveco, or, mi ridas "je" lia naiveco, or, mi ridas lian "naivecon", i laugh at his simplicity. when we wish to express "motion towards" something, and the preposition does not of itself express it, "n" is added to the noun or pronoun, as in the case of adverbs (see lesson ), "li estas en la domo", he is in the house; but, "li iras en la domon", he is going into the house. note.--there are three cases in which the noun or pronoun takes "n". (i.). when it is the "direct object" of the verb, as "mi vidis lin", i saw him. (ii.). to show "direction", as "li iris en la gxardenon", he went into the garden. (iii.). when the "preposition" is "left out". this is usually done in the case of "dates" and expressions signifying "duration" of time, as "georgo vasxington estis naskita la dudek-duan de februaro de la jaro mil sepcent tridek du", george washington was born the nd of february, . "vi restos tie cxi la tutan vivon (dum la tuta vivo)", you will remain here your (the) whole life. all the prepositions whose meaning allows of it can be used as adjectives, adverbs, etc., by adding the proper endings, as from "antaux", before, we get "antauxa", former, "antauxe", formerly or previously, "antauxen", forward. prepositions are also joined to other words, and to prefixes or suffixes, as "antauxdiri", to foretell; "apudmara urbo", a seaside town; "senigi", to deprive of. sometimes the preposition is both prefixed to the verb and used after it before the noun, as "li eliris el la domo, kaj eniris en la gxardenon", he went out of the house, and entered into the garden. lesson . al. "al" signifies "to" or "towards" a person or place. it is also used before the noun or pronoun which signifies "person" after such verbs as "give, tell", etc., which take two objects in different relations to the verb, as-- give (to) him the book, "donu al li la libron." tell (to) him the truth, "diru al li la veron." write (to) him a letter, "skribu al li leteron." in such cases we can say "pardonu lin", pardon him, if the "thing" object is not mentioned, but we cannot say "pardonu lin la kulpon", forgive him his fault; it must be "pardonu al li la kulpon." the pronoun with "al" is sometimes used instead of the possessive (pronoun) adjective "mia", etc., as "mi trancxis al mi la fingron", for "mi trancxis mian fingron", i cut my finger. "sxi kombis al si la harojn," instead of "sxi kombis siajn harojn," she combed her hair. "al" is frequently used as a prefix as well as after the verb, as "aldoni", to add; "alpreni", to adopt; "aligxi", to adhere; "aljugxi", to award. vocabulary. sorcxisto : sorcerer. promes- : promise. detrancx- : cut off. ambaux : both. sxi revenis al la palaco de sia patro. ili ambaux iris al la urbestro. cxu mi ne faris al vi bonon? sxi nenion al ili rakontis. sxi skribis al li leteron. cxiutage li instruas al la homoj ion, kion ili ne scias. ili flugis al la suno. unu fratino promesis al la alia rakonti al sxi, kion sxi vidis kaj kio la plej multe placxis al sxi en la unua tago. eble li al vi pardonos. sxi ne kredis al siaj propraj oreloj. li ne sciis, ke al sxi li devas danki la vivon. si savis al li la vivon. la sorcxistino detrancxis al la virineto de maro la langon. lesson . cxe. apud. "cxe" indicates a certain "place, time", or "point of thought, discourse", etc., as, "li estis cxe mia patro", he was with my father, or at my father's house. "cxe la momento", at the moment. "li estis cxe la pordo", he was at the door, "cxeesti", to be present. "apud" means "close by, beside." it applies to place only, as "la knabo staris apud la patro", the boy stood by, or beside, the father. vocabulary. fundo : bottom. halt- : stop, halt. brako : arm. ramp- : creep, crawl. torcxo : torch. plant- : (to) plant. serpento : serpent. multekosta : precious, statuo : statue. valuable. saliko : willow. aux ... aux : either ... or. mi logxis cxe sxia patro. gxi falis sur la fundon de la maro cxe la rompigxo de la sxipo. cxe lumo de torcxoj. brako cxe brako. kaptis lin kelka timo cxe la penso. nenio helpas; oni devas nur kuragxe resti cxe sia opinio. sxi ridis cxe lia rakontado. cxe cxiu vorto, kiun vi diros, el via busxo eliros aux floro aux multekosta sxtono. li haltis apud la pordo. la serpento rampis apud sxiaj piedoj. kiam li estis cxe mi, li staris tutan horon apud la fenestro. mi logxis en arbo apud via domo. sxi plantis apud la statuo roza-rugxan salikon. la apudvojaj arboj. lesson . en. "en" means "in, inside;" when "n" is added to the noun which it precedes, it means "into", as "kie vi estas? mi estas en la domo. kien vi iras? mi iras en la gxardenon." where are you? i am in the house. where are you going? i am going into the garden. "malamiko venis en nian landon", an enemy came into our country. vocabulary. hispanujo : spain. muel- : grind. humoro : humour, temper. turn- : turn. paco : peace. divid- : divide. pinglo : pin. do : then. nasko-tago : birthday. gxuste : exactly, just. faruno : flour. kvazaux : as if. parto : part. la birdo flugas en la cxambro ( = gxi estas en la cxambro, kaj flugas en gxi). la birdo flugas en la cxambron ( = gxi estas ekster la cxambro, kaj flugas nun en gxin). mi vojagxas en hispanujo. mi vojagxas en hispanujon. kion do fari en tia okazo? mi estas en bona humoro. li murmuretis al la regxino en la orelon. en sekvo de tiu cxi okazo. mi preferus resti en paco tie cxi. sxia naskotago estis gxuste en la mezo de vintro. li ekrigardis en la okulojn de la infano. li estis bela granda viro en la agxo de kvardek jaroj. en la dauxro de mia tuta vivo. en la fino de la jaro. mano en mano. enirinte en la vagonon, sxi sidis kvazaux sur pingloj. la greno mueligxas en farunon. aleksandro turnigxis en polvon. li dividis la pomon en du partojn. lesson . inter. ekster. el. "inter" means "between, among", or "amongst." it is largely used as a prefix, as "interparoli", to converse; "internacia", international; "interkonsento", agreement; "sin intermeti", to interfere. "ekster" means "out of, outside", as "ekster dangxero", out of danger. it is used as a prefix, as "eksterordinara", extraordinary. "el" means "out of". it applies (i.) to "place", signifying motion from, as, "mi eliris el la domo", i went out of the house. (ii.). "chosen from among", as, "unu el miaj infanoj", one of (from among) my children. (iii.). "made out of", as, "tiu cxi sxtofo estas farita el lano", this cloth is made (out) of wool. "el" is used as a prefix, and means "out, outright", or "thoroughly", as, "elfosi", to dig out; "ellerni", to learn thoroughly. vocabulary. kolono : column, pillar. krono : crown. marmoro : marble. uzo : use. figuro : figure. okazo : occasion. muro : wall. alfabeto : alphabet. kanapo : sofa. divid- : divide (something). arto : art. produkt- : produce. viveco : liveliness. interne : inside. inter rusujo kaj francujo estas germanujo. ili dividis inter si dekdu pomojn. inter la deka kaj dekunua horo matene. inter la kolonoj staris marmoraj figuroj. apud la muro inter la fenestroj staris kanapo. longe ili parolis inter si. cxe tiu cxi malsano unu horo povas decidi inter vivo kaj morto. en la intertempo inter la paroloj oni produktas artajn fajrojn. mi staras ekster la domo, kaj li estas interne. li estas ekster la pordo. nun ni estas ekster dangxero. li logxas ekster la urbo. starante ekstere, li povis vidi nur la eksteran flankon de nia domo. li montris eksteren en la mallumon. mi lasis lin ekstere. la ekstero de tiu cxi homo estas pli bona, ol lia interno. li eliris el la urbo. li estas jxus reveninta el la eksterlando. kun eksterordinara viveco sxi elsaltis el la vagono. sxi metis al sxi kronon el blankaj lilioj sur la harojn. li faris uzon el la okazo. tiuj cxi nestoj estas farataj tute el tero. sxi estis la plej kuragxa el cxiuj. jen vi elkreskis! li eliris el la dormocxambro, kaj eniris en la mangxocxambron. la esperanta alfabeto konsistas el dudek ok literoj. lesson . sur. super. sub. "sur" means "on, upon" (touching). "li sidas sur la kanapo", he is sitting on the sofa. followed by the accusative (with "n") it means "on to", as "sidigxu sur la kanapon", sit down on the sofa. "influi sur la karakteron", to have influence on the character. "super" means "over, above" (not touching). "super la maro flugis la nuboj", over the sea floated the clouds. followed by the accusative it shows motion over and above a thing, as "li jxetis sxtonon super la muron", he threw a stone over the wall. "sub" means "under, underneath". "la hundo kusxis sub la tablo", the dog lay under the table. with the accusative "sub" shows motion to and beneath, as "la hundo kuris sub la tablon", the dog ran under the table. vocabulary. aero : air. suprajxo : surface. sono : sound. sxultro : shoulder. benko : bench. ferdeko : deck. kato : cat. balanc- : swing (something). lito : bed. frap- : strike, slap. frukto : fruit. influ- : have influence on. genuo : knee. prem- : press. muso : mouse. nagx- : swim. muziko : music. forestanta : absent. ponto : bridge. nobla : noble (quality). sofo : sofa. alta : high. mi sidas sur segxo kaj tenas la piedojn sur benketo. li revenis kun kato sur la brako. mi metis la manon sur la tablon. li falis sur la genuojn. ne iru sur la ponton. li jxetis sin malespere sur segxon. li frapis lin sur la sxultron, kaj premis lin malsupren sur la sofon. mi sidigis min sur la lokon de la forestanta hejtisto. la fruktoplantado devas influi noblige sur tiujn, kiuj sia okupas je gxi. super la tero sin trovas aero. liaj pensoj alte levigxis super la nubojn. sxi ricevis la permeson sin levi super la suprajxon de la maro. ili povis sin levi sur la altajn montojn alte super la nubojn. li staras supre sur la monto kaj rigardas malsupren sur la kampon. sxi sidis sur la akvo kaj balancigxis supren kaj malsupren. el sub la kanapo la muso kuris sub la liton, kaj nun gxi kuras sub la lito. sxi ofte devis nagxi sub la akvon. sub la sonoj de muziko ili dancis sur la ferdeko. ekfloris sub sxia rigardo la blankaj lilioj. sxi subigxis sub la akvon. sxi suprennagxis cxe la subiro de la suno. lesson . tra. trans. preter. "tra" means "through", as "tra la truo", through the hole. "tra la mondo", through the world. "trans" means "at the other side, across", as "li logxas trans la rivero", he lives on the other side of the river. with the accusative it means "to the other side", as "li nagxis trans la riveron", he swam to the other side of (across) the river. "preter" means "past, by", or "beyond;" it conveys the idea of coming up from behind and passing on in front, as "mi pasis preter via frato", or "mi preterpasis vian fraton", i passed your brother. the difference between "tra", "trans", and "preter" is clearly shown by the sentence "trapasinte la arbaron, li preterpasis la pregxejon kaj tiam transpasis la riveron per la ponto", having passed through the wood, he passed by the church, and then passed over the river by the bridge. vocabulary. kameno : hearth, fireside. momento : moment. poto : pot. abato : abbot. kaldrono : cauldron, kettle. penetr- : penetrate. vaporo : steam, vapour. bol- : boil (as water boils). hirundo : swallow. turn- : turn (a thing or oneself). tunelo : tunnel. largxa : wide, broad. oceano : ocean. li estas tiel dika, ke li ne povas trairi tra nia mallargxa pordo. sxi rigardis supren tra la mallume-blua akvo. tra la palrugxa aero lumis la stelo de la vespero. la sonado de la sonoriloj trapenetras malsupren al sxi. ili traglitas inter la brancxoj. sur la kameno inter du potoj staras fera kaldrono; el la kaldrono, en kiu sin trovas (or "trovigxas") bolanta akvo, eliras vaporo; tra la fenestro, kiu sin trovas (or "trovigxas") apud la pordo, la vaporo iras sur la korton. la hirundo flugis trans la riveron, cxar trans la rivero sin trovis (or "trovigxis") aliaj hirundoj. ili povas flugi sur sxipoj trans la maron. "kial hanibalo iris trans la alpojn? cxar tiam la tunelo ne estis ankoraux preter." estas neeble, ke ili estu transirintaj trans la oceanon. cxio transturnigxis la fundo supren. ni pasis preter la stacio. en tiu cxi momento preteriras la abato. preterirante, mi demandis lin, cxu jam estas la dekdua horo. la muelilo ne povas mueli per akvo preterfluinta. lesson . antaux. post. "antaux" means "before" (time), "ni revenos antaux mardo", we shall return before tuesday, "in front of" (place), "antaux la domo", before the house. before verbs "antaux ol" is used, as "lavu vin, antaux ol mangxi", wash (yourself) before eating. "post" means "after" (time), "behind" (place). care must be taken in using "antaux" and "post" to arrange the sentence so that there can be no doubt as to whether time or place is referred to. "he came before his father," in place or position, "i.e.", in front of his father, is "li venis antaux sia patro", but if "before in time" is meant, it must be "li venis antaux ol lia patro" ("venis"). "li venis post sia patro" means he came behind his father; if we mean "after his father came" we may use "kiam", and say "li venis post, kiam lia patro venis". to express "time past," "ago," "antaux" is used, as "antaux tri tagoj", three days ago. "antaux longe", a long time ago. "antaux nelonge", not long ago. to express "in" a time to come "post" is used, as i will come in three days, "mi venos post tri tagoj". "post nelonge", in a short time. vocabulary. pregxejo : church (place of vek- : waken (someone). prayer). bala- : sweep. ordo : order. rauxka : hoarse. ricxeco : wealth. avida : eager, greedy. pasxo : step. ofte : often. pagxo : page. publike : publicly. antaux ili staris pregxejo. antaux tiuj homoj estas inde paroli. ofte en la nokto sxi staris antaux la fenestro. mi estas peka antaux vi. antaux unu horo. antaux mallonge li vekigxis tre rauxka. antaux nelonge oni vendis la domon publike. ne iru, antaux ol vi scias, ke cxio estas en ordo. mi devos lasi ilin elbalai la cxambron, antaux ol ni komencos danci. mi estis tie en la antauxa jaro. antauxe mi neniam pensis pri ricxeco. estis al sxi, kiel la sorcxistino antauxdiris. li restis post la pordo. iom post iom. sxi komencis avide legi pagxon post pagxo. sxi rigardis post lin kun rideto. post kelkaj minutoj levigxis la suno. sxi jxetis siajn brakojn posten kaj antauxen. ni restos kelkajn semajnojn en parizo; poste ni vojagxos en germanujon. lesson . dum. gxis. cxirkaux. "dum" means "during", as "dum mia tuta vivo", during my whole life. it is not much used as a preposition, that is, before a noun, "en la dauxro de" being better, as "en la dauxro de mia tuta vivo", in (the duration of) my whole life; or the preposition is omitted altogether, as "la tutan tagon mi laboradis", i used to work all day long. "dum", meaning "while, whilst", is often used at the beginning of a sentence. "dume" means meanwhile, or, in the meantime. "gxis" means "till, until, up to, as far as". "atendu gxis sabato", wait until saturday. "iru gxis la rivero", go as far as the river. "cxirkaux" means "about" or "around, somewhere near" (more or less). "ili ludis cxirkaux la arbo", they played around the tree. "cxirkaux majo ni foriros", about may we shall go away. vocabulary. koncerto : concert. vitro : glass (material). flanko : side. globo : globe. sorto : fate. kolekt- : collect. radio : ray. prepar- : prepare. kupolo : cupola, dome. pes- : weigh (something). rublo : rouble. ekzist- : exist. etagxo : story (of building). pere- : perish. doloro : pain, ache. proksime : near to. dum la tuta tago (aux, la tutan tagon) li restis sola. dum (aux, en la dauxro de) kelkaj monatoj, sxi ne eliradis el sia cxambro. li dormis dum la tuta koncerto (aux, la tutan koncerton). dum dauxris la preparoj, li estis gasto cxe la regxo. dum li veturas sur la vojo al grenada, en santa fe estas decidata lia sorto. ili laboradis gxis profunda nokto. la telero de la pesilo mallevigxis gxis la tero. gxiaj radioj sin levadis gxis la kupolo. pruntu al mi dek rublojn gxis morgaux. li laboradis de frua mateno gxis malfrua nokto. li batalos gxis la fino mem. ni levadis nin cxiam pli kaj pli alte gxis la kvara etagxo. gxi ekzistos gxis la mondo pereos. la regxo venis cxirkaux tagmezo en la vilagxon reading. cxirkaux la mateno la ventego finigxis. estos suficxe cxirkaux dek metroj. cxiuj kolektigxis cxirkaux la vitra globo. oni povas rigardi tre malproksime cxirkauxe. cxirkauxe nagxis grandaj montoj de glacio. li rigardis cxirkauxen sur cxiuj flankoj. lesson . de. da. "de" means "of", "from", or "by"; it denotes (i.) "possession", as "la cxapelo de la patro", the father's hat; (ii.), "the agent of an action", as "la letero estis skribata de johano", the letter was written by john; (iii.), "cause, li mortis de febro", he died of fever; (iv.), "starting point, from, since", as "de tiu tempo neniu lin vidis", (starting) from (since) that time nobody has seen him; "li venis de parizo", he came from paris. "da" means "of"; it is used after words signifying quantity, when the noun following has a "general", not a "particular" sense, as "dekduo da kuleroj", a dozen spoons; "funto da teo", a pound of tea; "peco da pano", a piece of bread; but if some particular tea, bread, etc., is specified, "de" must be used, as "funto de la teo", a pound of the tea; "peco de la pano", a piece of the bread. "la" cannot be used after "da." vocabulary. placo : place, square. peco : piece. velo : sail. sumo : sum. drapo : cloth. inko : ink. ovo : egg. najbaro : neighbour. kilometro : kilometre. mezuro : measure, bordo : shore. sufer- : suffer. amaso : crowd. signif- : mean, signify. auxtuno : autumn. nigra : black. turo : tower. plena : full. cxevalo : horse. la lumo de la luno. en la mezo de la placo staris domo. li povis havi la agxon de dekses jaroj. la tempo de ilia vivo estas ankoraux pli mallonga, ol de nia. ili sin levis de apud la tablo. mi pensis, ke vi de tie jam ne revenos. la sxipanoj demetis la velojn. li deiris de la cxevalo. glaso de vino estas glaso, en kiu antauxe sin trovis vino, aux kiun oni uzas por vino; glaso da vino estas glaso plena je vino. alportu al mi metron da nigra drapo. (metro de drapo signifus metron, kiu kusxis sur drapo, aux kiu estas uzata por drapo). mi acxetis dekon da ovoj. tiu cxi rivero havas ducent kilometrojn da longo. sur la bordo de la maro staris amaso da homoj. multaj birdoj flugas en la auxtuno en pli varmajn landojn. sur la arbo sin trovis multe (aux multo) da birdoj. kelkaj homoj sentas sin la plej felicxaj, kiam ili vidas la suferojn de siaj najbaroj. en la cxambro sidis nur kelke da homoj. "da" post ia vorto montras, ke tiu cxi vorto havas signifon de mezuro. gxi estas bela peco da sxtofo. sur la teleron li metis milojn da pecoj da argxento. la lumoj brilas kiel centoj da steloj. knabo acxetis boteleton da inko. ili konstruas turetojn enhavantajn multe da cxambretoj. li donis al ili grandan sumon da mono. lesson . per. kun. sen. "per" and "kun" represent different uses of our word "with," so care must be taken to use the correct word. "per" signifies "by means of"; it denotes the "instrument" by means of which something is done, as "per hakilo ni hakas", by means of an axe we chop. "kun" means "in company with, accompanying". "li iros kun mi", he will go with me. "sen" means "without" as "teo sen sukero", tea without sugar. it is used as a prefix to denote absence of something, as "sen-utila", without use, useless (compare with "mal", which denotes the exact opposite; "malutila" means "harmful, noxious"). vocabulary. envio : envy. folio : leaf. sxauxmo : foam, froth. fadeno : thread. fisxo : fish. lud- : play. vosto : tail. pentr- : paint. pentrajxo : painting. flar- : smell (something). regxido : prince (king's son). pel- : drive. princo : prince. kovr- : cover. ondo : wave. cxes- : cease. membro : member. mov- : move (something). tataro : tartar. kune : together. mi mangxas per la busxo, kaj flaras per la nazo. sxi surpasxis per piedo sur la serpenton. gxi enkovris la belegan lilion per blanka sxauxmo. la korpo finigxis per fisxa vosto. cxiuj muroj estas ornamitaj per grandaj pentrajxoj. per tie cxi, kaj ne per alia vojo, la sxtelisto forkuris. per kia maniero oni povas veni en la landon de oro? per tia maniero. per unu vorto. la stelo venus ekbrulis per envio. sxi volis ludi kun ili, sed kun teruro ili forkuris. kun kia atento sxi auxskultis tiujn cxi rakontojn! la plej bela el ili estis la juna regxido kun la grandaj nigraj okuloj. tien cxi alnagxis la virineto de maro kun la bela princo. kun plezuro. kun cxiu jaro la nombro de la membroj rapide kreskis. la tataro restis sen bona cxevalo kaj sen mangxo. li preskaux sen vivo estis pelata de la ondoj. ili teksis per cxiuj fortoj, sed sen fadenoj. li senvorte obeis. la folioj sin movis (or "movigxis") sencxese. li kreis sennombrajn birdojn. lesson . por. pro. "por" means "for, in order to, for the purpose of, for the benefit of", as "li acxetis inkon por skribi", he bought ink in order to write. por is one of the three prepositions used before verbs in the infinitive. "pro" means "for, because of, on account of, for the sake of" (cause), as "li demandis sxin, pro kio sxi ploras", he asked her, for what (reason or cause) she weeps. "por" looks "forward" to the aim or purpose of the action, to that which comes after the action, while "pro" looks "back" to what came before the action and caused it to be done, as "mi mangxas" pro "malsato" por "vivi", i eat because of hunger in order to live. vocabulary. ofico : office. vend- : sell. mastro : master. konvink- : convince. kafo : coffee. kontenta : content, pleased. bieno : property. sata : satiated. kauxzo : cause. li sin kuracis por resanigxi. sxi havis multege por rakonti. li iris en la pregxejon, por fari la konfeson. por iel pasigi la tempon. neniu pli bone tauxgas por sia ofico, ol li. li uzis cxiajn siajn fortojn por kontentigi sian mastron. por mi estas tute egale, kie ajn mi logxas. prenu (la pagon) por la kafo. li mortis pro (aux, de) malsato. mi havis tre bonan bienon, kiu estis vendita pro sxuldoj. pro la cxielo, ne faru tion cxi. li estis konvinkita, ke li pro si ne devas timi. pro tio cxi venus lumas pli forte, ol multaj aliaj steloj. cxu pro tio, aux cxu pro ia alia kauxzo, mi ne scias. lesson . pri. laux. "pri" means "concerning, in regard to, about", as "ni parolis pri nia amiko", we spoke about or concerning our friend. "pripensi", to think about, to consider. "priparoli", to speak about. "priskribi", to describe. "laux" means "according to, in accordance with", as "laux mia opinio", according to (or, in) my opinion. "lauxlonge", lengthways. vocabulary. konko : shell afero : affair, matter. komando : command. honesteco : honesty. eksterajxo : exterior. konvena : suitable, proper, portreto : portrait. respectable. boneco : goodness. songx- : dream. fojo : time. sxajn- : seem, appear. sxi volis kredi, ke la hebreo parolas pri iu alia. nun la virino havas cxion, sxi pri nenio povas peti. pri tio cxi ne pensu. tion oni vere ne povas diri pri vi. estis ankoraux multaj aferoj, pri kiuj ili volis scii. li ne povis ecx songxi pri sxi. sxi demandadis pri tio la maljunan avinon. mi restas tie cxi laux la ordono de mia estro. li ekiris laux tiu cxi rivero. ili havis la permeson supreniri cxiufoje laux sia volo. sxi povis laux sia placxo fosi kaj planti. la konkoj sin fermas kaj malfermas laux la fluo de la akvo. laux sia eksterajxo li sxajnis konvena homo. laux la komando "tri" vi ekpafos sur la arbon. la pli juna filino estis la plena portreto de sia patro laux sia boneco kaj honesteco. lesson . kontraux. anstataux. krom. "kontraux" means "against, opposite", or "in opposition to" as "li kuragxe batalis kune kun ni kontraux niaj malamikoj", he courageously fought with us against our enemies. it is also used in the sense of "overlooking", as "la fenestro kontraux la strato", the window overlooking the street; and of "facing", as "vizagxo kontraux vizagxo", face to face. "kontrauxdiri", to contradict. "anstataux" means "instead of, in the place" of, as "mi iris londonon anstataux parizon", i went to london instead of to paris. "mi iris hieraux anstataux morgaux", i went yesterday instead of to-morrow. "anstataux piediri, li veturis", instead of going on foot, he drove. "anstatauxi", to take (or, be in) the place of; "anstatauxigi", to put in the place of, to replace (by). "krom" means "not including, in addition to, besides", as "en la cxambro estis neniu krom li", in the room there was nobody except him. "la knabo estas granda, kaj krom tio, li estas bona". the boy is tall, and besides that, he is good. vocabulary. rimedo : a means, remedy. sukero : sugar. kutimo : custom. kremo : cream. profesoro : professor, prepozicio : preposition. reflektoro : reflector. vokalo : vowel. fiancxo : betrothed. abomeno : disgust. flanko : side. ordinara : ordinary. teo : tea. vi havas rimedojn kontraux cxiuj malsanoj. kion povas fari li sola kontraux cent homoj? kontraux sia kutimo, la profesoro nenion diris. gxi flugis kontraux la reflektoron. kontraux sia propra volo sxi tion cxi konfesis. li eksentis ian abomenon kontraux si. la kontrauxa flanko. ili sidigxis unu kontraux la alia. sxi estis maljusta kontraux li. kontraux la ordinaro, la nombro de la dancantoj estis granda. anstataux li, oni sendis lian fraton. anstataux eliri, li restis en la domo. okulo anstataux okulo, kaj dento anstataux dento. anstataux kafo li donis al mi teon kun sukero sed sen kremo. anstataux "la" oni povas ankaux diri "l'" (sed nur post prepozicio, kiu finigxas per vokalo). en la salono staris neniu krom li kaj lia fiancxino. krom la malplena teksilo nenio estis. krom ni mem, ni havis tre malmulte por enporti. sxi volis havi, krom la rugxaj floroj, nur unu belan statuon. cxiuj dormis, krom la direktilisto apud sia direktilo. krom la membroj alveturas multe da gastoj. lesson . malgraux. spite. po. je. "malgraux" means "in spite of", "notwithstanding", as "li sukcesis malgraux cxio", he succeeded in spite of everything. "spite" is a stronger expression than "malgraux"; it means in defiance of all opposition, despite, as "li faris tion, spite la malpermeso", he did that, in spite of being forbidden. "po" means "at the rate of", as "mi acxetis dekduon da ovoj po unu penco", i bought a dozen eggs at (the rate of) a penny (each). "poduone", by halves. "po grande", wholesale; "po malgrande", retail. as already said (see lesson ), "je" is the only preposition which has no meaning of its own. it is used when a preposition is needed, and none of the others properly expresses the idea, as "la krucxo estas plena je" (or, "de") "akvo", the jug is full of water. "mi enuas je la hejmo", i am tired of home. vocabulary. mastrumajxo : household affairs. honoro : honour. fungo : mushroom. libereco : freedom, liberty. senco : sense, meaning. kulpo : fault. regulo : rule. simila : similar, like. klareco : clearness. komuna : common to. akuzativo : accusative. kri- : cry. nobeleco : nobility (of birth). sopir- : sigh for, long for. ekzemple : for example. li multe laboris, sed malgraux cxio, li ne sukcesis. estis ankoraux suficxe varme, malgraux ke la suno staris malalte. ili estos severe punataj, se ili, malgraux la malpermeso, pekos kontraux la libereco de la vojo. spite cxiuj miaj penoj por malhelpi lin, li foriris. por miaj kvar infanoj mi acxetis dek du pomojn, kaj al cxiu el la infanoj mi donis po tri pomoj. ili povas kosti po tri gxis kvin sxilingoj. tiu cxi libro havas sesdek pagxojn; tial se mi legos en cxiu tago po dekkvin pagxoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj. mi acxetis kvar librojn po ses pencoj. ni estis nur okupitaj je kelkaj mastrumajxoj. la konstruo estas simila je fungo. ili forkuris, kiam la virino ekkriis je ili. je la vespero la cxielo kovrigxis je nuboj. el timo je karagara mi forkuris. sxi estis tre fiera je sia nobeleco. la hundo sincere malgxojis je li. neniu el ili estis tiel plena je deziroj, kiel la plej juna knabino. je vorto de honoro. a. se ni bezonas uzi prepozicion, kaj la senco ne montras al ni, kian prepozicion uzi, tiam ni povas uzi la komunan prepozicion "je." sed estas bone uzadi la vorton "je" kiel eble pli malofte. anstataux la vorto "je" ni povas ankaux uzi akuzativon sen prepozicio.--mi ridas je lia naiveco (aux, mi ridas pro lia naiveco; aux mi ridas lian naivecon).--je la lasta fojo mi vidas lin cxe vi (aux, la lastan fojon).--mi veturis du tagojn kaj unu nokton.--mi sopiras je mia perdita felicxo (aux, mian perditan felicxon).--el la dirita regulo sekvas, ke se ni pri ia verbo ne scias, cxu gxi postulas post si la akuzativon (t.e.=tio estas, cxu gxi estas aktiva) aux ne, ni povas cxiam uzi la akuzativon. ekzemple, ni povas diri "obei al la patro" kaj "obei la patron" (anstataux, "obei je la patro"). sed ni ne uzas la akuzativon tiam, kiam la klareco de la senco tion cxi malpermesas; ekzemple: ni povas diri "pardoni al la malamiko" kaj "pardoni la malamikon," sed ni devas diri cxiam "pardoni al la malamiko lian kulpon." lesson . suffixes -ajx-, -ec-. "-ajx-" denotes a "thing" (i.) "made from" or "of" the substance named, or (ii.) having the "quality" or "character" named, or (iii.) "resulting from" the action expressed by the word to which it is added, as "ovo", an egg, "ovajxo", something made of eggs, an omelette; "mirinda", wonderful, "mirindajxo", a wonderful thing, a wonder; "trovi", to find, "trovajxo" (or, "trovitajxo"), a thing found. "-ec-" denotes "quality"; it forms the name of a quality; as, "bona", good; "boneco", goodness. "ricxa", rich; "ricxeco", richness. "akurata", accurate, prompt; "akurateco", accuracy. "mola", soft; "molajxo", a soft thing; "moleco", softness. "amiko", a friend; "amikajxo", a friendly act; "amikeco", friendliness, friendship. "eco", quality. vocabulary. kuko : cake. lago : lake. ligno : wood (substance). objekto : object, thing. alkoholo : alcohol. tren- : drag. araneo : spider. fotograf- : photograph. ceremonio : ceremony. konfit- : preserve with sugar. heroo : hero. pak- : pack. frandajxo : a dainty. la ceteraj : the rest, remainder. acido : acid. mirinda : wonderful. vinagro : vinegar. peza : heavy. sulfuro : sulphur. oportuna : convenient. azotacido : nitric acid. la fotografisto fotografis min, kaj mi sendis mian fotografajxon al mia patro. vi parolas sensencajxon, mia amiko. mi trinkis teon kun kuko kaj konfitajxo. akvo estas fluidajxo. mi ne volis trinki la vinon, cxar gxi enhavis en si ian malklarajxon. sur la tablo staris diversaj sukerajxoj. mi mangxis bongustan ovajxon. kiam mi ien veturas, mi neniam prenas kun mi multon da pakajxo. glaciajxo estas dolcxa glaciigita frandajxo. la tuta suprajxo de la lago estis kovrita per nagxantaj folioj kaj diversaj aliaj kreskajxoj. la lignisto vendas lignon, kaj la lignajxisto faras tablojn, segxojn kaj aliajn lignajn objektojn. mi uzas nenian alkoholajxon. lia maljuna patrino kondukis la mastrajxon de la domo. "malbonan eksterajxon li havis," respondis la hebreo. sxi pripensis la faritajxojn de la tago pasinta. gxi estas tiel malpeza, kiel araneajxo. la trenajxo de la vesto estis longa. ili sin movas, kiel vivaj estajxoj. li amas tiun cxi knabinon pro sxia beleco kaj boneco. lia heroeco tre placxis al mi. mi vivas kun ili en granda amikeco. ni estas ja en la proksimeco de la rivero. tio cxi estas la plej grava eco. kortega ceremonio postulas maloportunecon. la ricxeco de tiu cxi homo estas granda, sed lia malsagxeco estas ankoraux pli granda. en tiuj cxi boteletoj sin trovas (trovigxas) diversaj acidoj, vinagro, sulfuracido, azotacido kaj aliaj. la acideco de tiu cxi vinagro estas tre malforta. via vino estas nur ia abomena acidajxo. tiu cxi granda altajxo ne estas natura monto. la alteco de tiu monto ne, estas tre granda. lesson . suffixes -ej-, -uj-, -ing-. the suffix "-ej-" denotes a "place specially used" for a certain purpose, as "tombo", a tomb; "tombejo", a cemetery. "cxevalo", a horse; "cxevalejo", a stable. "mallibera," captive "malliberejo", a prison. "-uj-" denotes that which "contains" or "produces", or "bears" (as countries, fruit-trees, receptacles, etc.), as "anglo", an englishman: "anglujo", england. "hispano", a spaniard; "hispanujo" spain ("lando" is also used, as "skotlando"). "pomo", an apple; "pomujo", an apple tree ("arbo" is also used, as "pomarbo"). "abelo", a bee; "abelujo", a beehive. "sukerujo", a sugar-basin; "ujo", a receptacle. "-ing-" signifies a "holder, case", or "sheath" for one thing, as "fingro", a finger; "fingringo", a thimble. "piedo", a foot; "piedingo", a stirrup. "glavo", a sword; "glavingo", a sword-sheath. "ingo", a sheath. vocabulary. skatolo : box. objekto : object, thing. hufo : hoof. glavo : sword, pantalono : trousers. konsil- : counsel, advise. cigaro : cigar. sxvit- : sweat, perspire. tubo : tube. sorb- : absorb. monahxo : monk. ban- : bathe (oneself or another). magazeno : magazine, warehouse. la domo, en kiu oni lernas, estas lernejo, kaj la domo, en kiu oni pregxas, estas pregxejo. la kuiristo sidas en la kuirejo. la kuracisto konsilas al mi iri en sxvitbanejon. la cxevalo metis unu hufon sur serpentejon. la virino promenadis tra belegaj arbaroj kaj herbejoj. li venis en sian logxejon. li haltis apud la pordego de la monahxejo. la rusoj logxas en rusujo, kaj la germanoj en germanujo. mia skribilaro konsistas el inkujo, sablujo, kelke da plumoj, krajono, kaj inksorbilo. en la posxo de mia pantalono mi portas monujon, kaj en la posxo de mia surtuto mi portas paperujon; pli grandan paperujon mi portas sub la brako. metu sur la tablon la sukerujon, la teujon, kaj la tekrucxon. magazeno, en kiu oni vendas cigarojn, aux cxambro, en kiu oni tenas cigarojn, estas cigarejo; skatoleto aux alia objekto, en kiu oni tenas cigarojn, estas cigarujo; tubeto, en kiun oni metas cigaron, kiam oni gxin fumas, estas cigaringo. skatoleto, en kiu oni tenas plumojn, estas plumujo, kaj bastoneto, sur kiu oni tenas plumon por skribadi, estas plumingo. en la kandelingo sidis brulanta kandelo. lesson . ge-, bo-, -id-, pra-, -cxj-, -nj-. the prefix "ge-" signifies "both sexes taken together", as "gepatroj", parents. "gefratoj", brothers and sisters. "geregxoj", king and queen (the word formed is, of course, always plural). the prefix "bo-" denotes "relationship by marriage", as "bopatro", father-in-law; "bofilo", son-in-law. the suffix "-id-" signifies the "offspring" or "descendant", as "regxo" a king; "regxido", a king's son, a prince. "kato", a cat; "katido", a kitten. "sxafo", a sheep; "sxafido", a lamb. the prefix "pra-" means "of generations ago, great-, grand-", as, "avo", grandfather; "pra-avo", great-grand-father. it is also used for descendants, as "pra-nepo", great-grandson. "praa", primitive or primeval. the suffix "-cxj-" is added to men's names and "-nj-" to women's names to form "pet names", part of the name being left out, as "petro", peter ; "pecxjo", pete. "klaro", clara; "klanjo", clarrie. "pacxjo" (from "patro"), papa; "panjo", mamma. vocabulary. altaro : altar. gratul- : congratulate. parenco : relation. deven- : originate, descend from. doktoro : doctor (law, etc.). adres- : address (a letter). stato : state, condition. telegraf- : telegraph. koko : cock. patro kaj patrino kune estas nomataj gepatroj. petro, anno, kaj elizabeto estas miaj gefratoj. gesinjoroj n. hodiaux vespere venos al ni. la gefiancxoj staris apud la altaro. mi gratulis telegrafe la junajn geedzojn. la geregxoj forveturis kordovon. sxi edzinigxis kun sia kuzo, kvankam sxiaj gepatroj volis sxin edzinigi kun alia persono. la patro de mia edzino estas mia bopatro, mi estas lia bofilo, kaj mia patro estas la bopatro de mia edzino. cxiuj parencoj de mia edzino estas miaj boparencoj, sekve sxia frato estas mia bofrato, sxia fratino estas mia bofratino; mia frato kaj fratino (gefratoj) estas la bogefratoj de mia edzino. la edzino de mia nevo, kaj la nevino de mia edzino estas miaj bonevinoj. virino, kiu kuracas, estas kuracistino; edzino de kuracisto estas kuracistedzino. la doktoredzino a. vizitis hodiaux la gedoktorojn p. li ne estas lavisto, li estas lavistinedzo. la filoj, nepoj kaj pranepoj de regxo estas regxidoj. la hebreoj estas izraelidoj, cxar ili devenas de izraelo. cxevalido estas nematura cxevalo, kokido nematura koko, bovido nematura bovo, birdido nematura birdo. tiu bela tero trovis sin en tre praa stato. johanon, nikolaon, erneston, vilhelmon, marion, klaron kaj sofion iliaj gepatroj nomas johancxjo (aux jocxjo), nikolcxjo (aux nikocxjo, aux nicxjo), ernecxjo (aux ercxjo), vilhelcxjo (aux vilhecxjo, aux vilcxjo, aux vicxjo), manjo (aux marinjo), klanjo kaj sonjo (aux sofinjo). lesson . suffixes -ebl-, -ind-, -em-. these three suffixes are used to form adjectives. "-ebl-" means "possible to be" what the word to which it is added signifies, as "vidi", to see; "videbla", able to be seen; "auxdi", to hear; "auxdebla", able to be heard, audible; "movi", to move; "movebla", movable; "ebla", possible; "eble", possibly. "-ind-" means "worthy of" what the word denotes, as "honoro", honour; "honorinda", honourable, worthy of honour; "honti", to be ashamed; "hontinda", shameful; "indo", worth; "inda", worthy of. "-em-" means having an "inclination towards" or "propensity" for, or "being disposed towards" something as "forgesi", to forget; "forgesema", forgetful; "servi" to serve; "servema", willing to serve, obliging. "ema" fond of. the difference between the three suffixes is shown by the following words:-- "kredebla", possible of belief; "kredinda", worthy of belief; "kredema", having a tendency to believe readily, credulous. "legebla", able to be read; "leginda", worthy of being read; "legema", fond of reading, inclined to read. vocabulary. sxtalo : steel. memor- : remember. spirito : spirit, ekscit- : excite. bagatelo : trifle. vengx- : revenge. fleks- : bend. kredeble : probably. lauxd- : praise. kompreneble : of course. renvers- : turn over. sxtalo estas fleksebla, sed fero ne estas fleksebla. ne cxiu kreskajxo estas mangxebla. vitro estas rompebla kaj travidebla. via parolo estas tute nekomprenebla, kaj viaj leteroj estas cxiam skribitaj tute nelegeble. la mallumo estas netrapenetrebla. li rakontis al mi historion tute nekredeblan. eble mi povos helpi al vi. cxu vi amas vian patron? kia demando! kompreneble, ke mi lin amas. mi kredeble ne povos veni al vi hodiaux, cxar mi pensas, ke mi mem havos hodiaux gastojn. la tablo staras malrekte kaj kredeble baldaux renversigxos. li faris sian eblon. li estas homo ne kredinda. via ago estas tre lauxdinda. tiu cxi grava tago restos por mi cxiam memorinda. gxi estas vesto de granda indo. gxi ne estas inda je danko. la sxipanaro montrigxas ne inda je sia estro. lia edzino estas tre laborema kaj sxparema, sed sxi estas ankaux tre babilema kaj kriema. li estas tre ekkolerema, kaj ekscitigxas ofte cxe la plej malgranda bagatelo, tamen li estas tre pardonema, li ne portas longe la koleron, kaj li tute ne estas vengxema. li estas tre kredema, ecx la plej nekredeblajn aferojn, kiujn rakontas al li la plej nekredindaj homoj, li tuj kredas. li estas tre purema, kaj ecx unu polveron vi ne trovos sur lia vesto. li estas bonega knabo, sed tre ema kredi spiritojn. lesson . dis-, -um-. the prefix "dis-" denotes separation or scattering, as "jxeti", to throw; "disjxeti", to scatter. "sxiri", to tear; "dissxiri", to tear into bits. "doni", to give; "disdoni", to distribute. the suffix "-um-" has no definite meaning. it is used in only a few words, of which the most important are:-- aerumi (from "aero", air), to expose to the air. ventumi ( " "vento", wind), to fan. kolumo ( " "kolo", neck), collar. manumo ( " "mano", hand), cuff. butonumi ( " "butono", button), to button. gustumi ( " "gusto", taste), to taste (something). komunumo ( " "komuna", common), a community. krucumi ( " "kruco", cross), crucify. malvarmumi ( " "malvarma", cold), take cold. mastrumi ( " "mastro", master), keep house. plenumi ( " "plena", full), fulfil. brulumo ( " "bruli", burn), inflammation. kalkanumo ( " "kalkano", heel), heel of boot. vocabulary. rezultato : result. sxir- : tear. angulo : angle, corner. kvankam : although. tolo : linen. simila : similar. cxemizo : shirt. grava : important. ating- : attain, reach to. ni cxiuj kunvenis por priparoli tre gravan aferon; sed ni ne povis atingi ian rezultaton, kaj ni disiris. malfelicxo ofte kunigas la homojn, kaj felicxo ofte disigas ilin. mi dissxiris la leteron, kaj disjxetis gxiajn pecetojn en cxiujn angulojn de la cxambro. post tio cxi oni disiris hejmen. la vojo disiris en kelkaj direktoj. mi volonte plenumis lian deziron. en malbona vetero oni povas facile malvarmumi. li disbutonumis la superveston. sxi ludis kun sia ventumilo. cxemizojn, kolumojn, manumojn, kaj ceterajn similajn objektojn oni nomas tolajxo, kvankam ili ne cxiam estas faritaj el tolo. the suffixes "-on-, -obi-, -op-," have already been explained in lesson . -acx- a new suffix "-acx-" has gradually come into use during the past few years. its meaning is well shown in the following examples:--"domo", house; "domacxo", hovel. "virino", woman; "virinacxo", hag. "ridi", to laugh; "ridacxi", to grin (maliciously). "cxevalo", horse; "cxevalacxo", a sorry nag, a screw. "obstina", persistent, stubborn; "obstinacxa", pig-headed. "popolo", a people; "popolacxo", populace. "morti", to die; "mortacxi", to die the death. "lingvo", language; "lingvacxo", a jargon. this suffix should only be used sparingly. joining words. conjunctions. certain words are used merely to join words or sentences. those already learned are:-- kaj : and. cxu : whether. sed : but. ke : that. cxar : because, for. kvazaux : as if. ankaux : also. kvankam : although. ol : than. almenaux : at least. se : if. tamen : however. aux : or. do : then, therefore. the following are also useful:-- kaj ... kaj : both ... and. nek ... nek : neither ... nor. aux ... aux : either ... or. ecx se : even if. cxu ... aux : whether ... or. same kiel : the same as. cxu ... cxu : whether ... whether. exclamations. interjections. the following are simply exclamations of joy grief, surprise, etc.:-- ah! : aha! ah! kia! : what! ha! : ah! bone! : good! all right! he! : halloo! hey! brave! : bravo! hm! : hm! humph! hura! : hurrah! ho! : oh! vere! : truly! oho! : ho! efektive! : really! ho ve! : alas! adiaux! : goodbye! for! : away! bonvenu! : welcome! fi! : for shame! kompreneble! : of course! nu! : well (now)! vivu! : long live! nu do! : well (now) then! antauxen! : forward! ja! : indeed! cxu vere? : is it true? jen! : there! look! behold! cxu ne? : is it not? bis! : again! encore! compound words. it is often convenient to form compound words, as "posxtkarto", "forpeli", "cxiuminute", "stacidomo", "senmove", "telertuketo". when this is done, the word expressing the principal idea is placed last. generally it is sufficient to use the "root" of the qualifying word, but if the sound or sense requires it, the whole word is taken, as "unutaga" means "of one day"; "unuataga", "of the first day." * * * * * arrangement of words in the sentence. in english the sense often depends entirely on the order of the words, e.g., the sentence "john saw george" would mean something quite different if reversed--"george saw john." but in esperanto, thanks to the accusative "n", the endings "a" and "e" for participles, and the pronoun "si", the order of words may be varied without altering the sense. "georgon vidis johano" means exactly the same as "johano vidis georgon." but though the meaning can in most cases be understood whatever the order of the words, it is best to adopt the simplest arrangement, and to follow the natural course of thought, which is, first, that about which we think, then that which we think about it. english students may frame their sentences exactly as they would in their own language. in esperanto, as in english, the arrangement is sometimes altered, either for emphasis, as "lauxdata estu dio!" praised be god!; or to please the ear, as "oni min admiras", instead of "oni admiras min", people admire me. "note".--care must be taken in placing the word "ne." its usual place is before the verb, when it negatives the whole sentence. study the effect of placing "ne" in different positions in the sentence "mi deziras vidi johanon kaj lian fraton", i wish to see john and his brother:-- (i.). "mi ne deziras vidi johanon kaj lian fraton", i do not wish to see john and his brother. (ii.). "mi deziras ne vidi johanon kaj lian fraton", i wish not to see john and his brother, "i.e.", i wish to avoid seeing them. (iii.). "mi deziras vidi ne johanon, sed lian fraton", i wish to see not john, but his brother. (iv.). "mi deziras vidi johanon kaj ne lian fraton", i wish to see john and not his brother. "ne tute" means "not quite," while "tute ne" means "not at all." "jam ne" means "no longer." "not yet" is "ankoraux ne". words which are already international, such as "microscope, telephone, automobile", etc., are adopted unchanged, except as to the spelling and termination, as "mikroskopo, telefono, auxtomobilo." words used with the object. as already said, when an adjective or participle (or a noun) is added to the object simply as a describing word, it takes "n" like the object, as "li perdis sian novan libron "("aux", sian libron novan), he lost his new book. "sxi trankviligis la kriegantan infanon "(aux, "la infanon kriegantan"), she pacified the screaming child. "li vizitis sian fraton johanon", he visited his brother john. ("john" shows "which" brother). but if the adjective, participle, or noun is used not merely to describe, but indirectly to tell something about the object, it does not take "n". a comparison of the following sentences will make this clear:-- . li trovis la pomojn maturajn. he found the ripe apples. li trovis la pomojn maturaj. he found (that) the apples (were) ripe. . li trovis la krucxon rompitan. he found the broken jug. li trovis la krucxon rompita. he found (that) the jug (was) broken. . li kolorigis la drapon rugxan. he dyed the red cloth. li kolorigis la drapon rugxa. he dyed the cloth red. . li trancxis (aux faris) la veston tro mallongan. he cut (or made) the too-short coat (the coat that was too short). li trancxis la veston tro mallonga. he cut the coat (so that it was) too short. . li nomis la knabon mensogisto. he called the boy a liar. compare this use of words with the following:-- he made his father angry (or, be angered). "li kolerigis sian patron", or, "li igis sian patron kolera". the loss drove him mad. "la perdo frenezigis lin", or, "igis lin freneza". it rendered the gun useless. "gxi senutiligis la pafilon", or, "igis la pafilon senutila". complete grammar of esperanto. by dr. zamenhof. a.--alphabet. aa, bb, cc, cxcx, dd, ee, ff, gg, gxgx, hh, hxhx, ii, jj, jxjx, kk, ll, mm, nn, oo, pp, rr, ss, sxsx, tt, uu, uxux, vv, zz [footnote: names of the letters: a, bo, co, cxo, do, e, fo, go, gxo, ho, hxo, i, jo, jxo, ko, lo, mo, no, o, po, ro, so, sxo, to, u, uxo, vo, zo.] remark.--presses which do not possess the accented letters can use instead of them ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u. b.--rules. ( ) there is no indefinite article; there is only a definite article ("la"), alike for all sexes, cases, and numbers. remark.--the use of the article is the same as in the other languages. people who find a difficulty in the use of the article need not at first use it at all. ( ) substantives have the termination "o". to form the plural the termination "j" is added. there are only two cases: nominative and accusative; the latter is obtained from the nominative by the addition of the termination "n". other cases are expressed by the aid of prepositions (the genitive by "de", the dative by "al", the ablative by "per", or other prepositions according to sense). ( ) the adjective ends in "a". case and number as with the substantive. the comparative is made by means of the word "pli", the superlative by "plej"; with the comparative the conjunction "ol" is used. ( ) the fundamental numerals (they are not declined) are: "unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, naux, dek, cent, mil." the tens and hundreds are formed by simple junction of the numerals. to mark the ordinal numerals the termination of the adjective is added; for the multiple--the suffix "obl", for the fractional--"on", for the collective--"op", for the distributive--the word "po". substantival and adverbial numerals can also be used. ( ) personal pronouns: "mi, vi, li, sxi, gxi" (referring to thing or animal), "si, ni, vi, ili, oni"; the possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the adjectival termination. declension is as with the substantives. ( ) the verb undergoes no change with regard to person or number. forms of the verb; time "being" (present) takes the termination "-as;" time "been" (past) "-is"; time "about to be" (future) "-os"; the conditional mood "-us;" the ordering mood "-u;" the indefinite "-i." participles (with an adjectival or adverbial sense): active present "-ant;" active past "-int;" active future "-ont;" passive present "-at;" passive past "-it;" passive future "-ot." all forms of the passive are formed by the aid of a corresponding form of the verb "esti" and a passive participle of the required verb; the preposition with the passive is "de." ( ) adverbs end in "e;" degrees of comparison as with the adjectives. ( ) all the prepositions require the nominative. ( ) every word is read as it is written. ( ) the accent is always on the penultimate syllable. ( ) compound words are formed by simple junction of the words (the chief word stands at the end); the grammatical terminations are also regarded as independent words. ( ) when another negative word is present the word "ne" is left out. ( ) in order to show direction words take the termination of the accusative. ( ) each preposition has a definite and constant meaning; but if we have to use some preposition and the direct sense does not indicate to us what special preposition we are to take, then we use the preposition "je" which has no meaning of its own. instead of the preposition "je" we can also use the accusative without a preposition. ( ) the so-called foreign words, that is, those which the majority of languages have taken from one source, are used in the esperanto language without change, merely obtaining the spelling of the latter; but with different words from one root it is better to use unchanged only the fundamental word and to form the rest from this latter in accordance with the rules of the esperanto language. ( ) the final vowel of the substantive and of the article can be dropped and replaced by an apostrophe. * * * * * common useful expressions. tio estas, i.e. that is. kaj cetere, k.c. etcetera. kaj tiel plu, k.t.p. and so on. kiel ekzemple, k.ekz. as for example. kiel elbe plej (baldaux) as (soon) as possible. kio ajn okazos whatever happens (shall happen). kondicxe, ke on the condition that. kun la kondicxo, ke on the condition that. bonan tagon, sinjoro. good day, sir. kiel vi fartas? how do you do? tre bone, mi dankas. very well, i thank you. mi dankas vin. i thank you. dankon. thanks. multe da dankoj. many thanks. vi estas tre gxentila (afabla). you are very kind. vi estas tre kompleza. you are very obliging. mi malsatas. i am hungry. mi soifas. i am thirsty. al mi estas varme (malvarme). i am warm (cold). kiu estas tie? estas mi. who is there? it is i. sidigxu, mi petas. be seated, i beg (you). kun plezuro. with pleasure. kion vi bezonas? what do you want? cu vi min komprenas? do you understand me? vi estas prava (malprava). you are right (wrong). tio estas vera. that is true. estas vera, ke... it is true that... je kioma horo vi foriros? at what time are you going? kioma horo estas? what time is it? kiom kostas tio cxi? how much does this cost? gxi kostas tri sxilingojn. it costs three shillings. kie vi estas? where are you? kien vi iras? where are you going? kian agxon li havas? how old is he? antaux unu semajno. a week ago. post du tagoj. in two days. li venos jxauxdon. he will come on thursday. pasigu al mi la panon, pass me the bread, mi petas vin. i beg you (please). estas li mem! it is himself! tiom pli bone so much the better! oni diras, ke... they say, that... neniu tion diras. nobody says that. kio okazis? what has happened? cxu vi konas sinjoron a.? do you know mr. a.? mi scias, kiu li estas, i know who he is, sed mi ne konas lin. but i do not know him. cxu estas leteroj por mi? are there letters for me? rapidu. be quick. ne diru tion. do not say that. ne faru tion. do not do that. kia estas la vetero? what kind of weather is it? kian veteron ni havas? what kind of weather is it? pluvas; negxas. it rains; it snows. pluvis la tutan nokton. it rained all night long. estas beld, varmege. it is fine, hot. cxu mi tion faru? shall i do that? letters. (a). beginnings. kara : dear. patro, amiko, etc. : mia kara : my dear. father, friend, etc. estimata : esteemed. samideano : fellow-thinker. estiminda : estimable. kunlaboranto : fellow-worker. respektinda :respect-worthy. sinjoro : sir. honorinda honourable. sinjoroj : gentlemen, sirs. sinjorino : madame, mrs. frauxlino : miss. (b). endings. kun (koraj, amikaj) salutoj, with (hearty, friendly) greetings. kun (alta, granda) estimo, with (high, great) esteem. kun (miaj, cxiuj) bondeziroj, with (my, all) good wishes. kun (multe da) amo, with (much) love. via, la via, yours. via, (tre) vin amanta, your (very) loving. via, tre sincere, fidele, yours very sincerely, faithfully. cxiam via, yours always. tre sincere via, very sincerely yours. key to exercises. . a father and a brother. a lion is an animal. a rose is a flower and a pigeon is a bird. the rose belongs to theodore. the sun shines. the father is a tailor. where are the book and the pencil? here is an apple. on the ground lies a stone. on the window lie a pencil and a pen. the son stands by the father. here lies the hat of the father (the father's hat). the father is in the room. before the house is (stands) a tree. what is a lion? what is a rose? what shines? what is the father? where is the father? what is on the window? where is the pen? is a lion an animal? yes, a lion is an animal. is a rose a bird? no, a rose is not a bird, a rose is a flower. . the father is well. a child is not a mature man. the sky is blue. a lion is strong. the father is good. the hand of john (john's hand) is clean. ("some", or, "a") paper is white. white paper lies on the table. here is the young lady's exercise book. in the sky stands (is) the beautiful sun. the paper is very white, but the snow is more white (whiter). milk is more nutritious than wine. the bread is fresh. the uncle is richer than the brother. here lies (is) a red rose. the dog is very faithful. the book is new. . (the) birds fly. the song of (the) birds is pleasant. where are the boys? the fathers are well. children are not mature men. lions are strong. john's hands are clean. here are the young ladies' exercise books. the uncles are richer than the brothers. the dogs are very faithful. white papers lie on the table. in the room are new hats. where are the sharp knives? good children are diligent. here lie (are) pure white delicate lilies. the teeth of lions (lions' teeth) are sharp. . i read. you write. he is a boy, and she is a girl. we are men. you are children. they are russians. where are the boys? they are in the garden. where are the girls? they also are in the garden. where are the knives ? they are (lie) on the table. the child cries, because it wants to eat. sir, you are impolite. gentlemen, you are impolite. tkey say that (the) truth always conquers. the house belongs to him. i come from (the) grandfather, and i go now to (the) uncle. i am as strong as you. now i read, you read, and he reads, we all read. you write and the children write, they (you) all sit silent and write. my dog, you are very faithful. he is my uncle, for my father is his brother. of all my children, ernest is the youngest. his father and his brothers are in the garden. her uncle is in the house. where are your books ? our books are (lie) on the table; their pencils and their paper also are (lie) on the table. who is in the room ? who are in the room ? the gentle- man who is reading is my friend. the gentleman to whom you are writing is a tailor. what is lying on the table ? . i see a lion (lions). i read (am reading) a book (books). i love (the) father. i know john. (the) father is not reading a book, but he is writing a letter. i do not like obstinate people. i wish you good-day, sir. good morning! a joyous festival (a pleasant holiday) (i wish you). what a joyful festival (it is to-day) ! in the day we see the bright sun, and at night we see the pale moon and the beautiful stars. we have newer bread than you. no, you are wrong, sir, your bread is less new (staler) than mine. we call the boy, and he comes. in (the) winter they heat the stoves. when one is rich one has many friends. he loves me, but i do not love him. mr. p. and his wife love my children very much; i also love theirs very much. i do not know the gentleman who is reading. . why do you not answer me? are you deaf or dumb? what are you doing? the boy drove away the birds. from (the) father i received a book, and from (the) brother i received a pen. (the) father gave me a sweet apple. here is the apple which i found. yesterday i met your son, and he politely greeted me. three days ago (before three days) i visited your cousin, and my visit gave (made) to him pleasure. when i came to him he was sleeping, but i woke him. i will relate to you a story. will you tell me the truth? to day is saturday, and to-morrow will be sunday. yesterday was friday, and the day after to-morrow will be monday. [footnote: notice that in these two sentences "ankoraux" and "iam" express different meanings of the english word "yet."] have you yet found your watch? i have not yet looked for it; when i have finished (shall finish) my work i will look for my watch, but i fear that i shall not find it again. if you (shall) conquer us, the people will say that only women you conquered. when you (shall) attain the age of fifteen years you will receive the permission. . i love myself, you love yourself, he loves himself, and every man loves himself. i take care of her (so) as i take care of myself, but she takes no care at all of herself, and does not look after herself at all. my brothers had guests to-day; after supper our brothers went with the guests out of their (our brothers') house and accompanied them as far as their (the guests') house. i washed myself in my room, and she washed herself in her room. the child was looking for its doll; i showed the child where its doll lay. she related to him her adventure. she returned to her father's palace. her flowers she tended not. my brother said to stephen, that he loved him more than himself. . two men can do more than one. i have only one mouth, but i have two ears. he walks out with three dogs. he did everything with the ten fingers of his hands. of her many children some are good and others bad. five and seven make twelve. ten and ten make twenty. four and eighteen make twenty-two. thirty and forty-five make seventy-five. one thousand eight hundred and ninety-three. he has eleven children. sixty minutes make one hour, and one minute consists of sixty seconds. a. january is the first month of the year, april is the fourth, november is the eleventh, and december is the twelfth. the twentieth day of february is the fifty-first day of the year. the seventh day of the week god chose to be (that it should be) more holy than the six first days. what did god create on the sixth day? what (which) date is it (have we) to-day? to-day is the twenty-seventh (day) of march. christmas day is the th of december, new year's day is the st of january, one does not easily forget one's first love. . i have a hundred apples. i have a hundred (of) apples. this town has a million of inhabitants. i bought a dozen (of) spoons, and two dozen (of) forks. one thousand years (or, a thousand of years) make a millennium. firstly, i return to you the money which you lent to me; secondly, i thank you for the loan; thirdly, i beg you also afterwards (on a future occasion) to lend to me when i (shall) require money. a. three is half of six, eight is four-fifths of ten. four metres of this stuff cost nine francs, therefore two metres cost four and a-half francs. one day is a three hundred and sixty-fifth or a three hundred and sixty-sixth of a year. five times seven are thirty-five. for each day i receive five francs, but for to-day i have received double pay, that is, ten francs. these two friends walk out always (two) together. five together they threw themselves upon me, but i overcame all five assailants. . give (to) the birds water, for they want to drink. alexander will not learn, and therefore i beat alexander. who has courage (dares) to ride on a lion? i was going to beat him, but he ran away from me. do not give your hand to a lion. relate (tell) to my young friend a beautiful story. tell father that i am diligent. tell me your name. do not write to me such long letters. show me your new coat. child, do not touch the looking-glass. dear children, always be honest. do not listen to him. he says that i am attentive. he begs me to be attentive. tell him not to chatter. ask him to send me a candle. the cottage is worth your buying (worthy that you should buy it). she strongly desired that he (should) remain alive. let him come, and i will forgive him. let us be gay, let us use life well, for life is not long. let him not come alone, but come with his best friend. i already have my hat; now look for yours. . if the pupil knew his lesson well, the teacher would not punish him. if you knew who he is, you would esteem him more. they raised one hand upwards as if they were holding something. if i really were beautiful, others would try to imitate me. oh! if i were (had) already the age of fifteen years! . to remain with a lion is dangerous. the knife cuts well, for it is sharp. go more quickly. he shut the door angrily. his speech flows softly and pleasantly. we made the contract not in writing, but by word of mouth. an honest man acts honestly. the pastor who died a short time ago lived long in our city. did you not get it back? he is sick unto death. the iron rod which was in the stove (fire) is burning; hot. paris is very gay. early in the morning she drove to the station. forgive me that i stayed so long. his anger lasted long. he is to-day in an angry temper. the king soon sent again another good-hearted official. this evening we shall have a ball. where are you? away from here! (get away!). where did he drive away to? she ran home. we went forward like furies. everything was right (good), and we went on further. the lady glanced back. the sailors demanded to go back (required that one should go back). i hung it here, for it saved my life. i never sent here. . my brother is not big, but he is not little, he is of medium growth. a hair is very thin. the night is so dark that we can see nothing even before our nose. this stale bread is hard as stone. naughty children love to torment animals. he felt (himself) so miserable that he cursed the day on which he was born. we greatly despise this base man. the window was long unclosed; i closed it, but my brother immediately opened it again. a straight road is shorter than a curved. do not be ungrateful. the wife of my father is my mother, and the grandmother of my children. my sister is a very beautiful girl. my aunt is a very good woman. i saw your grandmother with her four granddaughters, and with my niece. i have an ox and a cow. the young widow became again a fiancee. . he gave me money, but i immediately returned it to him. i am going away, but wait for me, for i shall soon return. the sun is reflected in the clear water of the river. he returned to his country. she threw herself again upon the seat. in the course of a few minutes i heard two shots. the firing continued for a very long time. his speech of yesterday was very fine, but too much speaking tires him. he is singing a very beautiful song. singing is an agreeable occupation. with my hand i kept on briskly rubbing him. the rain kept on falling in rivers. every minute she kept looking out through the window and cursing the slow motion of the train. i leap very cleverly. i started with surprise. i used to jump all day long from place to place. when you began to speak i expected to hear something new. the diamond has a beautiful sparkle. she let the diamond flash. two flashes of lightning passed across the dark sky. . i am (being) loved. i was (being) loved. i shall be (being) loved. i should be (being) loved, be (being) loved. to be (being) loved. you have been washed. you had been washed. you will have been washed. you would have been washed. be (having been) washed. to have been washed. he is to be invited. he was (going) to be invited. he will be (about to be) invited. he would be (about to be) invited. be about to be invited. to be about to be invited. this commodity is always willingly bought by me. the overcoat was (has been) bought by me; consequently it belongs to me. when your house was being built, my house had already been built a long time. i give notice that from now my son's debts will not be paid by me. be easy; my whole debt will soon have been paid to you. my gold ring would not be so long (being) sought for if it had not been so cleverly hidden by you. according to the plan of the engineers this railway is going to be constructed in the space of two years; but i think that it will be being constructed (in construction) more than three years. when the prayer was (had been) finished he rose. augustus is my best loved son. money in hand is more important than (money) had. a sparrow (which has been) caught is better than an eagle (which is) going to be caught. . flowing water is purer than water standing still. the fallen man cannot raise himself. (the) time past will never more return; (the) time to come no one yet knows. come, we await you, saviour of the world. in the language esperanto we see the future language of the whole world. the number of the dancers was great. it is the legend which true believers always repeat. he led the traveller to the place where the thieves were resting. (to) a man who has sinned unintentionally god easily pardons. the soldiers led the prisoners (arrested) through the streets. a man whom one has to judge is one to be judged (prisoner at the bar). a. now he teils me the truth. yesterday he told me the truth. he always told me the truth. when you saw us in the drawing-room he had already (previously) told me the truth. he will tell me the truth. when you (shall) come to me, he will previously tell me the truth (or, he will have told me the truth; or, before you (will) come to me, he will tell me the truth). if i were to ask him, he would tell me the truth. i should not have made the mistake if he had previously told me the truth. when i (shall) come, tell me the truth. when my father (shall) come, tell me beforehand the truth. i wish to tell you the truth. i wish that that which i said should be true (or, i wish to have told the truth). . walking in the street, i fell. having found an apple, i ate it. he came to me quite unexpected. he went meditating (deeply) and very slowly. we were ashamed, having received instruction from the boy. the imperial servant went out, taking with him the bracelet. profoundly saluting, he related that the thief had been caught. without saying a word, the duchess opened her jewel-case. having worked a year, and having saved a few dollars, i married (with) my mary. having crossed the river, he found the thief. looking (having looked) by chance on the floor, she saw some book, forgotten probably by a departed traveller. . the bootmaker makes boots and shoes. nobody lets thieves into his house. the brave sailor was drowned in the sea. an author writes books, and a writer simply copies papers. we have various servants - a cook, a housemaid, a nurse, and a coachman. (he) who occupies himself with mechanics is a mechanic, and (he) who occupies himself with chemistry is a chemist. a diplomatist we can also call a diplomat, but a physicist we cannot call a "physic," for "physics" is the name of the science itself. one day there came two cheats, who said that they were (are) weavers. . they so hindered me that i spoiled the whole of my work. send away your brother, for he hinders us. fetch the doctor, for i am ill. he procured for himself many books from berlin. he grew pale with fear, and afterwards he blushed from shame. in the spring the ice and the snow melt. in the muddy weather my coat became very dirty; therefore i took a brush and cleaned the coat. my uncle did not die (by) a natural death, but nevertheless he did not kill himself, and also was killed by nobody; one day, walking near the railway lines, he fell under the wheels of a moving train, and was killed. i did not hang my cap on this little tree; but the wind blew away the cap from my head, and it, flying, became hung (got caught) on the branches of the little tree. seat yourself (or, sit down), sir. his gloomy face made his friend laugh. the whole night they passed awake, and lighted more than sixteen candles. i divested the child of his night clothes, and stood him in the tub; afterwards i dried him. he made friends with evil companions. a poor hebrew wished to become a christian. the bottle fell and broke. she became his wife. little by little she became quite calm. . the sea is deeper there than any anchor can reach. in some (any) way. without any reproach of conscience. i know in what sort of place i shall certainly find him. what kind of weather is it? what harm have i done to you? in that way he did everything. he invited him to come into such and such a place. not every sort of bird sings. beyond all doubt. no (kind of) man deserves such a punishment. such books are harmful. at times he visits us. for some reason he could not sleep. why do you not answer me? i did not understand your question, therefore i did not answer. people do not understand one another, and therefore they hold themselves aloof. for every reason that is the best. i once loved you. what lives must of necessity some time die. when shall you go away? in the moonlight night, when all were asleep, then she sat on the edge or the ship. be for ever blessed! she had never seen a dog before. a. where are the boys? where did you go? i am staying here. he lost his purse somewhere in the town, but where he lost it he does not know. i willingly came from there here. he begged her to tell him whence she came (whence she comes). for youth there are snares everywhere. everywhere are flowers, and nowhere can one find more beautiful (ones). how beautiful! am i fit for a king? so finished the happy day. they shone like diamonds. how are you? somehow he misunderstood me. my wife thought the same as i. i cannot understand at all what you say. very strange and quite incomprehensible! i, as president, elected him. i chose him as president. whose glove is this? i never take that one's opinion. suddenly she heard somebody's loud disagreeable voice. everybody's idea is different. a good friend, without whose help he would never have seen this land. somebody's loss is not always somebody's gain. someone's loss is often no one's gain. b. i feel that something is happening. never did i give you anything. i wish to do something good for (to) you. what is this? what kind of ornament is this? what do i see? this is all i spoke of. i will give up nothing to you. do nothing against your mother. before all, be faithful to yourself. she began to feel something such as (which) she herself in the beginning could (can) not understand. she spoke a little angrily. the pupils of the eyes little by little contracted. who is so unreasonable (senseless) that he can believe it? how much money have you? i have none. give me as much water as wine. somebody comes; who is it? would anybody have the courage to do that? everybody tried to save himself as he could. a language in which nobody will understand us. none of them could save the drowning person. he helped nobody ever (never helped anybody) even with one centime. we shall go all together. i know nobody in that town. this is beyond all human strength. c. where i am travelling from, whither and why, i can only answer: i know not. they begged him to delay a little (with) his departure. these nests are often larger than the huts of the people of that place. he departed with the firm resolve to leave for ever this ungrateful land. if anyone were to see that, he would curse fortune. i would give a hundred pounds sterling if ox tongue could have for me such a good taste as for you. what time is it? nearly (soon) twelve o'clock. . on a hot day i like to walk in a wood. they opened the gate noisily, and the carriage drove into the courtyard. this is no longer simple rain, but a downpour. a huge dog put its forepaw on me, and from terror i did not know what to do. before our army stood a great series of cannon. (in) that night a terrible gale blew. with delight. he longed to go away again. immediately after heating the stove was hot, in an hour it was only warm, in two hours it was only just warm, and after three hours it was already quite cold. i bought for the children a little table and some little seats. in our country there are no mountains, but only hills. in summer we find coolness in thick woods. he sits near the table and dozes. a narrow path leads through this field to our house. on his face i saw a joyful smile. before the woman appeared a pretty little dog. pardon, he whispered. . with (by means of) an axe we chop, with a saw we saw, with a spade we dig, with a needle we sew, with scissors we clip. the knife was so blunt that i could not cut the meat with it, and i had to use my pocket knife. have you a corkscrew to uncork the bottle? i wished to lock the door, but i had lost the key. she combs her hair with a silver comb. in summer we travel by various vehicles, and in winter by a sledge. to-day it is beautiful frosty weather; therefore i shall take my skates and go skating. the steersman of the "pinta" injured the rudder. the magnetic needle. the first indicator in most illnesses is the tongue. he put it on the plate of a pair of scales. . the sailors must obey the captain. all the inhabitants of a state are citizens (subjects) of the state. townsfolk are usually sharper than villagers. the parisians are gay folk. our town has good policemen, but not a sufficiently energetic chief constable. lutherans and calvinists are christians. germans and frenchmen who live in russia are russian subjects, although they are not russians. he is an awkward and simple provincial. the inhabitants of one state are fellow-countrymen, the inhabitants of one town are fellow-citizens, the professors of one religion are co-religionists. those who have the same ideas are fellow-thinkers. the ruler of our country is a good and wise king. the governor of our province is strict but just. our regimental chief (colonel) is like a good father to (for) his soldiers. they are as (equally) proud as a housewife of her house. on the engine the engine-driver sat alone. the emperor, accompanied by the empress, had just entered (into) his box. . our country will conquer, for our army is large and brave. on a steep ladder he raised himself to the roof of the house. i do not know the spanish language, but by help of a spanish-german dictionary, i nevertheless understood your letter a little. on these vast and grassy fields feed great herds of beasts, especially flocks of fine-woolled sheep. the train consisted almost entirely (only) of passenger coaches. they put before me a cover (table requisites), which consisted of a plate, spoon, knife, fork, a small glass for brandy, a glass for wine, and a serviette. on the sea was a great ship, and among the rigging everywhere sat sailors. his escort stood at the back of the box. dark ranges of mountains bar the way. a florin, a shilling, and a penny are coins. a grain of sand fell into my eye. one spark is enough to explode gunpowder. . a poor wise man dined with a miserly rich man. a fool everyone beats. he is a liar and a despicable man. a coward fears even his own shadow. this old man has become quite silly and childish. a learned man undertook an important scientific work. only saints have the right to enter here. he only is the great, the powerful (one). it is not the legend about the beauty zobeida. after an infectious disease the clothes of the patient are often burned. the curse of the prophet is over the head of an ungrateful one. after some minutes the brave man went out. all the saints, help! (lesson no exercise). . she returned to her father's palace. they both went to the mayor. did i not do good to you? she told him nothing. she wrote him a letter. he every day teaches people something which they do not know. they flew towards the sun. one sister promised the other to tell her what she saw, and what most pleased her the first day. perhaps he will forgive you. she did not believe her own ears. he did not know that he had (has) to thank her [for] his life. she saved his life. the witch cut off the tongue of the mermaid. . i lived with her father. it fell to (on) the bottom of the sea on the breaking up of the ship. by [the] light of torches. arm in arm. there seized him some fear at the thought. nothing helps; one must only bravely remain of his [own] opinion. she laughed at his recital. at every word which you (will) speak, out of your mouth will come either a flower or a precious stone. he stopped near the door. the serpent crawled about her feet. when he was with me, he stood a whole hour by the window. i lived in a tree near your house. she planted near the statue a rose-red willow. the wayside trees. . the bird flies in the room (= it is in the room and flies [about] in it). the bird flies into the room (= it is outside the room, and now flies into it). i am travelling in spain. i am travelling to (into) spain. what to do then (is to be done) in such a case? i am in a good temper. he whispered to the queen in the ear. in consequence of this occurrence. i should prefer to stay here in peace. her birthday was exactly in the middle of winter. he glanced into the child's eyes. he was a tall handsome man of the age of forty years. in the whole of my life. at the end of the year. hand in hand. entering (having entered) the carriage, she sat as if on pins. corn is ground into flour. alexander turned into dust. he divided the apple into two parts. . between russia and france is germany. they divided among them twelve apples. between ten and eleven o'clock in the morning. between the pillars stood marble figures. near the wall between the windows stood a sofa. they talked long among themselves. in this disease an hour may decide between life and death. in the interval between the speeches they set off fireworks. i am standing outside the house, and he is inside. he is outside the door. now we are out of danger. he lives outside the town. standing outside, he could only see the outer side of our house. he pointed outside into the darkness. i left him outside. this man is better outwardly than within. he went out of the town. he has just returned from foreign parts. with extraordinary vivacity she jumped out of the carriage (of the train). she put a crown of white lilies on her (another's) head (hair). he made use of the opportunity. these nests are made wholly of earth. she was the bravest of all. now you have grown up! he went out of the bedroom, and entered into the dining-room. the esperanto alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters. . i am sitting on a seat and have my feet on a little bench. he came back with a cat on his arm. i put my hand on the table. he fell on his knees. do not go on the bridge. he threw himself in despair on a seat. he slapped him on the shoulder and pressed him down on to the sofa. i seated myself in the place of the absent stoker. fruit-culture must influence for good those who are occupied with it. over the earth is air. his thoughts rose high above the clouds. she received permission to rise above the surface of the sea. they could rise on the high mountains high above the clouds. he stands above on the mountain, and looks down on to the field. she sat on the water and swung up and down. from under the sofa the mouse ran under the bed, and now it runs [about] under the bed. she often had to dive under the water. to (under) the sound of music they danced on the deck. under her gaze blossomed the white lilies. she sank under the water. she swam up at sunset. . he is so stout that he cannot go through our narrow door. she looked up through the dark-blue water. through the roseate air shone the evening star. the sound of the bells penetrates down to her. they glide among the branches. on the fireplace between two pots stands an iron kettle; out of the kettle, in which is boiling water, goes steam; through the window, which is near the door, the vapour goes into the court. the swallow flew across the river, for across (on the other side of) the river were other swallows. they can fly on ships across the sea. "why did hannibal go across the alps? because then the tunnel was not yet ready." it is impossible that they should have gone across the ocean. everything was turned upside down. we passed by the station. at this moment the abbot passes by. in passing, i asked him if it were (is) yet twelve o'clock. the mill cannot grind with the water that is past. . before them stood a church. before such men it is worth while to speak. often in the night she stood before the window. i am guilty towards (before) you. an hour ago. a short time ago he woke up very hoarse. not long ago the house was sold publicly. do not go before you know that everything is in order. i must let them sweep out the room before we (shall) begin to dance. i was there the previous year. formerly i never thought about wealth. it was with (to) her as the witch prophesied. he remained behind the door. little by little. she began eagerly to read page after page. she looked after him with a smile. after some minutes the sun rose. she threw her arms backwards and forwards. we shall stay some weeks in paris; afterwards we shall travel into germany. . during the whole day (or, the whole day) he remained alone. during (for) some months she did not leave her room. he slept during the whole concert (or, the whole concert). while the preparations lasted, he was a guest of the king. while he is journeying on the road to granada, in santa fe his fate is being decided. they used to work until late at night. the plate of the scales sank to the ground. its rays crept up to the dome. lend me ten roubles until to-morrow. he worked on from early morning till late at night. he will fight to the very end. we kept going up always higher and higher to the fourth story. it will exist until the world shall perish. the king came about midday into the village of reading. about morning the gale ended. about ten metres will be sufficient. all gathered round the glass globe. one can look very far round about. great mountains of ice floated around. he looked around on all sides. . the light of the moon. in the middle of the square stood a house. he might be of the age (have the age) of sixteen years. their lifetime is still shorter than ours. they rose from beside the table. i thought that you would (will) never return from thence. the sailors took down the sails. he dismounted from the horse. a wine glass is a glass in which there was wine previously, or which is used for wine; a glass of wine is a glass full of wine. bring me a metre of black cloth. ("metro de drapo" would mean a yard-measure which was lying on cloth, or which is used for cloth). i bought a half-score of eggs. this river has a length of two hundred kilometres (has two hundred kilometres of length). on the seashore stood a crowd of people. many birds fly in the autumn into warmer lands. on the tree were many birds. some people feel happiest when they see the sufferings of their neighbours. in the room were (sat) only a few people. "da" after any word shows that this word signifies measure. it is a beautiful piece of stuff. on the plate he put thousands of pieces of silver. the lights glitter like hundreds of stars. a boy bought a little bottle of ink. they construct little towers containing many little chambers. he gave them a great sum of money. . i eat with my mouth, and smell with my nose. she trod with her foot on the serpent. it covered the lovely lily with white foam. the body ended in a fish's tail. all the walls are decorated with great paintings. by here, and by no other way, the thief escaped. in what way can one come into the land of gold? in such a way. in one word. the star venus began to burn with envy. she wished to play with them, but they ran away in terror. with what attention she listened to these tales. the most beautiful of them was the young prince with the great black eyes. hither swam the sea-maiden with the beautiful prince. with pleasure. with every year the number of members rapidly increased. the tartar remained without a good horse and without food. almost without life he was driven about by the waves. they wove with all their might, but without thread (threads). without a word he obeyed. the leaves moved ceaselessly. he created numberless birds. . he treated himself in order to regain his health. she had a great deal to tell. he went into the church to make his confession. in order to pass the time somehow. nobody is more fit for his post than he. he used all his might to please his master. for me it is all one wherever i live. take (the pay) for the coffee. he died of hunger. i had a very good estate, which was sold on account of debts. for heaven's sake, do not do this. he was convinced that on his own account he need not fear. on this account venus gives more light than many other stars. whether for that, or for some other reason, i know not. . she wished to believe that the hebrew spoke of someone else. now the woman has everything, she can ask for nothing. do not think about this. one cannot truly say that about you. there were still many things about which they wished to know. he could not even dream about her. she used to ask the old grandmother about that. i remain here by order of my chief. he began to go along this river. they had permission to go up always according to their (own) will. she could dig and plant as she pleased (according to her liking). the shells closed and opened according to the flow of the water. from his outward appearance he seemed a respectable man. at the command "three" you will shoot at the tree. the younger daughter was the very picture of her father in her goodness and honesty. . you have remedies against all diseases. what can he alone do against a hundred men? contrary to his custom, the professor said nothing. it flew against the reflector. against her own will she confessed this. he began to feel a certain disgust against himself. the opposite side. they sat down one opposite the other. she was unjust towards him. contrary to usual, the number of dancers was great. instead of him his brother was sent. instead of going out he remained in the house. an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth. instead of coffee he gave me tea with sugar, but without cream. instead of "la" one can also say "l'" (but only after a preposition which ends with a vowel). in the drawing-room there was nobody except him and his fiancee. besides the empty loom there was nothing. besides ourselves we had very little to bring in. she wished to have, besides the red flowers, only one beautiful statue. all slept, save the steersman beside his tiller. in addition to the members, many guests journey there. . he worked hard, but in spite of everything he did not succeed. it was still fairly warm, notwithstanding that the sun was low. they will be severely punished if, notwithstanding the prohibition, they (shall) offend against the freedom of the road. despite all my endeavours to prevent him, he went away. for my four children i bought twelve apples, and to each of the children i gave at the rate of three apples. they may cost three to five shillings each. this book has sixty pages; therefore if i (shall) read every day (at the rate of) fifteen pages, i shall finish the whole book in four days. i bought four books at sixpence each. we were only engaged about some household affairs. the structure is similar to a mushroom. they ran away when the woman cried out at them. in the evening the sky became covered with clouds. from fear of karagara i ran away. she was very proud of her high rank. the dog sincerely mourned for him. none of them was so full of desires as the youngest girl. on word of honour. a. if we need to use a preposition, and the sense does not show us what preposition to use, then we can use the general preposition "je." but it is well to use the word "je" as seldom as possible. instead of the word "je" we can also use the accusative without a preposition. i laugh at his simplicity (or, i laugh on account of his simplicity; or, i ridicule his simplicity). the last time i saw him with you i travelled two days and one night. i sigh for my lost happiness. from the said rule it follows that if we do not know as to any verb whether it requires the accusative case after it (that is, whether it is active) or not, we can always use the accusative. for example, we can say "obei al la patro" and "obei la patron" (instead of "obei je la patro"). but we do not use the accusative when the clearness of the sense forbids it; for example, we can say "pardoni al la malamiko" and "pardoni la malamikon," but we must always say "pardoni al la malamiko lian kulpon." . the photographer photographed me, and i sent my photograph to my father. you talk nonsense, my friend. i drank tea, with cake and jam. water is a fluid. i did not wish to drink the wine, for it had in it a certain muddiness. on the table were various sweetmeats. i ate a tasty omelette. when i travel anywhere i never take with me much luggage. an ice is a sweet frozen dainty. the whole surface of the lake was covered with floating leaves and various other plants (growths). the timber merchant sells wood, and the joiner makes tables, chairs, and other wooden objects. i use no sort of alcoholics. his old mother carried on the management of the house. "an evil appearance he had," answered the jew. she thought over the doings of the past day. it is as light as a cobweb. the train of the dress was long. they move like living beings. he loves this girl on account of her beauty and goodness. his heroism greatly pleased me. i live with them in great friendship. we are, in fact, close to the river. this is the most important quality. court ceremony necessitates inconvenience. the wealth of this man is great, but his foolishness is still greater. in these little bottles are various acids--vinegar, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and others. the acidity of this vinegar is very weak. your wine is only some abominable acid thing. this great eminence is not a natural mountain. the height of that mountain is not very great. . the house in which one learns is a school, and the house in which one prays is a church. the cook sits in the kitchen. the doctor advises me to go into a vapour-bath. the horse put one hoof on a serpent's nest. the woman used to walk through lovely woods and meadows. he came into his lodging. he stopped by the gate of the monastery. russians live in russia, and germans in germany. my writing materials consist of an inkstand, a sand-box, a few pens, a pencil, and a blotter. in my trousers pocket i carry a purse, and in my overcoat pocket i carry a pocket book; a larger portfolio i carry under my arm. put on the table the sugar-basin, the tea-caddy, and the teapot. a shop in which one sells cigars, or a room in which one keeps cigars, is a cigar-store; a box or other object in which one keeps cigars is a cigar-case; a little tube in which one puts a cigar when one smokes it is a cigar-holder. a little box in which one keeps pens is a pen-box, and a little stick, on which one holds a pen to write, is a penholder. in the candlestick was a burning candle. . a father and a mother together are named parents. peter, anne, and elizabeth are my brother and sisters. mr. and mrs. n. will come to us this evening. the engaged couple stood by the altar. i congratulated the young married pair by telegraph. the king and queen left cordova. she married (with) her cousin, although her parents wished to marry her to another person. my wife's father is my father-in-law, i am his son-in-law, and my father is the father-in-law of my wife. all my wife's relations are my relations by marriage, consequently her brother is my brother-in-law, her sister is my sister-in-law; my brother and sister are the brother-in-law and sister-in-law of my wife. the wife of my nephew and the niece of my wife are my nieces by marriage. a woman who treats the sick is a lady doctor; the wife of a doctor is a doctor's wife. mrs. dr. a. visited dr. and mrs. p. to-day. he is not a laundryman, he is a washerwoman's husband. the sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons of a king are princes. the hebrews are israelites, for they are descended from israel. a foal is an immature horse, a chicken an immature fowl, a calf an immature ox, a fledgeling an immature bird. that beautiful land was in a very primeval state. john, nicholas, ernest, william, mary, clara, and sophia are called by their parents johnny (or jack), nick, ernie, will (or willie or bill or billy), polly (or molly), clarry, and sophy. . steel is flexible, but iron is not flexible. not every plant is edible. glass is breakable and transparent. your speech is quite incomprehensible, and your letters are always written quite illegibly. the darkness is impenetrable. he related to me a story altogether incredible. perhaps i can (shall be able to) help you. do you love your father? what a question! of course (that) i love him. probably i shall not be able to come to you to-day, for i think that i myself shall have guests to-day. the table stands askew, and will probably soon fall over. he did his best (his possible). he is a man unworthy of belief. your action is very praiseworthy. this important day will remain for me for ever memorable. it is a coat of great worth. it is not worthy of thanks. the crew show [themselves] unworthy of their leader. his wife is very hardworking and economical, but she is also very fond of talking and noisy. he is very irascible, and often becomes excited at the merest trifle; nevertheless he is very forgiving, he does not bear anger long, and he is not at all revengeful. he is very credulous; even the most incredible things, which the most untrustworthy people relate to him, he immediately believes. he is very cleanly, and you will not find even one speck of dust on his coat. he is an excellent boy, but very apt to believe [in] spirits. . we all came together to talk over very important business, but we could not reach any result, and we parted. misery often unites people, and happiness often separates them. i tore up the letter, and threw its bits into every corner (all corners) of the room. after this they separated for home. the road branched in several directions. i willingly fulfilled his desire. in bad weather one may easily take cold. he unbuttoned his overcoat. she played with her fan. shirts, collars, cuffs, and other similar things we call linen, although they are not always made of linen. * * * * * translations from various languages. * * * * * pardonata foresto. oni invitis junulon al festeno. respondante al la invito, li diris: "mi venos plezure, se mi estos viva." "ho," diris la invitanta sinjorino, "se vi estos senviva, ni vin ne atendos." el "tutmonda anekdotaro". festeno - banquet, (dinner) party. * * * * * korekto. juna frauxlino: "ho, s-ro profesoro! kion povus rakonti tiu cxi maljuna kverko, se gxi povus paroli?!" profesoro: "gxi dirus: pardonu min, mia frauxlino, mi ne estas kverko, sed tilio." "ibid". tilio - lime tree. * * * * * naiveco. knabino sesjara havis katon kaj pupon. iu demandis sxin, kiun el la du sxi preferas. sxi ne volis respondi, fine sxi diris al li en la orelon: "mi preferas mian katon, sed ne diru, mi petas vin, tion al mia pupo." el "unua legolibro" de kabe. * * * * * hawke. kiam la fama angla admiralo hawke estis ankoraux knabo kaj la patro unuafoje prenis lin sur sxipon, li admonis lin bone konduti kaj aldonis: "tiam mi esperas vidi vin kapitano." " kapitano!" ekkriis la knabo. "kara patro, se mi ne esperus farigxi admiralo, mi ne konsentus esti maristo." "ibid". admoni - to admonish; konduti - to behave (oneself). * * * * * efika ruzo. iu vilagxano petis sian tre avaran najbaron, ke li metu sur la limon inter la du gxardenoj palisan barilon, cxar la najbara kokinaro vagadis dum la tuta tago en lia gxardeno. tamen la avarulo rifuzis, kaj jam la najbaro intencis alvoki la helpon de la jugxistoj, kiam li sxajne kontenta kvietigxis. subite, je cxies miro, oni ekvidis la malamatan avarulon starigi tre fortan lignan barilon. "sed, amiko," demandis la vilagxanoj, "rakontu kiamaniere vi atingis tion." "nu, tre simple," li diris. "iun matenon mi sendis al la najbaro tri aux kvar ovojn, dirante, ke liaj kokinoj demetis ilin en mia gxardeno. jam la sekvintan tagon li komencis konstrui la barilon. tio estas cxiam pli malkara, ol doni okupadon al la advokatoj." el "tutmonda anekdotaro". peti - to beg; limo - boundary; paliso - palings; vagi - to wander; alvoki - to invoke; sxajne - apparently; subite - suddenly; kvieta - quiet; advokato - lawyer. * * * * * jupitero kaj cxevalo. -- patro de l' bestoj kaj de l' homoj!--diris cxevalo, proksimigxante al la trono de jupitero--oni diras, ke mi estas unu el la plej belaj bestoj; mi mem kredas tion, tamen sxajnas al mi, ke multon en mi oni devus plibonigi. -- kion laux via opinio oni povus plibonigi en vi? parolu, mi estas preta lerni de vi--diris jupitero ridetante. -- eble mi kurus ankoraux pli rapide, se miaj piedoj estus pli longaj kaj pli maldikaj; longa cigna kolo ornamus miri; pli largxa brusto pligrandigus miajn fortojn; kaj cxar vi destinis min por porti vian favoratan, homon, vi povus sur mian dorson meti pretan selon. -- bone--diris jupitero--atendu momenton!--kaj li kreis kamelon. ekvidinte la novan beston, la cxevalo ektremis de l' timo kaj abomeno. -- jen la altaj piedoj, kiajn vi deziris--diris jupitero--jen la longa cigna kolo, largxa brusto kaj preta selo. cxu vi deziras, ke mi tiel aliformigu vin? el "unua legolibro" de kabe. trono - throne; sxajni - to seem; preta - ready; cigno - swan; ornami - to ornament; brusto - chest; destini - to destine, appoint; selo - saddle; tremi - to tremble; abomeno - disgust. * * * * * la homa korpo kaj la sentoj. el "serba esperantisto." petu johanon, ke li alproksimigxu, ke li pasxu al vi, por ke vi observu la trajtojn de lia vizagxo. lia frunto estas alta kun brune blondaj haroj, liaj vangoj estas rondaj, lian mentonon kovras dika barbo, kiu kasxas la gorgxon. * * * * * johanino jam faris longan marsxon, sxi jxus haltis: sxi spiras forte, sxia kolo sin strecxas, sxia brusto sin etendas, kaj skuigxas sxiaj flankoj; sxia koro forte batas, sxia sango rapide kuras en la arterioj kaj vejnoj; sxia hauxto farigxis brula. sxi sxajnas laca ne nur muskole, sed nerve kaj cerbe. diru al sxi, ke sxi ripozu kaj ne restu stare, ke sxi sidigu sin. nun sxi sidas: sxi pene klinas siajn krurojn; sxi povas movi nek la genuojn nek la piedojn; ecx la brakoj rigide pendas de la sxultroj; sxi ne plu turnas la kapon: sxi tuj ekdormos. * * * * * mi kusxis sur la tero mem: tiam la dorso, la ventro, la membroj, ecx la ostoj iom suferis. * * * * * okulo blinda ne vidas lumon, orelo surda ne auxdas sonojn, busxo muta ne diras vortojn, koro fermita ne gxuas amon. * * * * * tiu cxi frukto, antauxe acida, estas nun matura: la nazo flaras gxian odoron agrablan, la mano esploras gxian glatan sxelon, baldaux la dentoj mordos gxian molan karnon kaj la lango gustumos gxian dolcxan sukon. * * * * * momenta silentu, vi faros plezuron al mi, kaj mia kapdoloro malaperos. * * * * * trajto - feature; frunto - forehead; bruna - brown; vango - cheek; mentono - chin; barbo - beard; gorgxo - throat; etendi - to extend, to stretch out; skui - to shake; sango - blood; arterio - artery; vejno - vein; hauxto - skin; muskolo - muscle; nervo - nerve; cerbo - brain; kruro - leg; ventro - belly; membra - limb, member; osto - bone; gxui - to enjoy; esplori - to examine; glata - smooth; sxelo - rind, bark; karno - flesh; suko - juice. * * * * * antauxfabelo el fabeloj al helenjo. el "rusaj rakontoj". baju, baju, baju!... unu okuleto de helenjo dormas, alia rigardas; unu oreleto de helenjo dormas, alia auxskultas. dormu, helenjo, dormu, belulino; kaj pacxjo rakontos fabelojn. kredeble, cxiuj estas tie cxi: kato, kaj vilagxa hundo, griza museto, kaj grileto sub la forno, makulkolora sturno en kagxo, kaj malpacema koko. dormu, helenjo,--tuj la fabelo komencigxos. jen la alta luno jam rigardas en la fenestron; jen straba leporo, kiu lame forkuras; jen lupaj okuloj, kiuj eklumigxas per flavaj fajretoj. alflugas maljuna pasero al la fenestro, frapas per la beko sur vitron kaj demandas: "cxu baldaux?" cxiuj estas cxi tie, cxiuj kolektigxis; kaj cxiuj atendas la fabelon al helenjo. unu okuleto de helenjo dormas, alia rigardas, unu oreleto de helenjo dormas, alia auxskultas. baju, baju, baju!... mamin sibirjak. [footnote: "baju": rusa interjekcio; rekantajxo por dormigi infanojn.] auxskulti - to listen; fabelo - story; griza - grey; muso - mouse; grilo - cricket; forno - stove; makulo - spot; sturno - starling; straba - squinting; leporo - hare; lupo - wolf; flava - yellow; beko - beak; pacxjo - daddy. * * * * * edzinlgxo de ratino. el "japanaj rakontoj". maljuna rato havis filinon. gxi volis edzinigi tiun cxi kun iu plej forta en la mondo. gxi unue iris al la luno, pensante, ke la luno estas la plej forta en la mondo. sed la luno diris: "min tre ofte malhelpas la nubo, kaj mi neniel povas forpeli gxin." tiam gxi sin turnis al la nubo, pensante, ke la nubo estas pli forta, ol la luno. sed la nubo diris: "min cxiam dispelas la vento, kaj mi neniam povas al gxi kontrauxstari." trie gxi iris al la vento, pensante, ke la vento estas pli forta, ol la nubo. sed la vento diris: "la muro staras kontraux mi, kaj mi tute ne povas trapasi gxin." fine gxi iris al la muro, pensante, ke la muro estas pli forta, ol la vento. sed la muro ankaux diris: "via familio cxiam min mordadas, kaj mi ne povas tion haltigi." jen gxi komprenis, ke ratino nur devas edzinigxi kun rato, kaj reveninte hejmen, gxi edzinigis sian filinon kun juna rato de sia najbareco. k. kajiwara. nubo - cloud. * * * * * infana versajxo. eta manjo flindre sidis intercindre, etajn piedfingrojn sxi varmigis. sxin vidis patrineto, punigxis filineto, cxar sxi la novajn vestojn malpurigis. john ellis, el "the british esperantist". cindro - cinder, ash; fingro - finger. * * * * * la domo de jxak'. jen estas la domo konstruita de jxak'. jen estas la greno, kiu restis en la domo konstruita de jxak'. jen estas la rato, kiu mangxis la grenon, kiu restis, k.t.p. jen estas la kato, kiu mortigis la raton, kiu mangxis, k.t.p. jen estas la hundo, kiu turmentis la katon, kiu mortigis, k.t.p. jen estas la bovino kun kurba korno, kiu jxetis la hundon, kiu turmentis, k.t.p. jen estas tutsola la virgulino, kiu melkis la bovinon, kiu jxetis, k.t.p. jen estas la viro, cxifone vestita, kiu kisis la virgulinon tutsolan, kiu melkis, k.t.p. jen estas la pregxisto, tute razita, kiu edzigis la viron, cxifone vestitan, kiu kisis, k.t.p. jen estas la koko, matene kriinta, kiu vekis la pregxiston, tute razitan, kiu edzigis, k.t.p. jen estas la farmomastro, grensemanta, kiu posedis la kokon, matene kriintan, kiu, k.t.p., k.t.p. el "the esperantist" rato - rat; kato - cat; kurba - curved; korno - horn; sola - alone, solitary; melki - to milk (milk is lakto); cxifono - rag; farmi - to farm, take on lease; semi - to sow seed; posedi - to possess. * * * * * ezopa fabelo. unu azeno trovis leonan felon. gxi ricevis la ideon vesti sur sin la felon, kaj sxajnigante sin leono, terurigi la homojn kaj bestojn. pensite, farite. la azeno sxajnis esti potenca leono. la unua viva estajxo, kiun gxi renkontis, estis malricxa sed talenta komercisto, portanta kelkajn komercajxojn sur sia dorso. li terurigxis vidante la leonon, kio tre amuzis la azenon. nun la azeno, intencante pligrandigi la efikon, ekblekis:--ia,--ia,--ia,... sed jen nia komercisto rekonis la azenon per gxia vocxo, kaptis gxin kaj devigis gxin--vendi malkarege la leonan felon. el "lingvo internacia". azeno - ass; felo - hide; sxajni - to seem to be; komerci - to trade; dorso - back; intenci - to intend; bleki - to cry (like an animal); kara - dear; potenca - powerful. * * * * * proverboj. eco homara estas eraro. nur tiu ne eraras, kiu neniam ion faras. por ricxulo fasto, por malricxulo festo. mezuri laux sia metro. kia la semo, tia la rikolto. ricxigas ne enspezo, sed prudenta elspezo. kun kiu vi festas, tia vi estas. ju pli da jxuroj, des pli da suspekto. korvo al korvo okulon ne pikas. en infano vidigxas, kia homo farigxos. unufoje sxtelinta restas cxiam sxtelisto. kapo estas por tio, ke gxi zorgu pri cxio. belaj rakontoj el trans la montoj. m. f. zamenhof. fasto - fast; mezuri - to measure; rikolto - harvest; enspezo - income; elspezo - outlay; jxuro - oath; suspekto - suspicion; korvo - raven; piki - to stab. * * * * * lizi, elze, elizabet. el "hungaraj rakontoj". mi amis nur mian patrinon kaj lizi, krome neniun en la tuta mondo. kun sxi, kun lizi, mi jam ligis amikecon, kiam mia malgranda fratino mortis je angino. tiam farigxis tre silente en nia domo. malantauxe cxirkaux la cxevalstalo bruis ja la knaboj poste kiel antauxe, sed al la logxejo ili proksimigxis nur sur la piedpintoj. ili ne volis gxeni la nigre vestitan virinon, kiu sencxese, kvazaux senspirite, la funebrajn cxambrojn trapasxis; de frua mateno gxis malfrua vespero, en pensojn profundigxinta, sxi travagis la logxejon, senripoze kiel la pendolo de l'horlogxo, kvazaux sxi eterne iun aux ion sercxus. iafoje sxi malfermis la sxrankojn kaj tirkestojn laux vico. tiam mi cxiam vidis en sxia mano malgrandajn infanorobojn, sxuojn kaj antauxtukojn, kiujn sxi longe rigardis kaj karesis, por ilin denove remeti kun la pupoj, la skribkajeroj kaj cxiuj aliaj objektoj, kiuj iam apartenis al mia malgranda fratino. pri mi sxi tute ne okupigxis--sxi nun pli amis la mortinton, ol cxiujn vivantojn--kaj tamen en mi cxiam sxteliris post sxi. se mi iafoje sxian robon ekprenis, aux sxian brakon karesis, por ke sxi min nur rimarku, sxi ekrigardis min indiferente per siaj karaj, de nokta plorado lacaj okuloj, aux diris: "kion vi volas, janko? cxu mi devas doni al vi orangxojn?" sxi tiam eltiris la tirkeston, kie la orangxoj kusxis, kaj lasis min elekti, kiom mi volis. kaj mi tute ne volis orangxojn, mi nur estis jxaluza je mia malgranda, mortinta fratino. ferenc herczeg. ligi - to bind; angino - quinsy; stalo - stable, stall; pinto - point; gxeni - to trouble, disturb; funebro - mourning; pendolo - pendulum; sxranko - cupboard; tirkesto - drawer; vico - turn; antauxtuko - apron; laca - weary; jxaluza - jealous. * * * * * ventega nokto. el "nord-germanaj rakontoj". la ventego kriegis kaj bruegis dum la malluma nokto kaj blovege pelis la foliojn antaux si. kia sonado estis en la aero! de malproksime venas la ventego, el la regiono, kie estas la altaj montoj kaj la granda akvo, el la malvarma nordo. cxio, kion gxi ekkaptas dumvoje, devas kunflugi. gxi pelas la foliojn alten, tiel ke ili kirle flugas kaj en sia timo saltas unu super la alia. jen gxi permesas al ili dum memento rekonsciigxi, ili opinias, ke nun cxesis la sovagxa pelado, ke ili povas trankvile mallevigxi teren--jen la sovagxulo ree ekkaptas ilin kaj la ludo denove komencigxas. nun gxi estas en la torfejo; tie gxi trovas nenion kun kio gxi povus petoli; tiam gxi atakas pluvnubon kiu jxus volis ekpluvi--pusxegas en gxian flankon, gxis gxi tuj disflugas. jen la blovulo venas en la arbaron kaj furiozas inter la arboj, kiuj gxemas kaj krakas. ankoraux salton, kaj nun gxi estas cxe la lerneja domo, kiu staras kasxite en arbetajxoj inter la du vilagxoj. ho, kiel gxi gxojkriegas ekvidante la malnovan kadukan domon! tie cxi mi devas enigxi! per cxiuj pordoj gxi bruegas kaj skuas ilin, provante malfermegi ilin. sed vane. ecx ne la lignan kovrilon de la truo en la frontono gxi povas desxiri, kvankam la rustigxintaj hokoj preskaux ne plu povas teni gxin. sed almenaux gxi klakas kaj frapegas per gxi tiom, ke la edzino de la instruisto vekigxas. heinrich bandlow. nordo - north; kirli - to whisk, to twirl; konscii - to be conscious; opinii - to be of opinion; torfo - peat; petoli - to play, tease; furiozi - to rage; gxemi - to groan; kraki - to crack, crackle; kaduka - decayed, infirm; skui - to shake; vane - in vain; frontono - gable, fronton; rusti - to rust; hoko - hook; klaki - to clack, clap. * * * * * en pirin. el "bulgaraj rakontoj". klime perdis la vojon, la blovegoj estis kovrintaj cxion: valojn, montetojn, vojojn, kampojn. li eliris hieraux cxe bona vetero el la vilagxo, kaj nun ?... dum tutaj horoj li vagadis en pirin-monto kaj li ne scias, kie li trovigxas, kien li iras, kion li renkontos. li komprenis nur unu: ke malproksime, malproksime li estas de sia vilagxo, en nekonataj montaj dezertoj, en la regno de l'sovagxaj bestoj kaj de la pereo... subite li ekvidis tra la krepusko multajn nigrajn ombrojn, kiuj iris senbrue sur la negxo. kio estas tio cxi? cxu lupoj? ili estas tuta aro kaj venas de la dekstra flanko; ili bojas... li ekkuregas. la malsata aro rapide lin sekvas kun sovagxaj bojoj... kiom da tempo li kuris, li ne memoras... antaux li cxiam nudajxo, cxiam dezerto, cxiam negxa kampo. subite klime vidas, ke antauxe ekmovigxas io, lumaj punktoj brilas kaj lin renkontas: la bestaro elsendis kelkajn lupojn por fermi lian iradon... klime vidis teruran, neeviteblan morton... tiam li ree ekkuregis kiel frenezulo maldekstren, al nova direkto, sur ia krutajxo malsupren, kaj post li la lupoj... li dufoje implikigxis je sia skarpo, kiu trenis, kaj li ekfalis. trovigxinte en la valo, klime gxoje vidis, ke li eniras en ian vilagxon... kia gxi estas, cxu pomaka, cxu kristana,--li ne pensas, cxar la luparo lin persekutas ecx tien cxi. gxi iras post liaj kalkanoj... li ensxovigxis en ian pordegon, kiun, versxajne, la ventego malfermis, kaj li alkuris al la fenestro, kiu lumis. kaj la lupoj ankaux kuras post li. klime sxovis malgxentile la pordon kaj eniris en nekonatan domon. li ekgxemis: li vidis bulgaran, kristanan domon, kaj la sanktfigurujon, kaj antaux gxi la sanktlampeton...la flamo malklare briletis kaj estingigxis ankoraux. el la krepusko eliris iaj homoj. li cxirkauxrigardis mirege. kie li trovigxas? subite klime ekscias, ke li estas en sia hejmo. la cxiopovanto estis direktinta liajn vagadojn al lia vilagxo, al lia domo, kiam li pensis, ke li iras en tute malsaman direkton. ivan mincxev. [footnote: "pomako" estas bulgaro farigxinta mahometano.] klime - man's name; blovego - storm; valo - valley; sovagxa - wild; krepusko - twilight; boji - to bark; nuda - bare; punkto - point; eviti - to avoid; freneza - crazy; impliki - to entangle; skarpo - scarf; persekuti - to follow in order to harm; sxovi - to shove, push; versxajne - apparently; estingi - to extinguish. * * * * * somera pluvado. el "prozo el danaj-norvegaj auxtoroj". estis premante varmege, la aero vibris pro varmo, kaj krom tio estis tiel kvieta, nenio alia sin movis, ol la kokcineloj tie sur la urtikoj, kaj kelke da velkitaj folioj, kiuj kusxis sur la herbo kaj kurbigis sin kun etaj ekmovoj, kvazaux kuntiritaj de la sunaj radioj. kaj tiu homo sub la kverko, li kusxis spiregante kaj melankolie, senespere li rigardis supren al la cxielo. li kantetis iom, kaj cedis, fajfis per la busxo kaj cedis ankaux je tio, turnis kaj returnis sin, rigardis malnovan talpan teraltajxeton, kiu tute helgrizigxis pro sekeco. subite eta, ronda, nigra makulo vidigxis sur la griza tero, ankoraux unu, du, tri, kvar, multaj, ankoraux pliaj, la tuta altajxeto farigxis malhelgriza. la aero estas nur longaj, malhelaj strekoj, la folioj klinigxis kaj balancigxis, sibleto, plilauxtigxante gxis siblego, sonis,--akvo fluegis teren. cxio briletis, fajretis, kraketis. folioj, brancxoj, trunkoj, cxio brilis de akvajxo, cxiu guteto falanta teren, herben, sxtonen, cxien, disrompigxis kaj dissxprucis en milojn da etaj perloj. malgrandaj gutoj pendis tie iom da tempo kaj farigxis grandaj gutoj, malsuprenfalis tien cxi, unuigxis kun aliaj gutoj, formis fluetojn, malaperis en sulketojn, enfluis grandajn truojn kaj elfluis malgrandajn, forkondukis polvon, lignajxetojn kaj foliopecojn, fiksigxis sur rifojn kaj denove liberigxis, turnigxis kaj ree surrifigxis. foliojn, ne estintajn kune de la tempo, kiam ili estis burgxonoj, kolektis la akvajxo; musko, neniigita de sekeco, eksxvelis kaj farigxis mola, cxifa, verda kaj sukplena; kaj sximo kiu preskaux farigxis polvo, disvastigxis en graciaj makuloj, kun brilo kiel silko. la konvolvoloj lasis plenigi siajn blankajn kalikojn gxis la rando, interpusxis ilin kaj versxis la akvon sur la kapojn de l' urtikoj. la dikaj, nigraj arbarlimakoj afablege rampis antauxen kaj rigardis danke la cxielon. kaj la homo? la nudkapa homo staris meze en la pluvo, lasante la gutojn sibli en harojn, brovojn okulojn, nazon, busxon, kraketis per la fingroj je la pluvo, iom levis iafoje la piedojn, kvazaux li intencis danci, ekskuis iam kaj iam sian kapon, kiam tro multe da akvo estis en la haroj, plengorgxe kantis senpripensante tion, kion li kantis, tiel plene la pluvado lin okupis. j. p. jakobsen. vibri - to vibrate; kokcinelo - ladybird; urtiko - nettle; velki - to wither; fajfi - to whistle; talpo - mole; streko - streak; klini - bend; sibli - to hiss; sxpruci - to spurt, to gush; sulko - furrow; truo - hole; rifo - reef; burgxono - bud; musko - moss; sxveli - to swell; cxifi - to crinkle, crumple; sximo - mildew, mould; gracia - graceful; konvolvolo - convolvulus; kaliko - chalice, calyx; limako - slug; brovo - brow; nuda - bare. * * * * * kion ne komprenas la hirundoj kaj papilioj. el "pola antologio". ... iom pli malproksime kusxis flava grenkampo. malalta barilo apartigis gxin de l' konstruajxoj kaj de l' malgranda placeto antaux ili. la barilo formis angulon kaj en la loko, kie kunigxis du gxiaj oblikvaj duonoj, gxi havis pordegon, altan, largxan kaj en tiu momento tute malfermitan. ni proksimigxis al la malalta barilo. anjo ne havis ankoraux suficxe da tempo por apogi al gxi sian ombrelon kaj jam en la flava domo oni malfermis la pordon kaj viro starigxis cxe la sojlo kaj lauxte demandis: --cxu vi iras eksterlandon? ni komprenis. la barilo, malzorge konstruita el kurbaj bastonoj, estis io pli grava, ol limo de kampara proprajxo... cxi tiu barilo apartigis du naciojn, du landojn, du civilizaciojn. la sekalo, kreskanta post gxi, estis jam germana sekalo; la cejanoj, kiuj, kiel bluaj lumetoj, bruletis inter la spikoj, estis jam germanaj cejanoj. germana estis ecx la vento, fluganta de tie kune kun la miela odoro de l'konvolvoloj... kompreneble, anjo devis rifuzi al si la ricxigon de sia bukedo per germanaj floroj kaj sxi tuj sciigis pri gxi la lauxte demandantan viron. li reigxis domon trankviligxinta, sed sendube dek kelkaj paroj da viglaj, kvankam nevideblaj okuloj observis cxiujn niajn movojn. kun stranga sento ni komencis rigardi cxirkauxe. --kial?--demandis anjo, largxe malfermante la okulojn--sekve la spiko, kiu elkreskis tie cxi el grajno alportita de tie de la vento, estas nia, sed milionoj da aliaj spikoj, gxiaj fratoj, estas fremdaj nur tial, ke ili kreskas unu pasxon pli malproksime? mi penis klarigi al sxi, ke tio cxi estas tute natura, ecx necesega. --por kiu? anstataux respondo mi levis la sxultrojn. okupataj de la penso pri la divido, ni turnis la okulojn al la cxielo, sercxante ankaux sur gxi liman linion. sed la cxielo estis nur unu, nedividita. ni rigardis la sunon. ankaux la suno estis nur unu, nedividita. en la sama momento papilio, kiu sidis proksime de ni sur la barilo kaj jen etendis, jen altiris siajn rugxajn flugiletojn kun argxenta subajxo, rapide levigxis kaj transflugis al la germana flanko. gxi longe flirtis tie super la balancigxantaj spikoj kaj trovinte amikon aux amikinon ankoraux pli trankvile revenis. samtempe kelke da hirundoj, antauxsentante proksimigxon de fulmotondro, komencis kun lauxta pepado rondflugi malproksimen kaj senpune trans la limon... -- vi vidas!--ekkriis anjo kun infana triumfo.-- la hirundoj kaj papilioj no konsentas la "necesecon," pri kiu vi tiel sage parolis. cxi tiuj senkonsideraj vortoj malgxojigis min. -- ah, anjo, anjo!--diris mi riprocxe,--cxu vi forgesis, ke la homo estas pli sagxa kreitajxo, ol la flirtemaj birdoj kaj papilioj senpripensaj?... wiktor gomulicki. greno - corn; placo - place, square; apogi - to lean on; ombrelo - umbrella, parasol; sojlo - threshold; lauxta - loud; sekalo - rye; cejano - corn bluebottle; mielo - honey; bukedo - bouquet; paro - pair; spiko - ear of corn; linio - line; papilio - butterfly; flirti - flutter, wave; fulmo - lightning; tondro - thunder; pepi - to chirp. * * * * * printempo venos. se la naturo rigidigxas de prem' de l' vintro frostiganta, se tute per la negx' kovrigxas je longe tero ekdormanta, amiko kara! vi ne ploru: printempo venos kaj somero, ke la naturo ree floru, ke verdu, revivigxu tero. a. naumann. * * * * * la vojo. tra densa mallumo briletas la celo, al kiu kuragxe ni iras. simile al stelo en nokta cxielo, al ni la direkton gxi diras. kaj nin ne timigas la noktaj fantomoj nek batoj de l' sorto, nek mokoj de l' homoj cxar klara kaj rekta kaj tre difinita gxi estas, la voj' elektita. nur rekte, kuragxe, kaj ne flankigxante ni iru la vojon celitan! ecx guto malgranda, konstante frapante, traboras la monton granitan. "l' espero, l' obstino", kaj "la pacienco"-- jen estas la signoj, per kies potenco ni pasxo post pasxo, post longa laboro, atingos la celon en gloro. ni semas kaj semas, neniam lacigxas, pri l' tempoj estontaj pensante. cent semoj perdigxas, mil semoj perdigxas,-- ni semas kaj semas konstante. "ho, cxesu!" mokante la homoj admonas,-- "ne cxesu, ne cxesu!" en kor' al ni sonas: "obstine antauxen! la nepoj vin benos, se vi pacience eltenos." se longa sekeco aux ventoj subitaj velkantajn foliojn desxiras, ni dankas la venton, kaj, repurigitaj, ni forton pli fresxan akiras. ne mortos jam nia bravega anaro, gxin jam ne timigas la vento, nek staro, obstine gxi pasxas, provita, hardita, al cel' unu fojon signita! nur rekte, kuragxe kaj ne flankigxante ni iru la vojon celitan! ecx guto malgranda, konstante frapante, traboras la monton granitan. l' espero, l' obstino, kaj la pacienco-- jen estas la signoj, per kies potenco ni pasxo post pasxo, post longa laboro, atingos la celon en gloro. l. zamenhof, el "fundamenta krestomatio". celo - aim; simile - like; fantomo - phantom, apparition; sorto - fate; moko - mockery; elekti - to choose; flanko - side; guto - drop; frapi - to strike; bori - to bore; signo - sign; atingi - to attain; laca - weary; semo - seed; cxesi - to cease; admoni - to exhort; koro - heart; vento - wind; subita - sudden; velki - to wither; desxiri - to tear from, pluck off; akiri - to acquire; provi - to make trial of; hardi - to harden. * * * * * el la parolo de d-ro. l. l. zamenhof. en la guildhall, urbo londono, la lan de auxgusto, . . . . la dua kulpigo, kiun ni ofte devas auxdi, estas tio, ke ni esperantistoj estas malbonaj patriotoj. cxar tiuj esperantistoj, kiuj traktas la esperantismon kiel ideon, predikas reciprokan justecon kaj fratecon inter la popoloj kaj cxar laux la opinio de la gentaj sxovinistoj patriotismo konsistas en malamo kontraux cxio, kio ne estas nia, tial ni laux ilia opinio estas malbonaj patriotoj, kaj ili diras, ke la esperantistoj ne amas sian patrujon. kontraux tiu cxi mensoga, malnobla kaj kalumnia kulpigo ni protestas plej energie, ni protestas per cxiuj fibroj de nia koro! . . . vi staras nun antaux miaj okuloj, mia kara litovujo, mia malfelicxa patrujo, kiun mi neniam povas forgesi, kvankam mi forlasis vin kiel juna knabo. vi, kiun mi ofte vidas en miaj songxoj, vi, kiun nenia alia parto de la tero iam povos anstatauxi en mia koro, vi atestu, kiu vin pli multe, pli kore kaj pli sincere amas: cxu mi, idea esperantisto, kiu revis pri frateco inter cxiuj viaj logxantoj, kvankam mi devis bedauxrinde forlasi vin, simile al multaj centoj da miloj da aliaj viaj filoj--aux cxu tiuj personoj, kiuj deziras, ke vi apartenu nur al ili, kaj cxiuj aliaj viaj filoj estu rigardataj kiel fremduloj aux sklavoj! ho patriotismo, patriotismo, kiam fine la homoj lernos kompreni gxuste vian sencon! kiam via sankta nomo cxesos esti armilo en la manoj de diversaj malhonestuloj! kiam fine cxiu homo ricevos la rajton kaj la eblon algluigxi per sia tuta koro al tiu peco da tero, kiu lin naskis! longe dauxros ankoraux malluma nokto sur la tero, sed ne eterne gxi dauxros. venos iam la tempo, kiam la homoj cxesos esti lupoj unuj kontraux aliaj. anstataux konstante batali inter si, elsxiri la patrujon unuj al la aliaj, perforte altrudi al si reciproke siajn lingvojn kaj morojn, ili vivos inter si pace kaj frate, en plena interkonsento ili laboros sur la tero, sur kiu ili vivas, kaj kontraux tiuj krudaj fortoj de la naturo, kiuj ilin cxiujn egale atakas. kaj kune kaj interkonsente ili celados cxiuj al unu vero, al unu felicxo. kaj se iam venos tiu felicxa tempo, gxi estos la frukto de konstanta kaj senlaca laborado de tiuj homoj, kiujn vi vidas nun en cxi tiu cxambrego kaj kies nomo, ankoraux tre malmulte konata kaj tre malmulte sxatata, estas "esperantistoj." el "the british esperantist." kulpo - fault; trakti - to treat; prediki - to preach; gento - tribe, race; sxovinisto - chauvinist; litovujo - lithuania; sengxo - dream; atesti - to bear witness; revi - to imagine, dream; bedauxri - to regret; sklavo - slave; senco - meaning; rajto - right; alglui - to glue to, stick to, attach; lupo - wolf; trudi - to obtrude; moro - manners, custom; paco - peace; konsenti - to agree; kruda - crude, rough, raw; frukto - fruit; sxati - to prize, appreciate, like. * * * * * foreword to supplementary vocabulary. as this vocabulary is intended for those who have worked through the preceding lessons, it is not a full vocabulary, but only supplementary to those already given, and the words contained in those are, as a rule, not repeated here. in order to get in as many root words as possible, derived words and the second word of a pair (e.g., male or female, opposites, the action and the tool, the animal and its young, etc.) are generally omitted; the simple word or one of the pair being found, the other word is to be formed from it by means of the proper word-ending, prefix or suffix. in english there are often several words to express the same or nearly the same meaning. want of space prevents these being all included; the most important or most commonly used word has therefore been chosen; for instance, "mercury", "tranquil", "diaphanous", "suffocate", "salve", "renown", "fiddle", are not to be found, but "quicksilver", "calm", "translucent", "smother", "ointment", "fame", "violin", are there. a most valuable help to the student is a good english dictionary, and if this gives the derivation of the words, the interest of the study is greatly increased. the difficulty often is, not to find the right esperanto word, but to know exactly what the english word or phrase means. it is the experience of most esperantists that in learning esperanto their knowledge of their own language has become much more thorough. [footnote: a remark made by a student during one lesson was "well, if we don't learn esperanto, we shall learn english."] for this reason and also that this language cannot be learned simply as a matter of rote, but demands the exercise of the thinking and reasoning powers, [footnote: to convince an opponent or a doubter of this, tell him that "utila" means "useful," and "mal" denotes the contrary; then ask what "malutila" means. the answer will almost certainly be "useless." then show that the contrary of a good quality is not merely the absence of that quality, but is a bad quality, and therefore the contrary of "useful" is "harmful."] esperanto ought to be taught in all schools. vocabulary. === a === abbot : abato. abdomen : ventro. ability : kapablo, povo, lerteco, talento. able (to be) : povi. abolish : neniigi, forigi. abomination : abomeno. abroad : eksterlande. absent (to be) : foresti. absolve : senkulpigi, senpekigi. absorb : absorbi; sorbi. abstain : deteni sin. abuse : insult'i, -o; trouzi; malbonuzi. abyss : abismo, profundegajxo. accent : akcent'i, -o; supersigno. accept : akcepti, alpreni. accident : malfelicxajxo, okazo. account : kalkulo; rakonto; konto. "on--of," pro. accuse : kulpigi, akuzi. ace : aso. ache : dolor'o, -i. acknowledge : konfesi. acorn : glano. acquaint : sciigi. acquainted, become--with : konatigxi kun. acquire : akiri, atingi. acquit : senkulpigi. acrid : akra, morda, pika. act : ag'i, -o; far'i, -o; legxo; akto. action : agado; ("law") proceso. active : agema, aktiva. actor : aktoro. actual : nuna, efektiva. adapt : alfari. add : aldoni, kunmeti, sumigi. address : alparoli al; sin turni al; ("letters") adresi. adhere : aligxi, algluigxi al. adjourn : prokrasti. admit : allasi, konfesi. adopt : alpreni, fil (-in) -igi. adore : adori, amegi. adult : plenkresk'a, plenagx'a. adulterate : falsi. adultery : adulto. advantage : utilo, profito, bonajxo. advertise : anonci, reklami. advice : konsilo. affair : afero. affected (to be) : afekti. affiliate : aligxi, filiigxi. afternoon : posttagmezo. again : re-, ree, denove. agenda : tagordo, programo. agent : agento. agile : facilmova. agitate : agiti. agony : dolorego, ("death"--) agonio. agree : konscnti, interkonsenti. agreeable : afabla, agrabla. agreement : kontrakto, interkonsento. agriculture : terkulturo. aim : cel'o, -i. air : aero, aerumi; mieno; ario. aisle : flankajxo. alarm : maltrankviligi; alarmo. alder : alno. alert : vigla. alien : alilandulo, eksterlandulo. alike : simila, egala. alive : vivanta, viva. alleviate : plidolcxigi, malpliigi. allow : permesi. allowance : porcio; (a/c) rabato; dekalkulo. allude : aludi. almanac : almanako, kalendaro. almighty : cxiopova. almond : migdalo. alms : almozo. alone : sola. along : lauxlonge. aloud : lauxte, vocxe. alternate : alterni. amazement : mirego. amber : sukceno. ambition : ambicio. ambush : embusko. amiable : afabla, aminda. amputate : detrancxi, amputi. amuse : amuzi. anarchy : anarhxio. ancestors : praavoj, prapatroj. ancient : antikva. anecdote : anekdoto. angel : angxelo. angle : angulo; fisxi. animal : besto. ankle : maleolo. anniversary : datreveno. announce : anonci. annoy : cxagreni, gxeni. annual : cxiujara. annul : nuligi. anoint : sanktolei, sxmiri. anonymous : anonima, sennoma ant : formiko. anthem : antemo. anvil : amboso. anxious : maltrankvila. apathetic : apatia. aperture : malfermajxo, aperturo. apologise : peti pardonon. apparatus : aparato. appeal : alvoki; (law) apelacio. appear : aperi; sxajni. appearance : vidigxo; sxajno, mieno. appetite : apetito. applaud : aplauxdi. apply : almeti; sin turni al. appoint : nomi, difini. appreciate : sxati. approach : alproksimigxi. approve : aprobi. apricot : abrikoto. apron : antauxtuko. arable : plugebla, semotauxga. arbitrary : arbitra. arbitration : arbitracio. arbour : lauxbo. arch : arko; arkefleksi. argue : argumenti. arithmetic : aritmetiko. arm : brako, "-pit," akselo; armi. arms : armiloj, bataliloj. aroma : aromo. arouse : veki. arrange : arangxi. arrest : aresti. arrive : alveni. arrogant : aroganta arrow : sago. art : arto. artery : arterio. artful : ruza. artichoke : artisxoko. article : artikolo, komercajxo. artificial : artefarita, arta. artifice : artifiko. artisan : metiisto. artist : artisto. ascertain : konstati. ash : cindro, (tree) frakseno. ask : demandi. "-for," peti. asparagus : asparago. aspect : aspekto, vidigxo, fazo. aspen : tremolo. ass : azeno. assemble : kunveni, kunvoki. assert : aserti, konstati. assign : asigni. assure : certigi; asekuri. astonish : mirigi. ("to be -ed"), miri. astringent : adstringa. astute : sagaca. asylum : rifugxejo, azilo. athletic : atleta. atmosphere : atmosfero. atom : atomo. attach : alligi, kunigi. attain : atingi, trafi. attempt : provi; (criminal) atenco. attention : atento, ("pay"--) atenti. attitude : sintenado. attract : altiri, logi. auction : auxkcio. audit : kontkontroli. author : auxtoro. authority : rajto, auxtoritato. avalanche : lavango. avaricious : avara. avenue : aleo. average : meznombro, mezakvanto. avert : deturni. avoid : eviti. award : aljxugxi axis : akso. axle : akso. azure : lazuro. === b === baboon : paviano. baby : infaneto. bachelor : frauxlo. back : dorso, posta flanko. backbone : spino. bacon : lardo. bag : sako. bait : allogajxo. bake : baki. balance : ekvilibri; (of account) restajxo. "-sheet," bilanco. balcony : balkono. ball : (play) pilko, (cannon) kuglo, (dance) balo. balloon : aerostato. ballot : baloti, -o. balsam : balzamo. band : ligilo; bando; orkestro. bandage : bandagxi. banish : ekzili. bank : (money) banko; bordodigo. banker : bankiero. bankrupt : bankroto. banner : flago, standardo. banquet : festeno. baptism : bapto. bar : bar'i, -ilo; bufedo. barbarian : barbaro. barber : barbiro. bare : nuda. bargain : marcxandi. bark : boji; sxelo. barley : hordeo. barrel : barelo. "-organ," gurdo. barrister : advokato. base : bazo; fundamento; malnobla. basin : pelvo, kuvo. basket : korbo. bat : vesperto; batilo. bath : bano, bankuvo. bathe : sin bani. beam : radio, trabo, vekto. bean : fabo, fazeolo. bear : urso; porti; subteni beard : barbo. beat : bati, vergi, vipi, venki. beautiful : bela. beaver : kastoro. because : cxar, tial ke, pro tio ke. bed : lito, kusxejo, fluejo, florbedo. bee : abelo. beech : fago. beer : biero. beet : beto. beetle : skarabo, blato. beg : peti, almozpeti. begin : komenci, ek-. behave : konduti. behold : rigardi; jen! bell : sonorilo. below : sube, malsupre. belt : zono. bench : benko; (joiner's) stablo. bend : fleks'i, -igxi; klin'i, -igxi. bent : kurb'a, -igita. bequeath : testamenti. berry : bero. besiege : siegxi. bet : veti. betray : perfidi. betrothal : fiancx' (-in-) igxo. bewitch : sorcxi. bilberry : mirtelo. bile : galo. bill : kalkulo; kambio; afisxo; beko. billiards : bilardo bind : ligi; (books) bindi; bandagxi. -"weed", liano. birch : betulo. birth : naskigxo. biscuit : biskvito. bishop : episkopo. bit : peco; enbusxajxo. bite : mordi. bitter : akra, maldolcxa. blackbird : merlo. blacking : ciro. bladder : veziko. blade : klingo; (of grass), folieto blaspheme : blasfemi. bless : beni. blind : blinda. "window"-, rulkurteno. blond : blonda. blood : sango. blot : makulo. blow : blovi; bato, frapo. blouse : bluzo. blue : blua; -"bell", hiacinto, kampanoleto. boa-constrictor : boao. boast : fanfaroni. boat : boato. bobbin : bobeno. body : korpo. bog : marcxo. boil : boli; absceso. bold : kuragxa, sentima. bolt : rigl'i, -ilo; bolto. bomb : bombo. bombard : bombardi. bond : obligacio, garantiajxo bondage : servuto, sklaveco. bone : osto. bonnet : cxapo. booth : budo. border : rand'o, -ajxo; borderi. bore : bori; kalibro. born : (to be), naskigxi. borrow : prunte preni. bosom : brusto, sino. bottom : fundo, malsupro. boundary : limo. bouquet : bukedo. bow : saluti; kapklini; pafarko; arcxo; banto. bowels : internajxo, intestaro. bowl : pelvo, kuvo. box : kesto, skatolo; logxio; boksi; pugnobati. braces : sxelko. brain : cerbo. bran : brano. branch : brancxo; filio. brass : flava kupro, latuno. brave : brava, kuragxa. breach : brecxo. break : rompi, frakasi. breakfast : matenmangx'i, -o. breast : brusto, mamo. breathe : spiri. bribe : subacxeti. brick : briko. bridge : ponto. bridle : brido. bright : hela, brila, gaja. bring : alkonduki, alporti. broad : largxa. broker : makleristo, ("act as--") makleri. brooch : brocxo. brood : kovi, kovitaro. broth : buljono. brown : bruna. browse : sin pasxti. bruise : kontuzi; pisti. brush : bros'o, -i; balailo; peniko. bucket : sitelo. buckle : buko. bud : burgxono. budget : budgxeto. buffet : (restaurant) bufedo. bug : cimo. build : konstrui. bullet : kuglo. bullfinch : pirolo. bunch : fasketo, aro. bundle : fasko. bungle : fusxi. burden : surpezi, sxargxo. bureau : oficejo, kontoro. burgess : burgxo. burn : brul'i, -igi. burrow : kavigi. burst : krevi. bury : enterigi, enfosi. business : afero, okupo, negoco busy : okupata, aferema. butcher : bucx'i, -isto. buttercup : ranunkolo, butterfly : papilio. buzz : zumi. === c === cab : fiakro; kabrioleto, drosxko. cabbage : brasiko. cabin : kajuto, kabano. cabinet : cxambreto, kabineto. cable : sxnurego, kablo. cage : kagxo. calico : kalikoto. calk : kalfatri. call : voki, (--"together") kunvoki. callosity : kalo. calm : kvieta, trankvila. camel : kamelo. camp : tendaro. canary : kanario. candid : sincera, verdirema. candidate : kandidato, aspiranto. cane : kano; bastono; vergi. cannon : kanono. canon : kanoniko. canopy : baldakeno. canvas : kanvaso. cap : cxapo, (milit.) kepo. capable : kapabla, kompetenta. cape : manteleto; promontoro, terkapo. capital : cxefurbo; kapitalo; granda litero. capitalist : kapitalisto. capitulate : kapitulaci. capsize : renversigxi. captain : sxipestro, kapitano. capture : kapti. car : veturilo, cxaro. card : karto, "-board," kartono. carnation : dianto; flavroza. carp : karpo; kritikajxi. carpenter : cxarpentisto. carpet : tapisxo. carriage : veturilo, kalesxo, vagono; transporto. carrot : karoto. cart : sxargxveturilo. carve : trancxi; skulpti. case : okazo; ujo; kazo; proceso. cashier : kasisto. cast : jxeti, (metal) fandi. castle : kastelo. catch : kapti. caterpillar : rauxpo. cathedral : katedralo. cattle : bruto, brutoj. cauliflower : florbrasiko. cause : kauxz'i, -o; -igi; afero. caution : averti; singardemo. cave : kaverno. cavil : cxikani. caw : graki. ceiling : plafono. celebrate : festi, soleni, celery : celerio. cell : cxelo, cxambreto. cellar : kelo. censor : cenzuristo. censure : riprocxi. ceremony : ceremonio, soleno. certain : certa; kelkaj; ia. chaff : grenventumajxo. chaffinch : fringo. chain : cxeno. chair : segxo. "-man," prezidanto. chalk : kreto. chance : hazardo; riski; okazi; sxanco. chancellor : kanceliero. change : sxangxi, aliigi. channel : kanalo. chaos : hxaoso. chapel : kapelo, pregxejeto. chapter : cxapitro. character : karaktero; (drama) rolo. charm : cxarmi; talismano. chaste : cxasta. cheat : trompi. check : haltigi; kontroli. cheek : vango. cheerful : gaja. cheese : fromagxo, chemist : apotekisto, hxemiisto. cheque : cxeko. cherry : cxerizo. chess : sxako. chest : brusto; kesto, (of drawers) komodo. chestnut : kasxtano, ("horse--") marono. chew : macxi, ("--cud") remacxadi. chicory : cikorio. chief : cxef'o, -a. chimney : kamentubo. chin : mentono. china : porcelano. chirp : pepi; (insects) cxirpi. chisel : cxiz'i, -ilo. chocolate : cxokolado. choir : hxoro. choke : sufoki. chop : haki; koteleto. chronicle : kroniko. church : pregxejo. cigarette : cigaredo. circle : rondo, cirklo. circular : (letter), cirkulero. circumference : cxirkauxo. circus : cirko. city : civito, urbo. citizen : urbano, burgxo, civitano, regnano. civil : civila, gxentila. civilize : civilizi. claim : pretendi, postuli. clap : (hands) manfrapi, plauxdi. class : kurso; (sort) klaso. classify : ordigi, klasifiki. claw : ungego. clay : argilo. clergyman : pastro. clerk : oficisto, kontoristo, komizo. clever : lerta. cliff : krutajxo. climate : klimato. climb : grimpi, suprenrampi. clink : tinti. cloak : mantelo. clod : bulo. closet : necesejo; cxambreto. cloth : drapo; ("a"--) tuko. clothe : vesti. cloud : nubo. clover : trifolio. club : klubo, (cards) trefo. clue : postesigno. coal : karbo. coast : marbordo. coat : vesto; "-tail", basko. cockle : kardio. cocoa : kakao; "-nut", kokoso. cod : gado, moruo. coffee : kafo. coffin : cxerko. coil : rulajxo, volvajxo. coin : monero. coke : koakso. colander : kribrilo, cold : malvarm'a, -umo. colleague : kolego. collect : kolekti, amasigi. collective : opa. college : kolegio. colony : kolonio. colour : koloro. comb : kombi; (fowl's) kresto. combine : kombin'i, -igxi, kun'igi, -igxi. come : veni. comfort : komforti, konsoli. comic : komika, ridinda. comma : komo. command : ordoni, komandi. comment : komentar'i, -o. commerce : komerco, negoco. commission : komisi'i, -o; ("sell on"--) makleri. committee : komitato. common : komuna, ordinara, vulgara; erikejo, step'o, -eto. commune : komunumo. communicate : komuniki. companion : kunulo. company : anaro, kompanio, societo, trupo, roto. compare : kompari. compartment : fako. compass : ("mariners'"--) kompaso; (drawing) cirkelo. compel : devigi. compensate : kompensi complete : konkuri. complaint : plendi. complete : plen'a, -igi. compliment : kompliment'o, -i. compose : verki; komposti. compositor : kompostisto. comrade : kamarado. concern : koncerni; zorgo; rilati al. concrete : konkreta. concussion : skuego. condemn : kondamni. condition : kondicxo; stato. condole : kondolenci. confectioner : konfitisto. conference : konferenco. confirm : konfirmi. confiscate : konfiski. conflict : konflikto. conform : konformi. confuse : konfuzi. congratulate : gratuli. congregation : kongregacio. congress : kongreso. conjure : jxongli. conscience : konscienco. conscious : konsci'a, -"ness", 'o. consequence : sekvo. conservative : konservativa. consider : pripensi, konsideri. consistent : konsekvenca. consonant : konsonanto. constipation : mallakso. consult : konsiligxi kun. consume : konsumi. consumption : (disease) ftizo. contact : kontakto. contain : enhavi, enteni. content : kontenta. continue : dauxri, -igi. contract : kontrakti; kuntir'i, -igxi. contrary : kontrauxo, malo. contrast : kontrasti. contrive : elpensi. control : estri, regi. convenient : oportuna. conversation : interparolado, konversacio. convict : kondamnito. convince : konvinki. convolvulus : konvolvolo. convulse : konvulsio, spasmo. copper : kupro. copy : kopii; ekzemplero. coral : koralo. cord : sxnuro. core : korajxo, internajxo. cork : korko; sxtopi, corn : greno; (foot), kalo. corner : angulo. correct : korekti; gxusta, senerara. correspond : korespondi. corrode : mordeti. corset : korseto. costume : kostumo. cotton : (raw), kotono; (manuf.) katuno. cough : tusi. council : konsilantaro. count : kalkuli; grafo. country : lando; kamparo. courage : kuragxo. course : kuro; kurso. "of"--, kompreneble. court : korto, ("royal"--) kortego; jugxejo; amindumi. covetous : avida. crab : krabo, kankro. crack : fendi, kraki, krev'i, -igi. cradle : lulilo. crafty : ruza. crane : gruo, sxargxlevilo. crape : krepo. crater : kratero. cravat : kravato. creature : estajxo, kreitajxo. credit : kredito. creed : kredo. creep : rampi. crest : tufo, kresto. crevice : fendo. cricket : grilo; (game) kriketo. crime : krimo. crippled : kripla. crisis : krizo. criticism : kritiko. crochet : krocxeti. crocodile : krokodilo, aligatoro. cross : kruco, trans' -iri, -pasi. --"out", streki. croup : krupo. crow : korniko. crowd : amaso. crown : krono; (of head) verto. cruel : kruela. cruise : krozi. crumple : cxifi. crust : krusto. crutch : lambastono. cry : krii, ekkrii, plori; (of animals) bleko. crystal : kristalo. cube : kubo. cuckoo : kukolo. cucumber : kukumo. cuff : manumo; frapo. cultivate : kulturi. cunning : ruza. cup : taso, kaliko. cupboard : sxranko. cure : resanigi; (bacon, etc.) pekli. curious : scivola, stranga, kurioza. curl : buklo. currant : ribo, sekvinbereto (korinta). current : fluo. curtain : kurteno. curved : kurba, fleksita, nerekta. cushion : kuseno. customer : kliento. cutlet : kotleto. cycle : ciklo. cyclone : ciklono. czar : caro. === d === daffodil : narciso. daily : cxiutaga. dainty : frandajxo; frandema delikata, daisy : lekant'o, -eto. dam : digo, akvosxtopilo. damage : difekti. dance : danc'i, -o; balo. dandelion : leontodo. dare : kuragxi. darn : fliki. date : dato; (fruit) daktilo. dawn : tagigxo. dead : senviva, mortinta. -ly, pereiga. dear : kara, multekosta. debauch : dibocxo. debris : rub'o, -ajxo. debt : sxuldo, ("be in"--) sxuldi. decipher : decxifri. deck : ferdeko; ornami. declaration : deklaracio. decoration : ornamajxo; ordeno. decree : dekreto, mandate. decrepit : kaduka. dedicate : dedicxi. deed : ago, faro, farajxo, faritajxo; dokumento. deep : profunda; (sound) basa. deer : cervo. defeat : venki, malvenko. defend : defendi. defer : prokrasti. deficiency : deficito, malsuficxeco. defile : intermonto; malpurigi. define : difini. definite : definitiva. degenerate : degeneri. degree : grado. deity : diajxo, dieco. delay : prokrasti. delegate : deleg'i, -ito. delicate : delikata. delightful : cxarma, rava. delirium : delir'o, ("be in") -i. deliver : savi, liberigi; (goods) liveri. deluge : superakvego, diluvo. den : nestego, kaverno. denounce : denunci. deny : nei, malkonfesi. depart : foriri. department : fako. depend : dependi. derive : devenigi. descendant : ido, posteulo. describe : priskribi. desert : dezerto; forlasi; forkuri de. desk : pupitro. despatch : ekspedi, depesxo. dessert : deserto. destine : (for), difini (por). destroy : detrui. detail : detalo. detriment : malutilo, perdo. develop : plivastigi, disvolv'-i, -igxi, (phot.) aperigi. devil : diablo, demono. devoted : sindona. devout : pia. dew : roso. dexterous : lerta. dial : ciferplato. diarrhoea : lakso. dice : ludkuboj. dictate : dikti. dictionary : vortaro. die : morti. differ : diferenci. digest : digesti. dignity : digno, rango. dine : tag', vesper', -mangxi. dip : trempi, subakvigi. diploma : diplomo. diplomacy : diplomatio. direct : direkti, rekta, senpera. disappoint : seniluziigi, cxagreni. discharge : eligi, eksigi, elpagi. disciple : lernanto, discxiplo. discipline : disciplino. discount : diskonto, rabato. discover : eltrovi. discreet : diskreta, singardema. discuss : diskuti. disease : malsano. disguise : alivesti, maski. disgust : nauxzi. dish : plado. dislocate : elartikigi. dismal : funebra. dismay : konsterni. dispel : peli, forpeli, dispeli. dispose : disponi. disposition : inklino, emo. dispute : disputi, malpaci. dissect : sekci. disseminate : dissemi. dissolve : solvi. distance : interspaco, malproksimeco, distanco. distinct : klara. distinguish : distingi. distract : distri. distribute : disdoni. district : regiono, kvartalo, distrikto. ditch : foso. dive : subakvigxi. dividends : rento, dividendo. divorce : eksedzigi. dizziness : kapturnigxo. do : fari. doctor : kuracisto, doktoro. doctrine : doktrino, instruo. domestic : hejma, doma. dose : dozo. dot : punkto. double : duobl'a, -igi. doubt : dubi. dough : knedajxo. down : lanugo; malsupre. dowry : doto. drag : treni. dragon : drako. "-fly", libelo. dragoon : dragono. drain : defluilego, senakvigi. drake : anaso. drape : drapiri. draught : aerfluo. "-s" (game) damoj. draw : desegni; tiri, (from well) cxerpi. drawer : tirkesto. drawers : kalsono, (chest of -s), komodo. dream : songx'i, -o; (day-), rev'o, -i. dredge : skrapegi. dress : robo; vesti, sin vesti. drill : bori; ekzerco, manovro. drink : trinki, (to excess) drinki. drive : veturi; peli. "--away", forpeli. droll : ridinda, sxerca. drone : abelviro; zumi. drop : gut'o, -i. drown : dron'i, -igi. drug : drogo. drum : tamburo. drunken : ebria. dry : seka. "--land", firmajxo. duck : anasino, anaso. duration : dauxro. duty : devo, (tax) imposto. "be on--", dejxori. dwell : logxi, restadi. dye : tinkturi. dyke : digo. === e === eager : avida. ear : orelo, (corn) spiko. earl : grafo. early : fru'a, -e. earn : perlabori. earnest : serioza, diligenta, fervora. earth : tero. "-quake", tertremo. earthenware : fajenco. east : oriento. easter : pasko. ebony : ebono. ecclesiastical : eklezia. echo : ehxo, resonadi. edge : rando, trancxrando, bordo edify : edifi. edit : redakti. edition : eldono. editor : redaktoro. educate : eduki. eel : angilo. effect : efiko, efekto. effective : efektiva. efficacious : efika. effort : peno, klopodo. eiderduck : molanaso. elastic : elast'a, -ajxo. elbow : kubuto. elder : (tree), sambuko. elect : elekti, baloti. electricity : elektro. elegant : eleganta. elf : koboldo, elfo. elm : ulmo. eloquent : elokventa. embalm : balzami. embrace : cxirkauxpreni, enbrakigi; ampleksi. embroider : brodi. emerald : smeraldo. emigrate : elmigri. eminent : eminenta. emotion : kortusxeco. emphasis : emfazo, akcentego empire : imperio. enable : ebligi. enamel : emajl'o, -i. enchant : ravi; ensorcxi. encore : bis. endeavour : klopodi, peni. endow : doti. endure : dauxri; toleri, suferi. energy : energio. engine : masxino, lokomotivo, motoro. engrave : gravuri. enjoy : gxui. enlist : varbi, rekruti. enough : suficxa, (be--) suficxi. entangle : impliki. enterprise : entrepreno. entertain : amuzi; regali. enthusiasm : entuziasmo. entice : logi, allogi. entwine : kunplekti. envelop : envolvi. envelope : koverto. environs : cxirkauxajxo. equivalent : ekvivalenta, egala. erase : trastreki; forfroti. erect : vertikala; rekta; starigi. errand : komisio. escape : forkuri, forsavigxi. establish : fondi, starigi. estate : (land) bieno. esteem : estimi. estimate : taksi. eternal : eterna, cxiama. ethical : etika. eve : antauxtago. even : ecx; parnombra; ebena. event : okazo. evil : malbono, peko. exact : gxusta, preciza; postuli. examine : ekzameni, esplori. examination : ekzameno. example : ekzemplo. exceed : superi. except : krom, esceptinte; escepte. exchange : intersxangxi. "the--", borso. excite : eksciti. exclusive : eksklusiva. excursion : ekskurso. execute : efektivigi; (--"a criminal"), ekzekuti. exercise : ekzerci. -book, kajero. exhaust : konsumi, elcxerpi. exhibition : ekspozicio. exhort : admoni. expect : atendi. expel : elpeli. experience : sperto. experiment : eksperimento. expert : lerta, kompetenta. explode : eksplod'-i, -igi. express : esprimi, ekspreso. extend : etendi. exterminate : ekstermi. extinguish : estingi. extract : ekstrakti, eltiri. extraordinary : eksterordinara. eye : okulo. "-brow", brovo. "-lid", palpebro. === f === fable : fablo. fact : fakto. "in"--, ja, efektive. factory : fabrikejo, faktorio. fade : velki. fail : manki; malprosperi, bankroti. faint : sveni. fair : foiro; blonda; justa. fairy : feino, feo. faith : fido, kredo. falcon : falko. false : falsa, malvera. fame : gloro, renomo; famo. familiar : kutima, intima. family : familio. fan : ventum'i, -ilo. fare : farti; veturpago. farm : farmi (have on lease); farmobieno. fashion : modo, maniero, fasono. fast : fast'i, -o; rapida. fasten : alligi, fiksi, fat : gras'a, -o; sebo. fatal : fatala, mortiga. fate : sorto. fathom : sondi, klafto. fault : kulpo; difekto; eraro. favour : favori, komplezo. feast : regalo, festeno; festo. feather : plumo. feature : trajto. feed : nutri, mangxigi, pasxti. feel : palpi, senti. felt : felto. female : ino, virinseksa. fence : skermi; palisaro. ferment : fermenti. fern : filiko. ferret : cxasputoro, ferry-boat : pramo. fester : ulcerigxi, pusi. festival : festo. feudal : feuxdala. fever : febro. fibre : fibro. fife : fifro. fig : figo. fight : batal'i, -o. figure : cifero; figuro. figurative : figura. file : fajli, -ilo. film : filmo, tavoleto. filter : filtr'i, -ilo. fin : nagxilo. fine : delikata; monpuno. fir : abio. fire : brulo, fajro; (gun), pafi. fireplace : kameno, fajrejo. fireworks : artfajrajxo. firm : firma, fortika; firmo. fish : fisx'o, -i, -kapti. fist : pugno. fit : atako. "--for", tauxga; konvena, deca. fix : fiksi. flake : floko, negxero. flame : flami. flannel : flanelo. flat : plata, ebena; apartamento. flatter : flati. flavour : gusto. flax : lino. flea : pulo. flesh : (meat), viando; karno. flint : siliko. flit : flirti. float : nagxi; surnagxi. flock : aro, pasxtataro, sxafaro. flog : skurgxi. flood : superakvegi. floor : planko, etagxo. flour : faruno. flow : flui. flower : flor'o, -i. "-bed," bedo. fluid : fluajo. flutter : flugeti, flirti. fly : musxo; flugi. fog : nebulo. fold : fald'i, -o. follow : sekvi. fondle : dorloti, karesi. food : nutrajxo. fool : malsagxulo. foot : piedo; futo. "-man," lakeo. "-path," trotuaro, piedvojeto. forage : furagxo. forehead : frunto. foreign : ali', ekster'-landa, fremda. forest : arbarego. forge : forgxi. forget : forgesi. "-me-not", miozoto. forgive : pardoni. formidable : timeginda. formulate : formuli. fortress : fortikajxo. fortunate : felicxa. foundation : fundamento foundry : fandejo. fountain : fontano. fowl : kortbirdo. fox : vulpo. frame : kadro. freckle : lentugo. free : liber'a, -igi; senpaga. freeze : frostigxi, glaci'igi, -igxi. frequent : ofta; vizitadi. fringe : frangxo. fritter : fritajxo. frock : vesteto. "-coat," surtuto. frog : rano. frolic : petoli. frown : sulk'o, -igi. frugal : sxparema, fruit : frukto. "-ful," fruktodona. fry : friti, (spawn) frajo, "-ing" "pan," pato, fritilo. fuel : brulajxo, hejtajxo. fulfil : plenumi. fun : sxercado. function : funkcio. funeral : enterigiro. funnel : funelo. funny : ridinda. fur : felo; "--coat" pelto. furnace : fornego. furnish : mebli, provizi. furrow : sulko. further : pile, plimalproksime. fury : furiozo, furio. fuse : fandi. furniture : mebl'o, -aro. future : estonteco. === g === gadfly : tabano. gain : gajni, (clock) trorapidi. gall : galo. "-nut," gajlo. gallery : galerio. gallop : galopi. game : ludo, cxasajxo. gap : brecxo; manko. gargle : gargari. garrison : garnizon'o, -i. gas : gaso. gate : pordego. gauze : gazo. gelatine : gelateno. gem : gemo. general : gxenerala; generalo. generation : generacio. generous : malavara. genius : genio, geniulo. gentle : dolcxa, neforta, milda. gentleman : sinjoro. genus : gento. germ : gxermo. germinate : gxermi. gesture : gesto. ghost : fantomo. giant : giganto. gild : ori, orumi. gill : (of fish), branko. gin : gxino. ginger : zingibro. -bread, mielkuko. gipsy : cigano. give : doni, donaci, glacier : glaciejo. glass : vitro, "a--," glaso. "looking--," spegulo. glaze : glazuri. glorify : glori. glove : ganto. glow : ardi, brili. "-worm," lampiro. glue : gluo. glycerine : glicerino. gnat : kulo. gnaw : mordeti. goat : kapro. goblet : pokalo. goblin : koboldo. god : dio. gold : oro. goldfinch : kardelo. golosh : galosxo. goodbye : adiaux. goose : anserino. gooseberry : groso. gospel : evangelio. gout : podagro. govern : regi. governess : guvernistino graceful : gracia. gradual : grada, lauxgrada. graft : inokuli, grefti. grain : grajno, greno. grammar : gramatiko. grape : vinbero. grass : herbo. grasshopper : akrido. grate : fajrujo; raspi, skrapi. grating : krado. gravity : pezo. gravy : suko. grease : graso; sxmiri. great : granda. "-coat," palto, gravitoj greedy : avida, mangxegema. green : verda. "-house," varmejo. greengage : renklodo. grey : griza. "-hound," leporhundo. grill : kradrosti. grin : grimaci, rikani. grind : mueli; pisti; grinci. gristle : kartilago. groan : gxemi. grocer : spicisto. grotesque : groteska. grotto : groto. ground : tero. "-floor," teretagxo. groundsel : senecio. group : grup'o, -igi. grouse : tetro. grub : larvo. guarantee : garantii. guard : gardi, (milit.) gvardio. gudgeon : gobio. guess : diveni, konjekti. guide : gvidi. guillotine : gilotino. gulf : golfo. gull : mevo. gullet : ezofago gorgxo, fauxko. gum : gumo, dentokarno. gun : pafilo, kanono. "-powder," pulvo. gush : sxpruci. guttapercha : gutaperko. gutter : defluilo. === h === habit : kutimo. haddock : eglefino. hair : haro, haroj; hararo "-dresser," frizisto. hall : vestiblo, halo, salono. halt : halti, lami. halter : kolbrido. ham : sxinko. hammer : martelo. hand : mano. "-ful," plenmano, "-shake," manpremo. handkerchief : naztuko. handle : tenilo, manpreni. hang : pend'i, -igi. hansom : kabrioleto, fiakro. happen : okazi. harbour : haveno. harden : malmoligi, (health), hardi hare : leporo. harm : difekti, malutili. harness : jungi, jungajxo. harpoon : harpuno. harrow : erpi, erpilo. harvest : rikolto. hasten : rapid'i, -igi. hatch : kovi. hatchet : hakilo. haunch : kokso. hawk : akcipitro; kolporti. hawthorn : kratago. hay : fojno. hazlenut : avelo. heal : resanigi, cikatrigxi. health : sano. "propose a--," toasti. heap : amas'o, -igi. heart : koro, (cards) kero. "by," parkere. hearth : kameno, fajrujo, hejmo. heath : eriko, erikejo, stepo. heathen : idolano. heaven : cxielo. heavy : peza. hedge : plektobarilo, "-hog" erinaco. heir : heredanto. hell : infero. helm : direktilo. helmet : kasko. hem : borderi. hemp : kanabo. herald : heroldo. heresy : herezo. hermit : ermito. hero : heroo. heron : ardeo. herring : haringo. hesitate : sxanceligxi, heziti. hiccough : singulti. hide : kasxi; felo. hinge : cxarniro. hip : kokso. hire : dungi; lui; pago. hiss : sibli hit : frapi. hoard : amaso. hoar frost : prujno. hoax : mistifik'o, -i. hole : truo, kavo holiday : festo, libertempo. hollow : kav'a, -o. holly : ilekso. honey : mielo, "-comb," mieltavolo. "-suckle," lonicero. hood : kapucxo, kufo. hook : hoko, agrafo; alkrocxi. hope : espero. hops : lupolo. horizon : horizonto. horn : korno. hospitable : gastama. hospital : hospitalo. host : mastro; gastiganto; hostio. hostage : garantiulo. hotel : hotelo. hover : flirti. hub : radcentro, akso. hue : nuanco, koloro, hum : zumi. human : homa. "-being," homo. humane : humana. humble : humila. humbug : blago. humming-bird : kolibro. humorous : humorajxa, sprita, sxerca. hump : gxibo. hunger : malsato. hunt : cxasi. hurrah : hura. hurricane : uragano. hurt : vundi, malutili. husk : sxelo. hut : kabano. hymn : himno. hyphen : streketo. hypocritical : hipokrita. === i === ideal : ideala. identical : identa. idiom : idiomo, idiotismo. idiotic : idiota. idle : senokupa. idol : idolo. illegitimate : nelauxlegxa, bastarda, illuminate : ilumini. illusion : iluzio. illustrate : ilustri. image : figuro, bildo. imagine : imagi, revi. imbibe : ensorbi. imbue : penetri, inspiri. imitate : imiti. immediately : tuj. imminent : surpenda, minaca. impassive : stoika, kvietega. impertinent : impertinenta. implement : ilo. implicate : impliki. importune : trud'i, -igi. impose : trudi, trompi. impregnable : fortika, nekaptebla. impress : impresi. improvize : improvizi. impudent : senhonta. inch : colo. incident : okazajxo, epizodo. incite : instigi; inciti. incline : inklini, deklivo. include : enhavi, enkalkuli. income : enspezo, rento. incommode : gxeni. incompatible : nekunigebla. increase : kreski, pli'igi, -igxi. incriminate : enkulpigi. indeed : efektive, ja. independent : sendependa. index : nomaro; montra tabelo. india-rubber : kauxcxuko. indifferent : indiferenta. indigenous : indigxena, enlanda. indignant (to be) : indigni. indirect : malrekta, pera. indispensable : nepre necesa. individual : individuo. indolent : senenergia. indomitable : necedigebla. indorse : dorseskribi, gxiri. induce : decidigi, alkonduki. indulge : indulgi. industrious : diligenta, laborema industry : (business), industrio. infantry : infanterio. infect : infekti. infiltrate : ensorbigxi. infinite : senlima, sennombra, senfina. infirm : kaduka, malforta. inflammation : brulumo. influence : influ'o, -i sur. influenza : gripo, influenco. inform : informi, sciigi. infuse : infuzi. inherit : heredi. initiate : iniciati. inject : ensxprucigi, enjxeti. injection : (med.), klistero. injure : vundi, difekti, malutili. inquest : enketo. inquisitive : sciama, scivolo. insect : insekto. inside : interna, "--out" returnite. insidious : insida. insist : insisti. inspector : inspektoro. inspire : enspiri, inspiri. instigate : instigi. instinct : instinkto. institution : instituto. instructions : instrukcio. insult : ofendi; malhonori. insure : asekuri. intellect : intelekto, prudento. intelligent : inteligenta. intend : intenci. intense : ega, intensa. intercourse : interrilato. interest : procento, rentumo, intereso, interes'i, -igi, -igxi. interfere : sin inter'meti, -miksi, sin altrudi. interrupt : interrompi. interval : inter'spaco, -tempo. intervene : interveni. interview : intervjuo. intricate : malsimpla, komplika. introduce : prezenti, enkonduki. intrude : trudi. invade : invadi. invaluable : netaksebla. invent : elpensi. invert : renversi. invest : (money), procent'doni, -meti. invoice : fakturo, kalkulo. iris : (of eye), iriso; (flower) irido. iron : fero; gladi. ironmonger : ferajxisto. irony : ironio. irritate : inciti, kolerigi. island : insulo. isolate : izoli. isthmus : terkolo, istmo. italics : ("in--"), kursive. itch : juki. item : ero. itinerant : vaganta. ivory : eburo, elefantosto. ivy : hedero. === j === jackal : sxakalo. jacket : jako, jxaketo. jam : fruktajxo, konfitajxo. jaw : makzelo. --"s". fauxko. jealous : jxaluza. jelly : gelateno. jessamine : jasmeno. jewel : juvelo. jingle : tinti. join : kun'igi, -igxi; unuigxi kun, aligxi. joiner : lignajxisto. joint : artiko; kunigxo. joist : trabo. joke : sxerci. journal : jxurnalo; taglibro. journey : vojagx'i, -o; veturi. joy : gxoj'o. be --ful, -i. jubilee : jubileo. judgment : jugxo. judicious : prudenta, sagxa. jug : krucxo. juggle : jxongli. juice : suko. jump : salti. jury : jugxantaro, jxurintaro. juryman : jxurinto. just : justa; gxuste; (time) jxus. justify : pravigi. === k === keel : kilo. keep : teni, gardi, konservi. kernel : kerno. kettle : kaldrono, bolilo. key : sxlosilo, (piano) klavo. kick : piedfrapi. kidney : reno. kill : mortigi, bucxi, senvivigi. kind : speco; afabla, bonkora kingdom : regno, regxlando. kingfisher : alciono. kiss : kisi. knapsack : tornistro. knave : fripono; (cards) lakeo. knead : knedi. knee : genuo. kneel : genufleksi. knife : trancxilo. knight : kavaliro. knit : triki. knock : frapi. knot : nodo, (in wood) lignotubero know : (--"a fact"), scii; (as a person) koni. knuckle : fingroartiko; (hock) poplito. === l === label : surskribeto, etiketo. lace : punto; pasamento; ("boot"--), lacxo. lacquer : lako. ladder : sxtupetaro. ladle : cxerp'i, -ilo. ladybird : kokcinelo. lagoon : laguno. lair : bestkusxejo, nestego. lake : lago; lakrugxo. lame : kripla. to be--, lami. lamp : lampo, lanterno, (-"wick") mecxo. land : lando; tero; surterigxi. landscape : pejzagxo, vidajxo. language : lingv'o, -ajxo. lapwing : vanelo. larch : lariko. lard : lardi; porkograso. lark : alauxdo. last : lasta, fina; dauxri; ("boot"-) botosxtipo. lath : lato. lathe : tornilo. lattice : krad'o, -ajxo; latajxo. laurel : lauxro. lava : lafo. lavender : lavendo. law : legxo; juro, (-suit) proceso. lawn : batisto; herbejeto. lay : meti; (eggs) demeti; laika. layer : tavolo; (plants) markoti. lead : konduki. lead : plumbo. "black"--, grafito. leaf : folio, paperfolio. league : ligo. leak : traflueti. lean : klini. --"on", sin apogi sur; malgrasa. leap year : superjaro. learn : lerni, sciigxi pri. learned : klera, instruita. leather : ledo. leave : lasi, forlasi; deiri; testamenti; restigi. lecture : parolad'o, -i; prelego. leech : hirudo. leek : poreo. leg : kruro, (of fowl, etc.) femuro. legacy : heredajxo, testamentajxo. legend : legendo, fabelo. legitimate : rajta, lauxlegxa. lemon : citrono. lemonade : limonado. lend : pruntedoni. lentil : lento. leprosy : lepro. lesson : leciono. let : lasi, permesi; (a house) luigi lettuce : laktuko. level : ebena; nivel'o, -ilo. lever : levilo. liberal : liberal'a, -ulo. library : biblioteko. lichen : likeno. lick : leki. lie : kusxi, ("tell a"--) mensogi. life : vivo, vigleco. lift : levi, levilo, lifto, elevatoro. light : lum'i, -o; (ek)lumigi, malpeza. like : simila; kiel; sxati. likely : versxajne, kredeble. lilac : siringo. lily : lilio; (of the valley) konvalo. lime : kalko; (tree) tilio. limit : lim'o, -igi. limp : lami, lameti. line : linio; subsxtofi. linen : tolo, linajxo, (washing) tolajxo. linnet : kanabeno. lint : cxarpio. lip : lipo. liquid : fluid'a, -ajxo. liquidate : likvidi. liqueur : likvoro. liquorice : glicirizo. list : tabelo, nomaro, listo, katalogo, registro. literal : lauxlitera, lauxvorta. literature : literaturo; ("polite"--) beletristiko. live : vivi, logxi. liver : hepato. livery : livreo. lizard : lacerto. load : sxargx'i, -o; "--a gun" sxargi loaf : pano, panbulo. lobby : vestiblo. lobster : omaro. local : loka, tiea, regiona. lock : sxlosi; seruro; (hair) tufo; (canal) kluzo. locust : akrido. log : sxtipo, bloko. loins : lumbo. lonely : sol'a, -eca, -ula. long : longa. "--for," sopiri pri. look : aspekto, mieno. "--at," rigardi. "--for," sercxi. "--after," zorgi pri, varti. loop : masxo. lord : "(the--)" sinjoro, "(a--)" nobelo. lose : perdi, malgajni, (clock) malrapidi. lots : (cast), loti. lottery : loterio. loud : lauxta. love : ami. "make--," amindumi. loyal : lojala, fidela. lozenge : pastelo, "--shape" lozangxo. luck : felicxo, sxanco, sorto. lucky : felicxa. luggage : pakajxoj. lull : luli; trankviligi. lamp : bulo, maso, sxvelajxo. long : pulmo. lupin : lupeno. luxury : lukso. lynch : lincxi. lynx : linko. lyre : liro. lyric : lirika. === m === machine : masxino. mackerel : skombro. mad : freneza, rabia. magic : magio. magnanimous : grandanima magpie : pigo. mahogany : mahagono. majesty : majesto, mosxto. major : (milit.), majoro. majority : plimulto; plenagxo. make : fari, -igi; fabriki. male : vira, virseksa. malicious : malica. mallow : malvo; "(marsh--)" alteo. malt : malto. mammal : mambesto. manage : administri, "(--a house)" mastrumi. mane : kolharoj. mange : favo, skabio. mania : manio. manna : manao. manner : maniero; tenigxo, mieno. manners : moroj. manoeuvre : manovro. mantle : mantelo. manufacture : fabriki, manufakturo. manure : sterko. manuscript : manuskripto. map : karto, geografikarto. maple : acero. marble : marmoro; globeto. march : marsxi. marigold : kalendulo. mark : sign'o, -i; mark'o. market : vendejo, foiro, komercejo. marl : kalkargilo. marrow : ostocerbo, "(vegetable--)" kukurbeto. marry : edz (in) -igi, -igxi. marsh : marcxo. martyr : martiro, suferanto. mask : masko. mason : masonisto. "free--," framosono. mass : amaso, (church) meso. mast : masto. master : mastro, majstro. mastiff : korthundo, dogo, mat : mato. match : alumeto; parigi. matchmaker : svatist'o, -ino. material : sxtofo, materialo. mattress : matraco. mayor : urbestro. meadow : herbejo. meal : faruno; "(a--)" mangxo. mean : celi diri; signifi; malnobla. meaning : signifo, senco. means : rimedo. "by--of," per. measles : morbilo. measure : mezuri; (music) takto. meat : viando. mechanic : mehxanikisto, metiisto meddle : enmiksigxi. medicine : (a), kuracilo, medikamento, (science) medicine. meditate : mediti. medium : meza; (a), mediumo. meek : modesta, kvieta. meet : renkonti, -igxi; kunveni. melody : melodio. melt : fluid'igxi, -igi, (metals) fandi. memory : memoro. mend : ripari, (patch) fliki. mental : spirita, intelekta, cerba. merchant : komercisto, negocisto. mercy : kompato, indulge, korfavoreco. merry : gaja; "(to be--)" gaji. mesh : masxo, -ajxo. messiah : mesio. metal : metalo. method : metodo. middle : mezo. midwife : akusxistino. mignonette : resedo. migrate : migri. mild : milda, neforta, kvieta mile : mejlo. military : milita. milk : lakto, melki. mind : spirito, animo; intelekto atenti, zorgi pri, ne ofendigxi mine : mini, subfosi; mia. mineral : mineralo. minister : pastro, (polit.) ministro. mint : mento. minutes : (of meeting, etc.), protokolo. miracle : miraklo. mirror : spegulo. misery : mizero. mission : misio. mistake : erar'o, -i. mistletoe : visko. mite : akaro. mix : miksi. mob : popolamaso, popolacxo, fipopolo, kanajlaro. mock : moki. model : modelo. moderate : modera. modern : moderna. modest : modesta. molasses : melaso, sukerrestajxo. mole : talpo; digo. molest : gxeni, sin altrudi al. monarch : monarhxo. money : mono, "-order," posxtmandato. mongrel : hibrida. monk : monahxo. monkey : simio. monster : monstro. mood : modo. moor : stepo, erikejo; "(--a ship)" alligi. moral : morala, bonmora. mortar : mortero, "(a--)" pistujo. mortgage : hipoteko. mortify : cxagreni; gangrenigxi. mortification : (med.), gangrene. mosaic : mozaiko. mosquito : moskito. moss : musko. moth : ("clothes"--), tineo. motive : motivo. motto : devizo, moto. mould : model'i, -ilo; tero, sximo. mound : altajxeto, remparo, digo. mourn : funebri. "-ing," funebra vesto. move : mov'i, -igxi. movement : movo, movado. mow : falcxi. mud : koto, sxlimo. muddle : fusxi; konfuzi. muff : mufo. mug : pokaleto. mulberry : moruso. mule : mulo. mummy : mumo. murmur : murmuri. muscle : muskolo. museum : muzeo. mushroom : fungo, agariko. muslin : muslino. mussel : mitulo. must : devi. mustard : mustardo, ("-plant"), sinapo. mutual : reciproka. myriad : miriado. mystery : mistero. myth : mito. === n === nail : najli; (of finger, etc.) ungo. naive : naiva. naked : nuda. nape : nuko. nation : nacio. native : enlanda, indigxena; (--"land") patrujo. nature : naturo. nausea : nauxzo. nave : (church) navo; (of wheel) aksingo. navigable : sxipirebla. near : proksima; apud. neat : pura, bonorda. necktie : kravato. nectar : nektaro. need : bezoni. neglect : ne zorgi pri, preterlasi, malatenti. negociate : negoci. neighbour : najbaro, proksimulo. "--hood," cxirkauxajxo. neither : nek. nerve : nervo. net : reto; tulo. nettle : urtiko. neuter : neuxtra. neutral : neuxtrala. news : sciigo, novajxo. "--paper," jxurnalo, gazeto. next : plejproksima, sekvanta. niche : nicxo. nightingale : najtingalo. noble : nobla. "-man," nobelo. nod : signodoni. noise : bruo. nonsense : sensencajxo. noon : tagmezo. noose : masxo. nor : nek. normal : norma, normala. north : nordo. note : not'i, -o, rimark'i, -o, (music) noto, tono. notice : rimarki, noti, avizo. nought : nulo, nenio. nourish : nutri. novel : romano. novice : novico, novulo. now : nun, nuntempe. numb : rigida. number : (quantity) nombro; (no.) numero; numeri. nurse : (a child) varti, (the sick) flegi. nurseling : sucxinfano. nut : nukso, (of screw) sxrauxbingo. nutmeg : muskato. nymph : nimfo. === o === oak : kverko. oakum : stupo. oasis : oazo. oath : (legal) juro; blasfemo. oatmeal : grio, avenfaruno. oats : aveno. object : objekto, ajxo, (aim) celo. oblige : devigi; fari komplezon. observe : rimarki; vidi, observi. obstinate : obstina. obstruct : bari, obstrukci. obtain : ricevi, akiri, havigi al si. occasion : okazo, okazigi. occur : okazi. octopus : okpiedulo. off : for, de. offend : ofendi. offence : ofendo, kulpo, peko. offer : propono. office : ofico, oficejo, kontoro. officer : oficisto, (milit.) oficiro. officiate : funkcii; dejxori; servi kiel. offspring : ido, idaro. often : ofte. oil : oleo. "-cloth," vakstolo. ointment : sxmirajxo. olive : olivo. omnibus : omnibuso. omnipotent : cxiopova. omniscient : cxioscia. once : unufoje, iam, foje. onion : bulbo. only : nur, sola. ooze : traguteti; sxlimo. open : malferm'i, -a. opera : opero. "-glass," lorneto. operate : funkciigi; (med.) operacii. opinion : opinio; ("be of--"), opinii. opium : opio. opportunity : okazo. oppress : subpremi. or : aux. oracle : orakolo. orange : orangx'o, -kolora. orbit : orbito. orchard : fruktarbejo. orchestra : orkestro. orchid : orkideo. order : ordo; klaso; ordoni; mendi; (postal) posxtmandato, (decoration) ordeno. ore : minajxo, mineralo, metalo. organ : organo, -ilo; (music) orgeno. organic : organika. organise : organizi. origin : deveno, origino. original : original'a, -o. ornament : ornamo; garnituro. orphan : orf'o, -ino. oscillate : balancigxi, pendoli. osier : salikajxo. ostentation : fanfaronade, parado. ostrich : struto. other : alia, cetera. ought : devus. ounce : unco. outlaw : proskripcii. outlay : elspezo. outlet : defluejo, elirejo. outline : konturo, skizo. outrage : perfort'ajxo, -i. oval : ovalo, ovoforma. oven : forno. overall : kitelo, supervesto. overcoat : palto. overlook : esplori, pardoni, malatenti. overseer : laborestro, kontrolisto, vokto. overtake : kuratingi. overturn : renversi. owe : sxuldi. owing to : pro, kauxze de. owl : strigo, gufo. own : propra; posedi; konfesi. ox : bovo. oyster : ostro. === p === pack : paki. "--up," enpaki. pad : sxvelajxo, pufo; remburi. pagan : idol'isto, -ano. page : pagxo; (boy) lakeeto; (noble) pagxio. pail : sitelo. pain : dolor'o, -i; igi. "take--s," peni. paint : pentri, kolori; "-brush," peniko. pair : paro. pale : pala; malhela. paling : palisaro. palm : palmo, manplato. palpitation : korbatado. pan : tervazo. "sauce-", kaserolo; "frying-," pato. pane : vitrajxo. pansy : violo trikolora, trikoloreto. paper : papero. "wall-," tapeto. parable : komparajxo, alegorio. parade : parado, pompo. paragraph : paragrafo. parchment : pergameno. parish : parohxo. park : parko. parliament : parlamento. parrot : papago. parsley : petroselo. parson : pastro. particular : speciala, aparta. partridge : perdriko. party : (polit.) partio; festeto; aro. pass : pasi, pasigi. passage : trairejo, vojagxo. passion : pasio; manio; kolerego. past : estinta, pasinta. paste : pasto. pastry : pastecxo. pasture : pasxti, pasxtejo. patch : fliki. path : vojeto. pathetic : kortusxa. patience : pacienco. patriot : patrioto. pattern : modelo, desegno. pause : halteti, pauxzi. pave : pavimi. paw : piedego. pawn : garantie doni; (chess) soldato. pay : pagi; salajro. pea : pizo. peace : paco. peach : persiko. peacock : pavo. peak : pinto. pear : piro. pearl : perlo. pedal : pedalo. pedestal : piedestalo. peel : sxelo, sensxeligi. pen : plumo, skribilo. pencil : krajono, ("slate"--) grifelo; ("hair"--) peniko. pendulum : pendolo. penetrate : penetri peninsula : duoninsulo. pension : pensio. people : homoj, (a--) popolo. pepper : pipro. percentage : procento. perch : (fish) percxo. perfect : perfekta. perhaps : eble. period : periodo. perish : perei. persecute : persekuti, turmenti. persist : persisti, dauxri. person : persono. pestle : pistilo. petroleum : petrolo. petulant : petola, incitigxema. pewter : stanplumbo. phantom : fantomo, apero. phase : fazo. pheasant : fazano. phenomenon : fenomeno. philanthropist : filantropo. philanthropy : filantropio. phrase : frazo, frazero. piano : fortepiano. pickaxe : pikfosilo, piocxo. pickle : pekli. picture : bildo, pentrajxo; prezenti, ilustri. pie : pastecxo. pig : porko. "guinea-", kobajo. pike : (fish), ezoko. pilgrimage : ("go on--"), pilgrimi. pill : pilolo. pillow : kapkuseno. pilot : pilot'o, -i; gvidi. pimpernel : anagalo. pimple : akno. pin : pinglo, pinglefiksi. pincers : prenilo. pinch : pincxi. pine : pino; konsumigxi. "-apple," ananaso. pink : rozkolora; dianto. pioneer : pioniro. pipe : tubo, pipo; (mus.) sxalmo. pistol : pistol'o, -eto. piston : pisxto. pit : kavo, fosajxo, (well) puto; (theatre) partero. pitch : pecxo, bitumo; tono. pitcher : krucxo. pity : kompati. ("a-"), domagxo. pivot : pivoto, akso. placard : afisxo, place : loko; meti. plague : turmenti, inciteti; pesto. plait : plekti, har'ligo, -plektajxo, plan : plano, projekto, skizo. plane : rabot'i, -ilo; ("--tree") platano. planet : planedo. plank : tabulo. plant : kreskajxo; planti. plash : plauxdi. plaster : plastro; (of paris) gipso. plate : telero; (photo) klisxajxo. platform : estrado; platajxo; perono, trotuaro. play : ludi; teatrajxo. "-ful", petola. please : placxi al, kontentigi. pleasant : afabla, agrabla. pledge : garantiajxo. pliable : fleksebla. plot : konspir'i, -o; intrig'i, -o. plough : plug'i, -ilo. plum : pruno. plumber : plumbisto. plural : multenombro. plush : plusxo. pocket : posxo, enposxigi. pod : sxelo. poem : poemo. poet : poeto. poetry : poezio, versajxo. point : punkto; (cards) poento; (tip) pinto. poison : veneno. poker : fajrinstigilo. pole : stango; (of car) timono; (geog.) poluso. polecat : putoro. police : police, (--"court") jugxejo. policy : politiko. polish : poluri. politics : politiko. pompous : pompa. poodle : pudelo. poor : malricxa, kompatinda. pope : papo. poplar : poplo. poppy : papavo. -"coloured", punca popular : populara. porcelain : porcelano. porcupine : histriko. porous : pora, truajxa. porpoise : fokeno. porridge : kacxo. port : haveno. porter : portisto, pordisto. portion : parto, (ration) porcio, portmanteau : valizo. position : pozicio, situacio. positive : pozitiva, definitiva. possess : posedi, havi possible : ebla. post : stango, fosto; ofico. "letter"--, posxto. postage : postelspezo, (stamp) posxtmarko. posture : tenigxo, pozo, pozicio. potato : terpomo. potent : potenca. poultice : kataplasmo. poultry : kortbirdoj. pound : funto, (money) funto sterlinga; pisti. pour : versxi (liquids), sxuti. powder : pulvoro. "gun"-, pulvo; ("face"--) pudro. power : povo, potenco. practise : sin ekzerci; (profession) praktiki. praise : lauxdi, glori. pray : pregxi, peti. preach : prediki. precaution : antauxzorgo. precious : altvalora, karega precipice : krutegajxo; profundegajxo. precise : preciza, gxusta. prefer : preferi. prefix : prefiks'i, -o. pregnant : graveda. prejudice : antauxjugxo. premium : premio. prepare : prepari, pretigi. prescription : recepto. present : (be), apudesti, cxeesti; (gift) donaco. present : prezenti, donaci. preserve : konservi, konfito. preside : prezidi. press : premi; gazetaro, jxurnalaro. pretend : preteksti, sxajnigi. price : prezo, kosto. prick : piki. primrose : primolo. principle : principo. print : presi; gravurajxo. prison : malliberejo. private : privata, konfidencia. privilege : privilegio. prize : premio; sxati. probable : kredebla. problem : problemo. proboscis : rostro. process : proceso. procession : procesio. proclaim : proklami. profession : profesio. professor : profesoro profit : profito, gajno. progress : progreso. pronounce : elparoli. proof : pruvo, provo, presprovajxo. proper : gxusta, konvena, deca. prophesy : profeti, antauxdiri. proportion : proporcio. propose : proponi. prosecute : persekuti, procesi kontraux. protect : protekti, sxirmi. protest : protesti. proud : fiera. provide : provizi. provoke : inciti, kolerigi. prudent : singardema. public : publika, komuna. puff : pufo. --"up," sxvel'i, -igi. pug : mopso. pull : tiri. pulley : rulbloko. pulp : molajxo. pump : pump'i, -ilo. pumice-stone : pumiko. pupil : lernanto; (of eye) pupilo. pure : pura, virta. purple : purpura. purpose : cel'i, -o; intenci. push : pusxi; (along) sxovi. put : meti. --"off", prokrasti. --"aside", apartigi. putrid : putra. puzzle : enigmo. === q === quadruped : kvarpiedulo. quail : koturno. quaker : kvakero. quality : kvalito, eco. quantity : kvanto, kiomo. quarry : sxtonminejo. quarter : kvarono, (district) kvartalo. quay : kajo, en (el) sxipigejo. question : demandi, dubi. quick : rapida, "-en," akceli. quicksilver : hidrargo. quiet : kvieta, trankvila. quinine : kinino. quinsy : angino. quite : tute. quits : kvitaj. quorum : kvorumo. quote : citi. === r === rabbit : kuniklo. race : raso, gento; vetkuri. radish : rafaneto. "horse-," rafano. raft : floso. rag : cxifono. rail : relo. "-way," fervojo. "-way station," stacidomo. rainbow : cxielarko. raisin : sekvinbero. rake : rast'i, -ilo. rampart : remparo. rancid : ranca. rank : vico, grado, rango. raspberry : frambo. rat : rato. rate : procento, --"of," po. rattle : kraketi. "-snake," sonserpento. raven : korvo. raw : kruda, nekuirita. reach : atingi, trafi. ready : preta. "-money," kontanto. real : vera, reala, efektiva. ream : rismo. reap : rikolti. reason : (cause) kauxzo, (faculty) prudento; rezoni. reasonable : prudenta. rebel : ribeli. receipt : kvitanco, ricevo. receipts : enspezoj. receive : ricevi, akcepti. recipe : recepto, formulo. recite : deklami. recruit : rekruto; varbi. refer to : sin turni al. refine : rafini. refuge : (take) rifugx'i, -ejo. refuse : rifuzi; forjxetajxo, rubo. register : registri, enskribi. regularly : akurate, regule. reign : regxi; regxado, regxeco. relate : rakonti; rilati al. relation : parenco; rilato. religion : religio. remain : resti. remedy : kuracilo, rimedo. remember : memori. remove : translogx'igxi, -igi. rent : luprezo. repeat : ripeti, rediri. repent : penti. report : raporti; famo; (official) protokolo. represent : reprezenti. reptile : rampajxo. republic : respubliko. repugnance : antipatio. require : bezoni, postuli. resemble : simili. reserve : rezervi. resign : eksigxi. resignation : resignacio; eksigxo. resin : rezino. "-wood," keno. resolve : decid'i, -o; solvi. respect : respekti. responsible : (for), responda pri. rest : pauxzo, restajxo, kvieteco, ripozo, apogi. restaurant : restoracio. result : rezulti; sekvo; rezultato. retail : detale, pomalgrande. revenge : vengx'o, -i. revolution : revolucio. reward : rekompenco, premio. rhubarb : rabarbo. rhyme : rim'i, -o. rhythm : ritmo. rib : ripo. ribbon : rubando. rice : rizo. riddle : kribrilo; enigmo. right : ("--hand") dekstra; ("legal--") rajto; (straight) rekta; (correct) prava. righteous : justa, pia. ring : ringo, rondo; sonorigi. ringworm : favo. rinse : gargari, laveti. riot : tumulto. rise : levigxi, supreniri, deveni. risk : riski. road : vojo, strato. "-stead," rodo. roar : (winds and waves) mugxi. roast : rost'i, -ajxo. rob : rabi. robe : vesto, robo. robust : fortika. rock : sxtonego, roko; balanci, luli. rod : vergo. "fishing-," hokfadeno. rogue : fripono, kanajlo. roll : rul'i, -igxi; kunvolvajxo, (bread) bulko. roof : tegmento. rook : frugilego. root : radik'o, enradiki. rope : sxnurego. rot : putri. round : ronda; cxirkaux. rouse : eksciti, veki. row : vico; remi. rubbish : rubo, forjxetajxo. ruby : rubeno. rudder : direktilo. rue : ruto; bedauxregi, penti. ruin : ruin'o, -igi. rule : regi, regado; regulo. ruler : registo; liniilo. rumour : famo. run : kuri; flui. rapture : rompo; hernio. ruse : ruzo. rush : junko; kuregi. rust : rusti. rut : radkavo, radsigno. rye : sekalo. === s === sable : zibelo. sacrifice : ofero. saddle : selo. sagacious : sagaca. sage : salvio; sagxa. sail : velo; nagxi. salad : salato. salmon : salmo. salt : salo, "--meat," peklajxo. saltpetre : salpetro, nitro. same : sama. sample : specimeno, sanction : sankcii. sap : suko. sapphire : safiro. sarcasm : sarkasmo. sardine : sardelo. sated (to be) : sati. satin : atlaso. saturate : saturi. sauce : sauxco, "-pan," kaserolo. saucer : subtaso. sausage : kolbaso. save : savi, sxpari; krom. savoury : bongusta. scaffold : esxafodo; trabajxo. scald : brogi. scale : skalo, (fish) skvamo; tarifo. scales : pesilo. scandal : skandalo. scar : cikatro. scarf : skarpo. scarlet : skarlato. scene : vidajxo, sceno. scenery : pejzajxo. scent : odoro, parfumo; flari. scissors : tondilo. scold : riprocxi, mallauxdi. scorpion : skorpio. scoundrel : kanajlo. scour : frotlavi; scourge : skurgxi. scrape : skrapi, raspi. scratch : grati. screen : sxirm'i, -ilo. screw : sxrauxbo. scrupulous : konscienca, skrupula. sculpture : skulpti. scum : sxauxmo. scurvy : skorbuto. seal : sigel'i, -o, (animal) foko. seaside : marbordo. season : sezono; spici. seasonable : gxustatempa. secret : sekreta, kasxita. secretary : sekretario. section : sekcio. secular : monda. sedentary : hejmsida, sida. sediment : fecxo. seed : semo. seem : sxajni. seemly : deca. seize : ekkapti. select : elekti, elelekti. selfish : egoista. semicolon : punktokomo. semolina : tritikajxo. send : sendi, (--"for") venigi. sensation : sensacio, sense : sento, senco. sensitive : sentema. sensual : volupta. sentence : frazo, jugxo, verdikto. sentiment : sento, opinio. sentimental : sentimentala. separate : apart'a, -igi, disigi, malkunigi. serfdom : servuto. sergeant : sergxento. series : serio. serious : serioza. serve : servi, (--"for") tauxgi. service : servo, mangxilaro, diservo. serviette : busxtuko, set : meti, (--"on edge") agaci. sew : kudri, stebi. sewing machine : stebilo. sex : sekso. shade : ombro, ombrajxo, nuanco shadow : ombro. shaft : (of vehicle) timono; (pit) sxakto. shake : sxanceli, skui; tremi. shame : hont'o, -igi. share : dividi, partopreni; parto; porcio; akcio. shark : sxarko. sharp : akra, acida, pinta, pika. shatter : frakasi. shawl : sxalo. sheaf : garbo. shear : tondi. shed : budo. sheet : drapo, lit-tuko, tavolo. shelf : breto. shell : konko, sxelo, bombo. shelter : sxirmilo, rifugxejo, shield : sxildo, sxirmi. shin : tibio. shirt : cxemizo. shock : skueg'i, -o. shop : butiko, magazeno. shoulder : sxultro,-"blade", skapolo shovel : sxovel'i, -ilo. show : montri; parado. shrill : sibla. shrivel : sulkigxi. shrimp : markankreto. shroud : mortkitelo; kasxi. sick : ("be"--), vomi. siege : siegxo, "be"-, siegxi. sift : kribri. sigh : sopiri, ekgxemi. sight : vidado, vidajxo. sign : signo, subskribi. signal : signalo. silent : silenta. silk : silko. sill : sojlo. silver : argxento. simple : simpla, naiva. since : de kiam, cxar, tial ke. sinew : tendeno. situation : situacio, sido, ofico. size : grandeco, amplekso; for mato; glueto skate : glit'i, -ilo; (fish) rajo. skeleton : skeleto. sketch : skizi. skilful : lerta. skin : hauxto, felo. skirt : jupo. skittles : keglo. skull : kranio. slander : kalumnii. slanting : oblikva. slate : ardezo. -"s", tegmentajxo. slave : sklavo. sleeve : maniko. slipper : pantoflo. slime : sxlimo. sloe : prunelo. slope : deklivo. sluice : kluzo. sly : ruza, kasxema. smallpox : variolo. smart : eleganta; doloreti. smear : sxmiri. smell : flari, odori. smelt : fandi. smock : kitelo. smoke : fumi, (fish, etc.) fumajxi. smooth : glata, ebena. smother : sufoki. smuggle : kontrabandi. snail : heliko. snake : serpento. sneeze : terni. snore : ronki. snowdrop : galanto. so : tiel, tiamaniere. "--much", tiom. soak : trempi. soap : sap'o, -umi. sober : sobra, serioza. social : sociala. society : socio, societo. socket : ingo. sod : bulo. soda : sodo. sofa : sofo, kanapo. soft : mola, delikata. soil : tero. solder : luti. soldier : soldato, militisto. sole : sola; (fish) soleo; (foot) plando; (boot) ledplando. solemn : solena. solfa : notkanti. solicitor : advokato. solid : fortika; solida, malfluida. solidarity : solidareco. sonorous : sonora. soot : fulgo. sorcery : sorcxo. sorry (be) : bedauxri. sort : speco. soul : animo. sound : son'o, -i; sondi. soup : supo. sour : acida, malgaja. source : fonto, deveno. south : sudo. space : spaco; (of time) dauxro sparrow : pasero. "-hawk", akcipitro. spawn : fraj'o, -i; fisxosemo spear : lanco, ponardego special : speciala. spectacles : okulvitroj. speculate : spekulacii, teoriigi, konjekti. spell : silabi; sorcxajxo. spend : elspezi. sphere : sfero. sphinx : sfinkso. spice : spico. spill : disversxi, dissxuti. spin : sxpini. spinach : spinaco. spiral : helikforma. spirii : spirito; energio; fantomo; alkoholo. spit : kracxi; sputi. spite : malamo, vengxo, ("in--of") malgraux; spite. splash : sxpruci; plauxdi. spleen : lieno; spleno split : fendi, spliti. spoil : difekti, malbonigi; ruinigi; akiro. spoke : (wheel), radio. sponge : spongo. spontaneous : propra'mova, -vola. spot : makulo. spout : sxpruci. sprain : tordi, distordo spread : disvast'igi' -igxi; etendi, sterni. spring : printempo, fonto, risorto, salti. sprinkle : sxpruci, aspergi. spur : sprono. spy : spioni; esplori. squadron : skadro, eskadro. square : kvadrato; rektangulilo; placo. squint : strabi. squirrel : sciuro. staff : (officers), stabo. stage : estrado, scenejo. stain : makul'o, -i. stair : sxtupo. stake : paliso, fosto; veto. stalk : trunketo. stall : budo, stalo. stammer : balbuti. stamp : stampi; posxtmarko; piedfrapi. starch : amelo. starling : sturno. state : stato; sxtato; esprimi, diri, aserti. station : stacio, stacidomo. steak : bifsteko. steel : sxtalo. steep : kruta; trempi. steer : direkti, piloti. step : sxtupo; pasxi. steppe : stepo. steward : intendanto. stick : bastono, glui,(--"bills") afisxi. stiff : rigida. still : kvieta; ankoraux, tamen. stimulate : stimuli. sting : piki. stipulate : kondicxi. stock : provizi. stocks : rentoj. stocking : sxtrumpo. stoker : hejtisto. stomach : stomako. stone : sxtono, (of fruit) grajno. stool : skabelo, benketo. stoop : kurbigxi. stop : halt'i, -igi; resti, pauxzi; ("full"--) punkto; sxtopi. stopper : sxtopilo. store : magazeno; tenejo; proviz'o, -i. stork : cikonio. storm : ventego. story : rakonto, fabelo; etagxo. stout : dika. strain : strecxi; filtri, kribri. strait : markolo; embarasajxo. strange : stranga, kurioza, fremda. strap : rimeno. straw : pajlo. strawberry : frago. streak : strio, strek'i, -o. stretch : strecxi. stretcher : homportilo. strict : severa. strike : frapi; striko. strip : strio; (--"off") senigi je. strong : forta, fortika. struggle : barakti; batali. student : studento, lernanto, studanto. stuff : sxtofo; remburi. stupid : stulta, malsprita. stupor : letargio. sturgeon : sturgo. style : stilo; modo. subject : objekto; temo; (gram.) subjekto. subscribe : (to journal) aboni; (to society) kotizi; (sign) subskribi; (money) monoferi. substance : sxtofo, substanco. succeed : sukcesi; sekvi. suck : sucxi. suckle : mamnutri. sudden : subita, abrupta, suet : rensebo. suffer : suferi, toleri. sufficient : suficxa. "be"--, -i suffrage : vocxdonrajto. suggest : proponi, inspiri, pensigi. suit : konveni; tauxgi. suitable : deca, konvena, tauxga. sum : sumo. --"up", resumi. summer : somero. -"house", lauxbo. summon : kunvoki, procesi. superfluity : superfluo, tromulto. superintendent : intendanto. superior : supera. superstition : supersticxo. supple : fleksebla. support : subteni. suppose : supozi, konjekti. sure : certa surface : suprajxo. surgeon : hxirurgo. surgery : hxirurgio. surprise : mir'o, -igi, ("take by"--) surprizi. surrender : cedi, kapitulaci. survey : termezuri. susceptible : impresema. suspect : suspekti. swaddle : vindi. swagger : fanfaroni. swallow : hirundo; gluti. swan : cigno. swear : jxuri; blasfemi. sweat : sxviti. sweep : balai. swell : sxveli. swing : balanc'i, -igxi; svingi. sword : glavo, spado. sycamore : sikomoro. syllable : silabo. syllabus : temaro. symbol : simbolo, emblemo, signo symmetry : simetrio. sympathy : kompato, simpatio. symptom : simptomo. syndicate : sindikato. syrup : siropo; melaso. system : sistemo. === t === table : tablo, tabelo. tact : delikateco, takto tactics : taktiko. tail : vosto. tailor : tajloro. talent : talento. talk : interparolad'i, -o; konversacio. tallow : sebo. talon : ungego. tame : dresi; malsovagxa. tan : tan'i, -ilo. tankard : pokalo. tap : krano; frapeti. tape : katunrubando. tar : gudr'o, -umi. tart : torto; acida. task : tasko. taste : gust'o, -umi. tattoo : tatui. tax : imposto. tea : teo. teach : instrui, lernigi. tear : sxiri. tear : larmo. tease : inciteti. tedious : teda, enuiga. tell : rakonti, diri. temper : humoro, karaktero. temperate : sobra, modera. temperature : temperaturo. temple : templo; tempio. tempt : tenti. tenant : luanto. tendency : tendenco, emo, inklino. tenor : tenoro; senco; signifo tent : tendo terrace : teraso. terror : teruro. testify : atesti. text : teksto textile : teksa. thaw : degeli. theatre : teatro. then : tiam, poste, do. thick : dika; densa. thigh : femuro. thing : afero, ajxo, objekto. think : pensi, opinii. thirst : soif'i, -o. thistle : kardo. thorn : dorno. thrash : drasxi; skurgxi, bategi. threaten : minaci. threshold : sojlo. thrill : eksciti. throat : gorgxo, fauxko. throne : trono. throw : jxeti. thrush : turdo. thunder : tondr'i, -o. thus : tiel, tiamaniere; jene thyme : timiano. ticket : bileto. tickle : tikli, amuzi. tide : tajdo, marfluo. tidy : bonorda. tie : ligi; kravato. tiger : tigro. tile : kahelo; tegolo. till : gxis; prilabori. time : tempo, fojo, dauxro, (mus.) takto. "-table," horaro. tin : stano. tinkle : tinti. tire : lacigi, tedi. tired : laca, enuigita. tissue : teksajxo. title : titolo. titmouse : paruo. toad : bufo. toast : panrostajxo; toasto. tobacco : tabako. toe : piedfingro. toilet : tualeto. tolerate : toleri. tone : tono. tongs : prenilo. tongue : lango. top : supro, pinto; verto; turbo. torment : turmenti. torrent : torento. tortoise : testudo total : tuto. totter : sxanceligxi. tourist : turisto. towel : visx'ilo, -tuko. tower : turo. town : urbo. trace : postesigno. trade : negoci, komerci; metio, (--"union") sindikato, metia unuigxo. tradition : tradicio. train : vagonaro; eduki, dresi; trenajxo. tram : tramo, tramveturilo. translate : traduki. translucent : diafana. transparent : travidebla. trap : kaptilo, enfalejo; kariolo. travel : vojagxi, veturi. tray : pleto. treacle : melaso. tread : marsxi, pasxi treasure : trezoro. treasurer : kasisto. treat : regali; kuraci; trakti. treaty : kontrakto, traktajxo. tree : arbo. trellis : palisplektajxo. tremble : tremi, skuigxi. tribe : gento, tribo. trick : fripon'i, -ajxo, (cards) preno. trickle : guteti. trifle : bagatelo, trivialajxo. tripe : tripo. triumph : triumf'i, -o. troop : trupo, bando. tropic : tropiko. trot : troti. trough : trogo. trousers : pantalono. trout : truto. trowel : trulo. tramp : (cards), atuto. trumpet : trumpeto. trunk : (animal) rostro; (tree) trunko; (box) kofro; (body) torso. trust : fidi. try : provi, peni. tsar : caro. tuber : tubero. tuft : tufo. tumbler : glaso. tumult : tumulto. tune : ario, melodio; agordi. turbot : rombfisxo. turkey : meleagro. turn : turn'i, -igxi; torni; pivoti; vico. turnip : napo. turpentine : terebinto. turquoise : turkiso. turtle-dove : turto. tutor : guvernisto. twilight : krepusko. twin : dunaskito, gxemelo. twist : tordi. type : modelo, tipo; presliteraro. tyrant : tirano. === u === umbrella : ombrelo, pluvsxirmilo. underline : substreki. understand : kompreni. undulating : ondolinia. unfailingly : nepre. uniform : uniformo; unuforma. unit : unuo. unite : unu'igxi, -igi; kun'igxi, -igi. universe : universo. unless : esceptinte ke, se ne. up : supre. upholster : remburi. upright : vertikala, rekta; honesta. upset : renversi. upstairs : supre. urchin : bubo. urgent : urgxa. use : uzi, utiligi,("--up") eluzi. useful : utila, ("be--") utili. usual : ordinara, kutima. usurp : uzurpi. usury : procentego. utmost : ekstrema. === v === vacant : neokupata. vacate : forlasi. vaccinate : inokuli. vacillate : sxanceligxi. vain : vana; vanta. valet : lakeo, servisto. valley : valo. value : valoro; sxati, estimi; taksi. valuation : taks'o, -ado. valve : klapo. various : diversaj. varnish : lak'i, -o. vase : vazo. vast : vasta, ampleksa. vat : kuvego. vault : arkajxo, vegetable : legomo, vegetajx'o. -a; kreskajxo. vegetate : vegeti. vehicle : veturilo. veil : vual'o, -i. vein : vejno. vellum : veleno. velvet : veluro. venerable : respektinda. venerate : respektegi. vent : ellas'o, -truo. ventilate : ventoli. venture : kuragxi, riski. verandah : balkono. verb : verbo. verbal : parola, busxa. verbatim : lauxvorte. verdict : jugxo, verdikto. verger : sakristiano. vermicelli : vermicxelo. vermilion : cinabro. verse : verso, strofo. very, : -much - tre. vessel : sxipo; vazo, ujo. vest : vesxto; jxaketo. vestige : postsigno. vex : cxagreni. vibrate : vibri, tremeti. vicar : parohxestro; vikario vice : (prefix), vie-, victim : viktimo, oferajxo. victory : venko, triumfo, sukceso. view : vidajxo; perspektivo. vigilant : vigla. vine : vinberujo. violate : malrespekti, malvirtigi. violence : perforto. violet : violo. violin : violono. viper : vipero, kolubro. virago : megero. virgin : virgulino, virga. virile : vira. virtue : virto. virus : veneno, viruso. viscid : glueca. vision : vizio, vidado. visit : viziti. vocabulary : vortaro. voice : vocxo. void : eljxeti, nuligi. volcano : vulkano. volley : salvo. volume : volumo; volumeno, amplekso. voluntary : memvola, propravola. voluptuous : volupta. vote : vocxdoni. vow : solene promesi, dedicxi. vowel : vokalo. vulgar : vulgara. vulture : vulturo. === w === wadding : vato. waddle : sxanceligxi. wade : vadi, akvotrairi. wages : salajro. waggon : sxargxveturilo, vagono waist : talio, (-coat) vesxto. wait : atendi, (-on) servi. waiter : kelnero. wake : vek'i, -igxi; sxippostsigno. walk : piediri, marsxi, promeni. wallflower : keiranto. walnut : juglando. walrus : rosmaro. waltz : valso. wander : vagi, deliri. want : bezoni; seneco, manko; mizerego. ward : zorgato. wardrobe : vestotenejo; vestaro. warehouse : tenejo, provizejo. wares : komercajxo. war : milito. warm : varma, fervora. warn : averti, admoni. wart : veruko. wasp : vespo. waste : malsxpari. watch : observi; spioni; posxhorlogxo. water : akvo; surversxi. waterproof : nepenetrebla. wave : ondo; flirt'i, -igi. wax : vakso. way : vojo, maniero, kutimo. wean : debrustigi, demamigi. weapon : batalilo, armilo. wear : porti; ("--out") eluzi; ("--away") konsumigxi. weary : laca. weather : vetero. "-cock," ventoflago. weave : teksi, plekti. wedding : edzigxo. wedge : kojno. weed : sarki; malbonherbo; "sea-," fuko, algo. weep : plori. weigh : (ascertain the weight) pesi; (have weight) pezi. weight : pezo, pezilo. welcome : bonvenigi; bonvenu! weld : kunforgxi. well : bone; nu!; puto. west : okcidento. whale : baleno. wharf : kajo, el(en)sxipejo. wheat : tritiko. wheel : rado. wheelbarrow : pusxveturilo. whelk : bukceno. whey : selakto. whim : kaprico. whip : vip'i, -o. whirl : turnigxi, kirligxi. "-pool," turnakvo. whisk : (eggs, etc.), kirli. whiskers : vangharoj. whisper : murmuri; subparoli, flustri. whistle : fajfi, sibli. whist : visto. whiting : merlango. whitsuntide : pentekosto. whole : tuta, tuto. wholesale : pogrande. whooping-cough : koklusxo. wick : mecxo. wicker : salikajxa. widower : vidvo. wig : peruko. wild : sovagxa, nedresita. wilderness : dezerto. will : vol'o, -i. willingly : volonte. willy-nilly : vole-nevole. win : gajni. wince : ektremi. wind : volvi, ("--clock") strecxi windpipe : trahxeo. wing : flugilo, flankajxo. wink : palpebrumi. winnow : ventumi. wipe : visxi. wire : metalfadeno. wish : deziri, voli. witch : sorcxistino. withdraw : eligxi. wither : velki, sensukigxi. withstand : kontrauxstari. witness : atest'i; -anto. witty : sprita. woe : malgxojo; veo wolf : lupo. wonder : mir'i, -o; ("a --") mirindajxo. woo : amindumi, sin svati. wood : ligno; arbaro. woodcock : skolopo. woodpecker : pego. word : vorto. work : labor'i, -o; (mental) verk'i, -o; funkcii. worm : vermo. wormwood : absinto. worn (out) : eluzita. worry : maltrankvil'igi, -igxi; cxagrenadi, gxenadi. worship : adori; diservo; kulto. worth : ind'o, -eco, valoro. wound : vundi. wrap : faldi, envolvi. wreath : girlando. wreck, (ship-) : sxippereo; periigi. wren : regolo. wrestle : lukti. wretched : mizer(eg)a. wring : tordi. wrinkle : sulketo, sulkigi. wrist : manradiko. wry : torda. === y === yacht : jahxto, sxipeto. yard : korto, (measure) jardo; velstango. yarn : fadeno, rakont(acx)o. yawn : oscedi. year : jaro. "-ly," cxiujara. yeast : fermentilo. yellow : flava. yew : taksuso. yield : cedi, kapitulaci; produkti. yoke : jungi; ("-- of egg") ovoflavo. young : juna, junularo; ido, idaro. youth : junulo, juneco, junularo. === z === zeal : fervoro, diligenteco. zealot : zeloto, fanatikulo. zebra : zebro. zero : nulo. zigzag : zigzag'a, -o, zinc : zinko. zone : (ter)zono. index. [most index entries in the original listed both page and lesson numbers. since page numbers are useless for this etext, they have been removed. entries that originally appeared with page numbers only, have nothing after them here.] a, an ... accent accusative ... adjective ... adverb ... " showing direction ... " of degree ... " of comparison ... ajn ... alphabet arrangement of words cxi ... common useful expressions comparison ... " ... complete grammar of esperanto compound words conjunctions consonants correlative words (table) ... ia ... ial ... iam ... ie ... iel ... ies ... ie ... iom ... iu ... cxu ... days of week ... endings of words: -a ... -anta ... -as ... " ... -ata ... -e ... -i ... -inta ... -is ... -ita ... -j ... -n ... -o ... -onta ... -os ... -ota ... -u ... -us ... exclamations infinitive mood ... key to exercises la ... " instead of pronoun ... letters, beginnings ", endings manner of using the book mem ... months ... n ... nouns ... numbers, cardinal ... ", ordinal, etc. ... oni ... origin and aim of esperanto participles ... " active ... " passive ... " as nouns ... " as adverbs ... plural ... prefixes:-- bo- ... dis- ... ek- ... ge- ... mal- ... pra- ... re- ... prepositions ... " with accusative ... " omission of ... al ... anstataux ... antaux ... apud ... cxe ... cxirkaux ... da ... " ... de ... dum ... ekster ... el ... en ... gxis ... inter ... je ... kontraux ... krom ... kun ... laux ... malgraux ... per ... po ... por ... post ... preter ... pri ... pro ... sen ... spite ... sub ... super ... sur ... tra ... trans ... pronouns ... pronoun-adjectives ... pronunciation selections for reading si ... subject ... suffixes :-- lesson -acx- ... -ad- ... -ajx- ... -an- ... -ar- ... -cxj- ... -ebl- ... -ec- ... -eg- ... -ej- ... -em- ... -er- ... -estr- ... -et- ... -id- ... -ig- ... -igx- ... -il- ... -in- ... -ind- ... -ing- ... -ist- ... -nj- ... -obi- ... -on- ... -op- ... -uj- ... -ul- ... -um- ... the ... verbs ... " ... " ... " ... words used with the object proofreading team. shea's library of american linguistics. xii. dictionary of the chinook jargon, or, trade language of oregon. by george gibbs. new york: cramoisy press. . preface. some years ago the smithsonian institution printed a small vocabulary of the chinook jargon, furnished by dr. b.r. mitchell, of the u.s. navy, and prepared, as we afterwards learned, by mr. lionnet, a catholic priest, for his own use while studying the language at chinook point. it was submitted by the institution, for revision and preparation for the press, to the late professor w.w. turner. although it received the critical examination of that distinguished philologist, and was of use in directing attention to the language, it was deficient in the number of words in use, contained many which did not properly belong to the jargon, and did not give the sources from which the words were derived. mr. hale had previously given a vocabulary and account of this jargon in his "ethnography of the united states exploring expedition," which was noticed by mr. gallatin in the transactions of the american ethnological society, vol. ii. he, however, fell into some errors in his derivation of the words, chiefly from ignoring the chihalis element of the jargon, and the number of words given by him amounted only to about two hundred and fifty. a copy of mr. lionnet's vocabulary having been sent to me, with a request to make such corrections as it might require, i concluded not merely to collate the words contained in this and other printed and manuscript vocabularies, but to ascertain, so far as possible, the languages which had contributed to it, with the original indian words. this had become the more important, as its extended use by different tribes had led to ethnological errors in the classing together of essentially distinct families. dr. scouler, whose vocabularies were among the earliest bases of comparison of the languages of the northwest coast, assumed a number of words, which he found indiscriminately employed by the nootkans of vancouver island, the chinooks of the columbia, and the intermediate tribes, to belong alike to their several languages, and exhibit analogies between them accordingly.[a] on this idea, among other points of fancied resemblance, he founded his family of nootka-columbians,--one which has been adopted by drs. pritchard and latham, and has caused very great misconception. not only are those languages entirely distinct, but the nootkans differ greatly in physical and mental characteristics from the latter. the analogies between the chinook and the other native contributors to the jargon are given hereafter. [footnote a: journal royal geographical society of london, vol. xi., .] the origin of this jargon, a conventional language similar to the lingua franca of the mediterranean, the negro-english-dutch of surinam, the pigeon english of china, and several other mixed tongues, dates back to the fur droguers of the last century. those mariners whose enterprise in the fifteen years preceding , explored the intricacies of the northwest coast of america, picked up at their general rendezvous, nootka sound, various native words useful in barter, and thence transplanted them, with additions from the english, to the shores of oregon. even before their day, the coasting trade and warlike expeditions of the northern tribes, themselves a sea-faring race, had opened up a partial understanding of each other's speech; for when, in , vancouver's officers visited gray's harbor, they found that the natives, though speaking a different language, understood many words of the nootka. on the arrival of lewis and clarke at the mouth of the columbia, in , the new language, from the sentences given by them, had evidently attained some form. it was with the arrival of astor's party, however, that the jargon received its principal impulse. many more words of english were then brought in, and for the first time the french, or rather the canadian and missouri patois of the french, was introduced. the principal seat of the company being at astoria, not only a large addition of chinook words was made, but a considerable number was taken from the chihalis, who immediately bordered that tribe on the north,--each owning a portion of shoalwater bay. the words adopted from the several languages were, naturally enough, those most easily uttered by all, except, of course, that objects new to the natives found their names in french or english, and such modifications were made in pronunciation as suited tongues accustomed to different sounds. thus the gutturals of the indians were softened or dropped; and the _f_ and _r_ of the english and french, to them unpronounceable, were modified into _p_ and _l_. grammatical forms were reduced to their simplest expression, and variations in mood and tense conveyed only by adverbs or by the context. the language continued to receive additions, and assumed a more distinct and settled meaning, under the northwest and hudson's bay companies, who succeeded astor's party, as well as through the american settlers in oregon. its advantage was soon perceived by the indians, and the jargon became to some extent a means of communication between natives of different speech, as well as between them and the whites. it was even used as such between americans and canadians. it was at first most in vogue upon the lower columbia and the willamette, whence it spread to puget sound, and with the extension of trade, found its way far up the coast, as well as the columbia and fraser rivers; and there are now few tribes between the d and th parallels of latitude in which there are not to be found interpreters through its medium. its prevalence and easy acquisition, while of vast convenience to traders and settlers, has tended greatly to hinder the acquirement of the original indian languages; so much so, that except by a few missionaries and pioneers, hardly one of them is spoken or understood by white men in all oregon and washington territory. notwithstanding its apparent poverty in number of words, and the absence of grammatical forms, it possesses much more flexibility and power of expression than might be imagined, and really serves almost every purpose of ordinary intercourse. the number of words constituting the jargon proper has been variously stated. many formerly employed have become in great measure obsolete, while others have been locally introduced. thus, at the dalles of the columbia, various terms are common which would not be intelligible at astoria or on puget sound. in making the following selection, i have included all those which, on reference to a number of vocabularies, i have found current at any of these places, rejecting, on the other hand, such as individuals, partially acquainted with the native languages, have employed for their own convenience. the total number falls a little short of five hundred words. an analysis of their derivations gives the following result: chinook, including clatsop chinook, having analogies with other languages interjections common to several nootka, including dialects chihalis, ; nisqually, klikatat and yakama cree chippeway (ojibwa) wasco (probably) kalapuya (probably) by direct onomatopoeia derivation unknown, or undetermined french, ; canadian, english i had no opportunity of original investigation into the nootka proper, but from the few words in different published vocabularies, and from some imperfect manuscript ones in my possession of the tokwaht, nittinat, and makah dialects, have ascertained the number above given. some of the unascertained words probably also belong to that language. neither was i able to collate the wasco or kalapuya, but have assigned them on the opinion of others. the former, also called cathlasco, the dialect of the dalles indians, is a corrupted form of the watlala or upper chinook. with the chihalis, yakama, and klikatat, and the nisqually, i had abundant means of comparison. the introduction of the cree and chippeway words is of course due to the canadians. none have been derived from the spanish, as their intercourse with the nootka and makah indians was too short to leave an impression. spanish words, especially those relating to horses or mules and their equipments, have of late come into general use in oregon, owing to intercourse with california, but they form no part of the jargon. it might have been expected from the number of sandwich islanders introduced by the hudson's bay company, and long resident in the country, that the kanaka element would have found its way into the language, but their utterance is so foreign to the indian ear, that not a word has been adopted. in the nouns derived from the french, the definite article _le_, _la_, has almost in every instance been incorporated into the word, and the same has in one or two instances been prefixed to nouns not of french origin. besides the words created by direct onomatopoeia, there are quite a number which are really indian, but have their origin in the similarity of sound to sense. dr. scouler's analogy between the nootkan and "columbian," or chinook, was founded on the following words: _english._ _tlaoquatch and nutka._ _columbian._ plenty, *aya, *haya. no, *wik, *wake. water, tchaak, chuck. good, *hooleish, *closh. bad, *peishakeis, *peshak. man, *tchuckoop, tillicham. woman, *tlootsemin, *clootchamen. child, *tanassis, *tanass. now, tlahowieh, clahowiah. come, *tchooqua, *sacko. slave, mischemas, *mischemas. what are you doing *akoots-ka-*mamook, ekta-*mammok. what are you saying *au-kaak-*wawa, ekta-*wawa. let me see, *nannanitch, *nannanitch. sun, *opeth, ootlach. sky, *sieya, *saya. fruit, *chamas, *camas. to sell, *makok, *makok. understand, *commatax, *commatax. but of these, none marked with an asterisk belong to the chinook or any of its dialects. the greater part of them are undoubtedly nootkan, though there are errors in the spelling and, in some instances, in the meaning. of the rest, the nootkan _tchaak_ and the chinook _tl'tsuk_ alone presents an analogy. _klahowiah_ does not mean "now," nor do i believe it is nootkan, in any sense. it is, as explained in the dictionary, the chinook salutation, "how do you," "good-bye," and is supposed to be derived from the word for _poor_, _miserable_. _mischemas_ is not chinook, and is probably not nootkan. with the exception of franchere, whose short vocabulary was published by mr. gallatin, and mr. hale, all the writers mentioned by ludwig who have given specimens of the chinook language, have presented it in its jargon form, more or less mixed with the neighboring ones, and with corruptions of french and english words. mr. swan, among others, has been led into this error. the place of his residence, shoalwater bay, is common ground of the chinook and chihalis indians, and the degraded remnants of the two tribes are closely intermarried, and use both languages almost indifferently. setting aside interjections, common in a more or less modified form to several adjoining tribes, twenty-one words of those given in this vocabulary present noticeable analogies between the chinook and other native languages. they are as follows: _english._ _chinook._ _hailtzuk and belbella._ salmon berries, klalilli, olalli. _english._ _chinook and clatsop._ _nootka._ jewitt and cook. water, tl'tsuk : tl'chukw, chauk : chahak. _english._ _chinook._ _cowlitz._ _kwantlen._ _selish._ six, tákhum, tukh'um, tuckhum', táckan. _english._ _chinook._ _chihalis._ _nisqually._ deep, kellippe, kluputl, klep glad, kwan, kwal (_tame_) proud, eyútl, júil. demon, ichiatku, tsiatko, tsiatko. black bear, eitchhut, chetwut. crow, skaka, skaka. oyster, klokhklokh, chetlókh, klokhklokh. game of "hands," itlokum, setlokum. _english._ _chinook._ _yakama and klikatat._ certainly, nawitka, n'witka. always, kwanisum, kwálisim. younger sister, ats, atse. road, wehut, wiet (_far_). barrel, tamtúlitsh, tamolitsh. buffalo, emúsmus, músmus. coyote, itálipus, talipa (_gray fox_). mouse, kholkhol, khóilkhoil. bread, tsapelil, saplil. needle, okwépowa, kapus (_a pin_). the clatsop (klátsop) is merely a dialect of the chinook (tchinúk); the cowlitz (káualitsk), kwantlen, chihalis (tsihélis), and nisqually (n'skwáli), are severally languages belonging to the sélish family. the yakama and klikatat are dialects of one of the sahaptin languages; and the tokwaht (tokwát), nittinat, and makah (maká), quoted in the dictionary, are dialects of the nootka (nútka), of which the hailtzuk or belbella (variously spelled haeeltzuk and hailtsa) is probably the northern type. it thus appears that, with two or three exceptions, the analogies of the chinook, as contained in this vocabulary, are to be sought in the immediately adjoining tongues, or those of languages belonging to the same families with them; that these analogies, with perhaps one or two exceptions, can by no means be considered radical, and that their correspondence, or rather adoption, is easily accounted for by neighborhood and habits of intermarriage. a much more remarkable coincidence is the fact that two words included in this jargon,--one from the nootkan, viz., _mawitch_, a deer, venison; and the other chinook, _mooluk_, an elk,--are also to be found in the kowilth, the language of humboldt bay, in california. as this bay was first discovered in the winter of - , the words could not have been introduced by the fur trappers. with regard to the form into which this dictionary has been thrown, an explanation is necessary. the jargon must in some degree be regarded as a written language, the orthography of which is english. in mr. hale's vocabulary alone has one more scientific been attempted, and of several other printed, and numerous manuscript dictionaries in circulation, m. lionnet's alone, that i have met with, is according to the french. although no fixed system of spelling exists among them, i have therefore deemed it best to preserve for the jargon words that which most distinctly represents the common english pronunciation; while for the indian derivations, i have adopted that recommended by the smithsonian institution in collecting indian vocabularies, using the italian sounds of the vowels, and representing the guttural of the german _ich_ by _kh_. this seemed the more proper, as the work would thereby be rendered of practical use, independent of what philological value it may possess. in collating the words of the present work and obtaining their derivations, i have been assisted by a number of friends; among whom i should specially mention mr. alexander c. anderson, of victoria, v.i., and mr. solomon h. smith, of clatsop, oregon. ~bibliography of the chinook jargon.~ _journal of travels over the rocky mountains._ by rev. samuel parker. mo. ithaca, n.y., . "vocabulary of the chenook language, as spoken about fort vancouver," pp. - . _ethnography and philology of the united states exploring expedition._ by horatio hale. to. philadelphia: lea & blanchard, . a vocabulary of the "jargon or trade language of oregon," with an essay thereon, and phrases, is given in this work, pp. - . _transactions of the american ethnological society._ vols., vo. new york: bartlett & welford, , . in vol. ii., pp. - , under title of "hale's indians of northwest america," is a partial reprint of the above. rev. z.b.z. bolduc, "_mission de la colombie._" vo. quebec, . the lord's prayer in jargon, "et quelques mots tchinoucs et sneomus." the snohomish is a tribe of puget sound. the chinook words are merely jargon. _journal of travels over the rocky mountains, &c._ by joel palmer. mo. cincinnati, , . "words used in the chinook jargon," pp. - . _adventures of the first settlers on the oregon or columbia river, &c._ by alexander ross. mo. london, . ross gives a "chinook vocabulary," pp. - , and words of the "mixed dialect," p. . his chinook is, however, also impure. _ten years in oregon._ by d. lee and f.h. frost. mo. new york, . "a short vocabulary of the clatsop dialect." this is likewise jargon. _history, &c., of the indian tribes of the united states._ collected by henry r. schoolcraft. to. parts - . philadelphia, , . lieut. g.f. emmons gives a brief "klatsop vocabulary" in part iii., pp. , , which is of the same character. note to article, "philosophy of utterance," part v., pp. - , a "vocabulary of the chinook jargon." _vocabulary of the jargon or trade language of oregon._ english, french, and jargon. vo. washington, . pp. . printed by the smithsonian institution, for private distribution. without title-page. this is the one by m. lionnet, before referred to. _the northwest coast; or, three years' residence in washington territory._ by james g. swan. mo. new york: harpers, . "a vocabulary of the chehalis and chenook or jargon languages, with the derivation of the words used in the latter," pp. - . _a complete dictionary of the chinook jargon._ english-chinook, and chinook-english. to which is added numerous conversations, &c. d edition. mo, pp. . portland, oregon: published by s.j. mccormick. several editions of this work have been published; the last which i have seen, in . _guide-book to the gold regions of frazer river._ with a map of the different routes, &c. mo, pp. . new york, . a vocabulary of the jargon, pp. - . _the chinook jargon and english and french equivalent forms._ in "steamer bulletin," san francisco, june , . contains an unarranged vocabulary of words and phrases. _the canoe and the saddle._ by theodore winthrop. mo. boston: ticknor & fields. . "a partial vocabulary of the chinook jargon," pp. - . _history of the oregon territory, &c._ by john dunn. d edition. london, . "a few specimens of the language of the millbank and chinook tribes." _chinook tribe:_ words and phrases, including digits. these words, as usual, are in great part "jargon," and belong to the nootkan, _not_ to the chinook. besides the above, one, of which i have not the title before me, has been published by mr. a.c. anderson, and several in the newspapers of oregon and washington territory. ~part i.~ chinook-english. note.--the references, "hale," "cook," "jewitt," are respectively to hale's "ethnology of the united states exploring expedition," "cook's voyages," and "jewitt's narrative." the others, as "anderson," "pandosy," "shaw," "tolmie," are from manuscript notes of those gentlemen in possession of the writer. a dictionary of the chinook jargon. part i. chinook-english. ~a.~ ~ah-ha~, _adv._ common to various tribes. _yes._ expression of simple assent. on puget sound, e-Éh. ~ah'n-kut-te~, or ~ahn-kot-tie~, _adv._ chinook, ankutti. _formerly; before now._ with the accent prolonged on the first syllable, _a long time ago._ ex. ahnkutte lakit sun, _four days ago;_ tenas ahnkutte, _a little while since._ ~al-áh~, _interj._ expression of surprise. ex. alah mika chahko! _ah, you've come!_ ~al-kie~, _adv._ chinook, alkekh. _presently; in a little while; hold on; not so fast._ ~al'-ta~, _adv._ chinook, altakh. _now; at the present time._ ~a-mo'-te~, _n._ chinook, amute; clatsop, klabotÉ. _the strawberry._ ~an-áh~, _interj._ an exclamation denoting pain, displeasure, or depreciation. ex. anah nawitka mika halo shem, _ah, indeed you are without shame._ on puget sound, ad-de-dáh. ~ats~, _n._ chinook, idem; yakama, atse (pandosy). _a sister younger than the speaker._ in the original, only when used by her brother. ~a-yáh-whul~, _v._ chihalis, atahwul. _to lend; borrow._ ~ay-kéh-nam.~see eh-kah-nam. ~b.~ ~bé-be~, _n., v._ french. a word used towards children; probably a repetition of the first syllable of baiser. _a kiss; to kiss._ ~bed~, _n._ english, idem. _a bed._ ~bit~, or ~mit~, _n._ english, bit. _a dime or shilling._ ~bloom~, _n._ english, broom. _a broom._ mamook bloom, _to sweep._ ~boat~, _n._ english, idem. _a boat,_ as distinguished from a canoe. ~bos'-ton~, _n., adj._ _an american; american._ a name derived from the hailing-place of the first trading-ships to the pacific. boston illahie, _the united states._ ~bur-dash~, _n._ can. french, berdache (anderson). _an hermaphrodite._ the reputation of hermaphroditism is not uncommon with indians, and seems to attach to every malformation of the organs of generation. the word is of very limited use. ~c.~ ~cal'-li-peen~, _n._ french, carabine. _a rifle._ ~ca-nim~, _n._ chinook, ekanim. _a canoe._ canim stick, _the cedar, or wood from which canoes are usually made._ ~ca-po'~, _n._ french, capot. _a coat._ ~chah'-ko~, _v._ nootka, clayoquot, chako; tokwaht, tchokwa. _to come; to become._ ex. kansik mika chahko? _when did you come?_ chahko kloshe, _to get well._ ~chák chak~, _n._ chinook, idem. _the bald eagle_ (by onoma.), from its scream. of only local use on the lower columbia. ~chee~, _adv., adj._ chinook, t'shi. _lately; just now; new._ chee nika ko, _i have just arrived._ hyas chee, _entirely new._ ~chet'-lo~, or ~jet'-lo~, _n._ chihalia, chetlokh. _an oyster._ used on the lower columbia. ~chet-woot~, _n._ nisqually, idem. _a black bear._ used only on puget sound. ~chik'-a-min~, _n., adj._ tokwaht, tsikamen; nootka, sickaminny (jewitt); seekemaile (cook). _iron; metal; metallic._ t'kope chikamin, _silver;_ pil chikamin, _gold_ or _copper._ chikamin lope, _wire; a chain._ ~chik-chik~. see tsik-tsik. ~chil-chil~. see tsil-tsil. ~chitsh~, _n._ chihalis, tshitsh. _a grandmother._ ~chope~, _n._ chihalis, tshup. _a grandfather._ ~cho'-tub~, _n._ nisqually, idem. _a flea._ used on puget sound. ~chuck~, _n._ nootka, chauk (cook); chahak, _fresh water_ (jewitt); chinook, tltsuk (shortess); clatsop, tl'chukw. _water; a river or stream._ salt chuck, _the sea;_ skookum chuck, _a rapid;_ solleks chuck, _a rough sea;_ chuck chahko _or_ kalipi, _the tide rises or falls;_ saghilli _and_ keekwillie chuck, _high_ and _low tide._ ~chuk-kin~, _n., v._ chihalis, tsukaen. _to kick._ of local use only. ~close.~ see klose. ~cly~, _v._ english. _to cry._ ~cole~, _adj._ english, cold. cole illahie, _winter;_ icht cole, _a year;_ cole sick waum sick, _the fever and ague._ ~comb~, _n._ english. _a comb._ mamook comb, _to comb;_ mamook comb illahie, _to harrow._ ~coo'-ley~, _v._ french, courez, imp. of courir. _to run._ cooley kiuatan, _a race-horse;_ yahka hyas kumtuks cooley, _he can,_ i.e., _knows how to run well._ ~coop'-coop~, _n._ chinook, idem. _the smaller sized dentalium or shell money._ see hykwa. ~co'-sho~, _n._ french, cochon. _a hog; pork._ siwash cosho, _a seal;_ literally, _indian pig._ ~cul'-tus~, _adj._ chinook, kaltas. _worthless; good for nothing; without purpose._ ex. cultus man, _a worthless fellow;_ cultus potlatch, _a present or free gift;_ cultus heehee, _a jest; merely laughing;_ cultus nannitsh, _to look around;_ cultus mitlite, _to sit idle; to do nothing;_ cultus klatawa, _to stroll._ _ques._ what do you want? _ans._ cultus, i.e., _nothing._ ~d.~ ~de-láte~, or ~de-létt~, _adj., adv._ french, droite. _straight; direct; without equivocation._ ex. klatawa delett, _go straight;_ delett wauwau, _tell the truth._ ~di-áub~, or ~yaub~, _n._ french, diable. _the devil._ sometimes used combined with the article, as lejaub. ~d'ly~, or ~de-ly~, _adj._ english, dry. chahko dely, _to become dry;_ mamook dely, _to dry, v. a._ ~doc'-tin~, _n._ english. _a doctor._ ~dol'-la~, or ~táh-la~, _n._ english. _a dollar; money._ chikamin dolla, _silver;_ pil dolla, _gold;_ dolla siághost, _spectacles._ ~e.~ ~eh-káh-nam~, _n._ chinook, ekanam. _a tale or story._ used only on the columbia river. often erroneously pronounced ay-keh-nam. ~eh-ko-li~, _n._ chinook, Ékoli. _a whale._ ~ee'-na~, _n._ chinook, iina. _a beaver._ eena stick (literally, _beaver wood_), _the willow._ ~ee'-na-poo~, or ~in-a-poo~, _n._ chinook, inapu. _a louse._ sopen inapoo, _a flea._ ~ek'-keh~, _n._ chinook, ekke. _a brother-in-law._ ~e'-la-han~, or ~e-lánn~, _n._ chihalis, yelaÁn. _aid; assistance; alms._ mamook elann, _to help._ ~e'-lip~, or ~el'-ip~, _adv._ chihalis, ilip. _first; before._ the superlative. klatawa elip, _go before;_ elip lolo chuck, _in the first place carry water;_ elip kloshe, _best;_ elip tilikum, _n._ (literally, _the first people), a race of beings who inhabited the world before the indians._ ~e-li'-te~, _n._ chinook, ilaitekh. _a slave._ ~e-sált'h~, or ~ye-sált'h~, _n._ probably wasco. _indian corn or maize._ ~g.~ ~get-up~, or ~ket-op~, _v._ english. _to get up; rise._ ~glease~, _n._ english, grease, _fat, grease, or oil._ hyeu glease, _very fat;_ too-toosh glease, _butter._ see, also, lakles. ~h.~ ~háh-lakl~, _adj._ chinook, hÁlakl. _wide; open._ ex. mamook hahlakl la pote, _open the door;_ chahko hallakl (as of the woods), _to open out; become less dense._ ~háht-haht~, _n._ nisqually, hathat. _the mallard duck._ ~hák-at-shum~, _n._ english. _a handkerchief._ ~ha'-lo~, _adj._ quære u. d. not chinook. _none; absent. q._ halo salmon mika? _have you no fish? a._ halo, _none. q._ kah mika papa? _where is your father? a._ halo, _he is out._ halo wind, _breathless; dead;_ halo glease, _lean;_ halo ikta, _poor; destitute._ ~haul~, _v._ english, idem. _to haul or pull._ used with the active verb mamook; as, mamook haul. ~hee'-hee~, _n._ by onoma., hihi (hale). _laughter, amusement._ cultus heehee, _fun;_ mamook heehee, _to amuse;_ heehee house, _any place of amusement,_ as a tavern, bowling-alley, &c. ~hóh-hoh~, _n., v._ chinook (by onoma.), hokhhokh. _to cough._ ~hó-ku-melh~, _v._ chihalis, idem. _to gather; to glean,_ as grain. of local use. ~hóol-hool~, _n._ chinook, kholkhol; klikatat. khoilkhoil. _a mouse._ eyas hoolhool, _a rat._ ~house~, _n._ english. _a house._ mahkook house, _a store;_ boston house, _an american-built house,_ as distinguished from a lodge. ~howh~, _interj._ haukh. _turn to; hurry._ ~how'-kwutl~, _adv._ chinook, haukatlh. an expression of inability. ex. howkwutl nika klatawa? _how could i go?_ ~hul-lel'~, _v., n._ chinook, idem. _to shake._ used with the verb mamook, as, mamook hullel, it becomes active. ~hul-ó-i-ma~, _n., adj._ chinook, s'hulloyiba. _other; another; different._ ex. huloima tilikum, _a different tribe or people;_ hyas huloima, _very different._ ~humm~, _n., v._ jargon. _a stink or smell; to stink._ an invented word. humm opootsh, _a skunk._ ~hunl'-kih~, _adj._ chinook, hunlkekh. _curled or curly; knotted; crooked._ ~huy-huy~, _n., v._ canadian french, hui-hui. _a bargain or exchange; to barter or trade._ ex. huyhuy la sille, _change the saddle;_ huyhuy tumtum, _to change one's mind._ mr. andersen says this is a cant word of the canadians, signifying a hasty exchange. its origin has been suggested in _oui oui,_ yes yes. ~hwah~, or ~hwah-wa~, _interj._ denotes surprise or admiration; also earnestness. ~hy'-ak~, _adv._, also used as imperative. chinook, ai-ak. _swift; fast; quickly; hurry; make haste._ ~hy-as'~, _adj., adv._ probably corrupted from the following. _large; great; very._ the general term for size. hyas tyee, _a great chief;_ hyas mahcook, _a great price; dear;_ hyas ahnkutte, _a long time ago;_ hyas kloshe, _very good._ ~hy-iú~, _n., adj._ nootka, iyahish (jewitt); tokwaht, aiya. jewitt also gives hyo as the name for _ten._ _much; many; plenty; enough._ term of quantity or multitude. hyiu tilikum, _a crowd; many people;_ hyiu muckamuck, _plenty to eat;_ tenas hyiu, _some; a, few;_ wake hyiu, _not many_ or _not much._ ~hy'-kwa~, or ~hy'-a-kwa~, _n._ nootka, haihwa (i-whaw, jewitt). _the dentalium; the shell money or wampum of the pacific coast._ it is used in strings of a fathom long; shells of not more than forty to the fathom being of full size, and the value increasing in proportion to their length. the smaller sizes are called _coop-coop_ (q.v.). these shells were formerly obtained by the indians of the west coast of vancouver island, and passed in barter as low down as california, and eastward to the blackfoot country. ~i.~ ~ik'-kik~, _n._ chinook, ikkik._a fish-hook._ ~ik-poo'-ie~, _v._ chinook, ikhpui. _to shut._ ikpooie la pote, _shut the door;_ mamook ikpooie, _to surround;_ ikpooie kwillan, _deaf._ ~ikt~, or ~icht~, _adj._ chinook, ikht. _one; once._ used also as the indefinite article. ikt man, _a man;_ ikt-ikt man, _some one or other; here and there one;_ ikt nika klatawa kopa yakka house, _i have been once to his house._ ~ik'-tah~, _pron._ chinook, ikta. _what._ iktah okook, _what is that?_ iktah mika tikegh, _what do you want?_ iktah, _well, what now?_ ~ik'-tah, _n._ from the foregoing. _a thing; goods; merchandise; clothing._ hyiu tenas iktah, _a great many trifles._ the use of the same word for _what_ and for _things,_ has been noticed in some other languages of this coast. ~il'-la-hie~, _n._ chinook, ilahekh. _the ground; the earth; dirt._ tipso illahie, _prairie;_ saghallie illahie, _mountains, or high land; heaven;_ hyiu illahie kopa, _dirty_ (literally, _much dirt upon_). ~in'-a-ti~, or ~een-a-ti~, _prep., adv._ chinook, inatai. _across; opposite to; on the other side of._ inati chuck, _on the other side of the river;_ klatawa inati, _to cross over._ ~ip'-soot~, _v. a., v. n._ chinook, alhupso. _to hide one's self, or any thing; to keep secret._ ipsoot klatawa, _to steal off;_ ipsoot wau-wau, _to whisper._ ~is'-ick~, _n._ chinook, isik. _a paddle._ mamook isick, _to paddle._ ~is'-ick stick~, _n._ chinook and english. _the ash._ literally, _paddle-wood._ ~is'-kum~, _v._ chinook, idem. _to take; take hold of; hold; get._ iskum okook lope, _hold on to that rope;_ mika na iskum? _did you get it?_ ~it'-lan~, or ~it'h-lan~, _n._ chinook, ithlana. _a fathom; the length of the extended arms._ ~it'-lo-kum~, _n._ chinook, idem; chihalis, setlokum. _the game of "hand,"_--a common amusement. mamook itlokum, _to gamble._ ~itl'-wil-lie~, _n._ chinook, etlwili. _the flesh; meat of any animal._ konaway nika itlwillie sick, _all my flesh is sore._ ~its'-woot~, or ~its'-hoot~, _n._ chinook, eitshhut. _a black bear._ itshoot paseesie, _thick dark cloth or blankets._ ~k.~ ~kah~, _adv._ chinook, kakh. _where; whither; whence._ kah mika mitlite? _where do you live?_ konaway kah, _everywhere;_ kah-kah, _here and there._ ~kah'-kah~, _n._ chinook and nisqually (by onoma.), skaka. _a crow._ ~káh-kwa~, _adv._ nootka; tokwaht, achko. _like; similar to; equal with; as._ kahkwa nika tumtum, _so i think_ (literally, _such [is] my heart_); kahkwa hyas nika, _as large as i;_ kahkwa spose, _as if;_ kloshe kahkwa, _that is right; good so._ ~kah'-na-way~, _n._ chinook, t'kanawÉ. _acorns._ kahnaway stick, _the oak._ used only on the columbia river. ~káhp-ho~, _n._chinook, idem. _an elder brother, sister, or cousin._ ~káh-ta~, _adv._ chinook, kÁta. _how; why._ kahta mika mamook okook? _why do you do that?_ kahta mika chahko? _how did you come?_ kahta mika? _what is the matter with you?_ pe kahta? _and why so?_ ~kal-ak-a-láh-ma~, _n._ chinook, okalakalama. _a goose._ used on the lower columbia river. ~kal-a-kwáh-tie~, _n._ chinook, kalakwati; clatsop, kl'whelatl. _the inner bark of the cedar_ (thuja); _the petticoat, or skirt, formerly worn by women, and often made of strands of bark._ kalakwahtie stick, _the cedar-tree._ ~ka-li'-tan~, _n._ chinook, tklaitan. _an arrow; shot; a bullet._ kalitan le sac, _a quiver; a shot-pouch._ ~kal-lak'-a-la~, or ~kul-luk'-ul-la~, _n._ chinook, kalÁkala. _a bird._ ~kám-ass~, or ~lá-kam-ass~, _n._ nootka. _the scilla esculenta,_--a bulbous root used for food by the indians. jewitt gives chamass as the nootka for _fruit,_ also for _sweet, or pleasant to the taste._ ~kám-ooks~, _n._ chinook, klkÁbokes. _a dog._ kahkwa kamooks, _like a dog; beastly._ ~ka-mo'-suk~, _n._ chinook, idem. _beads._ tyee kamosuk (chief beads), _the large blue glass beads._ ~kap-su-ál-la~. quære u. d. _to steal._ kapsualla klatawa, _to steal away;_ kapsualla mamook, _to do secretly._ ~kát-suk~, or ~kót-suk~, _n._ chinook, idem. _the middle or centre of any thing._ ~kau'-py~, _n._ english. _coffee._ ~ka-wák~, _v._ chihalis, kauak. _to fly._ not in general use. ~káw-ka-wak~, _adj._ chinook, kÂkawak. _yellow, or pale green._ ~keé-kwil-lie~, _prep._ chinook, kik'hwili. _low; below; under; beneath; down._ mamook keekwillie, _to lower;_ mitlite keekwillie, _to set down; put under._ not used in the sense of "down stream." ~keep'-wot~, _n._ chinook, okwÉpowa; yakama, kapus, _a pin_ (pandosy). _a needle; the sting of an insect; a thorn._ shoes keepwot, _an awl._ ~keh'-loke~, _n._ chinook, idem. _a swan._ of local use only. ~keh'-see~, or ~ki'-su~, _n._ chinook, ekÉso. _an apron._ ~kéh-wa~, _adv._ quære u. d. _because._ not in common use. ~kel'-a-pi~, or ~ká-la-pi~, _v._ chinook, kelapai. _to turn; return; overturn; upset._ kelapi canim, _to upset a canoe;_ hyak kelapi, _come back quickly;_ kelapi kopa house, _go back to the house;_ mamook kelapi, _to bring, send, or carry back;_ kelapi tumtum, _to change one's mind._ ~kes'-chi~, or ~kéh-tsie~. chinook, kukhtsi (anderson). _notwithstanding; although._ keschi yakka mamook kahkwa, _although he did so._ not in common use. ~ket'-ling~, or ~kit'-ling~, _n._ english. _a kettle; can; basin, &c._ ~kil-it'-sut~, _n._ chinook, okwiliktshut. _flint; a bottle; glass._ ~kim'-ta~, or ~kim-tah'~, _prep._ chinook, kimta. _behind; after; afterwards; last; since._ klatawa kimtah, _go behind;_ nika elip, pe yakka kimtah, _i first, and he afterwards;_ okook kimtah, _the one behind;_ kimtah nika nannitsh mika, _since i saw you._ ~king chautsh~, _adj._ english, king george. _english._ king chautshman, _an englishman._ ~ki'-nootl~, or ~ki'-noos~, _n._ chinook, ekainutl. _tobacco._ ~kish-kish~, _v._ chinook, idem. _to drive,_ as cattle or horses. ~kiu'-a-tan~, _n._ chinook, ikiuatan. cooley kiuatan, _a race-horse;_ stone kiuatan, _a stallion._ ~ki'-wa~, _adj._ wasco, kaiwa (shaw). _crooked._ of only local use. ~ki'-yah~, _n._ chihalis, kaiyakh. _entrails._ ~klah~, _adj._ chinook, klakh. _free or clear from; in sight._ ex. chee yakka klah, _now he is in sight;_ klatawa klah, _to escape, as a prisoner;_ chahko klah (of seed), _to come up;_ (of the woods), _to open out;_ (of the weather), _to clear up;_ mamook klah, _to uncover._ mr. anderson gives as the original meaning, _to open out or appear._ ~klah-hanie'~, or ~klagh-anie'~, _adv._ chinook, klakhani. _out of doors; out; without._ ex. mamook klaghanie okook, _put that out;_ klatawa klaghanie, _to go out._ ~kla'-how-ya.~ the ordinary salutation at meeting or parting. _how do you do? good-bye;_ as, klahowya sikhs, _good-bye, friend._ ~kla-hów-yum~, _adj., n._ chinook, klahÁuia. _poor; miserable; wretched; compassion._ ex. hyas klahowyum nika, _i am very poor;_ mamook klahowyum, _to take pity on; give alms; be generous._ the salutation above given probably originated in some whining reply to the first whites, and a distinction has since arisen between the two modes of spelling, which is, however, purely arbitrary. ~kláh-wa~, _adv._ chinook, klawakh. _slow; slowly._ ex. klatawa klahwa, _go slowly._ ~klak~, _adv._ chinook, klakw. _[to take] off._ ex. mamook klak stone kiuatan, _to castrate a horse;_ mamook klak l'assiette, _take off the plates;_ klak kopa wayhut, _get out of the road._ ~klák-sta~, or ~kluk'-sta~, _pron._ chinook, t'kluksta. ex. klaksta mamook okook? _who made or did that?_ halo klaksta, _no one._ ~klák-wun~, or ~kléh-kwan~, _v._ chihalis, klakwun._to wipe, or lick._ klakwun l'assiette, _to wipe a plate._ ~klale~, or ~t'klale~, _adj._ chinook, tlehl. _black, or dark blue, or green._ ~klap~, _v._ chinook, klap. _to find._ ex. mika na klap mika kiuatan? _did you find your horse?_ klap tenas, _to be with child._ ~kla'-pite~, _n._ chinook, klipait. _thread; twine._ ~klás-ka~, or ~klus'-ka~, _pron._ chinook, kluska. _they; thine; them._ ~klat'-a-wa~, _v._ nootka, klattunwah (jewitt); nittinat, klatÖukh. _to go._ klatawa teáhwit, _to walk; go on foot;_ klatawa kopa kiuatan, _to ride;_ klatawa kopa boat, _to sail;_ mamook klatawa, _to send._ ~kla-wháp~, _n._ chinook, klhuap. _a hole._ mamook klawhap, _to dig a hole._ ~klem'-a-hun~, _v._ chihalis, idem. _to stab; to wound; to dart; to cast as a spear; to hook or gore as an ox._ nika klemahun samun, _i spear salmon._ ~klihl~, or ~klilt~, _adj._ chinook, klihl. _bitter._ not of universal use. mr. hale makes it klitl, _sour._ ~klik'-a-muks~, _n._ chinook, klikabuks. _blackberries,_ or more properly _dewberries._ ~klik'-wal-lie~, or ~kloke'-wal-lie~. chinook, klikwali. _brass wire; an armlet or bracelet of brass wire._ mr. anderson gives the original meaning as simply _brass._ ~klim-in'-a-whit~, _n., v._ chinook, kliminawhut. _a lie; to lie._ hyas kumtuks kliminawhit, _he is a great liar_ (literally, _he knows well how to lie_). ~klim'-min~, or ~klimmin-klimmin~, _adj._ chinook, tklemin-tklemin. _soft; fine in substance._ the reduplication denotes the diminutive, but in jargon it is generally used singly. ex. klimmin sapoleel, _flour;_ klimmin illahie, _mud; marshy ground;_ mamook klimmin, _to soften as by dressing a skin._ ~klip~, _adj._ chinook, kelipe; chihalis, kluputl; nisqually, klep. _deep; sunken._ klip chuck, _deep water;_ klip sun, _sunset._ ~klis'-kwiss~, _n._ chinook, idem. _a mat._ ~klógh-klogh~, _n._ chinook, oklÓkhklo. _oysters._ the word is common to the puget sound tribes, as well as to the chinooks. ~klo-náss~, _adv._ chinook, idem. expression of uncertainty or doubt. _perhaps; i don't know; may be so; who knows?_ equivalent to the spanish _quien sabe._ ex. klonass nika klatawa, _perhaps i shall go. q._ kah mika kahpho? _where is your brother? a._ klonass, _i don't know._ ~klone~, _adj._ chinook, tklon. _three._ ~klook~, _adj._ english. _crooked._ klook teáhwit, _broken legged; lame._ ~klootch-man~, _n._ nootka and tokwaht, klutsma. _a woman;_ a female of any animal. tenas klootshman, _a girl;_ klootchman kiuatan, _a mare._ ~klose~, or ~kloshe~, _adj., adv._ nootka; tokwaht, klohtl; makah, klotelo; nisqually, klob. _good; well; well enough._ kloshe nannitsh, _look out; take care;_ hyas kloshe, _very well._ ~klose-spose~. nootka, klohtl; english, suppose. _shall or may i; let me._ ex. klose-spose nika mamook pia okook? _shall i cook that?_ (literally, _[is it] good that i make cook that?_). ~klugh~, or ~klugh-klugh~. chinook, klukh. _to tear._ mamook klugh illahie, _to plough_ (literally, _to tear the ground_). ~kluk-ulh'~, or ~klak-alh'~, _adj._ chihalis, tlukutlh. _broad or wide,_ as of a plank. ~ko~, _v._ chinook, idem. _to reach; arrive at._ chee klaska ko, _they have just come;_ kansih nesika ko kopa nisqually? _when shall we reach nisqually._ ~ko'-ko~, _v._ chinook (by onoma). _to knock._ koko stick, _a wood-pecker._ ~kok'-shut~, _v._ nootka, kakhshetl; klaokwat, kwÁchitl. in the original, _dead._ _to break; broken; to beat._ hyas kokshut, _broken to pieces._ ~kon'-a-way~, _adj._ chinook, kÁnawÉ. _all; every._ klaska konaway klatawa, _they have all gone;_ konaway tilikum, _everybody;_ konaway kah, _everywhere._ ~koo'-sah~, or ~kó-sah~, _n._ chinook, ekÓsakh. _the sky._ only used on the columbia. ~ko'-pa~, _adv., prep._ chinook, idem. _to; in; at; with; towards; of; about; concerning; there or in that place._ ex. kopa nika house, _at my house;_ lolo okook kopa mika, _take that home with you_ (equivalent to the french _chez vous_); cultus kopa nika, _it is nothing to me. q._ kah okook lope? _where is that rope? a._ (motioning with the chin towards the place) kopáh. ~ko-pet'~, _v., adv._ chinook, idem. _to stop; leave off; enough._ kopet wau-wau, _stop talking;_ kopet ikt, _only one;_ kopet okook, _that's all;_ wake siah kopet, _nearly finished;_ kopet tomalla, _day after to-morrow._ ~kow~, _v._ chinook, kau-kau. _to tie; to fasten._ kow mika kiuatan, _tie your horse;_ ikt kow, _a bundle._ ~kull~, _adj._ chinook, k'hul-k'hul. _hard in substance; difficult._ chahko kull, _to become hard;_ mamook kull, _to harden; to cause to become hard;_ hyas kull spose mamook, _it is very hard to do so;_ kull stick, _oak or any hard wood._ ~kul-lagh'~, or ~kul-lagh'-an~, _n._ chihalis, kullakh; lummi, kullukhan. _a fence; a corral, or inclosure._ kullagh stick, _fence rails._ in the original, it meant the stockade with which indian houses are often surrounded. ~kum'-tuks~, or ~káme-taks~, _v._ nootka, kommetak (jewitt); tokwaht, kumituks; clayoquot, kemitak. _to know; understand; be acquainted with; imagine; believe._ mamook kumtuks, _to explain; teach;_ hyas kumtuks solleks (literally, _well to understand anger), to be passionate;_ kopet kumtuks, _to forget;_ halo kumtuks, _stupid; without understanding;_ (of a horse) hyas yakka kumtuks cooley, _he can run fast_ (literally, _he knows well to run_); kumtuks kliminawhit, _to be a liar; to understand lying;_ nika kumtuks okook tyee, _i know that chief;_ nika kumtuks klikatat wau-wau, _i understand the klikatat language._ ~kun'-a-moxt~, _adj._ chinook, konaway moxt. _both; together_ (literally, _all two_). kunamoxt kahkwa, _both alike._ ~kun'-sih, kan'-sih, kun'-juk, kun'-jie~, _adv._ chinook, kunsÉukh. _how many; when; ever._ kunsih tilikum mitlite? _how many people are there?_ kunsih mika klatawa? _when do you go?_ wake kunsih, _never;_ mamook kunsih, _to count._ ~kush'-is~, _n._ chihalis, koshis. _stockings._ in the original, any elastic article of dress. not in general use. ~kwah'-ne-sum~, _adv._ chinook, kwÁnisum; yakama, kwÁlisim. _always; forever._ ~kwáh'-nioe~, _n._ klikatat, kwaddis. _a whale._ ~kwáhta~, _n._ english. _the quarter of a dollar._ the quarter of any number is usually expressed in jargon by _tenas sitku,_ i.e., _a small half._ ~kwah'-tin~. see yakwahtin. ~kwaist~, or ~kweest~, _adj._ chinook, kwaitst. _nine._ ~kwa-lal'-kwa-lal'~, _v._ chinook, kwullil-kwullil. _to gallop._ ~kwal'h~, _n._ chihalis, kwatlh. _an aunt._ ~kwann~, _adj._ chinook, kwan-kwan. _glad._ according to mr. anderson, it means a custom or habit. it is used by some in this sense as _tamed_ or _broken,_ as of a horse (mccormick). kwal is nisqually for _tame._ ~kwass~, _adj._ chinook, idem. _fear; afraid; tame._ mamook kwass, _to frighten; to tame._ ~kwates~, or ~kwehts~, _adj._ chihalis, kwets. _sour._ ~kwéh-kweh~, _n._ chinook, okwÉkwe (by onoma). _a mallard duck._ used chiefly at mouth of the columbia. ~kwék-wi-ens~, _n._ chihalis, idem. _a pin._ of limited use. ~kwéo-kwéo~, _n._ chinook, t'kweo-kweo. _a ring; a circle._ ~kwetlh~, _adj._ chihalis, idem. (anderson). _proud._ not in general use. ~kwin'-num~, _adj._ chinook, kwenem. _five._ ~kwish~, or ~kweesh~, _interj._ refusing any thing contemptuously. equivalent to "_no you don't._" used on the lower columbia. ~kwit'-shad-ie~, _n._ nisqually, kwutshdie. _the hare or rabbit._ confined to puget sound. ~kwo-lann'~, or ~kwo-lah'-nie~, _n._ chihalis, kwolÁn; nisqually, kwilani. _the ear._ halo kwolann, or, ikpooie kwolann, _deaf._ ~kwulh~, or ~kwult~, _v._ chinook, kwult'h. _to hit; to wound with an arrow or gun; to strike with a slick or stone; or in any manner without cutting; to hit._ ~kwun'-nun~, _n._ chihalis, idem. _a count; numbers._ ex. mamook kwunnun, _to count._ of merely local use. ~kwutl~, _adj._ chinook, idem. literally, _fast._ _to push or squeeze,_ as in packing; hyas mamook kwutl, _haul tight._ ~l.~ ~la-bleed'~, _n._ french, la bride. _a bridle._ ~la-boos'~, _n._ french, la bouche. _the mouth; mouth of a river._ moxt laboos, _the forks of a river._ ~la-boo-ti'~, _n._ french, la bouteille. _a bottle._ ~la-ca-lat'~, _n._ french, la carotte. _a carrot._ ~la-ca-set'~, _n._ french, la casette. _a box, trunk, or chest._ ~la-clo-a~, _n._ french, la croix. _a cross._ ~lagh~, _v._ chinook, lakh. _to lean; to tip, as a boat; to stoop; to bend over, as a tree._ wake mika lagh kopa okook house, _don't lean against that house._ ~la-gome~, _n._ french, la gomme. _pitch; glue._ la gome stick, _light-wood; the pitch-pine._ ~la-gwin'~, or ~la-kween'~, _n._ quære u. d. _a saw._ ~la-hál.~ see slahal. ~lahb~, _n._ french, l'herbe. the arbutus _uva ursi,_ the leaves of which are used in smoking, alone or mixed with tobacco. ~la-hásh~, _n._ french, la hache. _an axe or hatchet._ ~la-kam-mas'.~ see kamass. ~lak'-it~, or ~lok'-it~, _adj._ chinook, lakt. _four; four times._ lakit taht-lelum, _forty._ ~la'-kles~, _n._ french, la graisse. _fat; oil._ see, also, glease. ~la-láh~, _v._ chinook, lakhwhola. _to cheat; fool; to practise jokes._ mamook lalah, _to make fun._ ~la-lahm'~, or ~la-lum'~, _n._ french, la rame._an oar._ mamook lalahm, _to row._ ~la-láng~, _n._ french, la langue. _the tongue; a language._ ~la-leem'~, _n._ french, la lime. _a file._ ~la-messe'~, _n._ french, idem. _the ceremony of the mass._ ~la-més-tin~, or ~la-mó-tchin~, _n._ french, la mÉdecine. _medecine,_ not including magic. ~lam'-mi-eh~, or ~lam-mi-i~, _n._ french, la vieille. _an old woman._ ~la-món-ti~, or ~la-mó-ti~, _n._ french, la montagne. _a mountain._ ~la-peep'~, _n._ french, la pipe. _a tobacco-pipe._ lapeep kullakala (literally, the "pipe-bird"), _the band-tailed eagle,_ as its feathers were used to ornament the pipe stems. ~la-péhsh~, _n._ french, la perche. _a pole; the setting-pole of a boat or canoe._ ~la-pel-láh~, _v._ quære if from the french, le foyer. mamook lapellah, _to roast before the fire._ ~la-pelle'~, _n._ french, la pelle. _a shovel or spade._ ~la-pe-osh'~, _n._ french, la pioche. _a mattock; a hoe._ ~la-piége~, _n._ french, la piÉge. _a trap._ eena la piége, _a beaver-trap._ ~la-plash~, _n._ french, la planche. _a board._ ~la-po-el'~, _n._ french, la poÊle. _a frying-pan._ mamook lapoel, _to fry._ ~la-póme~, _n._ french, la pomme. _an apple._ ~la-pool'~, _n._ french, la poule. _a fowl; poultry._ siwash lapool, _the grouse._ ~la-poo-shet'~, _n._ french, la fourchette. _a fork._ ~la-póte~, _n._ french, la porte. _a door._ ~la-sánjel~, _n._ french, la cingle. _a girth; a sash; a belt._ ~la-sée~, _n._ french, la scie. _a saw._ ~la-sell'~, _n._ french, la selle. _a saddle._ ~lá-shal-loo~, or ~lá-shal-lee~, _n._ french, la charrue. _a plough._ ~la-shán-del~, _n._ french, la chandelle. _a candle._ ~la-sháse~, _n._ french, la chaise. _a chair._ ~la-shen'~, _n_ french, la chaine. _a chain._ ~las-siet'~, _n._ french, l'assiette. _a plate._ ~la-swáy~, _n., adj._ french, la soie. _silk; silken._ ~la-táhb~, _n._ french, la table. _a table._ ~la-tet'~, _n._ french, la tÊte. _the head._ pil latet, _red-headed._ ~la-tlah'~, _n._ french, train; as, "ne faites pas de train." (anderson). _a noise._ mamook latlah, _to make a noise._ ~la-wen'~, _n._ french, l'avoine. _oats._ ~la-west'~, _n._ french, la veste. _a waistcoat._ ~lazy~, _adj._ english, idem. _lazy._ ~le-báh-do~ (often pronounced lab'-a-do), _n._ french, le bardeau. _a shingle._ ~le-bal'~, _n._ french, idem. _a ball; bullet._ tenas lebal, _shot._ ~le-bis'-kwie~, _n._ french, le biscuit. _biscuit; crackers; hard bread._ ~le-blau'~, _n., adj._ french, le blond. _a sorrel horse; chestnut colored._ ~le-clem'~, _n., adj._ french, le crÊme. _cream-colored; a cream-colored or light dun horse._ ~le-cock'~, _n._ french, le coq. _a cock; a fowl._ ~le-doo'~, _n._ french, le doigt. _a finger._ ~le-gléy~, _n., adj._ french, le gris, or english gray, with french article. _a gray horse; gray._ ~le-jaub'~. see diaub. ~le-kléh~, _n._ french, le clef. _a key._ mamook le kleh, _lock the door._ ~le-kloo'~, _n._ french, le clou. _a nail; nails._ ~le-koo'~, _n._ french, le cou. _the neck._ ~le-ky'e~, _n., adj._ mr. anderson derives this from a canadian word _caille,_ meaning _a piebald horse._ in its jargon use, it means, also, _a spot, spotted,_ or _speckled;_ as, lekye salmon, _the spotted or winter salmon_ (_salmo canis,_ suckley). ~le-lo'-ba~, _n._ french, le ruban. _a ribbon._ ~le-loo'~, _n._ french, le loup. _a wolf_ (the large wolf). ~le-máh~, or ~léh-ma~, _n._ french, la main. _the hand; the arm._ kloshe lemah, _the right_ (literally, _the good hand_); potlatch lemah, _shake hands._ ~le-máh-to~, _n._ french, le marteau. _a hammer._ ~le-mel'~, _n._ french, le mulet. _a mule._ ~le-mo'-lo~, _n., adj._ french canadian, le moron; undoubtedly a corruption of marron, _a runaway negro._ _wild; untamed._ it applies to men as well as animals, as, for instance, to the tribes which have had no intercourse with the settlements. ~le-moo'-to~, or ~lam'-mu-to~, _n._ french, les moutons. _sheep._ ~le-pan'~, _n._ french, le pain. _bread; raised or light bread._ ~le-pee'~, _n._ french, le pied. _the feet._ ~le-pish'-e-mo~, _n._ quære u. d. _the saddle-blanket and housings of a horse._ ~le-plét~, _n._ french, le prÊtre. _a priest._ ~le-pwau'~, _n._ french, les pois. _peas._ ~le-sak'~, _n._ french, le sac. _a bag; a pocket._ ~le-sap'~, or ~le-zep'~, _n._ french, les oeufs. _an egg; eggs._ ~le-sée-blo~, _n._ french, les Éperons. _spurs._ ~le-sée-zo~, _n._ french, le ciseau. _scissors._ ~le-sóok~, _n._ french, le sucre. _sugar._ ~le-táh~, _n._ french, le dent. _the teeth._ ~le-whet'~, _n._ french, le fouet. _a whip._ mamook lewhet, _to whip._ ~lice~, _n._ english. _rice._ ~lik-pu'-hu~, or ~lik'-po~, _n._ (hale.) _an elder sister._ mr. hale gives this as a chinook word. if so, it is probably a corruption of kup'ho. it is not used in jargon. ~lip'-lip~, _v._ by onoma. (hale). _to boil_ mamook liplip, _to make, or cause to boil._ ~ló-lo~, _v._ chinook, idem. originally, to carry a child on the back. in jargon, used in a more extended sense. _to carry; to load._ lolo kopa tsiktsik, _to carry in a cart._ mamook lolo kopa canim, _to load into a canoe._ ~lo-lo'~, _adj._ chinook, lowullo. _round; whole; the entire of any thing._ lolo sapeleel, _whole wheat;_ mamook lolo, _to roll up_ (shaw). ~lope~, _n._ english, rope. _a rope._ tenas lope, _a cord;_ skin lope, _a raw hide, riata, or thong._ ~luk'-ut-chee~, or ~lá-kwit-chee~, _n._ french, la coquille. (?) _clams._ used chiefly on puget sound. ~lum~, _n._ english, rum. _spirits of any sort._ ~m.~ ~máh-kook~, _v., n._ nootka, mÁkuk; nittinat and tokwaht, idem; makah, bÁkwatl. _to buy or sell; trade or exchange; a bargain._ as their buying and selling was merely barter, the same word always answered for both operations. kah mika mahkook okook calipeen? _where did you buy that rifle?_ hyas mahkook, _dear;_ tenas mahkook, _cheap._ ~máh-kook-house.~ _a trading-house or a store._ ~máh-lie~, _v._ nisqually. _to forget._ of local use on puget sound. ~mahsh~, _v. a._ french, marcher. _to leave; to turn out; to throw away; to part with; remove._ ex. mahsh chuck kopa boat, _bail the boat out;_ mahsh okook salmon, _throw away that fish;_ mahsh maika capo, _take off your coat;_ mahsh! (to a dog) _get out!_ mahsh tenas, _to have a child; to be delivered;_ yakka mahsh tum-tum kopa nika, _he has given me his orders, or told me his wishes;_ mahsh kow, _to untie;_ mahsh stone, _to castrate._ ~máh-sie~, _v._ french, mercie. _thank you._ ~máht-lin-nie~, _adv._ chinook, mÁtlini. _off shore._ (in boating), _keep off!_ (if on land), _towards the water._ ~máht-wil-lie~, _adv._chinook, mÁthwili. _in shore; shoreward._ (as a command), _keep in;_ (on land), _towards the woods, or the interior._ ~ma-láh, _n._ chinook, malagh. _tinware; crockery; earthenware._ ~mal-i-éh, _v._ french, marier. _to marry._ ~ma'-ma~, _n._ english, mamma. _a mother._ ~mam'-ook~, _v. a._ nootka, mamuk. _to make; to do; to work._ it is the general active verb, and is used largely in combination with nouns and other verbs; as, mamook chahko, _make to come, fetch;_ mamook kelipai, _bring or send back;_ mamook isick, _to paddle;_ mamook illahee, _to dig._ ~man~, _n._ english, idem. _a man; the male of any animal._ ex. man moolock, a _buck elk;_ tenas man, _a young man or boy._ ~mél-a-kwa~, or ~mál-a-kwa~, _n._ french, marangouin. (anderson.) _a mosquito._ ~mel'-ass~, _n._ french, melasse. _molasses._ ~mem'-a-loost~, _v., n., part._ chinook, mÉmalust. _to die; dead._ mamook memaloost, _to kill._ ~me-sáh-chie~, _adj._ chinook, masÁchi. _bad; wicked._ ~me-si'-ka~, _pron._ chinook, mesÁika. _you; your; yours._ ~mi'-ka~, _pron._ chinook, mÁika. _thou; thy; thine._ ~mi'-mie~, _adv._ chinook, mÁiami. _down stream._ ~mist-chi'-mas~, _n._ quære u. d. _a slave._ dr. scouler gives this word as nootka and columbian. mr. hale makes it chinook. it is certainly, however, neither chinook nor chihalis; and jewitt gives _kakoelth_ as nootka, while i find the makah word _kotlo,_ and the nittinat _kotl._ ~mit-áss~, _n._ cree, mitas. (anderson.) _leggings._ a word imported by the canadian french. ~mit'-lite~, _v._ chinook, mitlait. _to sit; sit down; stay at; reside; remain._ it is also used in place of _to have_ and _to be._ ex. mitlite kopa house, _he is in the house;_ mitlite hyiu salmon kopa mika? _have you plenty of salmon?_ mitlite (_imp._), _sit down;_ cultus mitlite, _to stop anywhere without particular object;_ mitlite tenas, _to be with child;_ mitlite keekwillie, _to put down._ ~mit'-whit~, _v._ chinook, ametwhet. _to stand; stand up._ mitwhit stick, _a standing tree; a mast._ ~mokst~, _adj._ chinook, makst. _two; twice._ ~moo'-la~, _n._ french, moulin. _a mill._ stick moola, _a saw-mill._ ~moo'-lock~, _n._ chinook, emÚluk. _an elk._ this word, strangely enough, occurs also in the koquilth of humboldt bay. ~moon~, _n._ english, idem. _the moon._ ikt moon, _a month;_ sick moon, _the wane or old moon._ ~moos'-moos~, _n._ klikatat, mÚsmus; chinook, emÚsmus. _buffalo; horned cattle._ the word, slightly varied, is common to several languages. mr. anderson derives it from the cree word _moostoos,_ a buffalo, and supposes it to have been imported by the canadians; but father pandosy makes _musmus_ yakama. ~moo'-sum~, _v., n._ chihalis, mÚsam. _to sleep; sleep._ tikegh moosum, _or_ olo moosum, _to be sleepy_ (literally, _to want, or be hungry for sleep_); nika hyas moosum, _i slept very sound._ ~mów-itsh~, or ~mah'-witsh~, _n._ nootka, mauitsh (hale); nittinat, moitsh, _a deer;_ nootka, moowatsh, a _bear_ (jewitt). _a deer; venison._ frequently used to signify a wild animal; as, huloima mowitch, _a strange or different kind of beast._ the meaning given in jewitt's book is probably a misprint. like _moolock,_ an elk, the word is found in the koquilth of humboldt bay. ~múck-a-muck~, _n., v._ quære u. d. makamak (hale). _to eat; to bite; food._ muckamuck chuck, &c., _to drink water, or other liquid._ neither chinook nor chihalis. mr. anderson considers it an invented word. ~mus'-ket~, _n._ english, idem. _a gun or musket._ stick musket, _a bow._ ~n.~ ~na.~ the interrogative particle. ex. mika na klatawa okook sun? _do you go to-day?_ interrogation is, however, often conveyed by intonation only. ~na-áh, _n._ chinook, tlkanÁa. _a mother._ (hale.) peculiar to the columbia, and now in fact obsolete, the euglish ma'ma being used instead. ~nah~, _interj._ common to several languages. _look here! i say!_ nah sikhs! _halloo, friend!_ also used in common conversation to call attention to some point not thoroughly understood. in the yakama language, it is the sign of the vocative; as, nah tehn! _o man._ ~nan'-itsh~, _v._ quære u. d. _to see; look; look for; seek._ nanitsh! _look there!_ kloshe nanitsh! _look out! take care!_ cultus nanitsh, _to look round idly, or from curiosity only._ mamook nanitsh, _to show._ the word is neither chinook nor chihalis. dr. scouler gives _nannanitch_ as nootka and columbian. it is possibly tbe former. ~nau'-its~, _adv._ chihalis, noitsh. mr. hale gives this for _off shore; on the stream._ it means, according to mr. anderson, the _sea-beach,_ and is not properly a jargon word. ~na-wit'-ka~, _adv._ chinook, idem; klikatat and yakama, n'witka. _yes; certainly; yes indeed; to be sure._ nawitka wake nika kumtuks, _indeed i don't know._ in answer to a negative question, many indians use it as affirming the negative. ex. wake mika nanitsh? _did you not see [it]?_ nawitka, _i did not._ ~nem, _n._ english, name. _a name._ mamook nem, _to name, or call by name._ ~ne-nám-ooks, _n._ chinook, enanÁmuks. _the land otter._ ~ne si'-ka~, _pron._ chinook, nisÁika. _we; us; our._ ~ne'-whah.~ chinook, niwha. it seems to be an adverb used, as is often the case, as a verb, the meaning being _hither, come,_ or _bring it hither._ ex. newhah nika nanitsh, _here, let me see it._ ~ni'-ka~, _pron._ chinook, naika. _i; me; my; mine._ ~nose~, _n._ english, idem. _the nose;_ also, _a promontory._ boat nose, _the bow of a boat._ ~o.~ ~o'-koke~, or ~o'-kook, _pron._ chinook, okÖk. _this; that; it._ iktah okook? _what is that?_ okook sun, _to-day;_ okook klaksta, _he who;_ okook klaska, _they_ (being present). it is often abbreviated to _oke;_ as, _oke sun._ ~o'-la-pits-ki~, _n._ chinook, oÖlpitski. (hale.) _fire._ not properly a jargon word. ~o'-le-man~, _n., adj._ english, old man. _an old man; old; worn out._ hyas oleman kiuatan, a _very old horse._ as regards articles, used in the sense of worn out. ~ol'-hy-iu~, _n._ chinook, olhaiyu. _a seal._ ~o'-lil-lie~, or ~o'-lal-lie~, _n._ belbella, idem. (tolmie.) originally the salmon berry. chinook, klÁlelli, _berries in general. berries._ shot olillie, _huckleberries;_ siahpult olillie, _raspberries;_ salmon olillie, _salmon berries,_ &c. on puget sound, always called olallie. ~o'-lo~, _adj._ chinook, idem. _hungry._ olo chuck, _thirsty;_ olo moosum, _sleepy._ ~o'-luk~, _n._ chihalis, idem. _a snake._ ~o'-na~, _n._ chinook, eÓna. _the razor fish or solen; clams._ used only at mouth of the columbia. ~oos'-kan~, _n._ chinook. _a cup; a bowl._ ~o'-pe-kwan~, _n._ chinook, Ópekwanh. _a basket; tin kettle._ ~o'-pitl-kegh~, _n._ chinook, Óptlike. _a bow._ ~o'-pit-sah~, _n._ chinook, Óptsakh. _a knife._ opitsah yakka sikhs _(the knife's friend), a fork._ the word is also used to denote _a sweetheart._ ~o'-poots~, or ~o'-pootsh~, _n._ chinook, obÉputsh, _the fundament._ _the posterior; the fundament; the tail of an animal._ boat opoots, _the rudder;_ opoots-sill, _a breech clout._ ~Óte-lagh, _n._ (hale.) chinook, oÖtlakh. _the sun._ not properly a jargon word. ~ow~, _n._ chinook, au. _a brother younger than the speaker._ ~p.~ ~pahtl~, _adj._ chinook, pÁtl. _full._ pahtl lum _or_ paht-lum, _drunk;_ pahtl chuck, _wet;_ pahtl illahie, _dirty;_ mamook pahtl, _to fill._ ~paint~, or ~pent~, _n., adj._ english, paint. mamook pent, _to paint._ ~papa~, _n._ english, idem. _a father._ ~pa'see-sie~, _n._ chinook, pasÍsi. _a blanket; woollen cloth._ ~pa-si'-ooks~, _n., adj._ chinook, pasÍsiuks. _french; a frenchman._ mr. hale supposed this to be a corruption of the french word _français._ it is, however, really derived from the foregoing word, pasisi, with the terminal uks, which is a plural form applied to living beings. lewis and clarke (vol. ii., p. ) give _pashisheooks,_ clothmen, as the chinook name for the whites, and this explanation was also furnished me by people of that tribe. it has since been generally restricted to the french canadians, though among some of the tribes east of the cascade range, it is applied indiscriminately to all the hudson's bay people. ~pchih~, or ~pit-chih~, _adj._ quære u. d. _thin in dimension,_ as of a board. (shaw.) not in common use. ~pe-chúgh~, _adj._ chinook, ptsekh. _green._ ~pee~, _conj._ french, puis. (anderson.) _then; besides; and; or; but._ pee weght, _and also; besides which;_ pee nika wauwau wake, _but i say, no._ ~peh'-pah~, _n._ english, paper. _paper; a letter; any writing._ mamook pehpah, _to write._ ~pel'-ton~, _n., adj._ jargon. _a fool; foolish; crazy._ kahkwa pelton, _like a fool;_ hyas pelton mika, _you are very silly._ the indians adopted this word from the name of a deranged person, archibald pelton, or perhaps felton, whom mr. wilson p. hunt found on his journey to astoria, and carried there with him. the circumstance is mentioned by franchêre, in his "narrative," trans, p. . ~pe-shak'~, or ~pe-shuk'~, _adj._ nootka, peshuk; nittinat, idem. _bad._ ~pe-what'-tie~, _adj._ chinooi, pihwÁti. _thin,_ like paper, &c. ~pi'-ah~, _n., adj._ english, fire. _fire; ripe; cooked._ mamook piah, _to cook; to burn;_ piah-ship, _a steamer;_ piah olillie, _ripe berries;_ piah sapolill, _baked bread;_ piah sick, _the venereal disease;_ saghillie piah, _lightning._ ~pil~, _adj._ chinook, tlpelpel. father pandosy gives pilpilp, as signifying _red,_ in the nez percé or sahaptin, also. _red; of a reddish color._ pil illahie, _red clay or vermilion;_ pil dolla, _gold;_ pil chickamin, _copper;_ pil kiuatan, _a bay or chestnut horse._ ~pil'-pil~, _n._ jargon. _blood._ mahsh pilpil, _to bleed; to menstruate._ derived from the foregoing. ~pish~, _n._ english. _fish._ ~pit-lilh'~, or ~pit-hlil'~, _adj._ quære u. d. _thick in consistence,_ as molasses. ~piu-piu~, _n._ french, puer, _to stink._ or from the sound often uttered expressive of disgust at a bad smell. _a skunk._ ~poh~, _v._ chinook, idem. by onoma. mamook poh, _to blow out or extinguish,_ as a candle. ~po'-lak-lie~, _n., adj._ chinook, polakli. _night; darkness; dark._ tenas polaklie, _evening;_ hyas polaklie, _late at night; very dark;_ sit-kum polaklie, _midnight_ (literally, _the half night_). ~po'-lal-lie~, _n._ quære french, poudre. _gunpowder; dust; sand._ polallie illahie, _sandy ground._ the word is certainly neither chinook nor chihalis. ~poo~, _n._ by onoma. (hale). _the sound of a gun._ mamook poo, _to shoot;_ moxt poo, _a double-barrelled gun;_ tohum poo, _a six-shooter._ nisqually, opoo, _to break wind._ ~poo'-lie~, _adj._ french, pourri. _rotten._ ~pot'-latch~, or ~paht'-latsh~, _n., v._ nootka, pahchilt (jewitt); pachaetl, or pachati (cook). _a gift; to give._ cultus potlatch, _a present or free gift._ ~pow'-itsh~, _n._ chinook, pauitsh. _a crab-apple._ ~puk'-puk~, _n._ probably an invented word. _a blow with the fist; a fist-fight._ mamook pukpuk, _to box; to fight with the fists;_ pukpuk solleks, _to fight in anger._ ~puss'-puss~, _n._ english. _a cat._ on puget sound, pronounced _pish-pish._ hyas pusspuss, _a cougar._ ~s.~ ~ságh-a-lie~, or ~sah'-ha-lie~, _adj._ chinook, sakhali; clatsop, ukhshakhali. _up; above; high._ saghalie tyee (literally, _the chief above_), _god._ a term invented by the missionaries for want of a native one. ~sail~, or ~sill~, _n._ english, sail. _a sail; any cotton or linen goods._ mamook sail, _to make sail;_ mamook keekwillie sail, _to take in sail;_ tzum sail, _printed cloth or calico._ ~sa-kol'-eks~, or ~se-kol'-uks~, _n._ chinook, tsakÁluks, _leggings._ _trowsers; pantaloons._ keekwillie sakoleks, _drawers._ ~sal-lal'~, _n._ chinook, klkwushala. (shelwell of lewis and clarke.) _the sallal berry;_ fruit of _gualtheria shallon._ ~salmon~, _n._ english, idem. _the salmon; fish generally._ tyee salmon, i.e., _chief salmon, the spring salmon (salmo kwinnat,_ rich.); masahchie salmon, _a winter species (salmo canis,_ suckley); tzum salmon, _salmon trout._ ~salt~, _n., adj._ english, idem. _salt, or a salt taste._ salt chuck, _the sea._ ~sán-de-lie~, _n., adj._ french, cendrÉ. _ash-colored._ (anderson.) _a roan horse; roan-colored._ ~sap'-o-lill~, _n._ chinook, tsÁpelel. _wheat, flour, or meal._ piah sapolill, _baked bread;_ lolo sapolill, _whole wheat._ the word has been erroneously supposed to come from the french _la farine._ it is, however, a true indian word, and seems common to various columbia river tribes. pandosy gives saplil as yakama for _bread;_ lewis and clarke write it chapelell. ~se-áh-host~, or ~se-agh'-ost~, _n._ chinook, siÁkhost, _the face._ _the face; the eyes._ halo seahhost, _blind;_ icht seahhost, _one-eyed;_ lakit seahhost (_four eyes_), or dolla seahhost, _spectacles_. ~se-áh-po~, or ~se-áh-pult~, ~n.~ french, chapeau. _a hat or cap._ seahpult olillie, _the raspberry._ ~shame~, or ~shem~, _n._ english, idem. _shame._ halo shem mika? _arn't you ashamed of yourself?_ ~shán-tie~, _v._ french, chanter. _to sing._ ~she-lok'-um~, _n._ chinook, tshailakumit. (anderson.) _a looking-glass; glass._ ~ship~, _n._ english, idem. _a ship or vessel._ stick ship, _a sailing vessel;_ piah ship, _a steamer;_ ship-man, _a sailor._ ~shoes~, _n._ english, idem. _shoes; skin shoes; moccasins._ stick shoes, _boots or shoes made of leather._ ~shot~, _n._ english, idem. _shot; lead._ shot olillie, _huckleberries._ ~shu'-gah~, or ~shu'-kwa~, _n._ english. _sugar._ ~shugh~, _n._ chinook, shukhshukh. _a rattle._ an imitation doubtless of the sound. (anderson.) shugh-opoots, _a rattlesnake._ ~shut~, _n._ english, shirt. _a shirt._ ~shwáh-kuk~, _n._ chihalis, shwakÉuk. _a frog._ ~si-áh~, _adj._ nootka, saiÁ. _far; far off._ comparative distance is expressed by intonation or repetition; as, siah-siah, _very far;_ wake siah, _near, not far._ jewitt gives sieyah as the _sky_ in nootka, which was perhaps the true meaning, or, more probably, they called the sky "the afar." ~si-am~, _n._ chinook, ishaiem. _the grizzly bear._ ~sick~, _adj._ english, idem. _sick._ cole sick, _the ague;_ sick tum-tum, _grieved; sorry; jealous; unhappy._ ~sikhs~, or ~shikhs~, _n._ chinook, skasiks; sahaptin, shikstua. (pandosy.) _a friend._ used only towards men. ~sin'-a-moxt~, _adj._ chinook, sinimakst. _seven._ ~si'-pah~, _adj._ wasco. (shaw.) _straight,_ like a ramrod. of only local use. ~sis'-ki-you~, _n._ cree. (anderson.) _a bob-tailed horse._ this name, ludicrously enough, has been bestowed on the range of mountains separating oregon and california, and also on a county in the latter state. the origin of this designation, as related to me by mr. anderson, was as follows. mr. archibald r. mcleod, a chief factor of the hudson's bay company, in the year , while crossing the mountains with a pack train, was over-taken by a snow storm, in which he lost most of his animals, including a noted bob-tailed race-horse. his canadian followers, in compliment to their chief, or "bourgeois," named the place the pass of the siskiyou,--an appellation subsequently adopted as the veritable indian name of the locality, and which thence extended to the whole range, and the adjoining district. ~sit'-kum~, _n., adj._ chinook, sitkum (anderson); clatsop, asitko. _a half; apart._ sitkuni dolla, _half a dollar;_ sitkum sun, _noon;_ tenas sitkum, _a quarter, or a small part._ ~sit'-lay~, or ~sit'-li-ay~, _n._ french, les etriers. (anderson.) _stirrups._ ~sit'-shum~, _v._ chihalis, idem. _to swim._ ~si'-wash~, _n., adj._ french, sauvage. _an indian; indian._ ~skin~, _n._ english, idem. _skin._ skin shoes, _moccasins;_ stick skin, _the bark of a tree._ ~skoo'-kum~, or ~skoo-koom'~, _n., adj._ chihalis, skukum. _a ghost; an evil spirit or demon; strong._ skookum tumtum, _brave;_ skookum chuck, _a rapid._ ~skwak'-wal~, _n._ chinook, skakulh (anderson); clatsop, skakoli. _a lamprey eel._ of local use only. ~skwis'-kwis~, _n._ chinook, cathlamet dialect. _a squirrel._ ~sla-hal'~, _n._ chinook, etlaltlal. _a game played with ten small disks, one of which is marked._ ~smet'-ocks~, _n._ chihalis, smettaks. _the large clam (lutraria)._ used only at the mouth of the columbia river. ~smoke~, _n._ english, idem. _smoke; clouds; fog; steam._ ~snass~, _n._ quære u. d. _rain._ cole snass, _snow._ the word is neither chinook nor chihalis, and is perhaps manufactured. ~snow~, _n._ english, idem. _snow._ ~soap~, _n._ english, idem. _soap._ ~so-le'-mie~, _n._ chinook, sulamich (anderson); clatsop, shÖlbe. _the cranberry._ ~sol'-leks~, or ~sah'-leks~, _n., adj._ quære u. d. _anger; angry._ mamook solleks, _to fight;_ tikegh solleks, _to be hostile;_ kumtuks solleks, _to be passionate._ ~so'-pe-na~, _v._ chinook, t'sopena. _to jump; to leap._ ~spo'-oh~, or ~spo'-eh~, _adj._ chinook, idem. _faded; any light color,_ as pale blue, drab, &c. chahko spoeh, _to fade._ ~spoon~, _n._ english, idem. _a spoon._ ~spose~, _conj._ english, suppose. _if; supposing; provided that; in order that._ spose mika nanitsh nika canim, _if you see my canoe;_ spose nika klatawa kopa chinook, _if or when i go to chinook;_ kahkwa spose, _as if._ see kloshk spose. ~stick~, _n., adj._ english, idem. _a stick; a tree; wood; wooden._ stick skin, _bark;_ ship stick, _a mast;_ mitwhit stick, _a standing tree,_ icht stick, _a yard measure;_ stick shoes, _leather shoes or boots,_ as distinguished from skin shoes or moccasins; kull stick, _oak_ (hard wood); isick stick, _the ash_ (paddle wood). ~stock'-en~, _n._ english. _stockings or socks._ ~stoh~, _adj._ chinook, idem. _loose._ mamook stoh, _to untie; unloose; undo._ metaphorically, _to absolve._ ~stone~, _n._ english, idem. _a rock or stone; bone; horn; the testicles._ stone kiuatan, _a stallion;_ mahsh stone, _to castrate._ ~stote'-kin~, _adj._ chinook, stoktkin. _eight._ ~stutch'-un~, _n._ english, sturgeon. _the sturgeon._ ~suk-wal'-al~, _n._ chinook (hale); clatsop, shukwalÁla, _a gun or musket._ no longer used in jargon. ~sun~, _n._ english, idem. _the sun; a day._ tenas sun, _early;_ sitkum sun, _noon;_ klip sun, _sunset._ ~sun'-day~, _n._ english, idem. _sunday._ icht sunday, _a week;_ hyas sunday, _a holiday._ a flag hoisted on a particular occasion is sometimes also called sunday. the other days of the week are usually counted from this; as, icht, mokst, klone sun kopet sunday, _one, two, or three days after sunday._ saturday used to be called at the hudson's bay company's posts "muckamuck sun," _food day,_ as the one on which the rations were issued. t. ~tagh'-um~, ~to'-hum~, or ~tugh'-um~, _adj._ chinook, takhum; cowlitz, tukhum; kwantlen, tukhum'; selish, tÁkkan. _six._ ~táhl-kie~, or ~táhnl-kie~, _adv._ chinook, tÁnlki. _yesterday._ icht tahlkie, _day before yesterday._ ~táh-nim~, _v._ chihalis, idem. _to measure._ of only local use, and not strictly jargon. ~taht'-le-lum~, or ~tot'-le-lum~, _adj._ chinook, tatlelum. _ten._ the combinations from this are simple. moxt, klone, &c., tahtlelum, signifying _twenty, thirty,_ &c.; tahtlelum pe icht, &c., _eleven, twelve, &c._ ~tál-a-pus~, _n._ chinook, italipas; yakama, telipa. (pandosy.) _the coyote or prairie wolf._ a sort of deity or supernatural being, prominent in indian mythology. _a sneak._ ~ta-máh-no-us~, _n._ chinook, itamÁnawas. _a sort of guardian or familiar spirit; magic; luck; fortune; any thing supernatural._ one's particular forte is said to be his _tamahnous._ mamook tamahnous, _to conjure; "make medecine;"_ masahchie tamahnous, _witchcraft or necromancy._ mr. andersen restricts the true meaning of the word to _conjuring._ ~ta-mo'-litsh~, or ~ta-mow'-litsh~, _n._ chinook, tamulitsh (anderson); yakama, tamolitsh (pandosy). _a tub; barrel; bucket._ icht tamolitsb, _a bushel measure._ ~tanse~, _v., n._ english, dance. _to dance._ ~t'chuk'-in~, or ~tsugh'-ken~. see chuckin. ~tea~, _n._ english, idem. _tea._ ~te-áh-wit~, _n._ chinook, tiÁwi; clatsop, klÁawit. _the leg; the foot._ klatawa teahwit, _to go on foot; to walk;_ klook teahwit, _lame._ ~téh-teh~, _v._ clatsop, tetehaha. _to trot,_ as a horse. of local use only. ~ten'-as~, or ~tan'-as~, _n., adj._ nootka, tanas; tokwaht, tenes. _small; few; little; a child; the young of any animal._ mokst nika tenas, _i have two children;_ tenas hyiu, _a few;_ tenas sun, _early._ jewitt gives tanassie for _a child_ in nootka. ~te-péh~, _n._ chinook, tepkÉh. _quills; the wings of a bird._ ~tik-égh~, or ~tu-kégh~, _v._ chinook, tikekh. _to want; wish; love; like._ hyas tikegh, _to long for;_ ikta mika tikegh? _what do you want?_ ~tik'-tik~, _n._ by onoma. _a watch._ ~til'-i-kum~, _n._ chinook, tilikhum. _people._ applied generally, it means those who are not chiefs. cultus tilikum, _common or insignificant persons;_ huloima tilikum, _strangers;_ nika tilikum, _my relations._ it is also used to signify a _tribe_ or _band._ ~til'-i-kum-má-ma~, _n._ (hale.) chinook, tlkamÁma. _a father._ the word is not in use in jargon. ~till~, or ~tull~, _adj., n._ english, tire. _tired; heavy; weight; a weight._ hyas till nika, _i am very tired;_ kansih till okook, _how much does that weigh;_ mamook till, _to weigh._ ~tin'-tin~, _n._ by onoma. _a bell; a musical instrument._ mamook tintin, _to ring a bell._ among the indians round the hudson bay company's posts, the hours were thus known; as, mokst tintin kopet sitkum sun, _two hours,_ i.e., _two bells after noon._ ~t'kópe~, _adj._ chinook, idem. _white; light-colored._ ~tlehl~. see klale. ~tl'kópe~, _v._ chinook, idem. _to cut; hew; chop._ ~toh~, or ~tooh~. by onoma. mamook toh, _to spit._ a manufactured word. ~tóke-tie~, _adj._ kalapuya. _pretty._ not in common use. ~to'-lo~, _v._ kalapuya. _to earn; to win at a game; to gain._ kansih dolla nika tolo spose mamook? _how many dollars will i earn if i work?_ ~to'-luks~, _n._ clallam, toyuk. _the mussel._ used on puget sound only. ~to-mól-la~, _adv._ english, to-morrow. ikt tomolla, _or_ copet tomolla, _the day after._ ~tot~, _n._ chihalis, tot, or tat. _an uncle._ ~to'-to~, _v._ by onoma. chinook, tokh-tokh. _to shake; sift any thing; winnow._ ~to-toosh'~, or ~ta-toosh'~, _n._ chippeway, totosh. (schoolcraft.) _the breasts of a female; milk._ totoosh lakles, _butter._ ~to-wagh'~, _adj._ chinook, towakh. _bright; shining; light._ ~tsee~, _adj._ chinook, idem. _sweet._ ~tsee'-pie~, _v._ kalapuya. _to miss a mark; to mistake one's road; to make a blunder in speaking; to err or blunder._ tseepie wayhut, _to take the wrong road._ ~tshi'-ke~, _adv._ (hale.) quære u. d. _directly; soon._ not jargon. ~tshis~, _adj._ chinook, idem. _cold._ not in common use. ~tsi-át-ko~, _n._ chihalis, nisqually, &c., idem; clatsop, Échiatku. _a nocturnal demon,_ much feared by the indians. the skagits give this name to the "couteaux," a tribe of indians on frazer river, of whom they stand in like awe. ~tsik'-tsik~, or ~tchik'-tchik~, _n._ by onoma. _a wagon; a cart; a wheel._ tsiktsik wayhut, _a wagon-road._ ~tsil'-tsil~, or ~chil'-chil~, _n._ chinook, echilchil. (anderson.) _buttons; the stars._ ~tsish~, _v._ by onoma., in imitation of the sound of a grindstone. (shaw.) mamook tsish, _to sharpen._ of local use. ~tsóle-pat~, _n._ klikatat. _a shot-pouch._ of local use only. ~tso'-lo~, _n._ kalapuya. (shaw.) _to wander in the dark; to lose one's way._ used in the willamette valley. ~tsugh~, _n., v._ chinook, idem. _a crack or split._ mamook tsugh, _to split;_ chahko tsugh, _to become split or cracked,_ as by the heat of the sun; mamook tsugh illahie, is by some used instead of klugh, for _to plough._ ~tsuk~. see chuck. ~tuk-a-mo'-nuk~, or ~tak-a-mo'-nak~, _adj._ chinook, itakamonak. _a hundred._ it is, like ten, combined with the digits; as, icht, moxt, klone takamonak, _one hundred, two hundred, three hundred,_ &c. hyas takamonak, _or_ tahtlelum takamonak, _a thousand._ ~tuk'-wil-la~, or ~to'-kwil-la~, _n._ kalapuya. _the hazel-nut; nuts generally._ ~tum'-tum~, _n._ by onoma., from the pulsations of the heart. (anderson.) _the heart; the will; opinion._ mahsh tumtum, _to give orders,_ mamook tumtum, _to make up one's mind;_ mamook closhe tumtum, _to make friends or peace;_ sick tumtum, _grief; jealousy;_ moxt tumtum nika, _i am undecided,_ i.e., _i have two wills. q._ kah nesika klatawa? _where shall we go? a._ mika tumtum, _wherever you please; as you will._ ikta mika tumtum? _what do you think?_ halo tumtum, _without a will of one's own,_ as a child. the heart seems to be generally regarded as the seat of the mind or will. ~tum-wa'-ta~, _n._ tum, by onoma.; english, water. _a waterfall, cascade, or cataract._ lewis and clarke give timm as used by the indians above the dalles of the columbia in directing them to the falls. ~tup'-shin~, or ~tip'-sin~, _v._ chihalis, tupshin. _a needle._ mamook tipsin, _to sew; to mend; to patch._ ~túp-so~, or ~tip'-so~, _n._ chinook, tepso, _a leaf._ _grass; leaves, fringe; feathers; fur._ often but incorrectly employed for yakso, _hair;_ tipso illahie, _prairie;_ dely tipso, _hay._ ~ty'-ee~, _n., adj._ nootka, taiyi; tyee (jewitt). _a chief._ any thing of superior order. saghalie tyee, _the deity;_ tyee salmon, _the spring salmon._ toyon is given by some of the northwestern voyagers as the eskimo appellation for _chief._ ~tzum~, _n., adj._ chinook, idem. _mixed colors; spots or stripes; a mark or figure; writing; paint; painted._ tzum sill, _printed calico;_ tzum pehpa, _writing;_ mamook tzum, _to write;_ tzum illahie, _blazed or surveyed land._ ~w.~ ~wagh~, _v._ chinook, wakh, _to pour; to spill; to vomit._ mamook wagh chuck, _pour out some water._ ~wake~, _adv._ nootka, wik (jewitt); tokwaht, wek. _no; not._ ~wa'-ki~, _adv._ (hale.) chinook, waki. _to-morrow._ not jargon. ~wap'-pa-too~, _n._ quære u. d. _the root of the sagitaria sagittifolia,_ which forms an article of food; _the potato._ the word is neither chinook nor chihalis, but is everywhere in common use. ~wash~, _v._ english, idem. mamook wash, _to wash._ ~waum~, _adj._ english, warm. hyas waum, _hot;_ waum illahie, _summer;_ mamook waum, _to heat;_ waum-sick-cole-sick, _fever and ague._ ~wau'-wau~, _v., n._ nootka; nittinat, wÁwe. _to talk; speak; call; ask; tell; answer; talk or conversation._ cultus wauwau, _idle talk; stuff; nonsense;_ hyas wauwau, _to shout._ ~way'-hut~, ~hweh'-kut~, or ~wee'-hut~, _n._ chinook, wÉhut, _a road;_ yakama, wiet, _far._ _a road or trail._ tsik-tsik wayhut, _a wagon-road._ about vancouver, on the columbia, it is pronounced hwÉhkut; on puget sound, weehut. ~weght~, _conj._ chinook, idem. _again; also; more._ pe nika weght, _and i too;_ pahtlatsh weght, _give me some more;_ tenas weght, _a little more yet._ ~whim~, _v._ wasco. (shaw.) _to fell._ whim stick, _a fallen tree;_ mamook whim okook stick, _fell that tree._ also, _to throw,_ in wrestling. of local use only. ~win'-a-pie~, _adv._ nootka; nittinat, wilapi. _by-and-bye; presently; wait._ of local use; the chinook alki being more common. ~wind~, or ~win~, _n._ english, idem. _wind._ the winds are often known by the country from which they blow; as, for instance, on the columbia, an easterly is a walla-walla wind; at the mouth of the river, a southerly is a tilamooks wind, &c. _breath._ ex. halo wind, _out of breath; dead._ y. ~yah'-hul~, _n._ chinook, yakhul; euekhol. _a name._ not in general use. ~yáh-ka~, or ~yok'-ka~, _pron._ chinook, yÁka. _he; his; him; she; it, &c._ ~yah'-kis-ilt'h~, _adj._ chinook, yakisilt'h. _sharp._ mr. anderson gives as the original, "_cutting._" ~yah'-wa~, _adv._ chinook, yawÁkh. _there; thither; thence; beyond._ ~yah'-whul~. see ayÁhwhul. ~yak'-so~, _n._ chinook, idem. _the hair of the head; hair generally._ ~ya-kwah'-tin~, or ~kwah'-tin~, _n._ chinook and clatsop, yakwatin. _the belly; the entrails._ ~yaub~. see lejaub. ~yel'-a-kwat~. see kalakwahtie. ~yi'-em~, _v., n._ chihalis, yaiem. _to relate; to tell a story; to confess to a priest; a story or tale._ ~youtl~, _adj._ quære chihalis, eyutlh; nisqually, juil, _glad._ _pleased; proud;_ (of a horse), _spirited._ hyas youtl yakka tumtum, _his heart is very glad; he is much puffed up._ ~yoútl-kut~, _adj., n._ chinook, yÚtlkut. _long_ (in dimension); _length._ ~yoút-skut~, or ~yutes'-kut~, _adj._ chinook, yÚtskuta. _short_ (in dimension). ~y-salt'h~, or ~ye-salt'h~. see e-salt'h. ~yuk'-wa~, _adv._ chinook, yakwÁ. _here; hither; this side of; this way._ yukwa kopa okook house, _this side of that house._ ~part ii.~ english-chinook. part ii. english-chinook. ~above~, _ságh-a-lie._ ~absolve~, _mam'-ook stoh._ ~acorns~, _káh-na-way._ ~across~, _in'-a-ti._ ~afraid~, _kwass._ ~after, afterwards~, _kim'-ta._ ~again~, _weght._ ~all~, _kon'-a-way._ ~alms~, _e'-la-han,_ or _e-lann'._ ~also~, _weght._ ~although~, _kégh-tchie._ ~always~, _kwáh-ne-sum._ ~american~, _boston._ ~amusement~, _hee'-hee._ ~and~, _pee._ ~anger, angry~, _sol'-leks._ ~apple~, _le pome._ ~apron~, _kéh-su,_ or _ki'-su._ ~arbutus uva ursi~, _lahb._ ~arrive at~, _ko._ ~arrow~, _ka-li'-tan._ ~as if~, _káh-kwa spose._ ~at~, _ko'-pa._ ~aunt~, _kwal'h._ ~awl~, _shoes keep'-wot._ ~axe~, _la-hash'._ ~b.~ ~bad~, _me-sáh-chie; pe-shuk'._ ~bag~, _le sak._ ~ball~, _le bal._ ~bargain~, _máh-kook; húy-húy._ ~bark~, _s'ick-skin._ ~barrel~, _ta-mo'-litsh._ ~basket~, _o'-pe-kwan._ ~beads~, _ka-mo'-suk._ ~bear~ (black), _chet'-woot; its'woot;_ (grizzly), _si-am'._ ~beat, to~, _kok'-shut._ ~beaver~, _ee'-na._ ~because~, _kéh-wa._ ~become, to~, _cháh-ko._ ~bed~, _bed._ ~before~, _e'-lip,_ or _el'-ip._ ~behind~, _kim'-ta._ ~bell~, _tin'-tin._ ~belly~, _ya-kwáh-tin._ ~below~, _kee'-kwil-lie._ ~belt~, _la san-jel'._ ~berries~, _o'-lil-lie; o'-lal-lie._ ~best~, _e'-lip closhe._ ~bird~, _kal-lak'-a-la._ ~biscuit~, _le bis'-kwee._ ~bitter~, _klihl._ ~black~, _klale._ ~blackberries~, _klik'-a-muks._ ~blanket~, _pa-see'-sie._ ~blind~, _ha'-lo se-áh-host._ ~blood~, _pil-pil._ ~blow out~, _mam'-ook poh._ ~blue~ (light), _spo'-oh._ ~blue~ (dark), _klale._ ~blunder, to~, _tsee'-pie._ ~board~, _la plash._ ~boat~, _boat._ ~bob-tailed; a bob-tailed horse~, _sis'-ki-you._ ~boil, to~, _lip'-lip._ ~bone~, _stone._ ~borrow, to~, _a-yáh-whul._ ~bosom~ (female), _to-toosh._ ~both~, _kun'-a-moxt._ ~bottle~, _la-boo-ti'._ ~bow~, _o'-pitl-kegh._ ~bowl~, _oos'-kan._ ~box~, _la ca-sett'._ ~bracelet~, _klik'-wal-lie._ ~brave~, _skoo'-kum tum'-tum._ ~bread~, _le pan._ ~break, to~, _kok'-shut._ ~breasts~, _to-toosh'._ ~breech clout~, _o'-poots sill._ ~bridle~, _la bleed._ ~bright~, _to-wágh._ ~broad~, _kluk-ulh'._ ~broom~, _bloom._ ~brother~, _káhp-ho,_ if elder than the speaker; _ow,_ if younger. male cousins the same. ~brother-in-law~, _ek'-keh._ ~bucket~, _ta-mo'-litsh._ ~buffalo~, _moos'-moos._ ~bullet~, _le bal; ka-li'-tan._ ~bundle~, _kow._ ~but~, _pe._ ~butter~, _to-toosh' la-kles'._ ~buttons~, _tsil'-tsil._ ~buy, to~, _máh-kook._ ~by-and-by~, _win'-a-pie._ ~c.~ ~candle~, _la shan-del'._ ~carrot~, _la ca-lat'._ ~carry, to~, _lo' lo._ ~cart~, _tsik'-tsik; chik'-chik._ ~cascade~, _tum' wa-ter._ ~castrate, to~, _mahsh stone._ ~cat~, _puss'-puss._ ~cataract~, _tum' wa-ter._ ~cattle~, _moos'-moos._ ~certainly~, _na-wit'-ka._ ~chain~, _la shen; chik'a-min lope._ ~chair~, _la shase._ ~cheat, to~, _la-láh._ ~chicken~, _la pool._ ~chief~, _ty-ee'._ ~child~, _ten'-as._ ~clams~, _o'-na; luk'-ut-chee; la-kwit'-chee._ ~clams~, the large kind, _smet-ocks._ ~clear up, to~, _cháh-ko klah._ ~cloth~ (cotton), _sail._ ~clouds~, _smoke._ ~coat~, _ca-po'._ ~coffee~, _kau'-py._ ~cold~, _cole; tshis._ ~comb~, _comb._ ~comb, to~, _mam'-ook comb._ ~come, to~, _cháh-ko._ ~confess, to~, _yi'-em._ ~conjuring~, _ta-máh-no-us._ ~cook, to~, _mam'-ook pi'-ah._ ~copper~, _pil chik'-a-min._ ~cord~, _ten'-as lope._ ~corn~, _e-salt'h', _or _ye-salt'h'._ ~corral~, _kul-lágh._ ~cotton goods~, _sail._ ~cough~, _hoh'-hoh._ ~count, to~, _mam'-ook kwun'-nun._ ~cousin~, see brother and sister. ~coyote~, _tal'-a-pus._ ~crab apple~, _pow'-itsh._ ~cranberry~, _so'-le-mie._ ~crazy~, _pel'-ton._ ~cream colored~, _le clem._ ~crooked~, _ki'-wa._ ~cross~, _la clo-a'._ ~crow~, _káh-kah._ ~cry, to~, _cly._ ~cup~, _oos'-kan._ ~curly~, _hunl'-kih._ ~cut, to~, _tl'ko'-pe._ ~d.~ ~dance, to~, _tanse._ ~dark, darkness~, _po'-lak-lie._ ~day~, _sun._ ~dead~, _mem'-a-loost,_ ~deaf~, _ik-poo'-ie kwil-lan._ ~dear~, _hy'-as máh-kook._ ~deep~, _klip._ ~deer~, _mow'-itsh._ ~demon~, _skoo'-kum._ ~devil~, _di-aub'; yaub; le-jaub'._ ~different~, _hul-o'-i-ma._ ~difficult~, _kull._ ~dig, to~, _mam'-ook il'-la-hie._ ~dime~, _bit,_ or _mit._ ~do, to~, _mam'-ook._ ~doctor~, _doc'-tin._ ~dog~, _kam'-ooks._ ~dollar~, _dol'-la,_ or _táh-la._ ~door~, _la po'te._ ~down stream~, _mi'-mie._ ~drink, to~, _muck'-a-muck._ ~drive, to~, _kish'-kish._ ~drunk~, _páht-lum._ ~dry~, _de-ly'._ ~duck~ (mallard), _kwéh-kweh; háht-haht._ ~dust~, _po'-lal-lie._ ~e.~ ~eagle~, _chak'-chak._ ~ear~, _kwo-lann'._ ~early~, _ten'-as sun._ ~earn, to~, _to'-lo_ ~earth~, _il'-la-hie._ ~eat, to~, _muck'-a-muck._ ~egg~, _le sap'; le zep'._ ~eight~, _sto'-te-kin._ ~elk~, _moo'-lock._ ~enclosure~, _kul-lágh._ ~english~, _king chautsh._ ~englishman~, _king chautsh._ ~enough~, _hi-yu'; ko-pet'._ ~entreiils~, _ki-yágh._ ~evening~, _ten'-as po'-lak-lie._ ~every~, _kon'-a-way._ ~exchange~, _húy-huy._ ~eyes~, _se-áh-host._ ~f.~ ~face~, _se-áh-host._ ~faded~, _spo'-oh._ ~falsehood~, _klim-in'-a-whit._ ~far~, _si-áh._ ~fast~ (quick), _hy-ak'._ ~fast~ (tight), _kwutl._ ~fasten, to~, _kow._ ~fat~, _glease._ ~father~, _pa'-pa._ ~fathom~, _it'-lan._ ~fear~, _kwass._ ~fell, to~ (as a tree), _mam'-ook whim._ ~fence~, _kul-lágh._ ~fetch, to~, _mam'-ook cháh-ko._ ~fever~, _waum sick._ ~few~, _ten'-as._ ~fight, to~, _mam'-ook sol'-leks._ ~fight, with fists~, _mam'-ook puk'-puk._ ~figured~ (as calico), _tzum._ ~file~, _la leem._ ~fill, to~, _mam'-ook pahtl._ ~find, to~, _klap._ ~fingers~, _le doo._ ~fire~, _pi'-ah; o-la-pits'-ki._ ~first~, _e'-lip,_ or _el'-ip._ ~fish~, _pish._ ~fish-hook~, _ik'-kik._ ~five~, _kwin'-num._ ~flea~, _so'-pen e'-na-poo; cho'-tub._ ~flesh~, _itl'-wil-lie._ ~flint~, _kil-it'-sut._ ~flour~, _sap'-o-lill._ ~fly, to~, _ka-wak'._ ~fog~, _smoke._ ~food~, _muck'-a-muck._ ~fool~, _pel'-ton._ ~foolish~, _pel'-ton._ ~foot~, _le-pee'._ ~forever~, _kwáh-ne-sum._ ~forget, to~, _máh-lie._ ~fork~, _la poo-shet'._ ~formerly~, _áhn-kut-te,_ or _áhn-kot-tie._ ~four~, _lak'-it, _or _lok'-it._ ~fowl~, _la pool._ ~french~, frenchman, _pa-si'-ooks._ ~friend~, _sikhs,_ or _shikhs._ ~frog~, _shwáh-kuk._ ~fry~, to, _mam'-ook la po-el'._ ~frying-pan~, _la po-el'._ ~full~, _pahtl._ ~fundament~, _o'-poots._ ~g.~ ~gallop, to~, _kwa-lal'-kwa-lal'._ ~gather, to~, _ho'-ku-melh._ ~get, to~, _is'-kum._ ~get out~, _mahsh._ ~get up~, _get-up',-or ket-op'._ ~ghost~, _skoo'-kum._ ~gift~, _cul'-tus pot'-latch._ ~give, to~, _pot'-latch._ ~glad~, _kwann._ ~go, to~, _klat'-a-wa._ ~god~, _ságh-a-lie ty-ee'._ ~gold~, _pil chik'-a-min._ ~good~, _klose,_ or _kloshe._ ~good-bye~, _kla-how'-ya._ ~goods~, _ik'-tah._ ~goose~, _whuy'-whuy; kal-ak-a-láh-ma._ ~grandfather~, _chope._ ~grandmother~, _chitsh._ ~grease~, _la-kles'; glease._ ~green~, _pe-chugh'._ ~grey; a grey horse~, _le gley._ ~grizzly bear~, _si-am'._ ~ground~, _il'-la-hie._ ~gun; musket~, _suk'-wa-lal._ ~h.~ ~hair~, _yak'-so._ ~half~, _sit'-kum._ ~hammer~, _le máh-to._ ~hand~, _le máh._ ~hand~ (game of), _it'-lo-kum._ ~handkerchief~, _hak'-at-shum._ ~hard~, _kull._ ~hare~, _kwit'-shad-ie._ ~harrow, to~, _mam'-ook comb il'-la-hie._ ~hat~, _se-áh-po; se-áh-pult._ ~haul~, _haul._ ~hazel-nuts~, _tuk'-wil-la._ ~he, his~, _yáh-ka._ ~head~, _la tet._ ~heart~, _tum'-tum._ ~heaven~, _ságh-il-lie il'-la-hie._ ~heavy~, _till._ ~help, to~, _mam'-ook e-lann'._ ~here~, _yuk'-wa._ ~hermaphrodite~, _bur'-dash._ ~hide, to~, _ip'-soot._ ~high~, _ságh-a-lie._ ~hit, to~, _kwul'h._ ~hoe~, _la pe-osh'._ ~hog~, _co'-sho._ ~hole~, _kla-whap'._ ~holiday~, _sunday._ ~horn~, _stone._ ~horse~, _kiu'-a-tan._ ~house~, _house._ ~how~, _káh-ta._ ~how are you~, _kla-how'-ya._ ~how many~, _kun'-sih; kun'-juk._ ~hundred~, _tuk-a-mo'-nuk._ ~hungry~, _o'-lo._ ~hurry~, _howh; hy-ak'._ ~i.~ ~i~, _ni-ka._ ~if~, _spose._ ~in~, _ko'-pa._ ~indian~, _si'-wash._ ~in shore~, _máht-wil-lie._ ~iron~, _chik'-a-min._ ~it~, _yáh-ka._ ~j.~ ~jealous~, _sick tum'-tum._ ~jump, to~, _so'-pe-na._ ~k.~ ~kam-ass root~, _la'-ka-mass._ ~kettle~, _ket-ling._ ~kick, to~, _chuk'-kin._ ~kiss, to kiss~, _be'-be._ ~knife~, _o'-pit-sah._ ~knock, to~, _ko'-ko._ ~knotty~, _hunl'-kih._ ~know, to~, _kum'-tuks._ ~l.~ ~lame~, _klook te-áh-wit._ ~lamprey eel~, _skwak'-wal,_ ~language~, _la lang._ ~large~, _hy-as'._ ~lately~, _chee._ ~laughter~, _hee'-hee._ ~lazy~, _lazy._ ~leap, to~, _so'-pe-na._ ~leaf~, _tup'-so,_ or _tip'-so._ ~lean, to~, _lagh._ ~leave, to~, _mahsh._ ~leave off, to~, _ko-pet'._ ~leg~, _te-áh-wit._ ~leggings~, _mi-tass'._ ~lend, to~, _a-yáh-whul_ ~lick, to~, _klak'-wun._ ~lie, to~, _klim-in'-a-whit._ ~like~, _káh-kwa._ ~like, to~, _tik-égh._ ~little~, _ten'-as._ ~long~, _youtl'-kut._ ~long ago~, _áhn-kut-te,_ or _áhn-kot-tie._ ~look, to~, _nan'-itsh._ ~look here!~ _nah._ ~look out!~ _klose nan'-itsh._ ~looking-glass~, _she-lok'-um._ ~loose~, _stoh._ ~lose the way, to~, _tso'-lo; tsee-pie' way-hut._ ~louse~, _e'-na-poo,_ or _in'-a-poo._ ~love, to~, _tik-égh._ ~m.~ ~magic~, _ta-máh-no-us._ ~make, to~, _mam'-ook._ ~man~, _man._ ~many~, _hy-iu'._ ~marry, to~, _mal-i-éh._ ~mass~ (ceremony of), _la messe._ ~mast~, _ship stick._ ~mat~, _klis'-kwiss._ ~mattock~, _la pe-osh'._ ~measure, to~, _tah'-nim._ ~meat~, _itl'-wil-lie._ ~medicine~, _la mes'-tin._ ~mend, to~, _mam'-ook tip'-shin._ ~menstruate, to~, _mahsh pil'-pil._ ~metal, metallic~, _chik'-a-min._ ~middle, the~, _kat'-suk,_ or _kot'-suk._ ~midnight~, _sit'-kum po'-lak-lie._ ~milk~, _to-toosh'._ ~mill~, _moo'-la._ ~mind, the~, _tum'-tum._ ~miss, to~, _tsee'-pie._ ~mistake, to~, _tsee'-pie._ ~moccasins~, _skin-shoes._ ~molasses~, _mel-ass'._ ~money~, _chik'-a-min._ ~month~, _moon._ ~moon~, _moon._ ~more~, _weght._ ~mosquito~, _mel'-a-kwa._ ~mother~, _mama; na'-ah._ ~mountain~, _la mon'-ti._ ~mouse~, _hool'-hool._ ~mouth~, _la boos._ ~much~, _hy-iu'._ ~mule~, _le mel._ ~musical instrument~, _tin'-tin._ ~musket~, _musket._ ~mussels~, _to'-luks._ ~my, mine~, _ni'-ka._ ~n.~ ~nails~, _le cloo._ ~name~, _nem; yah-hul._ ~near~, _wake si-áh._ ~neck~, _le cou._ ~needle~, _keep'-wot._ ~new~, _chee._ ~night~, _po'-lak-lie._ ~nine~, _kwaist,_ or _kweest._ ~no, not~, _wake._ ~noise~, _la tlah._ ~none~, _ha'-lo._ ~nonsense~, _cul'-tus wau'-wau._ ~noon~, _sit-kum sun._ ~nose~, _nose._ ~notwithstanding~, _kégh-tchie._ ~now~, _al'-ta._ ~numerals--~ , _ikt._ , _mokst._ , _klone._ , _lakit._ , _kwinnum._ , _taghum._ , _sinnamokst._ , _stotekin._ , _kwaist._ , _tahtlelum._ , _tahtlelum pe ikt_ , _mokst tahtlelum._ , _ikt takarnonuk._ ~nuts~, _tuk'-wil-la._ ~o.~ ~oak~, _kull stick._ ~oar~, _la lahm; la lum._ ~oats~, _la wen._ ~off~, _klak._ ~off shore~, _máht-lin-nie_ ~oil~, _glease._ ~old~, _o'-le-man._ ~old man~, _o'-le-man._ ~old woman~, _lam'-mi-eh._ ~one~, _ikt._ ~one-eyed~, _ikt se-áh-host._ ~open~, _háh-lakl._ ~opposite to~, _in'-a-ti._ ~or~, _pe._ ~order, to~, _mahsh tum'-tum._ ~other~, _hul-o'-i-ma._ ~otter~ (land), _ne-mam'-ooks._ ~our~, _ne-si'-ka._ ~out doors~, _klágh-a-nie._ ~ox~, _moos'-moos._ ~oyster~, _chet'-lo,_ or _jet'-lo; klógh-klogh._ ~p.~ ~paddle, a~, _is'-ick._ ~paddle, to~, _mam'-ook is'-ick._ ~paint~, _pent._ ~paint, to~, _mam'-ook pent._ ~paper~, _péh-pah._ ~peas~, _le pwau._ ~people~, _til'-i-kum._ ~perhaps~, _klo-nas'._ ~petticoat~, _kal-a-kwah'-tie._ ~piebald~, _le kye._ ~pin~, _kwek'-wi-ens._ ~pipe~, _la peep._ ~pitch~, _la gome._ ~plate~, _la si-et'._ ~pleased~, _youtl._ ~plough~, _le shal-loo'._ ~plough, to~, _klugh il'-la-hie._ ~pole~, _la pehsh._ ~poor~, _kla-how'-yum; ha'-lo ik'-ta._ ~pork~, _co'-sho._ ~posteriors~, _o'-poots._ ~potato~, _wap'-pa-too._ ~pour, to~, _wagh._ ~powder~, _po'-lal-lie._ ~prairie wolf~, _tal'-a-pus._ ~presently~, _al'-kie; win'-a-pie_ ~pretty~, _to'ke-tie._ ~priest~, _le plet._ ~proud~, _youtl; kwetl'h._ ~provided that~, _spose._ ~pull~, _haul._ ~q.~ ~quarter~, _ten'-as sit'-kum._ ~quarter~ (of a dollar), _kwah-ta._ ~quick~, _hy-ak'._ ~quills~, _te-péh._ ~r.~ ~rabbit~, _kwit'-shad-ie._ ~rain~, _snass._ ~rattle~, _shugh._ ~rattlesnake~, _shugho'-pools._ ~razor fish~, _o'-na._ ~reach~, _ko._ ~red~, _pil._ ~relate, to~, _yi'-em._ ~return, to~, _kel'-i-pi._ ~ribbon~, _le lo'-ba._ ~rice~, _lice._ ~rifle~, _cal'-li-peen._ ~ring, a~, _kwéo-kwéo._ ~ripe~, _pi'-ah._ ~river~, _chuck._ ~road~, _way'-hut._ ~roan colored~, _san'-de-lie._ ~roast~, _mam'-ook la pel-lah'._ ~rock~, _stone._ ~rope~, _lope._ ~rotten~, _poo'-lie._ ~round~, _lo'-lo._ ~rudder~, _boat o'-poots._ ~rum~, _lum._ ~s.~ ~sack~, _le sak._ ~saddle~, _la sell._ ~saddle housings~, _le pish'-e-mo._ ~sail~, _sail._ ~sailor~, _ship'-man._ ~salmon~, _salmon._ ~salt~, _salt._ ~sand~, _po'-lal-lie._ ~sash~, _la san-jel'._ ~saw~, _la gwin; la scie._ ~say, to~, _wau'-wau._ ~scissors~, _le see'-zo._ ~sea~, _salt-chuck._ ~seal~, _ol'-hi-yu si'-wash co'-sho._ ~see, to~, _nan'-itsh._ ~sell, to~, _máh-kook._ ~seven~, _sin'-a-moxt._ ~sew, to~, _mam'-ook tip'-shin._ ~shake, to~, _to-to; hul'-lel._ ~shame~, _shem._ ~sharp~, _yáh-kis-ilt'h._ ~sharpen, to~, _mam'-ook tsish._ ~she, her~, _yah-ka._ ~sheep~, _le moo'-to._ ~shell money~ (the small size), _coop-coop;_ (the large), _hy-kwa._ ~shingle~, _le-báh-do._ ~shining~, _to-wágh._ ~ship~, _ship._ ~shirt~, _shut._ ~shoes~, _shoes._ ~shoot, to~, _mam'-ook poo._ ~short~, _yútes-kut._ ~shot~, _shot; ten'-as le bal._ ~shot pouch~, _ka-li-tan le-sac'; tsole'-pat._ ~shout, to~, _hy'-as wau'-wau._ ~shovel~, _la pell._ ~shut, to~, _ik-poo'-ie._ ~sick~, _sick._ ~sift, to~, _to-to._ ~silk~, _la sway._ ~silver~, _t'kope chik'-a-min._ ~similar~, _káh-kwa._ ~since~, _kim-ta._ ~sing, to~, _shan'-tie._ ~sister~, _káhp-ho,_ if older than the speaker; _ats,_ if younger. ~sit, to~, _mit'-lite._ ~six~, _tógh-um._ ~skin~, _skin._ ~skunk~, _hum o'-poots; piu'-piu; skub'-e-you._ ~sky~, _koo'-sagh._ ~slave~, _e-li'-te; mist'-shi-mus._ ~sleep~, _moo'-sum._ ~slowly~, _kláh-wa._ ~small~, _ten'-as._ ~smell, a~, _humm._ ~smoke~, _smoke._ ~snake~, _o'-luk._ ~snow~, _snow; cole snass._ ~soap~, _soap._ ~soft~, _klim'-min._ ~sorrel colored~, a sorrel horse, _le blau._ ~sorry~, _sick tum'-tum._ ~sour~, _kwates._ ~spade~, _la pell._ ~speak, to~, _wau'-wau._ ~spill, to~, _wagh._ ~spirits~, _lum._ ~split~, _tsugh._ ~split, to~, _mam'-ook tsugh._ ~spectacles~, _dol'-la se-ágh-ost,_ or _lak-it se-agh-ost._ ~spit, to~, _mam'-ook toh._ ~split, to become~, _cháh-ko tsugh._ ~spoon~, _spoon._ ~spotted~, _le kye; tzum._ ~spurs~, _le see'-blo._ ~squirrel~, _skwis'-kwis._ ~stab, to~, _klem'-a-hun._ ~stand, to~, _mit'-whit._ ~stars~, _tsil'-tsil._ ~stay, to~, _mit'-lite._ ~steal, to~, _kap-su-al-la._ ~steam~, _smoke._ ~steamer~, _pi'-ah ship._ ~stick, a~, _stick._ ~stink, a~, _piú-piú; humm._ ~stirrup~, _sit'-lay._ ~stockings~, _stock'-en; kush-is'._ ~stone~, _stone._ ~stop, to~, _ko-pet'._ ~store~, _máh-kook house._ ~story~, _eh-káh-nam._ ~straight~, _de-láte,_ or _de-let'; si'-pah._ ~strawberries~, _a-mo'-te._ ~strong~, _skoo'-kum._ ~sturgeon~, _stutch'-un._ ~sugar~, _le sook; shu'-gah; shu'-kwa._ ~summer~, _waum il'-la-hie._ ~sun~, _sun; óte-lagh._ ~sunday~, _sunday._ ~sunset~, _klip sun._ ~suppose~, _spose._ ~swan~, _káh-loke._ ~sweep, to~, _mam'-ook bloom._ ~sweet~, _tsee._ ~swim~, _sit'-shum._ ~t.~ ~table~, _la tahb._ ~tail~, _o'-poots._ ~take, to~, _is'-kum._ ~take care~! _klose nan'-itsh._ ~take off~, or ~out~, _mam'-ook klak; mahsh._ ~tale~, or ~story~, _yi'-em; eh-káh-nam._ ~talk, to~, _wau'-wau._ ~tame~, _kwass._ ~tea~, _tea._ ~teach, to~, _mam'-ook kum'-tuks._ ~tear, to~, _klugh._ ~teeth~, _le táh._ ~tell, to~, _wau'-wau._ ~ten~, _táht-le-lum._ ~testicles~, _stone._ ~thank you~, _máh-sie._ ~that~, _o'-koke._ ~that way~, _yáh-wa._ ~there~, _yáh-wa; ko-páh._ ~they~, _klas'-ka._ ~thick~ (as molasses), _pit'-lilh._ ~thin~ (as a board), _p'chih; pe-what'-tie._ ~thing~, _ik'-tah._ ~this~, _o'-koke._ ~this way~, _yuk'-wa._ ~thou, thy, thine~, _mi'-ka._ ~thread~, _kla-píte._ ~three~, _klone._ ~throw away~, _mahsh._ ~tide~, see _chuck._ ~tie, to~, _kow._ ~tight~, _kwutl._ ~tinware~, _ma-láh._ ~tip, to~, _lagh._ ~tired~, _till._ ~to, towards~, _ko'-pa._ ~tobacco~, _ki'-nootl; ki'-noos._ ~to-morrow~, _to-mol'-la._ ~tongue~, _la lang._ ~trail~, _way'-hut._ ~trap~, _la piége._ ~tree~, _stick._ ~tree, fallen~, _whim stick._ ~trot, to~, _téh-teh._ ~trowsers~, _sa-kol'-eks._ ~true~, _de-láte._ ~truth~, _de-láte wau'-wau._ ~tub~, _ta-mo'-litsh._ ~twine~, _ten-as lope; kla-píte._ ~two, twice~, _mokst._ ~u.~ ~uncle~, _tot._ ~under~, _kee'-kwil-lie._ ~understand, to~, _kum'-tuks._ ~unhappy~, _sick tum'-tum._ ~untamed~, _le-mo'-lo._ ~untie, to~, _mam'-ook stoh; mahsh kow._ ~up~, _ságh-a-lie._ ~upset, to~, _kel'-i-pi._ ~us~, _ne-si'-ka._ ~v.~ ~venereal, the~, _pi'-ah sick._ ~venison~, _mow'-itsh._ ~very~, _hy-as'._ ~vessel~, _ship._ ~vest~, _la west._ ~vomit, to~, _wagh._ ~w.~ ~wagon~, _tsik'-tsik; chik'-chik._ ~wander, to~, _tso'-lo._ ~want, to~, _tik-égh._ ~warm~, _waum._ ~wash, to~, _mam'-ook wash._ ~watch, a~, _tik'-tik._ ~water~, _chuck._ ~waterfall~, _tum'-water._ ~we~, _ne-si'-ka._ ~weigh, to~, _mam'-ook till._ ~wet~, _pahtl chuck._ ~whale~, _eh'-ko-lie; kwáh-nice, kwad'-dis._ ~what~, _ik'-tah._ ~wheat~, _sap'-o-lill._ ~wheel~, _tsik'-tsik; chik'-chik._ ~when~, _kan'-sih; kun-juk._ ~where~, _kah._ ~whip~, _le whet._ ~white~, _t'kope._ ~who~, _klak'-sta._ ~whole~, _lo'-lo._ ~why~, _káh-ta._ ~wicked~, _me-sáh-chie._ ~wide~, _kluk-ulh'._ ~wild~, _le mo'-lo._ ~will, the~, _tum'-tum._ ~willow~, _ee'-na stick._ ~win, to~, _to'-lo._ ~wind~, _wind._ ~winter~, _cole il'-la-hie._ ~wipe, to~, _klak'-wun._ ~wire~, _chik'-a-min lope._ ~wish, to~, _tik-égh._ ~with~, _ko'-pa._ ~without~, _ha'-lo._ ~wolf~, _le-loo'._ ~woman~, _klootsh'-man._ ~woman~ (old), _lam'-mi-eh._ ~wood, wooden~, _stick._ ~work, to~, _mam'-ook._ ~worn out~, _o'-le-man._ ~worthless~, _cul'-tus._ ~wound, to~, _klem'-a-hun._ ~write, to~, _mam'-ook péh-pah; mam'-ook tzum._ ~writing~, _tzum._ ~y.~ ~year~, _ikt cole._ ~yellow~, _kaw'-ka-wak._ ~yes~, _áh-ha; e-éh._ ~yes indeed~, _na-wit'-ka._ ~yesterday~, _táhl-kie; táhl-kie sun._ ~you, your, yours~, _me-si'-ka._ ~young~, _ten'-as._ the lord's prayer in jargon. nesika papa klaksta mitlite kopa saghalie, kloshe kopa nesika our father who stayeth in the above, good in our tumtum mika nem; kloshe mika tyee kopa konaway tilikum; hearts (be) thy name; good thou chief among all people; kloshe mika tumtum kopa illahie, kahkwa kopa saghalie. potlatch good thy will upon earth as in the above. give konaway sun nesika muckamuck. spose nesika mamook masahchie, every day our food. if we do ill, wake mika hyas solleks, pe spose klaksta masahchie kopa (be) not thou very angry, and if any one evil towards nesika, wake nesika solleks kopa klaska. mahsh siah kopa us not we angry towards them. send away far from nesaika konaway masahchie. us all evil. kloshe kahkwa. proofreading team transcriber's note: the symbol "[=o]" is used to represent an "o" with macron. shea's library of american linguistics. iii. grammatical sketch of the heve language, translated from an unpublished spanish manuscript, by buckingham smith. * * * * * . * * * * * notices of the heve; the language spoken by the eudeve, a people of the dÓhme.[ ] * * * * * by buckingham smith. * * * * * historical. this tongue was spoken in the middle of the last century over a region of country principally within sonora, the northernmost of the seven provinces then comprising the kingdom of new galicia under the viceroyalty of new spain. the limit of sonora on the east was continuous along the chain of mountains that divides it from taraumara,--from sateche, the farthest of the indian settlements in that district, southwardly eighty leagues to bacoa sati the first of its towns. on the west the province was washed by the sea of cortez from the mouth of the hiaqui to the tomosatzi, or colorado, the waters of the hiaqui forming its limit to the south; and on the north by a course from the mission of baseraca westwardly through the presidio de fronteras to that of pitic (terrenate), a distance of seventy leagues. according to the opinion of a jesuit father, the author of an anonymous work in, manuscript on that country, written in the year at alamo, it was thought also to be the most important among the many provinces of mexico, whether for fertility of soil, gold washings, or silver mines; and not less distinguishable for the docility and loyalty of those aboriginal inhabitants who had early given their adhesion to the government to secure religious instruction. [footnote : the title of the work, in manuscript, from which the grammatical notices have been elaborated is arte y vocabulario de la lingua dohema, heve ó eudeva; the adjective termination of the last and first name being evidently spanish, as is also the plural terminations used elsewhere in some of the modifications of those words. we have only the definition of heve with certainty given as "people;" to the word "nation" in the vocabulary, there being attached the remark: "i find no generic term: each (nation) has its specific name; the eudeves are called dóhme." another like work, also unpublished, with the title _arte cíe in lengua pinea_ has the dictionary inscribed _vocabulario en lengua nevome_. in the uncertain relationship of the tribes to each other, better marked and measured perhaps by the proximity of their idioms than by any other means with which we are acquainted, a thought has been taken from the indistinct manner in which these different people are spoken of by those who have been among them to advance in the present title, (since we may not be at liberty to reject,) the word dóhme for the family; and pima generally for the common language, under which the opata, heve, nevome, sobahipurls and the rest may be placed, as they shall become known, each by its separate dialect.] the missions of sonora included moreover a section to the south bounded by the river chico within the province of ostimuri. to the north, within the religious precinct, was the pimeria alta through the sobahipuris up to the junction of the river of that name, (otherwise the san pedro,) with the gila; thence for a distance of more than one hundred and thirty leagues, after passing among _rancherías_ of pima, opa, and cocomaricopa, and having received in its course the asumpcion, or compuesto--from its being formed by the united waters of two streams, the salado and verde--it enters the tomosatzi, closing that pimeria of innumerable tribes described by the missionaries as sealed in productive places, and in a genial climate. other indians of the same names, the yuma also and papapootam (papago) lived beyond, as appears from the accounts given by the spiritual invaders of those remote regions, chiefly the fathers kino, keller, and sedelmayer. the two principal nations of sonora are spoken of as the opata and tima, since the eudeve should be reckoned with the opata, for the reason that its language differs as little from that of the other as the portuguese from the castilian, or the provençal from the french; and likewise should also be added the jove, who, having mingled with the opata, no longer use their own tongue, except in some instances of the aged. it is one difficult to acquire, and different from any other in the province. the opata are the best of the native christians, having never turned upon their teachers, nor once risen against the royal authorities; nor do they, like other indians, make the women bear the heavier share of the labor in the fields. they are industrious husbandmen; but they are not any the less wanting in valor on that account, having oftentimes shown their good conduct when bearing arms with the king's forces at the expense of the missions. individuals there were, and perhaps still are, who did the work of blacksmiths, carpenters, tailors, stone cutters, masons, learning any craft readily, and practicing it with skill. they and some of the endeve, although in a less degree, are to the other indians what the people who live in towns are to those in the country, still for all it was remarked, they were none the less indians. such was the general character of the opata, which is the same that is given of them in our time by that curious and instructive observer, john r. bartlett, in his narrative of an expedition into that country. the jove were a rural people, quite the greater number of them, unwilling to be brought together in communities, lived in chasms among the ridges where they were born, proof to the solicitations of kindness and conveniences of civilized life. the other portion of them dwelt in ponida, teopari and mochoba. the good missionary at bacadeque endeavored to bring into towns those who inhabited the ranchería of sathechi and the margins of the mulatos and arcos, rivers to the south, without avail. they live among briars, owning a few animals, subsisting on wild fruits and vegetables, gathering an occasional stalk of maize or a pumpkin that nature suffers to grow in some crevice here and there made by torrents bursting from the mountains. these nations, the pima and the opata, eudeve, jove, forming two people, occupy the greater portion of sonora, seated far inward to the west from the cordillera. the limit on the south is where stood the deserted town of ivatora thence to arivetze, bacanora, tonitzi, soyopa, nacori; on the west from alamos, through parts of ures and nacomeri to opedepe, and cucurpe; on the north from arispe, chinapa, bacoquetzi, cuquiaratzi to babispe, and from that mission of babispe on the east by mountains of low elevation returning to natora. the pima occupy a still wider territory, extending on the south into cinaloa, on the east in to the province of taraumara. the upper pima are found far to the north living by the sobahipuris to its outlet, and on both banks of the gila to the tomosatzi, in vales of luxuriant beauty, and in wastes of sand and sterility between those rivers and the sea,--having still other tribes beyond them using the same language in different dialects. the lower pima are in the west of the province, having many towns extending to the frontier of the indomitable seri, who live some thirty leagues to the north of the mouth of the hiaqui and have their farthest limit inland, some dozen leagues from the sea, finding shelter among the ridges, and in the neighboring island of tiburon.[ ] those of the pima who reside on the south, in the province of cinaloa, the history of their migration thither is of the earliest, and belongs to that which should relate the closing scene in the journey of cabeza de vaca, with the strange success that eventually, at the close of a century, attended his christian purpose. [footnote : the guaima speak nearly the same language as the seri, are few in number, and live among the hiaqui in belén and elsewhere, having retreated before the sanguinary fury of their congeners _ms._] all these nations, save the last, and all others who inhabit the country excepting the apaches--including a numerous people on the gila and on the farther bank of the colorado--speak the same language, with so slight differences, say the missionaries, that they who shall have attained the one of the opata and eudeve with little difficulty will master the rest. and for this we have that early authority referred to, of three centuries since: "they made known to us what they would say by means of a language they have among them through which we and they understood each other. those to whom it properly belongs we call primahaitu, which is equivalent to when we say biscayans. we found it in use over more than four hundred leagues (miles?) of our travel, without another in the whole extent." the name thus given by the narrator of the naufragios seemingly exists in these words, their definitions taken from a dictionary in ms. of the pima language written by a missionary. no, _pima_: nothing, _pim' haitu_. ques. what, _ai_? ans. _pimahaitu_ (nihil). grammar of the heve language. * * * * * part i. orthography. it has been thought proper to use nineteen characters in the language, among which are not included f, j, k, w, x, y, nor l, although the sound of l is somewhat heard in the soft enunciation given by the indian to the letter r. the k is sufficiently supplied in the syllabic sounds que and qui, where the u is silent, although gue and gui are each of two syllables. there has been a disposition to omit the g also, the sound of which, as in go, if the natives had not originally, they certainly possess at present, got from the spaniards. this should excuse its appearance here. the sound of z is strong as heard in _fits_. the vowels are sounded as in t_a_r, b_e_ar, s_i_lk, d_o_e, r_u_e. * * * * * part ii. etymology. substantive. _substantives_ in this language are declined without the use of articles. . those which may be called _verbal_, from their origin in verbs, are much used: hiósguadauh, painting, or writing, is the passive (is painted) of the present active hiósguan, i paint. they have their times: hiósguadauh is in the present, expressing the picture i form now of the passive preterite hiósguacauh, the work i have executed, of which hiósguatzidaugh, the picture i will make, is the future passive: and when to these verbal substantives is added the particle gua, it denotes place, as, no hiósguadaubgua, the place where i paint, etc. gua. . but words signifying kindred, have their termination usually in gua also, for which see section . siven, rina. , . _other verbal substantives_, signifying instruments, are made from the future active: thus, the verb métecan, i chop, having métetze in the future, receives siven in lieu of the final syllable, and makes the substantive, métesiven, axe or tool with which to chop. many of these words likewise terminate in rina, as bícusirina, flute, from bícudan, i whistle, and bíhirina, shovel, from bihán, i scrape. ragua, sura. , . many _abstract nouns_ are formed by the addition of the particle ragua, as váde, joyously; váderagua, joy; déni, good; déniragua, goodness; dóhme, man, or people; dóhmeragua, humanity; and so diósragua, divinity. others, substantive nouns, applied to certain places end in súra, as, omásúra, canebrake, from om, cane, and súra, in or among; huérigosúra, reedfield; húparosúra, mesquitscrub: and so a town is called opósúra, because it is among some trees called opó, elm. . the _verbs are substantives_ likewise, and as such are declined as much so as the same words are conjugated when verbs: thus, nemútzan, i bewitch, is also wizard, and hiósguan, i write, is scrivener; but it is to be observed of these substantives, as well as of those which end in daugh, that they too have equally their times, as nemútzan, the wizard--that is now, in the present; nemútzari, the preterite that has; nemútzatze, the future that will, with the difference that these terminations are active, while those in daugh, etc., are passive. * * * * * adjective nouns. teri, ei, rave, e, i, o, u. , , , . the many _adjective nouns_ ending in téri, and ei, signify quality, as, bavitéri, elegant; aresumetéri, different or distinct; tasúquei, narrow; asóquei, thick; sútei, white; and so of the rest signifying color. some ending in ráve, denote plenitude; for example, sitoráve, full of honey; composed of sitóri, honey, and ráve, full; seborráve, full of flies; ateráve of até, louse, etc.; others, ending in e, i, o, u, signify possession, as, esé, she that has petticoats; cúne, she that has a husband; guásue, he that has land for planting; húvi, the married man, from hub, woman; nóno, he that has a father, from nónogua, father, and sutúu, he that has finger-nails, from sutú: and they, moreover, have their times like verbs, since, from esé is formed esei, preterite, she that had petticoats; cúnetze, future, she that will marry, etc.; and afterwards they are declined as nouns, as, _nom._, eséi; _gen._ eséigue. (for other form of the possessive, see section .) ca, sari, scor, sguari. , . it is usual for the want of many positive affirmatives in the language to express by the positive of the opposite signification, adding the negation ca, as, nucuatéri, perishable; canucuatéri, everlasting; cúne, married, f.; cacúne, not married; húbi, married, m.; cahúbi, not married, etc. those ending in sári, and scor, mark a bad, or vicious quality, as, dedensári, tobacco-smoker, from déinan, i suck; and hibesári, gluttonous, from hibáan, i eat; nehrisári, talker, from néhren, i talk; capasári, old rags, from capát; baníscor, weeper, from báanan; cotzíscor, sleeper, from cotzom; dióscor, vagabond, from dion, i walk, or vacosári, which has the same signification, from vácon. the termination, sguari, is used in this sense: dotzi, old man; dotzísguari, very old man; hóit, female of middle age; hoísguari, very old woman. declension. substantives of the first declension form their genitive in _que_, and usually are such as terminate in a vowel. _nominative_, siibì, hawk, _genitive_, sìiibíque, of hawk, _dative_, siibt, to hawk, _accusative_, siibìe, hawk, _vocative_, siibì, hawk, _ablative_, sibítze, in \ sibíde, by > hawk. sibíquema, with / the plural of substantives (requiring a special notice) will be treated of hereafter. substantives of the second declension form their genitive in _te_ and _t_. _n._ mavirot, lion. _g._ mavirote, _d. and a._ mavírota, _v._ mavírot, _a._ mavírotze, in, mavírode, by, mavírotema, with lion. the verb-noun hiósguadauh, painting, is thus declined. _n._ hiósgnadauh, _g._ hiósguadauhte, _d. and a._ hiósguadauhta, _ab._ hiósguadautze, in, hiósguadauhde, by, hiósguadauhtema, with painting. and so likewise decline the preterite passive hiósguacauh, and the future passive hiósguatzidauh. but verbs in the present time, when they serve as substantives, are thus declined _n._ nemútzan, wizard. _g._ nemútzante, _d. and a._ nemútzanta, _v._ nemútzan, _a._ nemútzantze, in, nemútzade, by, nemútzantema, with wizard. some ending in _t_ while they form the genitive in _te_, part with a vowel, as follows: _n._ arit, ant. _g._ arte, _d. and a._ arta, _v._ arit; _a._ artze, in, arde, by, artema, with ant. nónoguat, father, belongs to this declension, and forms the genitive nónauhte; but when preceded by a possessive pronoun, it loses the final guat, as has been stated, and the termination is left in _o_, to form the genitive in the first declension, as, no, my, no nónoque, of my father, which rule applies equally to other names of kindred. sometimes an ablative is formed in _u_, as teópatu, in the church, from teópa, hecátu, in the shade, from hecát. substantives of the third declension end in _s_, _r_, _z_, and form the genitive by the addition of _e_, and the accusative by _i_. _n._ utzvor, pitahaya. _g._ utzv[=o]re, _d. and a._ utzvori, _v._ utzvor, _a._ utzvortze, in, utzvorde, by, utzvorema, with pitahaya. in this way decline tatas, crabapple,--gen. tatáse, dat. and acc. tatási, &c., also, porótz, wildcat, gen. porótze, dat. and acc. porótzi, &c. to adjective nouns there has been an inclination to assign a separate place, but they terminate _in a vowel_, and there appears to be no reason why they should not go with substantives of the first declension. _n._ sóvei, obscure. _g._ sóveique, _d. and a._ sóvec, _v._ sóvei, _a._ sóvetze in, sóveide, by, sóveiquema, with obscure. of the plural. . substantives, especially those animate of rational beings, usually form the plural by doubling the first syllable, as, dor, man, or male; dódor, men; hoit, woman, pl. hóhoit; déni, good, pl. dedéni. some other words form their plural irregularly, as, doritzi, boy, pl. vus, applied to both sexes, though when intended only for males dódorus is used; hoquis, large girls, pl. hórquir; temátzi, big boy, pl. tetemtzi; to which when the particle _te_ is added it marks the absence of any of the other sex, as dodórte, men only; hohóite, women only; hórquirte, girls only. the declension of these plurals is according to the rules before given. of kindred. . the language is remarkable for another peculiarity, which is, that the females in many instances employ different words from the males: the father says to his son, nognàt, to his daughter, mórqua; the mother to either says, nótzgua; the son to the father says, nonógua, and the daughter says, mósgua. the elder brother likewise is called vátzgua, pl. vapàtz, the younger vángua, pl. vopon, the elder sister cotzgua, pl. cocátz, the younger víngua, pl. vipim, to which adding the possessive pronouns no, amo, and the like, the gua is omitted to such as have that termination. there is much to be learned about the names of the kindred, but the subject is one too wide for present explanation. pronouns. . the _personal pronoun_ nee, i, followed by another word becomes ne; nap, thou or you, becomes na, tamide becomes ta; emet or emíde becomes em, veride and iride become ver and ir; meride becomes mer. singular. plural. _nom._ nee, i, tamide, we, _gen._ no, of me, tamo, of us, _dat. and acc._ netz, to me, tame, to us, _voc._ (if there be any,) nee, o, tamide, o we, _abl._ noma, with me, tamóma, with us, node, by me; tamóde, by us. the ma in this case being that of cause, manner and instrument. _n._ nap, thou, emet, or emíde, ye, _g._ amo, of thee, emo, of you, _d. and a._ eme, to thee, emé, to you, _v._ nap, o thou, emèt, o ye, _ab._ amóma, with thee, emóma, with you, amóde, by thee, emóde, by you. _n._ veride, or iride, this, meride, these, _g._ vére, of this, mere, of these, _d. and a._ véra, to this, mera, to these, _ab._ veréma, with this, meréma, with these, veréde, by this, merede, by these. _n._ véte, that, _g._ véte, of that. no more appear to exist _n._ id, at, or ar, that, (he, she), amét, or met, these, _g._ ide, or are, of that, ame, or mere, of those, _d. and a._ ia, to that, ame, to those, _ab._ arema, or idema, with that, améma or meréma, with those, aréde or idéde, by that amede, or herede, by those. no arácade, by my will, is more used than nóvide, by my will, amóvide, by your will, tamóvide, by our will, verévide, by the will of this, emóvide, by your will. arevide, by the will of that, merevide, by the will of these, amévide, by the will of those, nosa, nósava, i myself, tomósa, temósava, we ourselves. amósa, amósava, then thyself, emósa, emósava, ye yourselves. arésa, arésava, he himself, amétva, they themselves. these are all without inflections save this last, which has its genitive améva, being declined like amet. nee vasu, likewise means i myself. nee senéva is, i alone; the plural, tamide améve, we alone; but neither senéva nor améve are declined, only the pronouns that accompany them. guagua, vut. , . _possessive pronouns_ are the genitives of the primitive; thus, no vónama, means, my hat, no being the genitive of nee, and the same with the rest. but in order to say, this is mine, guagua is used applied to inanimate things, as, veride quit no guagua, this is my house; or vut applied to animate, as, veride cavadu no vut, this horse is mine; and with the change of person those genitives of the primitive must be added, as, no guagua, mine; amo guagua, thine, are guagua, his, &c., no vut, mine, &c. (another manner of expressing the possessive has been given in section .) * * * * * verb. here opens a very broad field whereon may be observed the excellence of this language that is considered barbarous. conjugation of the verb hiósguan, i write, or paint. indicative mood.--present time. _singular._ active voice. passive voice. nee hiósgnan, i write, nee hiósguadauh, i am written, nap hiosguan, you write, náp hiósguadauh, you are written, id, or at, hiosguan, he writes, id, or at, hiósguadauh, he is written. _plural._ tamide hiósguame, we write, tamide \ emét hiósguame, ye write, emét > hiósguadagua, amet [ ]hiósguame, they write, amet / we are written, &c. [footnote : in all moods and tenses when the person is put afterward, which it is very common to do, the form is this: active. passive. _singular_, hiósguamne, hiósguadauhne, hiósguanna, hiósguadauhna, hiósguanar, hiésguadauhar, _plural_, hiósguameta, hiósguadaguata, hiósguametem, hiósguadaguatem, hiósguametam, hiósguadaguatam, and so on, according to their condition.] imperfect. active. passive. _singular_. nee \ i wrote, nee \ nap > hiosguamru, you wrote, nap > hiósguadauhru id, or at,/ he wrote, id, or at,/ i was written, &c. _plural_. tamid \ we wrote, tamide \ emét > hiósguameru ye wrote, emét, > hiósguadauaru, ame / they wrote. amet / we were written, &c. perfect. _singular_. nee \ i have written, nee \ nap > hiósguari, thou hast written, nap > hiósguacauh, id, or at,/ he has written, id, or at,/ i have been written, &c. _plural_. tamide,\ we have written, tamide,\ emét, > hiósguarim, ye have written, emét, > hiósguacagua, amet, / they have written, amet, / we have been written, etc. another perfect. nee, hiósguarit, &c., i have been written, etc. tamide, hiósguarit, &c., we have been written, etc. pluperfect. _singular_. nee \ i had written. nee, \ nap > hiósgnariru, thou hadst written, nap, > hiósguacuahrutu id, or at,/ he had written, id or at,/ i had been written, etc. _plural_. tamide\ we had written, tamide\ emét > hiósguarimru, ye had written, emét > hiósguacaguaru, Ámet / they had written. amet / we had been written, etc. future. _singular._ nee \ i will write, nee \ nap > hiósguatze, you will write. nap > hiósguatzidauh, id, or at,/ he will write, id, or at,/ i will be written, &c. _plural._ tamide\ we will write, tamide\ emét > hiósguatze, ye will write, emét > hiósguatzidagua, amet / they will write. amét / we will be written, etc. imperative mood. _singular._ hiósgua, write thou. wanting. _plural._ hiósguavu, write ye. another form of the imperative made with ásma, to see. _singular._ asmane\ asmane\ asmana > hiósguatze, asmana > hiósguatzidauh, asmair/ i will see that i write, &c., asmair/ i shall see that i be written, &c., another imperative. venésmana hiósguam, even though you write. venesmatze em hiósguame, even though ye write. another imperative. _singular._ nee eme hiósguaco naquém, nee eme hiósguarico naquém. i will that you write. i will that thou be written. _plural._ nee emé hiósguaco noquim, nee ame hiósguarico naquém, i will that they write. i will that they be written. optative mood. this mood appears to have been anciently used with cáne, would that it might be! but now in general it is not so understood. the phrase may be deemed to be in the optative, although it does not express that entirely, being formed by the union of the imperative above with venesma, even though. venésmane hiósguam, venésmane hiósguadauh, i would that it might be, or, i would that it might be, or, even though i may write. even though i may be written. subjunctive mood. this mode of speech, if i should write, i should have written, &c., the natives express by adding the particle _ru_ to the future. _singular._ nee \ nee \ nap > ghiósuatzeru, nap > hiósquatzidauhru id / if i should write, &c. id / if i should be written, &c. _plural._ tamide\ tamide\ emét > hiósguatzeru, emét > hiósguatzidauru, amet / if we should write, &c. amet / if we should be written, &c.[ ] [footnote : conjunctions, corresponding to _aunque, paraque, cuando_, and the like which it is common to make use of with the subjunctive in spanish do not exist in the language.] infinitive mood. although this mode does not exist in the language, still the natives have ways to express the thought, some of which are these: one mode is by the verb erám, i wish or think; so that to say, i wish to write, nee hiósguavaerám may be used, which is the future hiósguatze, with the final syllable omitted for the particle va, and followed by the erám. in the same manner, other verbs may be proceeded with, they remaining stable through all the mutations that erám undergoes, as in the following: active voice. indicative mood. _present_, erám, i wish. _pluperfect_, ehritu, i had wished. _imperfect_, eramtu, i wished. _future_, erátze, i shall wish. _perfect_, ehri, i have wished. subjunctive, (impt?) erátzern, i might wish, etc. in the passive erám is not used, but naquém, which also means, i wish, and with the preterite particle, in the manner that is stated in the fourth form of the imperative, the infinitive mood in this voice is expressed, as, nee no hiósguarico naquém, i desire to be written. another mode that serves for the infinitive, is that after a verb of motion, the future of the verb is used, as to express, i come to you to say, nee eme queitudetze güerem: here, nee is i; eme, to you; güerem, or üerem, i come, and queitudetze the future of the verb queituden, i say, or make known. gerunds. the gerund in _di_ is found in the expression: already arrived the time of labor; for which, taking the preterite pánauhri, the verb pánauan signifying labor, add dagua, time, and for arrived use hassíde, the preterite of hássem, followed by the de, particle, signifying already, and the phrase is formed pánauhridagua hasside. the gerund in _do_ is found in the phrase vus hóquedo panavame, the boys playing, work, in which vus is boys, hóquedo or hóqueco, the gerund of hoquen, play, and panavame, the plural of pánavan, work. the passive voice has likewise the gerund, as for example: nap sícriuhdo cotzóm, whilst thou art shorn, sleepest; here nap cotzóm is, you sleep, sícriuhdo is the gerund in do passive of the verb sicán, and toasquilo, hair. the gerund in _dum_, and supine joined to a verb of motion is equivalent to the future as before stated in the second mode of the infinitive; but should there be no verb of movement with the gerund in dum, the particle betzéuai, for, is used, as this suffices for payment, (hoc ad solvendum sufficit,) veride hasem ovíde betzéguai; veride meaning this, hasem, suffices; ovide betzévai, for payment; ovíden signifying pay. thus much it has been found necessary to say of the verb in its active and passive voice, of its modes and times, which will serve as a paradigm for the conjugation of any verb observant of the form of its preterite and future (the roots whence rise the other tenses) to be discovered in the vocabulary. frequentative verb. . this verb signifies the frequent repetition of the same action, and is formed by adding the adverb tátze, peace-meal, as, i write often, tátze ne hiósgan. compulsive verb. . it is thus called because it signifies to cause or compel to do any thing, and is formed by taking away the last syllable of any verb and replacing it with tudem or tuden, which alone is conjugated, and has the perfect tudari, and future tudetze, as varuhtúden, i cause to sin; verúhtze being the future of varúuen. applicative verb. . when the action is for, by, or through, ("para ó por,") this verb is used, having its termination in dem or den, perfect, deri, and future, detze; as pánauan, work; whence is formed pánauiden, which is the applicative, so that to say, i work for you, the phrase is nee eme pánauiden; and the mother to express, my son has failed me, (died), says, no nótzi múquideri; although in the place of this applicative the preposition betzéguai, for, is used likewise, or de, by; as, christ died for us, cristo tamo betzéguai, or tamóde múqui. continuative verb. . this verb serves to continue the action, and is made from the future, omitting the tze and substituting sem or sen, as nenérsem, i am continually talking, from nehren, i speak; the future, nenértze; biquesen, i am thus singing, from biquen, i sing; future, bequetze, for which there appearing to be no perfect, the imperfect, bíquesenru may be used, and the same is the case with the words that end in hon, as merihon, go running; nenerhon, be speaking; biquehon, be singing, of which the future termination is sintze, as nenérsintze. completive verb. . this gives completeness to the signification of the word out of which it is made so full that nothing remains further, and is formed of the future taking away the final tze, and placing suam instead, as, baán, i eat; bétze, i will eat; besuam, i eat until i have finished it all; todam, i leave; todetz, i will leave; todesuam, i leave forever,--at once. the penitent may say, oquine haóna no cananacemca todesuatze, now, forevermore, i will leave my sins; the perfect being formed in coari, and the future in uatze. estimative verb. . this denotes the judgment that one forms of anything, as, dénitzem, i judge it good; déni meaning good; hana diosi denitzem, perhaps you esteem god? nee eme deosaritzem, i judge you happy; deosari meaning happy; nee eme náventzem, i consider you poor--pity you; náven meaning poor: and they form the perfect, tziui, and future tziúhtze. conversive verb. . when a thing changes so as to pass from one to another form or quality, this verb is used. earth, tevat; genitive, teuhte; accusative, teuhta, whence comes the verb teúhtuun, i make me earth,--as do the sticks become, and bodies that rot. so dóhmetum, make man, explains the mystery of the incarnation, as, god the son made himself man for us, dios noquát tamóde, or tamo, betzeguai dóhmetui. so batuum, is made water, bat, water; nasórtaan, i throw away; nasórtuun, is thrown away, to become corruption; of which the perfect is tui, the future, tutze. . there are some _compound verbs_ which end in donon, signifying to go to do something, which appear to be formed from the future, omitting the last syllable tze, and substituting donon, as amúdonon, i go to hunt; amún being, i hunt; the future amútze; cumándonon, i go to gather wood, from cumánan, i gather wood, future cumantze; baudónon, i go to bring water, formed of bat, water; vun, the future of vtze, bring, and donon, which has the perfect doni, and future dontze. . the termination guan, is usually a sign of the _active verb_, as in mótzguan, i begin: máguan, or máhuan, i plough, and is added by the natives to some spanish words they use, such are perdonároguan, i pardon; ayunároguan, i fast; velároguan, i watch. some form the perfect in guari, and future in guatze; others the perfect in uhri, and future in úhtze, úitze, or in guatze. . to form _compound neuter verbs_, the verb dáan, i go, is frequently used, as bahútunan, i melt (active); bahútudaan, i melt, or am melting, the neuter, barínan, i soften; baricdaan, i go on to soften; zicónan, i break; zicócdaan, i break (neuter); the perfect being dai, the future, détze. . _other neuters_ are formed of active verbs ending in an by changing it into en, as sebán, i freeze; seben, freeze; basán, i ripen; basen, ripen; sepán, cool; sepen, cool; nacuan, hurt; nacuen, hurt. to form the perfect, the en is changed into i; but the future, although it always ends in tze, differs, as will appear by the vocabulary. . in the same manner as of active verbs in an, _neuter verbs_ in en are made, so from other actives in an, neuters are made in un, as, busán, i awake another; busún, i awake me; tutzan, i quench; tucún, i quench me, in the perfect changing the un to i, and the future to tze. plural of verbs. . this language has the notable peculiarity of the verbs oftentimes differing greatly in the plural from the singular, as, vaquén, enter one; múume, enter many; vóon, one to lay down; medáguame, lay down many; méran, one to run; vóome, many to run; batémucun, to drown oneself; betécoome, many to drown themselves; batemean, drown one; batecódan, drown many. . there are many _compound active verbs_ ending in puguan or puuan, which signify to pluck, as beguát, skin, genitive; beúhte, accusative; beúhta, whence beuhpuuan, tear off the skin is formed, and from mo, hair of the human head comes mópuuan, pluck the hair, etc.; sequát, flower, genitive, seúhte; accusative, seúhta gives seúhpuuan, to pluck flowers; nágua; root, genitive, naúhte; accusative, naúhta, when naúhpuuan, eradicate, is formed, their perfect being in uhri, their future in natze. zem, zen. . estimative verbs it has already been said end in tzem, but there are other verbs of that termination that signify certain passion, failing, or quality, as, hisumtzem, i am hungry; veráctzem, i am thirsty; vrútzen, i am hot; vtétzen, i am cold, which form their perfects in tziui, the futures in tzíuhtze. taan. . _the particle_ taan compounded with a substantive, signifies to do, as, sibúrtaan, to make girdles composed of sibúra, band; zántaan, to make arrows, zamát signifying arrow; vacotaan, to make bow, from vácotzi, that instrument; but when it is component of the verb it signifies, i say that i wish, thus from nósquen, i return, nósquitaan is made, signifying, i say that i wish to return, and from pánauan, labor, is pánauataan, i say that i wish to labor. eni, mani, habi, being the english substantive verb am. . such is the condition of this part of speech: yonder is a man, anát sei dor _eni_, and if he live there, or is there standing, anát catzí, etc., which catzí is used only for persons. yonder is water, anát, or aguát bat _maní_, yonder is grass, anát dósa _habí_, and also may be said, bat eni, dosa eni, but bat habí, dosa mani would not be correct. further than this the substantive verb am appears not to show itself clearly: thus that utterance of god, i am that i am, has no corresponding words in the tongue: it could seemingly be made somewhat intelligible in this wise: nee uehva nee, which word for word means, i greatly i, and am is not expressed though understood. so in asking, who is it, the answer is, nee, and not i with the verb. this method of speaking should be regarded: to say the house of pedro was my house, it should be, pevroque qui no quiru, of which qui means house, and pevroque qui, house of pedro. the verb was, does not now exist in it apart, but in expression it appears, or nearly so, in the substantive qui, which is put in the imperfect by the termination of that tense, ru being added, as, quiru, was house; no quiru, was my house. the same is otherwise said: pevroque qui no guaguaru, the house of pedro was mine; the guagua, if alone, signifies, is mine. maguan. . there are several _compound verbs_ that end in maguan, which signify, to throw something to another, as, ermaguan, to throw blood (erát) on him; dósmaguan, to throw grass (dosát) on him; teúhmaguan, to throw dirt (tevát) on him; sitórimaguan, to throw honey (sitóri) on him, which form the perfect in guari, the future in guatze. taden. the _particle_ táden, the terminal of several verbs, expresses the like or dislike the good or evil appearance of anything according to the name or adverb to which it is joined, as, neve sodóta nanactáden, or hidenatóden, i do not like this bower; tamide naven tamo tademe, we find ourselves poor; nee deosári no taden, i find myself fortunate, the perfect being found in taderi, the future in tadetze. mucun. . of the verb _mucún_, i die, compounds such as these are made: vrumucún, i die of heat; vrúcóome, they die of heat; hisú-mucún, i die of hunger; hisúmcóome, they die of hunger; varótmucún, i die of thirst; varó-coóme, they die of thirst; cúmemucún, i die of envy; cumecoáme, they die of envy. vrútzen is, i have heat; hisúmtzen, i have hunger; veráctzen, i have thirst; cúmen, i have envy. the reason of changing mucún to form the plural may be seen in section . neoquen. . neóquen, means i command, and observe this method as respects its use: nee uneóquen, and i command to bring; nee nerta neóquen, and i command, to pray; nee ouit neóquen, and i command to call. vtze is the future of vun, i bring; nertátze, i pray, the future of nértaan: ouictze the future of ouican, i call; so that the tze is taken from the future, and neóquen is placed in its stead. notice, likewise, this method: nap ca istutándauh, it is commanded not to lie. so far of the verbs, which as well other parts of speech all the indians use with nicety and elegance. for their conjugation, a single exemplar has been given; but their perfects and futures being differently formed, which are the roots whence the other tenses spring, they have been placed in the vocabulary added to the verbs, a knowledge of which will suffice to form all the other times. * * * * * participle. . the verbs become participles without undergoing change of form, as, hiósguam, i write, or he that writes, is the present participle; hiósguari, i have written, or he that has written; hiósguatze, i will write, or he that will, is the preterite (future?) participle. the same in its proportion is to be understood of the passive voice. the _present participle_ is of the second declension, forming the genitive in te, thus nominative, hiósguan; genitive, hiósgnante, etc. the imperfect participle is of the same declension, with the difference that the mark of the imperfect, ru, is the final, as, nom. hiósguamru, gen. hiósguamteru, etc. the _perfect participle_ is of the first declension, having its genitive in que, as, nom. hiósguari, gen. hiósguarique. _pluperfect participle_ is declined like the perfect, observing what has been said of the imperfect, as, nom. hiósguariru, gen. hiósguariqueru, etc. the _future participle_ belongs to the second declension, the genitive ending in te, preceded by n or m, as, nom. hiósguatze, gen. hiósguatzente. the plural, it appears, should be declined in the same manner as the singular in respect of its termination in te or que. * * * * * preposition. . the prepositions that govern the genitive might with reason be called postpositions, since they follow the case; for pedro pedroque betzégnai, with you amó ma. * * * * * adverb. the adverbs are very many, and by them more especially is expressed the manner of walking, of sitting, of sounding, etc., and oftentimes the enunciation copies after the sense, as, cúusan, i sound; catzcatze cúusan, clattering sound. * * * * * interjection. . some of the interjections are these: ari! and when repeated ari, ari! are those of one feeling pain; asioma is of one that menaces, like, you will see! and asma is like, i desire to see! hábesa matzi, well, then! ahéne is exclaimed by one who recollects himself; navehtzemne, alas! woe to me! * * * * * conjunction. . the conjunctions to the extent they can, will be treated of separately; for although the language of indians is exact, there are difficulties to be encountered, and from those not brought up in their use, requiring special study. . the word _and_ is represented by aui, as, nee aui nap, i and you, and also by vai placed afterward used in this way, nee nap vai. . whether the sentence consist of one or of two parts, this conjunction if is nowhere found, but the gerund in do or co is used; and in this manner should it be of a single part or an individual: if i do it well, i shall be content, hidénane éndo, or énco, nanacerátze; when of two, thus: if i did it well, you will be content, hidéna netzendo, or emco, nap nanacerátze: whence it may be seen that in the first passage is put the nominative nee, having but one part, and in the second the dative or accusative netz, since another member comes in which is nap, you. these are other examples: if i should be well, i will go to see you, nee hidéna crádo, osét eme teuhdontze, which is an expression of one proposition, for though two persons enter there the action is single: if i shall have worked well you will pay me, nee hidéna pananhriuhco, nap netz ovidetze, which is of two positions, the action being of two. . in the examples about to be given, it will be observed that _that_ is never used, whether it correspond to the quod or the ut of the latin. nee eme vitzán, nap hibe, i see that you are lax; nee aguáteran, domincotze amo misa ea vitzaca, i know that you have not heard mass sunday; where vitzaca or vitzácauh is passive perfect, and the literal rendering is, i know, on sunday your mass was not heard. i desire that you may live here, nee eme iuide cáteo naquém, in which cáteo is an active perfect participle, and the verb naquém, i desire, ever requires this construction. the verb óqueem, i command, is peculiar likewise in one respect: in order to say i command you that you work, nee eme panaúaoqueem is said; panaúaoqueem being composed of two words, of which panauatze, i will work, is from panaúan, work, the tze final being taken away and substituted by óqueem. . the equivalent of _because_, nanévari, can be thus shown. i become angry because you are lax, nee zínauan, ne néuari nap híbeen: with the particle aréde, which means because, it may be elegantly expressed, nap híbeen, aredene zinauan, which, word for word, is, you are lax, for that i become angry. here are other instances: because i am sick i do not work, nee ca panauan, nanéuarine cocotzem; in another manner, nee cocotzem, arédene ca panauan, or nee no cócotzihdade ca panauan, which corresponds to this, i, because of my infirmity, do not work. i come, because you called me, nee eue hasi, naneuari nap netz ouíqui. eue, signifying hither, is used because to the indian ear, i came hither, is more euphonious than only i came. nap netzoúiqui, arédene hási, i am glad, because you come to see me, nee nánaceran, nanéuari nap netzeue teúhdóniueren, or otherwise, nap netz eue teúhdóniueren arédene nanaceran. . the equivalent of _before_ is caque, the translation of which is not yet. before you could come i was already here, nap caque hasdo nee vínu iuide énitude, of which hasdo is the gerund of hásem, that part of speech being thus used with caque, when it signifies before, and is literally, you not arrived yet, already was i here. another instance: before you can go, you will pay me: caquena dado, netz ovidetze; also, before the wheat could be planted, it rained: perilon caque étzih dauh, duqui. . _after_ is rendered likewise by the gerunds with the adverb vaar, after. after he had sinned, he was converted to god: varúhruco vaàr, diosse vené are viranari, that is, having sinned afterward, etc.; and also it may be without vaár, as, after it had rained much, the river carried away the earth: muic duco, bata guasta údari. again: after the wheat had been cut, it got wet, and was lost: pericon are tepúnaricoua sánhruco nasórtui. . _when_ may be rendered by héco, as, when you had come to see me, i had gone for wood: hècona netz eue teuhdòni, nee cumandóniru. another: when christ had died, so much as was man died, and had not died so much as was god: héco múcruco cristo, are dóremcade muqui, are diósemeade ca muqui; where also mucruco is gerund, and likewise may be said, héco muqui cristo etc. if the question be asked, when? the accent is placed upon the last letter. numerals. , , . the native having counted to ten, says ten and one on it, etc., and at twenty says one man, sei dóhme, for the reason of that being his full number of fingers and toes: for forty he says, two men, got dóhme, and so on to a hundred, marqui dóhme. after twenty the count is the same as with the ten, twenty and one on it, etc. these numerals have also their inflections: , sei, once, ses, , vusani, six times, vusanis, , godum, twice, gos, , seniovusáni, seven times, seniovusánis, , veidum, thrice, veis, , gos návoi, eight times, gos návos, , nauoi, four times, návos, , vesmácoi, nine times, vesmácois, , marqui, five times, marquis, , macoi, ten times, mácois. the word _already_, de, is thus added: gósade, márquisade, gosnavosade, veisade, vusánisade, vesmácoisade, navósade, seniovusánisade, mácoisade. ordinals. . to form these the numerals are put in the ablative with in, _tze_, which is placed afterward as the prepositions ever are. sétze, first; góctze, second; véictze, third; návoctze, fourth; márquitze, fifth; vusánitze, sixth; seniovásanitze, seventh; gosnávoctze, eighth; vesmácoitze, ninth; mácoitze, tenth. first is also called vatzut neréntze. . on the third day, is expressed, veie queco; on the fourth day, navoe queco, etc. * * * * * the lord's prayer. in spanish and heve. nuestro padre, que estás en el cielo. tu nombre sea grandemente creido. a nosotros venga tu reino. tu voluntad aqui en la tierra se haga, come se hace en el cielo. nuestra comida cotidiana danosla hoy. ten nos lástima limpiandonos nuestros pecados, asi como tenemos lástima á nuestros enemigos. no dexaras al diablo, que nos hace caer en el pecado; mas guárdanos del mal. amen. tamo nóno, tevíetze catzi, canné tegua uéhva vitzua terádauh. tomo canne vené hasém amo quéidagua. amo canne hinádocauh iuhtépatz éndaugh, teníctze endahtevén. quécovi tamo bádagua óqui tame mie. tame náventziuh tame piuidcdo tamo canáde émea; ein tamide tamo. ovi tamo páven tziuhdahteven. cana tótzi díablo tatacóritze tame huétudenta; nassa tame hipur eadénitzenai amen. english from the spanish. our father, who art in heaven. thy name be greatly believed in. to us come thy kingdom. thy will here on earth be done, as it is done in heaven. our daily bread give us this day. have pity on us, cleansing us of our sins, as we have pity on our enemies. leave us not to the devil, that he cause us to fall into sin, but keep us from evil. amen. * * * * * vocabulary. acorn, _tohátacat_. adobe, _saamí_; to make _saamítaan_. air, _vaheia_. amoli, soap-plant, _baròt_, gen. _baróte_, ac. _baròta_. arm, _nocat_. arrow, _zamát_, to make _zántaan_, to poison with vegetable _hithutzaguan_. arrowhead of stone, _tavit_. autumn, _mahuákis_. axe, _métesiuen_. bad, _cadéni_. to bark, _vüden_. basket, _huarit_. bear, _mavár_. beard, _hinsi_. bee, _mumúhuo_. belly, _síguat_. bird, _viguits_. bitter, _chipúen_. black, _sóvei_. blanket, _estári_. blue, _tadei_. blood, _erát_. to boil, _tonóri_. bone, _hógua_. bow, _vácotzi_. boy, _doritizi_. brother, the elder, _vátzgua_ the younger, _róngua_. brown, _temosei, vamei mai_. buzzard, _tecó_. but, _nassá_. cane, _omá_. canoe, _vvasguasiuen_. to cheat, _istuden_. chameleon, _itzícamúr_. clay, _taarát_. cloud, _mosit_. coal, _ovi_. cobweb, _vitoroca_. cold, _vteri, vteragua_; it is cold, _vtéen_, to feel cold _vtetzen_. to come, _verén_. cotton, _chin_. coyote, _voi_. crane, _coro_. cricket, _vaui sorótz_. crow, _cáratz_. dance, _dáhdauh_, to _dáuen_. daughter, the father says, _márgua_; the mother, _nótzgua_. day, _taui_, to-day, _oqui táuitze_. deaf, _nacáp_. deer, _masót, suputz_. difficult, _omtziteri_. distant, _mecu_. ditch, _vavat_. dog, _chúchi_. dove, _ococói_. drizzle, _veiguat, bahú ragua_. drown, see water. drunkard, _tutzan_. dry, or thin, _huáqui_. duck, _bavitz_, a large black variety, _humuviri_. dumb, _nipí_. dust, _báta_. eagle, _páue_. ear, _nacát_. earth, _tóvat_. east, _sivín_, from the east hither _sivitz-cue_, for the east _sivitzuai_, to the east nearly _sivicon_. to eat, _hibáan_. egg, _aiavora_. elm, _vasát_. enemy, _ovigua_. eye, _vusit_. face, _vúsva_. to fall, _huetzén_. father, _nonogua_; the woman says _másgua_. feather, _hunsa_. to fear, _scuitzen_. female, if a child, _hoquitz_; if large, _hoquis_; if grown, _hoit_; if aged, _hoisguari_. finger, _mamát_. fire, _te_. to finish, _biháu_. to fight, _nácodan, nahódan_. first, _batzút_; first time, _viguat_. fish-hook, _seiuiquirina_; fish, _cuchút_. flesh, _sába_. flower, _sequát_. to fly, _méen_. flea, _tepu_. food, _hibé, badagua_. foot, _tarát_. fox, _caos_. frog, _temat_; small _sivor_. fruit, _tacat, baságua_; of the field, _túdaugh, tudahua_. girl, _hoquitzi_. to go, _daau_. good, _déni_. goodness, _denirava, dénihibéraua_. grass, _dósa_. gratis, _nassahitáua_. great, _tavéi_. green, _sidei_. half, _nataio_. hand, _mamát_, right, _hibe puuai_, left, _zicópeuai_. happy, _decsari_. hail, _tehét_. hard, _zeen, zeitera_. hawk, _toháuo_, the large, _sübi_, the red, _hisúntocotz_, the little _chinuópar_, the little spotted _oris_. head, _zonit_. heart, _hibés_. heat, _úruri_. heron, white _batósa_, with dark wings, _bahesó_. hole, _hibíhi_. honey, _vatzia_. house, _quit_, of stick _cúquit_, of adobe _saamiquit_, of grass _dosquit_, of mud _batóquit_, of mat _hipequit_. hunger, _hisumagua_. husband, _cúngua_. ice, _sutéuhoi_. idol, _hósit_. infant, _vrátz_. to irrigate, _vanuun_. knee, _tonót_. language, _nerit_. lagune, _báhri_. lead, _temésti_. leaf, _sagua_; of maize, _sonót_, to leaf or bud, _ziradaan_; to fall, _sauhdiórion_. leg, _morica_. liar, _istuneri_. to lie, _istun_. lie, _isturagua_. lizard, _behór_. lime, _azot_. lip, _ténpira_. little, _chúpi_. love, _hinadodauh_. to love, _naquén, hinádocon_. maiden, _náhua hoquis_. maize, _sunút_. maizefield, _etzét_. mesquit, _hupuro_, the fruit _zona_. metal, _sati_. moon, _metzat_. mother, _degua_. mouse, _zicúr_. mouth, _tenít_. night, _chúgoi_. north, _batén_, from the north hither _bahitz-áue_, to _bahitzuai_, to the north nearly _bútecon_. the indian ever has the points of the compass present to his mind and expresses himself accordingly in words, although it shall be of matters in his house. no, _quáta, ca_. nose, _dacàt_. now, _óqui_. oak, _tohá_, the red _vadásor_. old man, _dotzí_. orphan, _topini_. owl, _haropeuátz_. parched, _saquét_. paroquet, _zíra_. peak, _cauitze mógua_. people, _dóhme_. petticoat, _esát_. phesant, _puráva_. pigeon, _macágua_; the wild _cucúr_. pine, _vocot, sivér_. pine grove, _voceura_. plant, _zivadai, vehri_. plume-crest, _cumisa_. poison, _zarua_. purple, _hácagua_. quail, _cue_. to quarrel, _nevúden, nepúden_. rabbit, _távu_. rain, _dúqui_, to _dúcun_. rainbow, _vainára_. rat, _voiset_. red, _siquei_. river, _haquit_. rivulet, _bavútzque_. road, _vouet_. rock, _evét, sibát_. salt, _onát_. sand, _sa_. to say, _teén_. scorpion, _tomúor_. season of rain, _badás_; of heat, _cuués_, _cuuesragua_; of cold, _tomóragua_, _tomodagua_. seed, _suvútzi_. squirrel, _heretz_. stomach, _voquima_. stone, _tet_. straw, _moquàt_. string, _tegámi, fibre_. to seek, _hiamun_. shade, _heias, heiagua_. shower, _dúqui_. silver, _teoquita_. sister, the elder, _cótzgua_; the younger, _víngua_. skin, _peguat_. sky, _teguica, teuica_. sleep, _cotzàt, cotziragua_. smoke, _morágua_. snow, _sutéhri_. son, the father says _nóguat_; the mother, _notzgua_. sour, _zocáen_. south _tenún_, to the south nearly, _tenacon, tenauai, tánai_, from the south hither _ténauai áue_. speech, _nerit_. spring, time of drought, _túsar, cuuesragua_. star, _sibora_; venus, _zarin_; the three marias, _vauróra tácsoi_. to steal, _etzbaan_. stick, _cut_. to sting, _húhan_. stream, _haquit_. summer, time of rain, _badás_. sun, _túui_. swallow, _vaidarus_. sweet, _quegúaen, queguateri_. tail, _basit_. tear, _opet_. that, _at, ar_. thicket, _churi_. thief, _etzbaan, etzibaras_. thigh, _moríca_. this, _verido, vet_, with this _verema_, by this _vérede_. thrush, _chanate, zaia_. thorn, _vetzát_, of nopal, _nacóuetzat_. tiger, _tutzí_. toad, _cohar_. tobacco, _vivát_. to-morrow, _queco_. tongue, _nenét_. tooth, _tanus_. town, _hoirúgua_. track, _darút, déruh_. tree, _cut_. turkey, _ziúi_. turtle, _múri_. valley, _haqúit_. viper, _sameior_, the coral _mapurvúcotz_. virgin, _naha hoquis_. virmillion, or yellow, _basca_. war, _nahódadauh_. to wash, _vacoran_. wasp, _huiquitunútz_. water, _bat_, g. _bate_, ac. _báta_; hot, _basuera_, warm, _camérabasucrari_, cold _batutáeu_. to drown one _bátemean_, per. _bateméari_, fut. _bateméatze_, from _mean_ to kill one: to drown many _batécodan_, per. _batécoi_, fut. _batécoitze_, from _codan_ to kill many: many to become drowned _batecéome_, per. _batécoi_, fut. _batecotze_, from _coome_ many to die: one to become drowned, _batémucun_, per. _batémuqui_, fut. _batémuctze_, from _múcun_ one to die. (see section .) watermelon, _himus_. to weep, _baúnan_. well, _batécori_, to make, _batécoran_, from _tecori_, bowl. west, _huritzei_; to the west, _hurún, hurucon, huritzuai_; from the west hither _huritzcue. to whistle, _bicudaguan_. white, _sútei_. wide, _huena_. wife, _húhgua_. wild-cat, _porótz_. wind, _vahéca_. winter, _tomó, utédo_ time of cold. wolf, _húrue_. word, _nerit_. wood, _cút_. woman, _hoquis_. wood, _cùquit_. wound, _vücat_, to _nacùan_. year, _betúragua_. yellow, _súvei_. yes, _háue_, (more emphatically) _hai eco_; woman says, heè_. yesterday, _tuut_. distributed proofreaders. aboriginal american authors and their productions; especially those in the native languages. a chapter in the history of literature. by daniel g. brinton, a.m., m.d., member of the american philosophical society; the american antiquarian society; the historical society of pennsylvania, etc.; vice-president of the numismatic and antiquarian society of philadelphia, and of the congres international des americanistes; delegue-general de l'institution ethnographique for the united states, etc.; author of "the myths of the new world;" "the religious sentiment;" "american hero myths," etc. new introduction aboriginal american authors, published by the anthropologist daniel g. brinton in , is a work that is particularly appropriate for our own times. the native american movement has stressed the need for history written from the indian point of view. interest in native american literature has become an important component in reinforcing a sense of identity among american indians today. brinton's work is a good summary of the better known traditional writings of indians from many regions of the western hemisphere. this bibliographical survey provides information on tribal histories that would be particularly useful for indian study programs in the states of oklahoma, new york and wisconsin. brinton was aware of the th century racism of many who wrote about the american indian and reacted against it in his writings by taking a stance which in some ways anticipates ruth benedict's involvement in similar questions half a century later. aboriginal american authors is written as an early attempt at placing the literature of the american indian with the other great literary traditions of the world; that is why its usefulness endures. john hobgood social science department chicago state college preface. the present memoir is an enlargement of a paper which i laid before the _congres international des americanistes_, when acting as a delegate to its recent session in copenhagen, august, . the changes are material, the whole of the text having been re-written and the notes added. it does not pretend to be an exhaustive bibliographical essay, but was designed merely to point out to an intelligent and sympathetic audience a number of relics of aboriginal american literature, and to bespeak the aid and influence of that learned body in the preservation and publication of these rare documents. _philadelphia, nov. ._ contents. section . _introductory_ section . _the literary faculty in the native mind_ vivid imagination of the indians. love of story telling. appreciation of style. power and resources of their languages. facility in acquiring foreign languages. native writers in the english tongue. in latin. in spanish. ancient books of aztecs. of mayas, etc. peruvian quipus. section . _narrative literature_ desire of preserving national history. eskimo legends and narratives. the _walum olum_ of the delawares. the iroquois _book of rites_. kaondinoketc's narrative. the national legend of the creeks. cherokee writings. destruction of ancient literature. boturini's collection. historians in nahuatl. the maya _books of chilan balam_. other maya documents. writings in cakchiquel. _the memorial de tecpan atitlan_. authors in cakchiquel and kiche. the _popol vuh_. votan, the tzendal. writers in qquichua. letters, etc., in native tongues. tales and stories of the tupis and other tribes. section . _didactic literature_ progress of natives in science. their calendars and rituals. their maps. scholastic works. theological writers. sermons in guarani. _las pasiones_. section . _oratorical literature_ native admiration of eloquence. the oratorical style. custom of set orations. specimens in the nahuatl tongue. ancient prayers and rhapsodies. section . _poetical literature_ form of the earliest poetry. unintelligible character of primitive songs explained. a chippeway love song. a taensa epithalamium. montaigne on tupi poetry. ancient aztec poetry. maya and peruvian poems. tupi songs. section . _dramatic literature_ development of the dramatic art in america. origin of the serious and comic dramas. the qquichua drama of ollanta. the kiche drama of rabinal achi. the comic ballet of the gueegueence. the _logas_ of central america. dramas of the mangues. section . _conclusion_ ethnological value of literary productions. their general interest to scholars. _footnotes_ _index_ [transcriber's note: footnotes have been moved from inline to end-of-text, and the above "footnotes" section added.] aboriginal american authors. * * * * * section . _introductory_. when even a quite intelligent person hears about "aboriginal american literature," he is very excusable for asking: what is meant by the term? where is this literature? in fine, is there any such thing? to answer such inquiries, i propose to treat, with as much brevity as practicable, of the literary efforts of the aborigines of this continent, a chapter in the general history of literature hitherto wholly neglected. indeed, it will be a surprise to many to learn that any members of these rude tribes have manifested either taste or talent for scholarly productions. all alike have been regarded as savages, capable, at best, of but the most limited culture. such an opinion has been fostered by prejudices of race, by the jealousy of castes, and in our own day by preconceived theories of evolution. that it is erroneous, can, i think, be easily shown. let us first inquire into the existence of section . _the literary faculty in the native mind_. this faculty is indicated by a vivid imagination, a love of narration, and an ample, appropriate, and logically developed vocabulary. that, as a race, the aborigines of america possessed these qualifications to a remarkable degree, is attested by many witnesses who have lived intimately among them; and is only denied by those whose acquaintance with them has been superficial, or derived from second-hand and doubtful sources. the red man peoples air, earth, and the waters with countless creatures of his fancy; his expressions are figurative and metaphorical; he is quick to seize analogies; and when he cannot explain he is ever ready to invent. this is shown in his inappeasable love of story telling. as a _raconteur_ he is untiring. he has, in the highest degree, goethe's _lust zu fabuliren_. in no oriental city does the teller of strange tales find a more willing audience than in the indian wigwam. the folk lore of every tribe which has been properly investigated has turned out to be most ample. tales of talking animals, of mythical warriors, of giants, dwarfs, subtle women, potent magicians, impossible adventures, abound to an extent that defies collection.[ ] nor are these narratives repeated in a slip-shod, negligent style. the hearers permit no such carelessness. they are sticklers for nicety of expression; for clear and well turned periods; for vivid and accurate description; for flowing and sonorous sentences. as a rule, their languages lend themselves readily to these demands. it is a singular error, due wholly to ignorance of the subject, to maintain that the american tongues are cramped in their vocabularies, or that their syntax does not permit them to define the more delicate relationships of ideas. nor is it less a mistake to assert, as has been done repeatedly, and even by authorities of eminence in our own day, that they are not capable of supplying the expressions of abstract reasonings. although pure abstractions were rarely objects of interest to these children of nature, many, if not most, of their tongues favor the formation of expressions which are as thoroughly transcendental as any to be found in the _kritik der reinen vernunft_.[ ] their literary faculty is further demonstrated in the copiousness of their vocabularies, their rare facility of expression, and their natural aptitude for the acquisition of other languages. theophilie gautier used to say, that the most profitable book for a professional writer to read is the dictionary; that is, that a mastery of words is his most valuable acquirement. the extraordinarily rich synonomy of some american tongues, notably the algonkin, the aztec, and the qquichua, attests how sedulously their resources have been cultivated. father olmos, in his grammar of the aztec, gives many examples of twenty and thirty synonymous expressions, all in current use in his day. a dictionary, in my possession, of the maya, one of the least plastic of american tongues, gives over thirty thousand words, and scarcely a hundred of them of foreign extraction. this linguistic facility is shown also in the ease with which they acquire foreign languages. "it is not uncommon," says dr. washington matthews, speaking of the hidatsa, by no means a specially brilliant tribe, "to find persons among them, some even under twenty years of age, who can speak fluently four or five different languages."[ ] mr. stephen powers tells us that, in california, he found many indians speaking three, four, five or more languages, generally including english;[ ] and in south america, both humboldt and d'orbigny express their surprise at the same fact, which they repeatedly observed.[ ] but the most tangible evidence of both their linguistic and literary ability is the work some of these natives have accomplished in european tongues. it does not come within the limits of my plan to enter fully into an examination of this branch of literature; but it is worth while mentioning some of the more prominent native writers, who have composed in european languages, as their productions are an easy test of what the faculties of the red race are in this direction. as the colonizers of the new world have been chiefly from spain and great britain, so naturally the english and spanish languages have been brought most widely to the knowledge of the natives. the half-civilized tribes, within the area of the united states, have produced several authors of merit. perhaps the earliest of these was david cusick, who, in , printed his _ancient history of the six nations_. he was a full blood tuscarora, and his english is far from correct. yet the arrangement of his matter is skillful, and some passages quaintly vivid and forcible. another member of the iroquois confederacy, peter dooyentate clarke, has taken up the _origin and traditional history of the wyandotts_, and has made a readable little book (published at toronto, ); while still more lately, chief elias johnson, of the tuscaroras, has published a _history of the six nations_, very creditably composed. (lockport, .) the tribes of algonkin lineage can also count some respectable writers. the rev. william apess (or apes), a member of the pequod tribe of massachusetts, wrote and published five or six small books and pamphlets, on questions relating to his people, between and . the book of george copway, or kah-ge-ga-gah-bowh, a chief of the ojibways, on _the traditional history of the ojibway nation_ (london, ), is a good authority on the topic, and so well written that we can scarcely suppose that it was his unaided effort. of almost equal merit is the _history of the ojibway indians, with especial reference to their conversion to christianity_, by the rev. peter jones, or kahkewaquonaby, a full-blood indian, (london, .) in the southwest, the _cherokee phoenix_ offered a medium through which the native writers of that tribe frequently published original contributions; and one of its early editors, elias boudinot (named after the celebrated philanthropist), published separately a number of addresses and other documents, in english. but, as we might naturally expect, it is in spanish that we find the best work of the native writers. the partly civilized races of mexico, central america and peru, were much better prepared to receive the lessons of european teachers than the barbarous hunting tribes. had they had any fair chance, they would have soon equaled their teachers. father motolinia, one of the earliest missionaries to mexico, testifies to the readiness with which the natives acquired both spanish and latin, and adds that, in the latter tongue, they became skilled grammarians, and wrote both verse and prose with commendable accuracy.[ ] quite a long list of such native latinists, their names and their writings, is given by father augustin de vetancurt, and he is not sparing in his praise of the ability they displayed in the use of both spanish and latin.[ ] similar testimony is rendered of the natives of guatemala, by the archbishop garcia pelaez. he mentions, by name, several indians who became conspicuously thorough latin scholars, and refers to others who won honors in all the faculties of the university of guatemala, and distinguished themselves in after life by the display of their talents and education.[ ] nor would it be difficult to find many other such examples in peru and brazil. the list of native mexicans who wrote in spanish is a fairly long one; and i need only mention the better known names. at the head should be placed that of don fernando de alva ixtlilxochitl. he was a lineal descendant of the sovereigns of tezcuco, and an ardent student of the antiquities of his race. among the many works which he wrote are the _relaciones historicas_ and the _historia chichimeca_, which were published by lord kingsborough; a _historia de la nueva espana_, a _historia del reyno de tezcuco_, and a _historia de nuestra senora de guadalupe_, which have not had the fortune to be printed. such an excellent critic as mr. prescott says of his style: "his language is simple, and occasionally eloquent and touching. his descriptions are highly picturesque. he abounds in familiar anecdote; and the natural graces of his manner in detailing the more striking events of history and the personal adventures of his heroes, entitle him to the name of the livy of anahuac." ixtlilxochitl flourished about the year , and among his contemporaries was fernando de alvarado tezozomoc, also of native blood, whose _cronica mexicana_ has been preserved, and is considered to be well written, but less reliable. of about the same date are the _relacion_ of juan bautista de tomar, a native of tezcuco, in which he treats of the customs of his ancestors; the _relaciones_ of don antonio pimentel, grandson of nezahualpilli, lord of tezcuco, an author quoted and praised by the historian torquemada; the _historia de tlaxcallan_ of diego munoz camargo, a noble tlascalan mestizo, of whose style prescott remarks that it compares not unfavorably with that of some of the missionaries themselves; and the _relacion de los dioses y ritos de la gentilidad_ of don pedro ponce, the cacique of tzumpahuacan. somewhat later, about , don domingo de san anton munon chimalpain wrote his _historia mexicana_ and his _historia de la conquista_, which have been mentioned with respect by various writers. along with these examples of literary culture in mexico may be named several native peruvian writers who made use of the language of their conquerors; as don joan de santa cruz pachacuti yamqui, whose _relacion de antiguedades de piru_ is a precious document, though composed in very uncritical spanish; as don luis inca, whose _relacion_, prepared in spanish, seems now to be lost, but is referred to, with praise, by some of the older writers; and, above all others, inca garcillasso de la vega, whose vivid and attractive style, and numerous historical writings place him easily in the first rank of spanish historians of america. from the above it would seem evident enough that the american aborigines were endowed, as a race, with a turn for literary composition, and a faculty for it. they were generally, however, an unlettered race. what they composed was for oral use only. this might be carefully arranged, committed to heart, and handed down from generation to generation; but as for recording it in forms which would convey it to the mind through the eye, that was a discovery they had but partially made. i say, "partially," because graphic methods, of some kind, were widely used. we may as well omit from consideration, in this connection, the merely pictographic signs of the hunting tribes, although they were used for mnemonic purposes. let us rather proceed, at once, to the highest specimens of the graphic art in ancient america, and inquire their scope. in mexico, in yucatan, in nicaragua, and in one or two districts of south america, the early explorers found systems of writing which seemed to resemble that to which they were accustomed. the aztecs manufactured, in large quantities, a useful paper from the leaves of the maguey, and upon it they painted numerous figures and signs, which conveyed ideas, and sometimes also sounds. an early authority informs us that their books were of five kinds. the first detailed their method of computing time; the second described their holy days, festivals and religious epochs; the third gave the interpretation of dreams, omens and signs; the fourth supplied directions for naming children; and the fifth rehearsed the rites and ceremonies connected with matrimony.[ ] besides these, we know they wrote out tribute rolls, the ancient history of their tribes, the fables of their mythology, the genealogy of their sovereigns, and the geographical descriptions of territories. of all these we have examples preserved, and many of them have been published. quite another and a more perfect method of writing prevailed among the mayas of yucatan and central america. their books were exceedingly neat, and strongly resembled an ordinary quarto volume, such as appears on european bookshelves. i have so lately discussed their manufacture, and the so-called alphabet in which they were written, and in a work of such easy access, that it is enough if i quote the conclusions there arrived at.[ ] they are:-- . the maya graphic system was recognized, from the first, to be distinct from the mexican. . it was a hieroglyphic system, known only to the priests and a few nobles. . it was employed for a variety of purposes, prominent among which was the preservation of their history and calendar. . it was a composite system, containing pictures (figuras), ideograms (caracteres), and phonetic signs (letras). the ruins of palenque, copan, and other maya cities, abound in such hieroglyphs. the natives of nicaragua, those, at least, of aztec lineage, made use of parchment volumes, folded into a neat and portable compass, in which they painted, in red and black ink, certain figures, "by means of which," says the chronicler oviedo, "they could express and understand whatever they wished, with entire clearness."[ ] in south america the peruvians had their _quipus_, cords of different lengths, sizes and colors, knotted in various ways, and attached to a base cord, an arrangement that was a decided aid to the memory, though it could not be connected with the sounds of words. there are also faint traces of figures, with definite meaning, among the muyscas of colombia; and the moxos of western bolivia are said to have employed, as late as the last century, a method of writing, consisting of lines traced on wooden slabs.[ ] section . _narrative literature_. of all forms of sustained discourse, we may reasonably suppose that of narration to have been the earliest. the incidents of the hunt were related at the return; the experiences of the past were told as a guide to the present; and the first efforts of the imagination are the depicting of fictitious occurrences, tradition and myth, story and history; these make up most of the entertainment of conversation to simple minds. hence, in this primitive literature which i am describing, the narrative portion is the most abundant. there was a natural aspiration on the part of the natives, as soon as they had learned the art of writing, to preserve in permanent form the records, more or less authentic, of their tribes and ancestors. this desire of preserving the national history is shown by the works of copway, jones, cusick, ixtlilxochitl, and others, to whom i have already referred, who wrote in european tongues. if we begin our survey at the extreme north, we find the eskimo, amid his depressing surroundings of eternal frost and months-long nights, an unwearied chatterbox, reciting his own and his ancestors' adventures, and weaving from his fancy the most extraordinary web of fictitious experiences. once taught to write, hundreds of these tales were committed to paper by native hands. the manuscript collection of such in the possession of the learned and indefatigable dr. heinrich rink contains considerably over two thousand pages, and the charming rendering into english, which has been published by his efforts, is a storehouse of weird conceptions and partly historic traditions about the past of greenland and labrador. what adds to their interest is that most of the illustrations are wood-cuts by native artists, truthfully setting forth their own mental pictures.[ ] another eskimo composition, in the dialogue style, is before me as i write. it is the description by pok, a greenlander, of his journey to europe and his return. the narrative forms a pamphlet of eighteen pages, with several quaint colored illustrations, and it is one of the rare products of the godthaab press in greenland to which we can assign a genuine native origin.[ ] another, which reveals still more distinctly the artistic and imaginative capacities of that strange race, was published at godthaab, in . mr. field remarks of it:--"an esquimau of greenland, with his pencil, has, in this work, attempted to give representations of the traditions, manners, weapons and habits of life of his own race."[ ] among the tribes of the eastern united states there were a few individuals who attempted to compose somewhat extensive records in their native languages. one of the most curious examples is that known as the _walum olum_, a short account of the early history of the delaware tribe, written in that idiom, with mnemonic symbols attached. its history is not very complete. a "dr. ward, of indiana" is said to have obtained it from a member of the nation, in . from him it passed into the hands of prof. c.s. rafinesque, an eccentric and visionary frenchman, who passed the later years of his life in philadelphia. he undertook to translate it, and after his death the translation, together with the original, came into the possession of mr. e.g. squier. by him it was first published, but in a partial and incomplete manner, much of the original text and many of the mnemonic symbols being omitted, and no effort being made to improve rafinesque's translation.[ ] the _book of rites_[ ] of the iroquois or six nations, lately edited by mr. horatio hale, is one of the most remarkable native productions north of mexico. its authenticity and antiquity are indisputable. the rites it describes are the ceremonies and set speeches, the chants and formulas, of what is called "the council of condolence," whose function is to express the national sense of loss at the death of a chief, and to conduct the inauguration of his successor. the publication of this ritual, supported as it is with the learned notes of mr. hale, and an introduction by him, on the history, formation and purpose of the famous league of the iroquois, has thrown a remarkable light, not merely on the ethnology of the district where the iroquois were located, but on the mental characteristics of the red race in general. it is a refutation of the unscientific assumptions of a good many would-be scientific men, who are self-blinded by their theories of development to obvious facts in the mental powers of uncultivated tribes. of less general importance, but admirable also for competent editorship, is the short narrative of the nipissing chief, francois kaondinoketc, which was published a few years ago, both in the original and with a french translation, by a canadian missionary, eminent alike for his piety and his learning. it recites the journey of a half-breed christian indian into the country of the heathen tribe of beaver indians, and the miraculous interposition by which his life was saved when these pagans had caught him. they told him he must kill an eagle flying far above them; at his prayer, the bird descended and came within the reach of his sabre. in turn, he asked them to shoot their arrows into a tree; but by rubbing it with holy water, the bark was so hardened that not one of their shafts could pierce it. so they confessed the greatness of the christian's god.[ ] this charmingly naive narrative makes us doubly regret that the editor's projected _chrestomathie algonquine_ has not been carried out in full. the southern atlantic coast of the united states was principally occupied by the muskokee or creek tribe, who occupied the territory as far west as the mississippi. their language was first reduced to writing in the greek alphabet, by the moravian missionaries, about ; but at present a modified form of the english alphabet is in use. they had a very definite and curious tribal history, full of strange metaphors and obscure references. it was, according to old authorities, "written in red and black characters, on the skin of a young buffalo," and was read off from this symbolic script by their head-chief, chekilli, to the english, in , and skin and translation were both sent to london, and both lost there. but, luckily, the moravian missionaries preserved a faithful translation of it, and this, some years ago, i brought to the notice of students of these matters.[ ] its authenticity is beyond question, and to this day the chiefs of the creeks recollect many of the points it contains, and have repeated it to the eminent linguist, mr. a.s. gatschet, who has taken it down afresh from their lips, and is preparing it for publication. collateral evidence is also furnished by "general" milfort, a french adventurer, who lived among the creeks several years, toward the close of the last century, and testifies that they preserved, "by beads and belts," the memory of the adventures of their ancestors, and recited to him a long account of them, which he repeats with that negligence which everywhere marks his carelessly prepared volume.[ ] their northern neighbors, the cherokees, use an alphabet invented by sequoyah, one of themselves, in . it is syllabic, of eighty-five characters, and is used for printing. sequoyah had no intention of aiding the missionaries; he preferred the "old religion," and when he saw the new testament printed in his characters, he expressed regret that he had ever invented them. what he wanted was to teach his people useful arts, and to preserve the national traditions. i have little doubt they were written down; but here, again, i have failed of success in my inquiries. this is a poor showing of native literature for all the tribes in the vast area of the united states. but, except some orations and poems, hereafter to be mentioned, it is almost all that i can name. passing southward the harvest becomes richer. when bishop landa, in yucatan, and bishop zumarraga, in mexico, made bonfires, in the public squares of mani and tlaltilulco, of the priceless literary treasures of the mayas and aztecs, their maps, their parchment rolls, their calendars on wood, their painted paper books, their inscribed histories, it is recorded that the natives bewailed bitterly this obliteration of their sciences and their archives.[ ] some of them set to work to recover the memories thus doomed to oblivion, and to write them out, as best they could. most fertile of these were those who wrote in the nahuatl tongue, otherwise known as the aztec or mexican, this being most widely spoken in mexico, and the first cultivated by the missionaries. many of these memoirs were short descriptions of towns or tribes, with their traditional histories. others narrated the customs and mythologies of the race before the arrival of the whites. none were printed, and little or no care was taken to collect or preserve the manuscripts, so that probably most of them were destroyed. at length, in - , an enthusiastic italian archaeologist, the chevalier lorenzo boturini benaduci, devoted nearly ten years to collecting everything of the kind which would throw light on ancient mexican history. he was quite successful, and his library, had it been preserved intact, would have been to-day an invaluable source of information. but the jealous spanish government threw boturini into prison; his library was scattered and partly lost, and he died of chagrin and disappointment. yet to him we probably owe the preservation of the writings of ixtlilxochitl, tezozomoc, and others who wrote in spanish, and whose volumes have since seen the light in the collections of bustamente, lord kingsborough, ternaux-compans, and elsewhere. the nahuatl mss. have remained unedited. few took an interest in their contents, fewer still in the language. the science of linguistics is very modern, and that even so perfect an idiom as the nahuatl could command the attention of scholars for its own sake, had not dawned on the minds of patrons of learning. boturini catalogues some forty or fifty more or less fragmentary anonymous mss. in nahuatl, which he had gathered together.[ ] i shall recall only those whose authors he names. some three or four historical works were written in nahuatl by don domingo de san anton munon chimalpain, whom i have already mentioned as an author in spanish also. of his nahuatl works his _cronica mexicana_, which traces the history of his nation from to , would be the most worthy an editor's labors. it is now in the possession of m. aubin. the _cronica de la muy noble y leal ciudad de tlaxcallan_, by don juan ventura zapata y mendoza, cacique of quiahuiztlan, extends from the earliest times to the year . a copy of it, i have some reason to think, is in mexico. boturini possessed the original, and it should, by all means, be sought out and printed. the ancient history of the same city was also treated of by one of the earliest native writers, and his work, in nahuatl, alleged to have been translated by the interpreter francisco de loaysa, was obtained from the latter by boturini. an account of tezcuco and its rulers, after the conquest until , was the work of a native, juan de san antonio; while don gabriel de ayala, a native noble of that city, composed a history of the tezcucan and mexican events, extending from to .[ ] of the anonymous mss. in boturini's list, i shall mention only one, as it alone, of all his nahuatl records, has succeeded in reaching publication. he called it a _history of the kingdoms of culhuacan and mexico_. a copy of it passed to mexico, where it was translated by the licentiate faustino chimalpopocatl galicia, but in a very imperfect and incorrect manner. the abbe brasseur de bourbourg copied the original and the translation, and bestowed on the document both a new name, _codex chimalpopoca_, and a whimsical geological signification. in , the museo nacional of mexico began in their _anales_ the publication of the original text, this time under still another title, the _anales de cuauhtitlan_, with two translations, that of galicia, and a new one by profs. g. mendoza and felipe sanchez solis. up to the present time, , the work is not completed; but its signal importance to ancient history and mythology is amply indicated by the part in type. doubtless there were many mss. which boturini did not find, and there are, probably, to this day, going to dust in private and public libraries in spain, valuable documents in the nahuatl tongue.[ ] for a long time it was supposed that the nahuatl original of father bernardino de sahagun's _history of new spain_ was lost; but at the meeting of the _congres des americanistes_, in madrid, in , a part of it, at least, was exhibited. this work almost belongs to aboriginal literature, for a considerable portion of it, notably the third, sixth and twelfth books, treating, respectively, of the origin of the gods, the aztec oratory, and their ancient history, are mainly native narratives and speeches, taken down, word for word, in the original tongue. spanish scholars could not render a greater service to american ethnology and linguistics than in the publication of this valuable monument. there is, also, or, at any rate, there was, in the royal library at madrid, a mexican hieroglyphic work, "all painted," with a translation apparently into the nahuatl tongue.[ ] i would inquire of the learned linguists of spain whether that document cannot be unearthed. and further, i would ask whether all trace has been lost of the writings of don gabriel castaneda, chief of colomocho, who wrote, in nahuatl, an account of the conquest of the chichimecs by the viceroy antonio de mendoza, in . that manuscript was last heard of in the library of the convent of san ildefonso, in mexico.[ ] perhaps it would tell us who the chichimecs were, about which there is disagreement enough among ethnologists. of the strictly hieroglyphic records i shall not take account. their interpretation is yet uncertain, and, as linguistic monuments, they have, at present, no standing. equal, or superior, in culture, to the aztecs were the maya tribes. their chief seat was in yucatan, but they extended thence southwardly to the shores of the pacific, and westward along the gulf coast to the river panuco. the language numbered about sixteen dialects, none very remote from the parent stem, which linguists identify as the maya proper of the yucatecan peninsula. while there are a number of verbal similarities between maya and nahuatl, the radicals of the two idioms and their grammatical structure are widely asunder. the nahuatl is an excessively pliable, polysyllabic and highly synthetic tongue; the maya is rigid, its words short, of one or two syllables generally, and is scarcely more synthetic than french. this contrast is carried out in the style of their writers. those in nahuatl were lovers of amplification, of flowing periods, of ciceronian fullness; the mayas cultivated sententious brevity, they are elliptical, often to obscurity, and may be compared rather to tacitus, in his _annals_, than to cicero. all the maya tribes had strong literary tastes, but with characteristic tenacity they clung entirely to their native tongues; and i know not a single instance where one has left compositions in spanish. their language is easy to learn; to a stranger to both, maya comes easier than spanish, as intelligent writers in yucatan have testified; and this aided its survival. their passion for learning to read and write was strong, and had it been fed, instead of rigidly suppressed, there is little doubt but that they would have become a highly enlightened nation. the wretched system which smothered free thought in spain killed it in yucatan.[ ] the principal literary monument in the pure maya is the collection known as "the books of chilan balam." i have described this collection at length in previous publications, and shall content myself with a brief reference to it.[ ] the title "chilan balam" means, in this connection, "the interpreting priest;" that is, the sacred official who, in the ancient religion, revealed the will of the gods. there are at least sixteen collections under this name in maya, copies, probably, in part, of each other. their contents may be classified under four headings:-- . chronology, calendars, and history, before and after the conquest. . prophecies and astrology. . medical recipes and directions. . christian narratives. of these, the last two are modern. the christian portions are lives of saints, and prayers. the medical directions are often found separate, under the title "the book of the jew." its language is modern and corrupt--_mestizado_, as the spaniards express it. the "prophecies" are alleged to have been delivered one or several generations before the conquest. their style is extremely obscure, and many of the forms are archaic. if not genuine originals, they are unquestionably very early and faithful imitations of the oracular deliveries of the ancient maya priests. the historical portions include rude annals since the conquest, and a series of chronicles, extending back to about the third century of the christian era. there are five versions of these, all of which i have published, with translations and copious notes, as the first volume of my "library of aboriginal american literature." another class of maya historical documents embraces the surveys and land titles, many of which date from the sixteenth century. i have in my possession a copy of one as far back as , unquestionably the oldest monument of the maya language extant. sometimes these titles were accompanied by a family history. such is "the chronicle of chac xulub chen," written by the chief nakuk pech, in , which i have published. it gives, in a confused style, a history of the conquest, and throws light on the methods by which the spaniards succeeded in overcoming the various native tribes.[ ] we owe the preservation of most of the maya mss. to the enlightened labors of don juan pio perez, a distinguished yucatecan scholar, and the compiler of the best printed dictionary of the maya tongue.[ ] the most complete collection now in existence is that of the canon crescencio carrillo y ancona, a learned archaeologist, and author of an excellent history of maya literature.[ ] after the maya, the most important of these associated dialects was the cakchiquel. it was, and still is, spoken in guatemala; and the kiche (quiche), also current there, is so nearly allied to it that they may be treated as one idiom. the cakchiquel possesses an extensive christian literature, as it was cultivated assiduously by the early missionaries. indeed, there was, for many years, a chair in the university of guatemala created for teaching it, and it is often referred to as the _lengua metropolitana_, guatemala having been the see of an archbishop. there are in existence extensive lexicons of cakchiquel, and in it, besides various collections of sermons, was written the once celebrated work of father domingo de vico, the _theologia indorum_, probably the most complete theological treatise ever produced in a native american tongue.[ ] the most notable aboriginal production in cakchiquel is one frequently referred to by the abbe brasseur de bourbourg as the _memorial de tecpan atitlan_, the records from tecpan atitlan.[ ] it is an historical account of his family and tribe, written in the sixteenth century by a member of the junior branch of the ruling house of the cakchiquels. his name was don francisco ernantez arana xahila, and a passage of the ms. informs us that he was writing in . after his death the work was continued by don francisco tiaz gebuta queh. the style is familiar and often vivid, and the work is addressed to his children. it begins with the earliest myths and traditions of the tribe, and follows their fortunes to the lifetime of the writer. in respect both to mythology, history and language, it is one of the most noteworthy monuments of american antiquity. a loose paraphrase of it was made by brasseur de bourbourg, based upon which, a spanish rendering was published by the "sociedad economica de guatemala," under the auspices of senor gavarrete. neither the original nor any correct translation has been printed. a copy of this ms. is in my collection, and both the original and a second copy are in europe; but there were a number of similar historical accounts, committed to writing by this people and their immediate neighbors, of which we know little but the titles and a few extracts. thus, the historian of guatemala, don domingo juarros, quotes from the mss. of don francisco gomez, _ahzib kiche_, or chief scribe of the kiches, of don francisco garcia calel tzumpan, of don juan macario, nephew, and don juan torres, son, of the chief chignavincelut, and "the histories written by the quiches, cakchiquels, pipils, pocomans, and others, who learned to write their tongues from their spanish teachers." these mss. gave the genealogies of their families and the migrations of their ancestors "from the time when the toltecs, from whom they trace descent, first entered the territory of mexico, and found it inhabited by the chichimecs."[ ] one of the motives prompting to the composition of these works was to vindicate the claims of families to the sovereignty, or to the possession of land. they were, in fact, a sort of briefs of titles to real estate. one such is preserved, in the original, in the brasseur collection, and is catalogued as "the royal title of don francisco izquin, the last ahpop galel, or king, of nehaib, granted by the lords who invested him with his royal dignity, and confirmed by the last king of quiche, with other sovereigns, november , ."[ ] a spanish translation of the title of a female branch of this same family was printed at guatemala in , but the original text has never been put to press, although it is said to be still preserved in one of the ancient families of the province of totonicapam.[ ] another kiche work, which has excited a lively but not very intelligent interest among european scholars, is the _popol vuh_, national book, a compendious account of their mythology and traditional history. a spanish translation of it by father francisco ximenez was edited in vienna, in , by dr. carl scherzer.[ ] the abbe brasseur followed, in , by a publication of the original text, and a new translation into french.[ ] this text fills octavo pages, so that it will be seen that it offers an ample specimen of the tongue. neither of these translations is satisfactory. ximenez wrote with all the narrow prejudices of a spanish monk, while brasseur was a euhemerist of the most advanced type, and saw in every myth the statement of a historical fact. there is need of a re-translation of the whole, with critical linguistic notes attached. a few years ago, i submitted the names and epithets of the divinities mentioned in the popol vuh to a careful analysis, and i think the results obtained show clearly how erroneous were the conceptions formed regarding them by both the translators of the document.[ ] i shall not here go into the question of its age or authorship, about which diverse opinions have obtained; but i will predict that the more sedulously it is studied, the more certainly it will be shown to be a composition inspired by ideas and narratives familiar to the native mind long before the advent of christianity. i have been told that there are other versions of the _popol vuh_ still preserved among the kiches, and it were ardently to be desired that they were sought out, as there are many reasons to believe that the copy we have is incomplete, or, at any rate, omits some prominent features of their mythology. one branch of the maya race, the tzendals, inhabited a portion of the province of chiapas. one of their hero-gods bore the name of _votan_, a word from a maya root, signifying the breast or heart, but from its faint resemblance to "odin," and its still fainter similarity to "buddha," their myth about him has given rise to many whimsical speculations. this myth was written down in the native tongue by a christianized native, in the seventeenth century. the ms. came into the possession of nunez de la vega, bishop of chiapas, who quotes from it in his _constituciones diocesanas_, printed in rome, in . the indefatigable boturini tells us that he tried in vain to find it, about , and supposed it was lost.[ ] but a copy of it was seen and described by dr. paul felix cabrera, in .[ ] possibly it is still in existence, and there are few fragments of american literature which would better merit a diligent search. as to the meaning of the votan myth, i have ventured an explanation of it in another work.[ ] in south america, the only native historical writers who employed their own tongue appear to have been of the peruvian qquichua stock. none of their productions have been published, but one or more are in existence and accessible. prominent among them and deserving of early editing by competent hands, is an anonymous treatise, partly translated by dr. francisco de avila, in , on the "errors, false gods, superstitions and diabolical rites" of the natives of the provinces of huarochiri, mama and chaclla. the original text is in madrid, and avila's translation, as far as it goes, has been rendered into english by mr. clements r. markham, and published in one of the hackluyt society's volumes.[ ] a member of the inca family, already referred to, don luis inca, is reported to have written a series of historical notes, _advertencias_, "with his own hand and in his own tongue;" but what became of his manuscript is not known.[ ] there is another class of historical documents, which profess to be the production of native hands, and which are moderately numerous. these are the official letters and petitions drawn up by the chiefs in their own tongues, and forwarded to the spanish authorities. of these, two interesting specimens, one in the "abolachi" tongue (a dialect of muskokee), and the other in timucuana, were published in fac-simile by the late mr. buckingham smith, but in a very limited number of copies (only fifty in all). others in nahuatl and maya, also in fac-simile, appear in that magnificent volume, the _cartas de indias_, issued by the spanish government in . doubtless more examples could be found in the public archives in spain, and they should all be collected into one volume. they were probably prompted by the spanish local authorities; but it is likely that they show the true structure of the language, and, of course, they have a positive historical value. it is related in the proceedings of the municipal council of guatemala that, in , the captain antonio de fuentes y guzman laid before the council seven petitions, written in the native language, on the bark of trees.[ ] whatever of interest they contained was, no doubt, extracted by that laborious but imaginative writer, and included in his _history_, which has never been published, though several manuscript copies of it are in existence. it will be seen that some of the so-called historical literature i have mentioned rests uncertain on the border line between fact and fancy. these old stories may be vague memories of past deeds, set in a frame of mythical details; or they may be ancient myths, solar or meteorological, which came to receive credence as actual occurrences. the task remains for special students of such matters to sift and analyze them, and settle this debateable point. there is another class of narrations, about which there can be no doubt as to their purely imaginative origin. these are the animal myths, the fairy stories, the fireside tales of giants and magicians, with which the hours of leisure are whiled away. several collections of these have been made, the words and phrases taken down precisely as the native story-teller delivered them, and thus they come strictly within the lines of aboriginal literature. they are the spontaneous outgrowth of the native mind, and are faithful examples of native speech. over a hundred such tales have been collected by dr. couto de magalhaes, as narrated by the tupis of brazil, and many of them have been published with all desirable fidelity, and with a philosophical introduction and notes, in a volume issued by the brazilian government, under his editorial care.[ ] a similar collection of tupi stories was made by the late prof. charles f. hartt, whose early death was a loss to more than one branch of science. it was his intention to edit them with the necessary notes and vocabularies; but, so far as i know, the only specimens which appeared in print were those he laid before the american philological association, in .[ ] the inquiries i have instituted about his mss. have not been successful. numerous texts of this description have been obtained from the klamath indians by mr. a.s. gatschet, and from the omaha by the rev. j. owen dorsey, both of which collections are in process of publication by the bureau of ethnology at washington. scattered specimens of stories of this kind have also been obtained by a number of travelers, and they are always a welcome aid to the study both of the psychology and language of a tribe. section . _didactic literature_. the more civilized american tribes had made considerable advances in some of the natural sciences, and in none more than in practical astronomy. by close observation of the heavenly bodies they had elaborated a complicated and remarkably exact system of chronology. they had determined the length of the year with greater accuracy than the white invaders; and the different cycles by which they computed time allowed them to assign dates to occurrences many hundreds of years anterior. although there are local differences, the calendars in use in central and southern mexico and in central america were evidently derived from one and the same original. a great deal has been written upon them, but for all that many questions about them remain unanswered. we do not know the maya method of intercalation; we do not understand the uses of the shorter mexican year, of days; we are at a loss to explain the purpose of doubling the length of certain months, as prevailed among the cakchiquels; we are in the dark about the significance of the names of many days and months; we cannot see why the nations chose to begin the count of the year at different seasons; and there are ever so many more knotty problems about this remarkable system and its variations. what we imperatively need is a supply of authentic aboriginal calendars, accurately reproduced, for purposes of comparison. boturini collected a number of these, which he describes, and long before his day some specimens had been published by valades and gemelli carreri.[ ] they were, in ancient times, usually depicted by circular drawings, called by the spaniards, wheels (_ruedas_). after the conquest they were written out, more in the form of our almanacs. one such, in the maya tongue, with a translation, was contributed to mr. stephens' _travels in yucatan_, by the eminent maya scholar, don juan pio perez.[ ] several others were in his collection, and are accessible. dr. berendt succeeded in securing _fac similes_ of kiche and cakchiquel calendars, written out in the seventeenth century, and these are now in my possession. i fear we have no perfect examples of the zapotec calendar, nor of that of the tarascos of michoacan, although an anonymous author, most of whose ms. has been preserved, reduced the latter to writing, and it may some day turn up.[ ] the aztec calendars collected by boturini would, were they published, give us sufficient material, probably, to understand clearly the methods of that tribe. one momentous purpose which the calendar served was for supplying omens and predictions; another was for the appointment of fasts and festivals, for the religious ritual. the calendar arranged for these objects was called, in the nahuatl, _tonalamatl_, "the book of days," and in maya _tzolante_, "that by which events are arranged." so intimately were all the acts of individual and national life bound up with these superstitions, that an understanding of them is indispensable to a successful study of the psychology and history of the race. after the conquest some of the notions about judicial astrology, then prevalent in europe, crept into the native understanding, and notably, in the _books of chilan balam_ we find forecastes of lucky and unlucky days, and discussions of planetary influence, evidently borrowed from the spanish almanacs of the seventeenth century. most of the aborigines of the continent possessed a keen sense of locality, and often a certain rude skill in cartography. the relative position of spots and proportionate distances were approximately represented by rough drawings. they knew the boundaries of their lands, the courses of streams, the trend of shores, and could display them intelligently. these maps, as they are called, present a very different appearance from ours. those of the aztecs are rather pictured diagrams, something like those we find in fifteenth century books of travel. a fair specimen, though of date later than the conquest, was published not long since, in madrid.[ ] the maya maps are even more conventional. a central point is taken, usually a town, around which is drawn either a circle or a square, on the four sides of which are placed the figures of the four cardinal points, and within the figures are the various symbols which denote the villages, wells, ponds, and other objects which are to be designated. specimens of some of these, all after the conquest, however, have been published by mr. stephens and canon carrillo,[ ] and others are found in the various _books of chilan balam_. very few strictly scholastic works seem to have been produced by the natives. nearly all those which i have seen for use in the mission schools appear to be the productions of the white instructors, generally, of course, aided by some intelligent native. i have in my possession an _ortografia en lengua kekchi_, picked up by dr. berendt in vera paz, which was the work of domingo coy, an indian of coban (ms. pp. ). but on examination it proves to be merely an adaptation of a _manual de ortografia castellana_, in use in the schools, and not an original effort. for all that, it is not without linguistic value. in mexico a useful little book of instruction in nahuatl has been prepared by the licentiate faustino chimalpopoca galicia, a scholar of indigenous extraction.[ ] an older work, of a similar character, by don antonio tobar, a descendant of the montezumas, is mentioned by bibliographers, but never was printed, and has probably perished.[ ] it has always been part of the policy of both catholic and protestant missions to permit the natives to enter the career of the church; in the territories of both confessions instances are moderately numerous of priests and preachers of half or full indian blood. most of these educated men, however, rather shunned the cultivation of their maternal tongues, and preferred, when they wrote at all, to choose that of their white brethren, the spanish, portuguese or english. the extensive theological literature which we possess, printed or in manuscript, in american tongues, and in many it is quite ample, is scarcely ever the result of the efforts of the christian teachers of indigenous affiliations. a notable exception was the licentiate bartolome de alva, a native mexican, descended from the tezcucan kings, who composed, in nahuatl and spanish, a _confessionario_, which was printed at mexico in . it contains some interesting references to the mythology and superstitions of the natives.[ ] the indian elias boudinot and other cherokees have printed many essays and tracts in that tongue, but whether original or merely translated i do not know. the sermons of the native protestant missionaries to their fellows were probably extempore addresses. at any rate, i have not seen any in manuscript or print. a volume of the kind exists, however, in manuscript, in the library of the _instituto historico_ of rio janeiro, which it would be very desirable to have printed. it is the _sermones e exemplos em lengua guarani_, by nicolas japuguay, cura of the parish of san francisco in .[ ] but when it is edited, let us hope that it will be a more favorable example of critical care than the _crestomathia da lingua brasilica_, edited by dr. ernesto ferreira franca (leipzig, ), which, according to professor hartt, is "badly arranged, carelessly edited, and disfigured by innumerable typographical errors."[ ] a curious variety of religious literature is what are called the passions, _las pasiones_, which are found among the natives of the isthmus of tehuantepec. these prose chants took their rise at an early period among the sodalities (_cofradias_), organized under the name of some particular saint. each of these societies possessed a volume, called its regulations (_ordenanzas_), containing, among other matters, a series of invocations, founded on the history of the passion of christ. during holy week, certain members of the fraternity, called _fiscales_, gather in the church, around one of their number, who reads a sentence in a loud voice. the fiscales repeat it in a chanting tone, with a uniform and monotonous cadence. it is probable that these chants are the compositions of the indians themselves. dr. berendt obtained several copies of these, some in the chapaneca of chiapas, and others in the zoque of the isthmus, which are now in my hands. section . _oratorical literature._ the love of the american indian for oratorical display has been commented on by almost all writers who have studied his disposition. specimens of native eloquence have been introduced into school books, and declaimed by many an aspiring young cicero. most of them are, doubtless, as fictitious as logan's celebrated speech, which was exalted by the great jefferson almost to a level with the outbursts of demosthenes, to be reduced again to very small proportions by the criticisms of brantz mayer.[ ] in fact, in spite of all that has been said about the native oratory, we are in a very inadequate position to judge of it correctly, and this because we have no accurate reports in the original tongues of their speeches. translations, more or less loose, more or less imaginary, we have in abundance; but, for critical purposes, they are simply worthless. yet that even the ruder tribes in both the northern and southern continents, attached great weight to the cultivation of oratory, is amply evident. james adair, who is competent authority, tells us that the southern indians studied public speaking assiduously, and that their speeches "abound with bolder tropes and figures than illiterate interpreters can well comprehend or explain."[ ] mr. howse writes that, among the crees, those who possess oratorical talent are in demand by the chiefs, who employ them to deliver the official harangues.[ ] among the aztecs, the very word for chief, _tlatoani_, literally means "orator" (from the verb _tlatoa_, to harangue). in the far south, among the araucanians of chili, and their relatives the migratory hordes of the pampas, no gift is in higher estimation than that of an easy and perspicuous delivery. this alone enables the humblest to rise to the position of chieftain.[ ] so it was over the whole continent. in most of their languages, the oratorical was markedly different from the familiar or colloquial style. the former was given to antithesis, repetition, elaborate figures, unusual metaphors, and more sonorous and lengthened expressions. the rev. mr. byington gives a number of the oratorical affectations in the choctaw, as _akakano_ for _ak_, _okakocha_ for _ok_, etc.[ ] some genuine specimens of the oratory of the northern tribes are preserved by mr. hale, in the iroquois _book of rites_, to which i have referred on a previous page. the speeches it contains were learned by heart, and transmitted from generation to generation, long before they were committed to writing, and long after some of the words and expressions they contain had become lost to the colloquial language of the tribe. the ancient mexicans were much given to this sort of formal speech-making. they had a large number of cut-and-dried orations, which professional rhetoricians delivered on all important occasions in life. the new-born child was harangued at, in good set terms, when it was but a few days old. betrothals, marriages, festivals, the commencement of puberty and of pregnancy, etc., were all celebrated by the delivery of discourses. fathers taught their children, teachers their pupils, monarchs their vassals, war chiefs their soldiers, by such declamations. the general name for these speeches was _huehuetlatolli_, ancient orations.[ ] many have been preserved, and a tolerably complete collection could be made in the original tongue. to effect this, we should have to have recourse to the original nahuatl ms. of sahagun's history, which, i have already said, exists in madrid; next, to the extremely rare work of the eminent nahuatl scholar, father juan baptista, _platicas morales_, in which, according to vetancurt, he gives, in the original, the ancient addresses of fathers to their children, and of rulers to their subjects;[ ] and lastly, to the recently published, though very early written, _mexican grammar_, of the franciscan andre de olmos, which contains a number of these discourses, carefully edited and translated by the accomplished scholar, m. remi simeon.[ ] the numerous prayers to the heathen gods, preserved by sahagun, are, doubtless, faithfully recorded, and are accurate examples of the elevated literary style of the ancient aztecs. they should, by all means, be printed, so that they could be accessible to those who would acquaint themselves with the genius of the language and the psychology of the people. in the qquichua of peru, a few similar prayers to viracocha have been saved from oblivion, in the pages of cristobal de molina. one or more copies of his _relacion_ are in the united states, but it has only appeared in print through a translation by mr. markham, in the hackluyt society's publications.[ ] some modern prayers of the mayas are to be found in the collection of brasseur,[ ] and, doubtless, several of the so-called ancient "prophecies," preserved in the _books of chilan balam_, are, in fact, specimens of the impassioned and mystic rhapsodies with which the priests of their heathendom entertained their hearers, as cortes and his followers heard, one day, on the island of cozumel.[ ] section . _poetical literature._ man, remarks wilhelm von humboldt, belongs to the singing species of animals. true it is, that wherever found, he has some notion of music, cultivates the accord of sounds by some sort of instrument, and gives expression to his most acute emotions in modulations of vocal tone. the earliest and simplest poetry is nothing more than such modulated sounds; it is not in definite words, and hence, is not capable of translation; it is but the expression of feeling through the voice, as is the wail of the infant, the rippling laughter of youth, the crooning of senility, the groans of pain or sorrow. perhaps this first is also the highest expression of the aesthetic sense. the most admired cantatrices of to-day drown the words in a wealth of vocalization, and the meaning is lost, even were the language one known to their hearers, which it usually is not. i have heard a living poet, himself of no mean eminence, maintain that the harmony of versification is a far higher test of true poetic power than the ideas conveyed. these principles must be borne in mind when we apply the canons of criticism to the poetry of the ruder races. it is not composed to be read, or even recited, but to be sung; its aim is, not to awaken thought or convey information, but solely to excite emotion. it can have a meaning only when heard, and only in the surroundings which gave it birth. hence it is, that the notices of the poetry of american nations are so scant and unsatisfactory. while all travelers agree that the tribes have songs and chants, war songs, peace songs, love songs, and others, few satisfactory specimens have been recorded. those who have examined the subject most accurately have found that many so-called songs are mere repetitions of a few words, or even of simple interjections, over and over again, with an endless iteration, in a chanting voice. the dakota songs which have been preserved by riggs, the chippeway songs obtained from the interpreter tanner, and the numerous specimens of native californian chants recorded by powers, as well as many others of this class which might be mentioned, are mainly of this character. consequently, they show very poorly in a translation, and are apt to convey an unjustly depreciatory notion of the nations which produce them. to estimate them aright, the meter and the music must be taken into consideration, and also their suitability to the minds to which they were addressed.[ ] but the anthology of america is not limited to specimens of this kind. in the iroquois _book of rites_ there are funeral dirges of considerable length, expressive and touching in meaning; and in the algonkin a few have been preserved in the original, which are authentic and pleasing. here, for instance, is a nearly literal version of a chippeway love song:-- "i will walk into somebody's dwelling, into somebody's dwelling will i walk. to thy dwelling, my dearly beloved, some night will i walk, will i walk. some night in the winter, my beloved, to thy dwelling will i walk, will i walk. this very night, my beloved, to thy dwelling will i walk, will i walk."[ ] much more striking, and to me strangely so, are the songs of the taensa, a small tribe who dwelt on the banks of the lower mississippi. they are now extinct, but a very curious account of their language, by a spanish missionary, has been preserved and recently published. the early travelers speak of them as an unusually cultivated people, but one cannot but be surprised to find them capable of composing an epithalamium like the following:-- "tikaens, thou buildest a house, thou bringest thy wife to live in it. "thou art married, tikaens, thou art married. "thou wilt become famous; thy children will name thee among the elders. think of tikaens as an old man! "by what name is thy bride known? is she beautiful? are her eyes soft as the light of the moon? is she a strong woman? didst thou understand her signs during the dance? "i know not whether thou lovest her, tikaens. "what said the old man, her father, when thou askedst for his pretty daughter? "what betrothal presents didst thou give? "rejoice, tikaens! be glad, be happy! "build thyself a happy home. "this is the song of its building!" some of the songs of war and death are quite ossianic in style, and yet they appear to be accurate translations.[ ] the comparatively elevated style of such poems need not cast doubt upon them. the first european who wrote about the songs of the natives of america, who was none other than the witty and learned montaigne, paid a high tribute to their true poetic spirit. montaigne knew a man who had lived among the tupis of brazil for ten or twelve years, and had learned their language and customs. he remembered several of their songs of war and love, and translated them to gratify the insatiable thirst for knowledge of the famous essayist. the refrain of one of them, supposed to be addressed to one of those beautiful serpents of the tropical forests, ran thus:-- "o serpent, stay! stay, o serpent! that thy painted skin may serve my sister as a pattern for the design and form of a rich cord, which i may give to my love; for this favor, may thy beauty and grace be esteemed beyond those of all other serpents." "i have had enough to do with poetry," comments montaigne on this couplet, "to say about this that not only is there nothing barbarous in this fancy, but that it is altogether worthy of anacreon." such is his enthusiasm, indeed, that he finds in this simple and faithful expression of sentiment the highest form of poesy; "the true, the supreme, the divine; that which is above rules and beyond reasoning."[ ] scarcely can we call these words extravagant, when, in our own century, another frenchman, eminent as a scientific observer, and speaking from the results of personal study on the spot, has said of the songs of a tribe of this same tupi stock, the guarayos, that they cannot be surpassed for grace of language and delicacy of expression.[ ] many interesting klamath, omaha and zuni verses have been collected by the efforts of gatschet, dorsey, cushing and other zealous laborers connected with the bureau of ethnology at washington, and these will shortly be accessible to all through the accurate publications of the government press. the melodious nahuatl tongue lent itself readily to poetic composition, and was cultivated enthusiastically in this direction long before the conquest. apparently the poetic dialect never freed itself from the use of unmeaning particles thrown in to complete the meter; as, indeed, may also be said of the english popular song dialect, which retains to this day very many such.[ ] with this exception the tezcucan poets, for it was in that province that the muses were most assiduously worshiped, made use of a pure, brilliant, figurative style, and had developed a large variety of metrical forms. one of the most famous disciples of the lyre was nezahualcoyotl, himself sovereign of tezcuco about the year . he left seventy odes on philosophical and religious subjects, which were borne in memory and repeated after the conquest. translations of a few of them have come down to us, but my inquiries as to the whereabouts of the originals, if, indeed, they exist, have been fruitless.[ ] the jesuit, horatio carochi, published some ancient verses in his grammar of the nahuatl (mexico, ). several which appear in later works do not seem to merit the credit of antiquity. they are more like those which sahagun wrote and published, in nahuatl, at a very early period,[ ] christian songs, intended to take the place of the ditties of love and chants of war, which the natives had such a passion for singing. under the title _cantares de los mexicanos_, there was long preserved in the library of the university of mexico a manuscript of the sixteenth or seventeenth century, with a large number of supposed ancient aztec songs; but what has become of it now, nobody knows.[ ] thus it is that these precious monuments of antiquity are allowed to lie uncared for, through generations, until, at length, they fall a prey to ignorance or theft. a few other fragments of nahuatl poetry, all probably modern, but some of them the versification of native bards, might be named; but the whole of it, as now existing, could give us but a faint idea of the perfection to which the art appears to have attained in the palmy days of the great tezcucan poet-prince. in the literature of the maya group of dialects, there have been preserved various sacred chants, some in the _books of chilan balam_, others in the kiche _popol vuh_. what are known as the "maya prophecies" are, as i have said, evidently the originals, or echoes of the mystic songs of the priests of kukulkan and itzamna, deities of the maya pantheon, who were supposed to inspire their devotees with the power of foretelling the future. the modern maya lends itself very readily both to rhyme and rhythm, and i have in my possession some quite neat specimens of versification in it, from the pen of the yucatecan historian, apolinar garcia y garcia. when we reach peru we find a race not less poetical in temperament than the cultured mexicans. nothing but their ignorance of an alphabet, and the indifference or fanatical hatred of the early explorers for the productions of the native intellect, prevented the perpetuation of a qquichua literature, both extensive and noble. as it is, we may expect many valuable examples of it when the learned peruvian scholar, senor gavino pacheco zegarra, shall publish his long promised _tresor de la langue des incas_. among them he has announced the first appearance of a number of _yaravis_, or elegiac chants, composed by the indians themselves, and sung in memory of their departed friends. we know, from the testimony of garcillaso de la vega, that the inca bards formed a separate and highly respected class, and that in their hands the supple qquichua tongue had been brought under well recognized rules of prosody. he mentions the different classes and subjects of their poems, compares them to similar compositions in spanish, and even gives specimens of two short ones, of undoubted antiquity, and adds that, when a boy, he knew many others. "what would not one now give," exclaims mr. markham, "for those precious relics of inca civilization, which the half-caste lad allowed to slip from his memory."[ ] all that mr. markham could collect, in his extensive journeys in peru, were not above twenty songs of ancient date, and i regret to say that these have not yet been published. of those charming tupi songs, to which i have already referred, i fear that we have but very few preserved in the original tongue. not that there is any lack of poems in the _lingoa geral_, or "common language" of brazil, as the ordinary and corrupt tupi there spoken is called. it is a melodious idiom, lending itself easily to rhyme and rhythm, and several brazilian writers of european blood have gained reputation by their compositions in it. but of genuine aboriginal productions, there are not many. the entertaining old voyager, jean de lery, who visited brazil with villegagnon in , has recorded a few simple airs, which appear to be merely choruses or refrains of songs, the delivery of which was, however, so effective, that to hear them carried him out of himself; and ever, when his memory recalled them, his heart beat, and it seemed that he heard the wild cadence once again resounding in his ears through the tropical forests.[ ] some strange old poetic invocations in archaic tupi addressed to the moon and to the god of love, ruda, who dwells in the clouds, have been collected and printed by dr. couto de magalhaes, a writer whose studies on tupi poetry, its character and development, merit high praise.[ ] both the songs and music of the modern natives of that country attracted the attention of the learned von martius, and in his volumes of _travels in brazil_ an appendix is devoted to their discussion.[ ] many excellent hints for preparing a tupi anthology are also contained in an erudite note of ferdinand denis to his description of the visit of fifty native tupis to france, in .[ ] section . _dramatic literature_. the development of the dramatic art can be clearly traced in the american nations. when the spaniards first explored the west indian islands they found the inhabitants much given to festivals which combined dancing with chanting, and the introduction of figures with peculiar costumes. the native name of these representations was adopted by the spaniards, and applied to such performances elsewhere. the word is _areytos_, and is derived from the arawack verb, _aririn_, to rehearse, recite.[ ] such dramatic recitations were found among most of the tribes of north and south america, and have been frequently described by travelers. often they were of a religious nature, having something to do with devotional exercises; but not seldom they were simply for amusement. occasionally they were mere pantomimes, where the actors appeared in costume and masks, and went through some ludicrous scene. thus, to quote one example out of many, lieutenant timberlake saw some among the cherokees, about the middle of the last century, which he speaks of as "very diverting," where some of the actors dressed in the skins of wild animals, and the simulated contest between these pretended beasts and the men who hunted them, were the motives of the entertainment.[ ] from the solemn religious representations on the one hand and these diverting masquerades on the other, arose the two forms of tragedy and comedy, both of which were widely popular among the american aborigines.[ ] the effete notion that they were either unimaginative or insusceptible to humor is, to be sure, still retained by a few writers, who are either ignorant or prejudiced; but it has been refuted so often that i need not stop to attack it. in fact, so many tribes were of a gay and frolicsome disposition, so much given to joking, to playing on words, and to noticing the humorous aspect of occurrences, that they have not unfrequently been charged by the whites best acquainted with them, the missionaries, with levity and a frivolous temperament. among the many losses which american ethnology has suffered, that of the text of the native dramas is one of the most regretable. is is, however, not total. two have been published which claim to be, and i think are, faithful renditions of the ancient texts as they were transmitted verbally, from one to another, in pre-columbian times. the most celebrated of these is the drama of _ollanta_,[ ] in the qquichua language of peru. no less than eight editions of this have been published, the last and best of which is that by the meritorious scholar, senor gavino pacheco zegarra. the internal evidence of the antiquity of this drama has been pronounced conclusive by all competent qquichua students.[ ] the plot is varied and ingenious, and the characters agreeably contrasted. ollanta is a warrior of low degree, who falls in love with cusi coyllur, daughter of the inca, who returns his affection. the lovers have secret meetings, and ollanta asks the sovereign to sanction their union. the proud ruler rejects the proposal with scorn, and the audacious warrior gathers his adherents and attacks the state, at first with success. but cusi coyllur is thrown into prison and her child, the fruit of her illicit love, is separated from her. the inca dies, and under his successor ollanta is defeated and brought, a prisoner, to the capital. mindful, however, of his merits, the magnanimous victor pardons him, restores him to his honors, and returns to his arms cusi coyllur and her child. minor characters are a facetious youth, who is constantly punning and joking; and the dignified figure of the high priest of the sun, who endeavors to dissuade the hero from his seemingly hopeless love. the second drama to which i refer is that of _rabinal achi_, in the kiche tongue of guatemala. the text was obtained by the abbe brasseur de bourbourg, and edited with a french translation. the plot is less complete than that of the _ollanta_, and the constant repetitions, while they constitute strong evidence of its antiquity and native origin, are tedious to a european reader.[ ] rabinal-achi is a warrior who takes captive a distinguished foe, canek, and brings him before the ruler of rabinal, king hobtoh. the fate of the prisoner is immediate death and he knows it, but his audacity and bravery do not fail him. he boasts of his warlike exploits, and taunts his captors, like an iroquois in his death song, and his enemies listen with respect. he even threatens the king, and has to be restrained from attacking him. as his end draws near, he asks to drink from the royal cup and eat from the royal dish; it is granted. again, he asks to be clothed in the royal robe; it is brought and put about him. once more he makes a request, and it is to kiss the virgin mouth of the daughter of the king, and dance a measure with her, "as the last sign of his death and his end." even this is conceded, and one might think that it was his uttermost petition. but no; he asks one year's grace, wherein to bid adieu to his native mountains. the king hears this in silence, and canek disappears; but returning in a moment, he scornfully inquires whether they supposed he had run away. he then, in a few strong words, bids a last farewell to his bow, his shield, his war-club and battle-axe, and is slain by the warriors of the king. the love of dramatic performances was not crushed out in the natives by the conquest. in fact, in the spanish countries, it was turned to account and cultivated by the missionaries as a means of instructing their converts in religion, by "miracle plays" or _autos sacramentales_, as they are called. it was even permitted to the more intelligent natives to compose the text of plays. one such, manifestly, i think, the work of a native author, in the mixed nahuatl-spanish dialect of nicaragua, i have prepared for publication. the original was found by dr. berendt in masaya, and his copy, without note or translation, came into my hands. the play is a light comedy, and is called "the ballet of the gueegueence or the macho-raton." the characters are a wily old rascal, gueegueence, and his two sons, the one a chip of the old block, the other a bitter commentator on the family failings. they are brought before the governor for entering his province without a permit; but by bragging and promises the foxy old man succeeds both in escaping punishment and in effecting a marriage between his scapegrace son and the governor's daughter. the interest is not in the plot, which is trivial, but in the constant play on words, and in the humor, often highly rabelaisian, of the anything but venerable parent. the "zacicoxol," or drama of cortes and montezuma, written in kiche, of which i have a copy, may possibly be the work of an indian, but is probably largely that of one of the spanish curas, and appears to have little in it of interest. another and peculiar form of dramatic recitation is what are called the loas or _logas_, of central america. in these, a single individual appears in some quaint costume, in a little theatre erected for the purpose, and recites a burlesque poem, acting the different portions of it to the best of his ability. at present, most of these _logas_ are of a semi-religious character. the one i have is entitled "the loga of the child-god," _loga del nino dios_, and is written in spanish intermingled with words from the mangue or chorotegan language. this tongue, spoken by a few persons in nicaragua, is closely akin to the chapanec of chiapas, and was a sonorous and rich idiom. those who spoke it were much given to scenic representations, as we learn from the historian oviedo, who lived among them for nearly a year, about . none of these remain, though as late as about , one of great antiquity, believed to be an original native production, continued to be acted. its title was _la ollita_ or _el canahuate_, the former word meaning the peculiar musical instrument of that locality, the "whistling jar." the subject was a tale of love, and one of these primitive flutes was used as an accompaniment to the songs. section . _conclusion_. thus do i answer the questions which i proposed at the outset of my thesis. if i have failed to justify the expectations which i may have raised, at least i have thrown into strong relief the cause of my failure, to wit, the utter and incredible neglect which, up to this hour, has prevailed with regard to the preservation of what relics of native literature which we know have existed,--which do still exist. time and money are spent in collecting remains in wood and stone, in pottery and tissue and bone, in laboriously collating isolated words, and in measuring ancient constructions. this is well, for all these things teach us what manner of men made up the indigenous race, what were their powers, their aspirations, their mental grasp. but closer to very self, to thought and being, are the connected expressions of men in their own tongues. the monuments of a nation's literature are more correct mirrors of its mind than any merely material objects. i have at least shown that there are some such, which have been the work of native american authors. my object is to engage in their preservation and publication the interest of scholarly men, of learned societies, of enlightened governments, of liberal institutions and individuals, not only in my own country, but throughout the world. science is cosmopolitan, and the study of man is confined by no geographical boundaries. the languages of america and the literary productions in those languages have every whit as high a claim on the attention of european scholars as have the venerable documents of chinese lore, the mysterious cylinders of assyria, or the painted and figured papyri of the nilotic tombs. * * * * * footnotes: [footnote : what dr. washington matthews says of one of the sioux tribes is, in substance, true of all on the continent:-- "long winter evenings are often passed in reciting and listening to stories of various kinds. some of these are simply the accounts given by the men, of their own deeds of valor, their hunts and journeys; some are narrations of the wonderful adventures of departed heroes; while many are fictions, full of impossible incidents, of witchcraft and magic. the latter class of stories are very numerous. some of them have been handed down through many generations; some are of recent origin; while a few are borrowed from other tribes. some old men acquire great reputation as story tellers, and are invited to houses, and feasted, by those who are desirous of listening to them. good story tellers often originate tales, and do not disclaim the authorship. when people of different tribes meet they often exchange tales with one another. an old indian will occupy several hours in telling a tale, with much elegant and minute description."--_ethnography and philology of the hidatsa indians_, pp. - . (washington, .)] [footnote : that these assertions are not merely my own, but those of the most profound students of these tongues, will be seen from the following extracts, which could easily be added to:-- "this language [the cree] will be found to be adequate, not only to the mere expression of their wants, but to that of every circumstance or sentiment that can, in any way, interest or affect uncultivated minds."--joseph howse, _a grammar of the cree language_, p. . (london, .) "j'ai affirme que nos deux grandes langues du nouveau monde [the iroquois and the algonkin] etaient tres claires, tres precises, exprimant avec facilite non seulement les relations exterieures des idees, mais encore leur relations metaphysiques. c'est ce qu' out commence de demontrer mes premiers chapitres de grammaire, et ce qu'achevera de faire voir ce que je vais dire sur les verbes."--rev. m. cuoq, _jugement errone de m. ernest renan sur les langues sauvages._ p. ( d ed. montreal, .) "affermo che non e facile di trovare una lingua piu atta della messicana a trattar le materie metafisiche; poiche e difficile di trovarne un' altra, che tanto abbondi, quanto quella, di nomi astratte."--clavigero, _storia antica del messico_, tomo iv, p. . (cesena, .) "todos los bellisimos sentimientos que se albergan en los nobles corazones en ninguna otra de aquellas lenguas (europeas) pueden encontrar una expresion tan viva tan patetica y energica como la que tienen en mexicano. ?en cual otra se habla con tanto acatamiento, con veneracion tan profunda, de los altisimos mysterios de ineffable amor que nos muestra el cristianismo?"--fr. agustin de la rosa, in the _eco de la fe_. (merida, .) alcide d'orbigny argues forcibly to the same effect, of the south american languages:--"les quichuas et les aymaras civilises ont une langue etendue, pleine de figures elegantes, de comparaisons naives, de poesie, surtout lorsqu'il s'agit d'amour; et il ne faut pas croire qu'isoles au sein des forets sauvages ou jetes au milieu des plaines sans bornes, les peuples chasseurs, agriculteurs et guerriers, soient prives de formes elegantes, de figures riches et variees."--_l'homme americain_, tome i, p. . for other evidence see brinton, _american hero myths_, p. . (philadelphia, .). horatio hale, _the iroquois book of rites_, p. . (philadelphia, .)] [footnote : _ethnography and philology of the hidatsa indians_, p. .] [footnote : _the tribes of california_, p. . (washington, .)] [footnote : "il n'est pas rare de trouver des individus parlant jusqu'a trois ou quatre langues, aussi distinctes entr'elles que le francais et l'allemand."--alcide d'orbigny, _l'homme americain_, tome i, p. . the generality of this fact in south america was noted by humboldt, _voyage aux regions tropicales_, t. iii, p. .] [footnote : "hay muchos de ellos buenos gramaticos, y componen oraciones largas y bien autorizadas, y versos exametros y pentametros."--toribio de motilinia, _historia de los indios de la nueva espana_, tratado iii, cap. xii.] [footnote : _menologio franciscano de los varones mas senalados de la provincia de mexico_, tomo iv, pp. - . (mexico, .) in the prologue to the _sermonario mexicano_ of f. juan de bautista (mexico, ), is a well-written letter, in latin, by don antonio valeriano, a native of atzcaputzalco, who was professor of grammar and rhetoric in the college of tlatilulco. bautista says of him that he spoke extempore in latin with the eloquence of a cicero or a quintilian; and his contemporary, the academician francisco cervantes salazar, writes: "magistrum habent [indi] ejusdem nationis, antonium valerianum, nostris grammaticis nequaquam inferiorem, in legis christianae observatione satis doctum et ad eloquentiam avidissimum."--_tres dialogos latinos de francisco cervantes salazar_, p. (ed. icazbalceta, mexico, ).] [footnote : francisco de paula garcia pelaez, _memorias para la historia del antiguo reyno de guatemala_, tomo iii, pp. and (guatemala, ).] [footnote : _ritos antiguos, sacrificios e idolatrias de los indios de la nueva espana_, in the _coleccion de documentos ineditos para la historia de espana_, tom. , p. .] [footnote : _a study of the manuscript troano_. by cyrus thomas, ph.d., with an introduction by d.g. brinton, m.d., p. xxvii. (washington, .)] [footnote : "tenian libros de pergaminos que hacian de los cueros de venados, tan anchos como una mano o mas, e tan luengos como diez o doce passos, e mas e menos, que se encogian e doblaban e resumian en el tamano e grandeza de una mano por sus dobleces uno contra otro (a manera de reclamo); y en aquestos tenian pintados sus caracteres o figuras de tinta roxa o negra, de tal manera que aunque no eran letura ni escritura, significaban y se entendian por ellas todo lo que querian muy claramente."--oviedo, _historia general y natural de indias_, lib. xlii, cap. i.] [footnote : "une ecriture consistant en raies tracees sur de petites planchettes."--alcide d'orbigny, _l'homme americain_, tomo l, p. , on the authority of viedma, _informe general de la provincia de santa cruz, ms_.] [footnote : _legends and tales of the eskimo_. (edinburgh and london, .)] [footnote : _pok, kalalek avalangnek, etc._, nongme, ; or, _pok, en groenlaender, som har reist og ved sin hjemkomst, etc. efter gamle handskrifter fundne hos groenlaendere ved godthaab._ godthaab, .] [footnote : _kaladlit assilialit, etc._ see thomas w. field, _indian bibliography_, p. . (new york, .)] [footnote : first printed in _the american whig review_, new york, feb. ; reprinted in _the indian miscellany_, edited by w.w. beach, albany, . i have not been able to find the original.] [footnote : horatio hale, _the iroquois book of rites_. (philadelphia, .) it is no. ii of my "library of aboriginal american literature." the introductory essay, in ten chapters, treats at considerable length of the ethnology and history of the huron-iroquois nations, the iroquois league and its founders (hiawatha, dekanawidah, and their associates), the origin of the book of rites, the composition of the federal council, the clan system, the laws of the league, and the historical traditions relating to it, the iroquois character and public policy, and the iroquois language. a map prefixed to the work shows the location of the united nations and of the surrounding tribes.] [footnote : _recit de francois kaondinoketc, chef des nipissingues (tribu de race algonquine) ecrit par lui-meme en .--traduit en francais et accompagne de notes par_ m.n.o., vo. pp. . (paris, .)] [footnote : _the national legend of the chata-muskokee tribes_. by daniel g. brinton, m.d. morrisania, n.y., . to. pp. . reprinted from _the historical magazine_, february, .] [footnote : "les chefs des vieillards m'avoient souvent parle de leurs ancetres, des courses qu'ils avoient faites, et des combats qu'ils avoient eu a soutenir, avant que la nation put se fixer ou elle est aujourd'hui. l'histoire de ces premiers creeks, qui portoient alors le nom de moskoquis, etoit conservee par des banderoles ou chapelets," etc.--_memoire ou coup-d'oeil rapide sur mes different voyages et mon sejour dans la nation creck,_ par le gen. milfort, pp. , . (paris, an. xi, ).] [footnote : "we burned all we could find of them," writes bishop landa, "which pained the natives to an extraordinary degree."--_relacion de las cosas de yucatan_, p. . for a discussion of what was destroyed at mani see cogolludo, _historia de yucatan_, d ed., vol. i, p. , note by the editor. the efforts which have of late been made by senor icazbalceta and the reverend canon carrillo to modify the general opinion of these acts of vandalism cannot possibly be successful. the ruthless hostility of the church to the ancient civilization, an hostility founded on religious intolerance, could be proved by hundreds of extracts from the early writers.] [footnote : boturini's work is entitled _idea de una nueva historia general de la america septentrional fundada sobre material copioso defiguras, symbolos, caracteres, y geroglificos, cantares y manuscritos de autores indios_. madrid, . the fate of his collection is sketched by brasseur de bourbourg, in the introduction to his _histoire des nations civilisees de mexique et de l'amerique centrale_, vol i.] [footnote : the following extract from ixtlilxochitl sums up the native authorities on which he relied for the particulars of the life of the last prince of tezcuco, and merits quotation as a bit of literary history:-- "autores son de todo lo referido, y de los demas de su vida y hechos los infantes de mexico ytzcoatzin y xiuhcozcatzin, y otros poetas y historicos en los anales de las tres cabezas de esta nueva espana, y en particular en los anales que hizo el infante quauhtlazaciulotzin, primer senor del pueblo de chiauhtla; y asimismo se halla en las relaciones que escribieron los infantes de la ciudad de tezcuco, don pablo, don toribio, don hernando pimentel y juan de pomar hijos y nietos del rey nezalhualpiltzintli de tezcuco, y asimismo el infante don alonso axiaicatzin senor de itztapalapan, hijo del rey de cuitlahuac, y sobrino del rey motecutzomatzin."--ixtlilxochitl, _historia chichimeca_, cap. xlix.] [footnote : in the celebrated library of j.f. ramirez, were two folio volumes, containing pages, entitled _anales antiguos de mexico y sus contornos_. they included, besides various spanish accounts, fragments in the nahuatl language, some translated and some not. the titles of all are given by don joaquin garcia icazbalceta, in his valuable and rare _apuntes para un catalogo de escritores en lenguas indigenas de america_, pp. - . (mexico, .)] [footnote : _memorial del pueblo de teptlaustuque, en la nueva espana; en que se refiere su origen i poblacion, i de los tributos i servicios, antes i despues de la conquista; todo pintado, i m.s._ en la libreria del rei. antonio de leon i pinelo, _bibliotheca occidental_. the district of tepetlaoztoc belonged to tezcuco.] [footnote : "don gabriel castaneda, indio principal, natural de michuacan colomocho en la provincia de mejico. escribio en lengua megicana, _relacion_ de la jornada que hizo sandoval acaxitli, cacique y senor de tlalmanalco, con el sr. visorey don antonio de mendoza en la conquista de los chichimecas de xuchipila, ."--beristain y souza, _biblioteca hispano-americana septentrional_, s.v.] [footnote : for testimony to this interesting fact see _the maya chronicles_, introduction, p. , note.] [footnote : _the books of chilan balam, the prophetic and historic records of the mayas of yucatan_. by daniel g. brinton, m.d., philadelphia, . reprint from the _penn monthly_, march, .] [footnote : _library of aboriginal american literature_, vol. i, p. . (philadelphia, .)] [footnote : an intelligent appreciation of the linguistic labors of pio perez was written by dr. berendt, in , and printed in mexico.--_los trabajos linguisticos de don juan pio perez_. vo. pp. .] [footnote : _disertacion sobre la historia de la lengua maya o yucateca_. por crescencio carrillo. published in the _revista de merida_, .] [footnote : a fine manuscript of vico's work, as well as a number of other productions in cakchiquel, by the missionaries, are in the library of the american philosophical society, at philadelphia.] [footnote : tecpan atitlan is a village on the shore of lake atitlan, in the province of solola, guatemala.] [footnote : don domingo juarros, _compendio de la historia de la ciudad de guatemala_, tomo, ii pp. , , , , et al. (ed. guatemala, ). a copy of tzumpan's writings is said to be in a private library in the united states. the native cakchiquel writers were also the authorities on which father vazquez depended, in part, in composing his history of guatemala. he gives a partial translation of one, beginning the passage: "los indios de zolola dizen en sus escritos," etc.--fray francisco vazquez, _cronica de la provincia de guatemala_, lib. iii, cap. xxxvi. (guatemala, , .)] [footnote : brasseur de bourbourg, _bibliotheque mexico-guatemalienne_, p. . (paris, .)] [footnote : _titulos de la casa de ixcuin-nehaib, senora del territorio de otzoya_. guatemala, . vo. pp. . reprint from the _boletin de la sociedad economica de guatemala_.] [footnote : _las historias del origen de los indios de esta provincia de guatemala, traducidas de la lengua quiche al castellano_. por el r.p.f. francisco ximenez. vo. vienna, .] [footnote : _popol vuh. le livre sacre et les mythes de l'antiquite americaine, avec les livres heroiques et historiques des quiches_. par l'abbe brasseur de bourbourg. (paris, .)] [footnote : _the names of the gods in the kiche myths of central america_. by daniel g. brinton, m.d. vo. pp. . (philadelphia, .) reprint from the _proceedings_ of the american philosophical society, .] [footnote : boturini, _idea de una nueva historia de la america septentrional_, p. .] [footnote : cabrera, _teatro critico americano_, p .] [footnote : _american hero-myths_, pp. - . (philadelphia, .)] [footnote : on this qquichua ms. see marcos jimenez de la espada, _tres relaciones de antiguedades peruanas_. introd. p. .] [footnote : _relacion de las costumbres antiguas de los naturales del piru_, printed in the work last quoted, p. , note.] [footnote : "en cabildo de de julio de , el capitan don antonio de fuentes y guzman trajo a esta sala siete peticiones escritas en cortezas de arboles."--francisco de paula garcia pelaez, _memorias para la historia del antiguo reyno de guatemala_, tom. ii, p. . (guatemala, .)] [footnote : _o selvagem. trabalho preparatorio para aproveitamento de selvagem e de solo por elle occupado no brazil_. rio de janeiro, .] [footnote : _notes on the lingoa geral, or modern tupi of the amazonas_, in the _transactions_ of the american philological association, for .] [footnote : boturini, _idea de una nueva historia_, etc., app. pp. et seq.; didacus valades, _rhetorica christiana_, pars secunda (perusia, ); gemelli carreri, _giro del mundo_.] [footnote : stephens, _travels in yucatan_, vol. i, p. (london, ).] [footnote : _relacion de las ceremonias y ritos de mechoacan_. the ms. of this work, in the library of congress, does not contain the calendar which the author, in the body of the work, promises to append; nor apparently does the copy in madrid, from which the work was printed, in vol. of the _coleccion de documentos ineditos para la historia de espana_.] [footnote : _pintura del gobernador, alcaldes y regidores de mexico. codex en geroglificos mexicanos y en lengua castellana y azteca._ first published at madrid, . a specimen of the map, "carte geographique azteque," is given by professor leon de rosny, in _les documents ecrit de l'antiquite americaine_, p. (paris, ).] [footnote : stephens, _travels in yucatan_, vol. ii, p. , gives a maya map of mani. a more complete study of the subject is that of carrillo, _geografia maya_, in the _anales del museo nacional de mexico_, tom. ii, p. .] [footnote : _silabario de idioma mexicano, dispuesto por el_ lic. faustino chimalpopocatl galicia, mexico, , vo. pp. . second edition, mexico, , vo. pp. . also _epitome o modo facil de aprender el idioma nahuatl_, mo. pp. , mexico, .] [footnote : _elementos de la gramatica megicana_, por don antonio tobar cano y moctezuma. written about .] [footnote : _confessionario mayor y menor en lengua mexicana, y platicas contra las supersticiones de idolatria, que el dia de oy an quedado a los naturales desta nueva espana_. ano de . mexico. a copy of this scarce volume is in my library.] [footnote : dr. couto de magalhaes remarks: "como o nome indica, este missionario devia ser algum mestico que, com o leite materno, beben os primeiros rudimentos da grande lingua sul-americana."--_origens, costumes e regias selvagem_, p. (rio de janeiro, ). in m. varuhagen published, at vienna, a _historia da paixao de christo e taboa dos parentescos em lingua tupi_, written by yapuguay, an extract, apparently, from the volume mentioned in the text. the edition was only copies.] [footnote : c.f. hartt, _on the lingoa geral of the amazonas_, p. , in the _transactions_ of the american philological association, .] [footnote : _tah-gah-jute; or, logan and cresap. an historical essay._ by brantz mayer. (albany, .)] [footnote : _history of the american indians_, pp. , . (london, .)] [footnote : james howse, a grammar of the cree language, p. . (london, .)] [footnote : "piensan que un hombre que habla sin cortarse y con soltura debe ser de una naturaleza superior y privilegiada. por solo esta circumstancia ascienden el grado de ghulmenes o caciques, u hombres notables." federico barbara, _manual o vocabulario de la lengua pampa_, p. . (buenos aires, .)] [footnote : rev. cyrus byington, _grammar of the choctaw language_, p. (philadelphia, .)] [footnote : _huehue_, ancient; _tlatolli_, words, speeches. a special variety were the _calmecatlatolli_, the declamations which the youths of noble families were taught to deliver in the spacious halls of the _calmecac_, or public schools. "calmeca tlatolli, palabras dichas en corredores largos. e tomase por los dichos y fictiones de los viejos antiguos." molina, _vocabulario de la lengua mexicana, sub voce_. the word _calmecac_ is a compound of _calli_, house, and _mecana_, to give, it being the building furnished by the state for purposes of public instruction.] [footnote : fr. juan baptista (or bautista), _platicas morales en lengua mexicana, intitulados huehuetlatolli_, vo. mexico ( ? or ?). this work is not mentioned by icazbalceta, but is described in berendt's notes, and a copy was sold in paris in . it is enumerated by vetancurt, _menologio franciscano_, p. ( d ed.).] [footnote : olmos, _grammaire de la langue nahuatl_, pp. sqq. (paris .)] [footnote : _narratives of the rites and laws of the incas._ translated by c. r. markham. printed for the hackluyt society (london, ).] [footnote : _chrestomathie de la langue maya_, in _etude sur le systeme graphique et la langue des mayas._ (paris, .)] [footnote : bernal diaz gives an interesting account of this "black sermon," as he calls it. the incident is significant, as it shows that the natives were accustomed to gather around their places of worship, to listen to addresses by the priests. see the _historia verdadera de la conquista de la nueva espana_, cap. xxvii. (madrid, .)] [footnote : some judicious remarks on the origin and development of aboriginal poetry are offered by theodore baker, in his excellent monograph on the music of the north american indians, but his field of view was somewhat too restricted to do the subject full justice, as, indeed, he acknowledges. _Ã�ber die musik der nord-americanischen wilden_, von theodor baker, pp. - . (leipzig, .)] [footnote : schoolcraft, _history, condition and prospects of the indian tribes of the united states_, vol. v, p. .] [footnote : _grammaire et vocabulaire de la langue taensa, avec textes traduits et commentes_. par j.d. haumonte, parisot, et l. adam. paris, .] [footnote : "or, i'ay assez de commerce avec la poesie pour juger cecy, que non seulement il n'y a rien de barbaric en cette imagination, mais qu'elle est tout a faict anacreontique."--_essais de michel de montaigne_, liv. i, cap. xxx, and comp. cap. xxxvi.] [footnote : "chez les guarayos, ces hymnes religieux et allegoriques, si riches en figures.--il est impossible de trouver rien de plus gracieux." "quant a leurs poetes, le charme avec lequel ils peignent l'amour, annonce, certainement en eux, une intelligence developpee et autant d'esprit que de sensibilite."--alcide d'orbigny, _l'homme americain_, tome i, pp. , .] [footnote : "negli avanci, che si restano della lor poesia, vi sono alcuni versi, ne'quali tra le parole significative si vedono frapposte certe interjezioni, o sillabe prive d'ogni significazione, e soltanto adoperate, per quel ch'appare, per aggiustarsi al metro. il linguaggio della lor poesia era puro, ameno, brilliante, figurato, e fregiato di frequenti comparazioni fatte colle cose piu piacevoli della natura, siccome fiori, alberi, ruscelli, &c."--_clavigero, storia di messico_. tom. ii, p. .] [footnote : the originals of some of these poems were in the hands of ixtlilxochitl, as is evident from his _historia chichimeca_, cap. xlvii.] [footnote : sahagun, _psalmodia xpiana_. (mexico, ?) an extremely rare book, which i have never seen. clavigero saw a copy, and thinks it was printed about . _storia di messico_, tom. ii, p, , note.] [footnote : it is mentioned by icazbalceta, _apuntes para un catalogo de escritores en lenguas indigenas de america_, p. . (mexico, .) there are, however, two copies of it extant, somewhere.] [footnote : see mr. clements r. markham's introductions to his edition of the _ollanta_ drama (london, ); and to his _qquichua grammar and dictionary_ (london, ).] [footnote : "i'en demeurai tout rauy; mais aussi toutes les fois qu'il m'en ressouuient, le coeur m'en tressaillant, il me semble que ie les aye encor aux oreilles."--jean de lery, _histoire d'un voyage faict en la terre du bresil, autrement dite amerique_, pp. , . (geneve, .)] [footnote : see his _origens, costumes e regiaeo selvagem_, pp. - , - . (rio de janeiro, .)] [footnote : spix and martius, _reise in brasilien, brasilianische volkslieder und indianische melodien, musikbeilage_.] [footnote : _une fete bresilienne celebree a rouen en suivie d'un fragment du xvi'e siecle roulant sur la theogonie des anciens peuples du bresil et des poesies en langue tupique, de christovam valente_. par ferdinand denis, pp. - , , sqq. (paris, .)] [footnote : the arawack language, which is now spoken in guiana only, at the time of the discovery extended over the greater and lesser antilles and the bahama islands, as i have shown in an essay on _the arawack language of guiana in its linguistic and ethnological relations_, in the _transactions_ of the american philosophical society, .] [footnote : _the memoirs of lieutenant henry timberlake_, p. (london ).] [footnote : in the ancient qquichua literature the tragic dramas were called _huancay_; those of a comic nature, _aranhuay_. both were composed in assonant verses of six and eight syllables, which were not sung or chanted, but repeated with dramatic intonation.] [footnote : on the bibliography of the drama see zegarra, _ollantai, drame en vers quechuas du temps des incas_, introd. p. clxxiii. (paris, .) the english translation is by clements r. markham, _ollanta, an ancient ynca drama_ (london, ).] [footnote : the recent attempt of general don bartolome mitre, of buenos ayres, to discredit the antiquity of the ollanta drama (in the _nueva revista de buenos ayres_, ), has been most thoroughly and conclusively refuted by mr. clements r. markham, in the volume of the hackluyt society's publications for .] [footnote : _rabinal-achi, ou le drame ballet du tun_, published as an appendix to the _grammaire de la langue quiche_ (paris, ). the abbe brasseur asserts that he wrote down this drama from verbal information, at the village of rabinal in guatemala; but a note by dr. berendt in my possession characterizes this statement as incorrect, and adds: "brasseur found the ms. all written, in the hands of an hacendado, on the road from guatemala to chiapas. the original exists still in the same place." it was a weakness with the abbe to throw, designedly, considerable obscurity about his authorities and the sources of his knowledge.] * * * * * index. names of native authors and productions are in _italics_. abolachi adair, james adam, l. algonkins _alva, b. de_ _anales de cuauhtitlan_ anales del museo nacional _apes, rev. wm._ araucanians arawacks atitlan, lake aubin, m. avila, f. de _ayala, g, de_ aymaras aztecs baker, t. barbara, fed. bautista, j. de beach, w.w. beaver indians berendt, c.h. beristain y souza _book of the jew_ _book of rites_ _books of chilan balam_ boturini, l. _boudinot, elias_ brasseur de bourbourg, abbe brinton, d.g. byington, rev. c. cabrera, p.f. cakchiquels californian indians _camargo, d.m._ carochi, h. carreri, g. carrillo, rev. c. _cartas de indias_ _castaneda, g._ _chac xulub chen_, chronicle of chahta-muskokees chapanec language _chekilli_ _cherokee phoenix_ cherokees chiapas chichimecs chignavincelut _chilan balam, books of_ chili, tribes of _chimalpain, d. munon_ _chimalpopoca, f, lic._ chippeways choctaws chorotegan language _clark, p. dooyentate_ clavigero, f.s. _codex, aztec_ _codex, chimalpopoca_ cogolludo, d. _copway, george_ couto de magalhaes, dr. _coy, domingo_ creeks crees cuoq, m. cushing, f.h. _cusick, david_ dakotas delawares denis, f. diaz, b. d'orbigny, a. dorsey, j.o. eskimo field, t.w. franca, dr. e.f. fuentes y guzman garcia, a. gatschet, a.s. gavarrete, sr. _gomez, f._ guarani language guarayos _gueegueence, the_ hale, h. hartt, c.f. hiawatha hidatsa indians howse, j. humboldt, a. humboldt, w. von huron-iroquois icazbalceta, j.g. iroquois iroquois book of rites _ixtlilxochitl, f. de a._ _izquin, f._ _japuguay, nic._ _jew, the book of the_ jimenez de la espada _johnson, elias_ _jones, rev. peter_ juarros, dom. kaladlit _kaondinoketc, f._ kekchi language kiches klamaths landa, bishop latinists, indian _la vega, garcilasso de_ leon i pinelo, ant. lery, jean de lingoa geral _loaysa, f. de_ _logan's speech_ _logas, the_ _luis inca_ _macario, j._ _macho-raton, the_ mangue language _maps, native_ matthews, dr. w. mayer, brantz markham, c.r. martius, c. von mayas _maya chronicles, the_ mendoza, ant., de mendoza, g. mexicans michoacan milfort, gen. mitre, b. molina, a. montaigne, m. motolinia, t. de moxos muskokees muyscas nahuatl language nahuatl-spanish dialect _nakuk pech_ _nehaib, titles of_ _nezahualcoyotl_ _nezahualpilli_ nicaraguans nipissings nunez de la vega. ojibways _ollanta, the_ _ollita, the_ olmos, andre de omahas oviedo, f. _pachacuti, don j._ pampas, tribes of _pasiones, las_ pelaez, f.p. garcia pequods perez, juan pio peruvians _pimentel, ant._ _pimentel, h._ pipils pocomans _pok_ _ponce, pedro_ _pomar, j. de_ _popol vuh, the_ powers, s. _prophecies of mayas_ _queh, f.t.g._ quiches, see _kiches_ qquichuas quipus _rabinal achi_ rafinesque, c.s. ramirez, j.f. rink, dr. h. _rosa, a. de la_ rosny, leon de sahagun, b. de salazar, f.c. _san antonio, j. de_ sanchez solis, f. scherzer, c. schoolcraft, h.r. _sequoyah_ simeon, remi sioux six nations smith, b. solola, province squier, e.g. taensas _tanner, j._ tarascos _tecpan atitlan_ tezcuco _tezozomoc, f. de a._ theologia indorum thomas, c. timberlake, h. timucuana tlatilulco, college of _tlaxcallan, history of_ _tobar, ant_. _tomar, j.b. de_ _tonalamatl, the_ _torres, j._ tupis tuscaroras _tzolante, the_ tzendals _tzumpan, f.g.c._ valades, d. _valeriano, antonio_ varnhagen, m. vazquez, f. vetancurt, a. de vico, domingo de viracocha _votan_ _walum olum_ ward, dr. wyandotts _xahila, f.e.a._ ximenez, f. _zacicoxol, the_ _zapata y mendoza, j.v._ zapotecs zegarra, g.p. zoque language zunis * * * * * library of aboriginal american literature. general editor and publisher, daniel g. brinton, m.d., south seventh st., philadelphia, pa., united states. the european market will be supplied by nicholas trÃ�bner & co., & ludgate hill, london, england. _the aim of this series is to put within the reach of scholars authentic materials for the study of the languages, history and culture of the native races of north and south america. each of the works selected will be the production of a native author, and will be printed in the original tongue, with an english translation and notes. most of them will be from unpublished manuscripts, and they will form a series indispensable to the future student of american archaeology, ethnology or linguistics. they will be printed from type, and in limited editions only. the volumes will be sold separately, at moderate prices, either in paper or bound in cloth. they will all be planted on heavy laid paper, of the best quality. the following have already appeared_:-- * * * * * no. i. the maya chronicles. edited by daniel g. brinton, m.d. vol., vo, pp. . price, paper, $ . ; cloth, $ . . this volume contains five brief chronicles in the maya language of yucatan, written shortly after the conquest, and carrying the history of that people back many centuries. to these is added a history of the conquest, written in his native tongue, by a maya chief, in . the texts are preceded by an introduction on the history of the mayas; their language, calendar, numeral system, etc.; and a vocabulary is added at the close. notices of the press. "we hope that dr. brinton will receive every encouragement in his labors to disclose to americans these literary antiquities of the continent. he eminently deserves it, both by the character of his undertaking and the quality of his work."--_the american_ (phila.) "it would be difficult to praise too highly the task dr. brinton has set before him. prepared by long studies in the same field, he does not undertake the work as a novice. ... there should be no hesitation among those who wish well to american antiquarianism in subscribing to the series edited and published by dr. brinton."--_the critic_. "dr. brinton's work upon the history of the mayas or aborigines of yucatan [the "maya chronicles"] is a most important contribution to the literature of american antiquities. ... comparative linguists, as well as archaeologists, will find a new and very interesting subject of study in these remains."--_the saturday review_ (london). "the efforts of dr. brinton will be welcomed by all antiquarian students, for they are not only original contributions, but are also presented in a readable and interesting manner."--_the american antiquarian_. * * * * * no. ii. the iroquois book of rites. edited by horatio hale, esq. vol., vo. price, paper, $ . ; cloth, $ . . the "book of rites" is a native composition, which was preserved orally for centuries, and was written down about a century ago. it gives the speeches, songs and ceremonies which were rehearsed when a chief died and his successor was appointed. the fundamental laws of the league, a list of their ancient towns, and the names of the chiefs who composed their first council, are also comprised in the work. it may be said to carry the authentic history of northern america back to a period fifty years earlier than the era of columbus. the introductory essay treats of the ethnology and history of the huron-iroquois league and its founders, the origin of the book of rites, the composition of the federal council, the clan system, the laws of the league, and the iroquois character, public policy, and language. notices of the press and of eminent writers. "this work may be said to open a field of indian research new to ethnologists. ... these precious relics of antiquity are concise in their wording, and full of meaning. ... the additions made by mr. hall are almost as valuable as the texts themselves."--_the nation_ new york, september , . "the reputation of the author, added to this fascinating title, will insure its favorable reception, not only by ethnologists, but also, the reading public. ... a remarkable discovery, and indisputably of great ethnological value. ... a book which is as suggestive as this must bear good fruit."--_science_, august , . "the work contains much new material of permanent interest and value to the historical scholar and the scientist. ... "--_the magazine of american history_, september, . "in this book of rites we have poetry, law, history, tradition and genealogy, interesting and valuable for many reasons...."--_good literature_, august , . "the book of rites is edited by the eminent philologist, mr. horatio hale, who has done so much to elucidate the whole subject of indian ethnography and migrations, with the argument derived from language in connection with established tradition; and especially to disentangle iroquois history from its complications with the legends of their mythology."--_auburn daily advertiser_, july , . "the book is one of great ethnological value, in the light it casts on the political and social life, as well as the character and capacity, of the people with whom it originated."--_popular science monthly_, november . "it is a philosophical and masterly treatise on the iroquois league and the cognate tribes, their relations, language, mental characteristics and polity, such as we have never had of any nation of this continent...."--_dr. j. gilmary shea_. "it is full of instructive hints, particularly as bearing on the state of so-called savages before they are brought in contact with so-called civilized men. such evidence is, from the nature of the case, very difficult to obtain, and therefore all the more valuable...."--_prof. f. max mueller_. "it gives us a much clearer insight into the formation and workings of the iroquois league than we before possessed."--_hon. george s. conover_. "it contains more that is authentic and new, of the iroquois nations, than any other single work with which i am acquainted."--_rev. charles hawley, d.d._ * * * * * no. iii. the comedy-ballet of gÃ�egÃ�ence. edited by daniel g. brinton, m.d. vol., vo. paper, $ . ; cloth, $ . . a curious and unique specimen of the native comic dances, with dialogues, called _bailes_, formerly common in central america. it is in the mixed nahuatl-spanish jargon of nicaragua, and shows distinctive features of native authorship. the introduction treats of the ethnology of nicaragua, and the local dialects, musical instruments, and dramatic representations of that section of our continent. a map and a number of illustrations are added. other important works, in various native languages, are in the course of preparation, under competent editorship. of these may be mentioned-- the national legend of the creeks. edited by a.s. gatschet. the original account, written in ; an english translation, and a re-translation into the creek language, in which it was originally delivered, by an educated native, and into the hitchiti, a dialect cognate to the creek. the annals of the kakchiquels. by ernantez xahila. these chronicles are the celebrated _memorial de tecpan atitlan_ so often quoted by the late abbe brasseur de bourbourg. they are invaluable for the ancient history and mythology of gautemalan nations, and are of undoubted authenticity and antiquity. the annals of quauhtitlan. edited by a.f. bandelier. the original aztec text, with a new translation. this is also known as the _codex chimalpopoca_. it is one of the most curious and valuable documents in mexican archaeology. aboriginal american anthology. edited by daniel g. brinton, m.d. a collection of the songs, chants and metrical compositions of the indians, designed to display the emotional and imaginative powers of the race and the prosody of their languages. * * * * * _the following two works are not portions of the series, but are related to it by their contents. they may be obtained from the same publishers_. american hero-myths. a study in the native religions of the western continent. by daniel g. brinton, a.m., m.d., etc. vol., vo, pp. . (philad'a, .) cloth, price, $ . . notices of the press. "dr. brinton writes from a minute and extended knowledge of the original sources. ... his work renders a signal service to the cause of comparative mythology in our country."--_the literary world_ (boston). "this study of certain of the most remarkable stories of american mythology is exceedingly interesting."--_the saturday review_ (london). "in his 'american hero-myths' dr. brinton gives us the clue to the religious thought of the aboriginal races. ... it is a learned and careful book, clearly written, popular in style though scientific in method, and must be a good deal fresher than a novel to most readers."--_the american_ (philadelphia). "this volume is the first attempt at what is entitled to be regarded as a critically accurate presentation of the fundamental conceptions found in the native beliefs of the tribes of america."--_the new england bibliopolist_. "this is a thoughtful and original contribution to the science of comparative religion."--_the boston journal_. "we regard the 'hero myths' as a valuable contribution to the history of religion and to comparative mythology."--_the teacher_ (philadelphia). "...these few extracts give no idea of the mass of legends in this volume, and the queer, out-of-the-way information it supplies concerning the ideas and usages of races now extinct or hastening to extinction."--_the dublin evening mail_. "dr. brinton, in his 'american hero-myths,' has applied the comparative method soberly, and backed it by solid research in the original authors."--_the critic_ (new york). aboriginal american authors, and their productions. especially those in the native languages. a contribution to the history of literature. by daniel g. brinton, a.m., m.d., etc. vol., vo, pp. . boards. price, $ . . an essay founded on an address presented to the congress of americanists, at copenhagen, in . it is an extended review of the literary efforts of the red race, in their own tongues, and in english, latin and spanish (both manuscript and printed). an entirely novel field of inquiry is opened to view, of equal interest to ethnologists, linguists and historians. ======================================================================== transcriber's note: the esperanto alphabet contains characters. these are the characters of english, but with "q", "w", "x", and "y" removed, and six diacritical letters added. the diacritical letters are "c", "g", "h", "j" and "s" with circumflexes (or "hats", as esperantists fondly call them), and "u" with a breve. zamenhof himself suggested that where the diacritical letters caused difficulty, one could instead use "ch", "gh", "hh", "jh", "sh" and "u". a plain ascii file is one such place; there are no ascii codes for esperanto's special letters. however, there are two problems with zamenhof's "h-method". there is no difference between "u" and "u" with a breve, and there is no way to determine (without prior knowledge of the word(s) involved, and sometimes a bit of context) whether an "h" following one of those other five letters is really the second half of a diacritical pair, or just an "h" that happened to find itself next to one of them. consequently other, unambiguous, methods have been used over the years. one is the "x-method", which uses the digraphs "cx", "gx", "hx", "jx", "sx" and "ux" to represent the special letters. there is no ambiguity because the letter "x" is not an esperanto letter, and each diacritical letter has a unique transliteration. this is the method used in the ascii versions of this project gutenberg e-text. however, in the discussion of the name "washington", "w" and "sh" were indeed used in the original document. "esparanto" and "flexbility" were also found in the original document and retained, along with a "than" where a "then" was probably intended. in addition, the -bit ascii version of this book uses the german "-e" convention to represent characters with umlauts. the -bit ascii version uses the iso- - character set to represent these german and volapük characters. the html version uses unicode and therefore displays properly all the characters for the languages... including esperanto! ======================================================================== esperanto ========= hearings before the committee on education house of representatives sixty-third congress second session on h. res. a resolution providing for the study of esperanto as an auxiliary language ======== statements of hon. richard bartholdt a representative from the state of missouri and prof. a. christen ------------ march , ------------ washington government printing office committee on education. house of representatives, sixty-third congress. dudley m. hughes, georgia, chairman. william w. rucker, missouri. james f. burke, pennsylvania. robert l. doughton, north carolina. caleb powers, kentucky. john w. abercrombie, alabama. horace m. towner, iowa. j. thompson baker, new jersey. edmund platt, new york. john r. clancy, new york. allen t. treadway, massachusetts. thomas c. thacher, massachusetts. simeon d. fess, ohio. stephen a. hoxworth, illinois. arthur r. rupley, pennsylvania. james l. fort, clerk. esperanto. --------- house of representatives, committee on education, tuesday, march , the committee this day met, hon. dudley m. hughes (chairman) presiding. statement of hon. richard bartholdt, a representative in congress from the state of missouri. mr. bartholdt. mr. chairman and gentlemen, i do not wish to occupy your time, for the reason that i can be here almost any time, while prof. christen has made a special trip from new york for this purpose, and i should like to give him all the time you can afford to devote to this bill. i merely wish to say, in explanation, that i have not, as you will notice, introduced this bill by request; i have assumed responsibility for it personally because i thoroughly believe in it. i first introduced the bill in the shape of a request to the committee on education to investigate the subject; that is, as to the practicability and advisability of introducing esperanto as an auxiliary language in the public schools. that resolution was referred to the committee on rules and, of course, i could not get any action in that committee, and for that reason i introduced the bill in its present form, which merely provides that esperanto be taught as a part of the course of study in the schools of washington, this being the only jurisdiction we have in the matter of education. we americans are known the world over as being deficient in the knowledge of languages. i think we might as well admit that. while every other nation is teaching two or three languages in its schools we have failed to do so, and yet the requirements of international trade and commerce make it absolutely essential that our young men should be taught at least one language or two languages besides their own. now, this being the case and esperanto now being taken up by nearly all the civilized countries as an auxiliary language, how easy it would be for us, instead of compelling our children in the schools to learn spanish, french, and german, to simply take one lesson a week in esperanto and thereby enable this nation to correspond and communicate in a common language with all the other nations of the world. the chairman. your idea would be that the various nations would understand esperanto, and that whenever they would use that language all would understand and comprehend it? is that your idea? mr. bartholdt. yes. i want to say that there is a movement on foot in nearly every civilized country to make esperanto a part of the course of study in the schools. if that were carried out, each country would learn its own language and esperanto, in england english and esperanto, and so on, so that the international language would really be esperanto. as one who has studied languages to some extent i can feel the shortcomings and handicaps of a man who, for instance, having studied french for some time, comes to paris. the very moment you open your mouth the people will notice that you are "a foreigner," no matter how well you speak french, so that the other man, the native, has a certain advantage over you. but if that frenchman were obliged to speak esperanto with you then you would be on a common level and neither would have an advantage over the other. i have read in several of the esperanto newspapers that, for instance, in england the great manufacturing establishments are now printing their catalogues and price lists in esperanto, and that other publications are sent all over the world printed in that language, in matters of trade and commerce. so you can see it is coming. and since we have not overcrowded the minds of our children with languages as yet, i think it would be advisable and profitable for us to start with esperanto. i want to add that it is a very easy language. i have learned it in four lessons. of course i have not had the time to keep it up, and you must keep in practice. the chairman. does esperanto partake more of the spanish language? mr. bartholdt. no. for an english speaking person it is very easy to learn, because it is composed of words taken from the english language, some from the german language, and some from the latin. but the whole construction of the language is so remarkably simple, that you will wonder why it is that a universal language of that kind has not been introduced before for the use of civilized men. that is all i wish to say, gentlemen, and i take pleasure in introducing prof. christen, of new york, to you, whom i regard as one of the greatest living experts in that language and a missionary for esperanto. statement of prof. a. christen, manhattan avenue, new york city. prof. christen. mr. chairman and gentlemen, this is quite a novel experience to me. i do not even know how these hearings are carried on, but i am entirely at your disposal and shall be very glad to answer questions. if i had my own way i would like to speak for at least an hour and a half or two hours, but i understand that you can not give me so much time. therefore, it will be rather difficult to put in all the information i would like to lay before you. i should like to tell you something about the absurd and ridiculous linguistic chaos to which the world has been brought through those great agencies of progress which have now practically abolished distance and brought the ends of the earth nearer to each other than were the opposite frontiers of the smallest kingdom years ago; ( )[ ] then about the advisability, nay, the absolute necessity of an international language; how various attempts have been made to meet this growing demand for a special international language, not for home consumption but only for intercourse with all other nations, and why this one is, in my opinion and in that of many wiser men, bound to succeed, and that is because it absolutely fills the bill and is fool-proof; as a scientific and at the same time practical scheme, it can not be improved upon. next, i should like to speak about the reason why neither english, nor any other living language, can ever become international. no living language can become international because they are all too difficult, too complicated, and not neutral; ( ) and then, perhaps, i ought to give you a few outlines of the construction of esperanto to show you why it is so easy, how it meets all the requirements of the case, and is going to succeed. however, i do not suppose i shall be able to do all of this, and, therefore, will merely take a few points. [ ]see additions to verbatim report of hearing. dr. bartholdt has mentioned to you the movement that is already in existence for esperanto. here is the official yearbook of the universala esperanto-asocio ( ), the best-organized international society that the movement has yet produced. this society is called the universal esperanto association. it is not a propaganda society, but purely a commercial league for the coordained use of the language, not merely for the spread of it, but for its practical use among those who have already learned it. this association has branches throughout the world, and is in its sixth year. here is a map showing the places in which the society is represented, and to-day, if i want any information on any industrial, commercial, educational, scientific, or any other matter--say, in portugal, russia, japan, spain, belgium, holland, or china, etc.--i look up the place nearest to the district from which i want that information and find the address of the esperanto center there. then i write to the delegate and ask for the information in esperanto, and no matter what language he speaks at home i will get a reply in esperanto, and he will take any amount of trouble to satisfy my demands. this society has done a remarkable amount of excellent work in the last five years, and esperanto is more and more used for all practical international purposes. now, dr. bartholdt told you about many commercial houses in different countries already using esperanto practically, that is to say, actually using it for their business purposes internationally, printing their circulars, price lists, catalogues, and so on, in esperanto, and using it for correspondence. i am reminded that seven years ago, in the north of scotland, i saw a communication to a scotch railroad company from a french railroad company written in english, but across the communication there were stamped the words, "we correspond in esperanto." and that was six or seven years ago, and since that time esperanto has made very great strides. i have here a number of trade catalogues in esperanto, and you will see from the nature of them that they are really very elaborate things and on which these firms have spent a great deal of money, which they would not do if they did not think the thing was actually paying. i have only about such samples here because i can not carry them all about with me. for instance, here is a very elaborate, costly, and handsome catalogue from the biggest firm of photographic instrument makers in germany, and, i believe, in the world. here is a pamphlet issued by the chamber of commerce of los angeles, a very attractive pamphlet. that was published in order to attract european immigration to that portion of california, and that same chamber of commerce has made large use of esperanto for that purpose. two years ago they sent a man to lecture all over europe and in some parts of asia on the attractions of california. that lecturer visited different countries; he lectured in different towns during months and every one of his lectures was given in esperanto, and in several places he was obliged to give his lecture two or three times, because the crowds that came were so large that it was impossible for everybody who desired to hear the lecture to get in at the same time. there were large numbers of people in every place who actually understood him; all did not understand him, but a large number did in every town. for instance, in paris and barcelona there are many thousands who understand esperanto. here is another german firm in berlin. here is a bookseller in paris issuing a catalogue entirely in esperanto. here is a leaflet about the panama exposition published in esperanto. here is the town of baden, a watering place near vienna. they publish a guide of their town in esperanto. here is a catalogue issued by the oliver typewriter co. printed in esperanto. cook's famous touring agency has used esperanto for the last seven years. here is a scotch tea firm publishing a circular in esperanto. here is a bicycle-saddle maker in germany using esperanto for publicity. here is a berlin taximeter catalogue in esperanto. two years ago there was held in leipsic the greatest hygienic exposition ever held anywhere. it was the most successful of its kind up to date, and hundreds of thousands of people attended from all over the world. in that exposition esperanto was used to a great extent and the exhibition authorities published a guide to the exposition in esperanto. here is a railroad company that uses esperanto. a great many railroad companies in europe already use it. they issue regional guides to the most attractive parts of their districts in esperanto. here is a paris automobile company with a circular in esperanto. here is the biggest iron works in england, the consett iron co., of durham, a firm that employs , hands, and that firm publishes its catalogues and price lists in esperanto. this is only one of their esperanto publications. here is a circular issued by a paris department store. all the big department stores of paris not only use esperanto in their publications, but actually have interpreters for esperanto in their stores. the biggest ink firm in the world--the stephens blue ink co., in london--use this language for their correspondence. about six years ago they began to use esperanto and published their advertisements and their circulars for foreign trade entirely in esperanto. the town of antwerp publishes an illustrated guide of the town in esperanto. here is a very big anglo-american firm of medical supplies, burroughs, wellcome & co., and they use esperanto in many of their circulars. the government of brazil three years ago sent a man to lecture in europe as to the attractions of brazil. that man lectured in paris to an audience of , people entirely in esperanto, and the government published his lecture in that language. here is a curious document. this was issued by the anti-alcohol congress in italy last year, and you will notice that esperanto is used, and that it is recommended as the only remedy against the language trouble which entirely hampered the deliberations of this congress, as it does all international conventions of every kind. i will hand this to mrs. crafts, because she will be able to tell you more about it, since she was there. that is the commercial side of it, and these are only a very few samples of the actual and practical use being made of esperanto in this one alone. i could produce, no doubt, a great many more such examples, but i can not carry them all about with me. here are some to guide leaflets published by so many different towns in france, in italy, in austria, in germany, in england, and in several other countries--leaflets printed in esperanto for the use of foreigners and tourists. they give them information in esperanto about the various things they might first need to know on arriving at those cities. for instance, here is milan, italy, and poitiers, france, and insbruck. austria, and tavia, italy, and davos, switzerland, and so on. in the same line here are more elaborate guidebooks to various towns in europe, published entirely in esperanto by the local authorities. of course, you will not have the time to look at all these things just now, but i will leave them with you. then, again, i think i can safely say that there are over periodicals published in esperanto in different countries. esperanto is making very rapid progress in japan and china; for instance, i have here an excellent esperanto paper published by a native society in japan. the chairman. in what nation is it progressing most rapidly? prof. christen. that is difficult to say, but seven years ago france was at the head, and germany did not take it up for a long time. then about five or six years ago england shot ahead of france, and then suddenly germany took it up, and now i think germany is ahead of all the other countries in the practical use of esperanto. but it is making good progress everywhere--in france, in england, in denmark, in bulgaria, in spain, in south america, in germany, in india, in china, and in japan. in germany the authorities and scientific people have very strongly espoused esperanto. for instance, the government of saxony sustains financially an esperanto institute in dresden, and that does a great deal of good work. the government of saxony is also a large contributor to an esperanto library, which is the biggest in the world, as yet. and in many towns in spain, in germany, and in france, especially in france, whenever an esperanto lecturer goes into a town he gets a stipend from the town; the town pays out of the city funds the expenses of his propaganda, or partly pays them; they contribute or francs, and frequently more, according to the size of the place. that is the practice in many places in other countries besides france, but especially in france. even the russian government gives financial aid to esperanto propaganda. the chairman. as i understand it, this is not supposed to be a universal language? prof. christen. no; an international language. the chairman. but at the same time it is a language in which all the universe can meet upon a common plane and converse? prof. christen. that is the intention, to give the whole of the civilized world one and the same secondary language. the chairman. in which they can all meet on a common plane? prof. christen. yes; no matter where you may go, if you know esperanto, you shall not be a foreigner anywhere. the intention is to do away with this terrible handicap of being unable to converse with your fellow men of the various countries you may visit unless you learn all or most of those languages, a thing which, as you know, is in most cases quite impossible. it is the intention to have all the nations understand esperanto, and by that means make it possible for all the peoples of the world to commune directly with each other. the time has come in the world's history when a common vehicle of human expression is absolutely necessary, and the barrier of babel must fall, as mostly all other obstacles to free intercourse have already fallen, before the triumphant advance of modern science and technology. it is positively fatuous and futile to ask the modern man, be he in commerce or science or what not, to become an expert in his particular line of endeavor and a polyglot besides. it can not be done. languages are too many and each one too complicated for our crowded curricula. the obligatory study of foreign languages belongs to a remote past when there existed no sciences and no industrial arts, when life was less crowded and when there were fewer world languages. even less than a hundred years ago a man was an accomplished cosmopolitan if he knew french and his own mother tongue. to-day he wants and ought to be conversant with french, german, and spanish, at the very least, besides english, and before long he will have to tackle russian and japanese. as a matter of fact in some of the european countries and in south america the school children actually spend from to per cent of the school time in acquiring that sort of an education, which is really not education at all but only a means to an end. the chairman. what progress has esperanto made in the united states? prof. christen. in this matter the united states is behind all other progressive countries. there have been many sporadic efforts made and there are esperanto groups in different places from new york and boston to chicago, san francisco, seattle, portland, tacoma, etc., but as a national movement it is not what it should be, and the difficulty is, to far as i can make it out, the enormous size of the country. it is difficult for a society, without very large funds, to carry on an effective propaganda all over the country. then another difficulty is that americans are not generally very much given to what i should call ethical ideas of this kind, that offer no immediate and sudden cash returns, until they really become a craze or until a certain class, perhaps, takes them up. ( ) let us not forget also that the american people are not so much in touch with the language difficulty as are other countries, and they do not yet appreciate the enormous use that esperanto will be to them, for, in my opinion, no white people will benefit more from esperanto than will the american people, chiefly because like all english-speaking nations they are very poor linguists. then it is becoming more and more acknowledged among educational people that the english language is the only language that can not be taught. it is well known that if you put educated people from different countries together the anglo-saxon will invariably be the one who understands his own language least. that is due to the peculiar construction of the english language. however, esperanto would not be difficult for the american people because it is so scientific, so logical, and entirely free of all irregularities. prof. mayer, of the university of oxford, learned esperanto in his seventy-ninth year. i heard him make a speech in the language about six or seven days after he took it up, and he declared that esperanto ought to be introduced into the educational system of the country. he was professor of the latin language at the oxford university. he declared esperanto ought to be introduced into the schools, into the kindergartens, where children of years of age should begin with esperanto, and i hold with him, because if children were to learn esperanto it would be of help to them in their english. it is extremely easy to learn and can be learned in a very pleasant fashion, because it is so scientific and so simple. ( ) if children understood esperanto, they would understand english better, and much of the time we waste in trying to teach them english would be profitably spent, for they would have something to go upon, something to compare english with, and that something so scientific and so logical as esperanto. take, for instance, analysis. i will not say it is difficult but i will say it is impossible to analyze an english word, because every word can be so many things. it can generally be an adjective, a noun, a verb, a preposition, a conjunction, and an interjection, that is, the same word, without any structural change, so that it is difficult for a child to discriminate and label the word. take the word "benefited." that might be used in the past tense (i benefited), or as a past participle: (we may have benefited), and it is impossible for a child to sense the difference, and such confusion occurs to a great extent with most words in the english language. i am a teacher of languages and have done nothing all my life but study and impart languages. if i had to teach you gentlemen, say, french upon the theory that you were going on an important mission this day months, and that it was absolutely necessary that you should speak french (or any other language that i could impart you) by that time, i would say it was impossible for a number of busy men to acquire a new language inside one year; that i could not guarantee useful results, but that if you would take two months to start with for the learning of esperanto, then i might be able to teach you the other language in the rest of the time, because esperanto is the best foundation for learning any language. and, as i say, an english-speaking student, be he young or old, knowing esperanto would more easily distinguish the parts of speech in english and possess a real and valuable "linguistic feeling" (which he now entirely lacks) because of his esperanto. the chairman. is esperanto made up of the derivatives of the various languages? prof. christen. i will explain that, if you like, in a very few words. esperanto is the work of a polish scholar, dr. ludovico l. zamenhof, who started with an inspired mind. i should say he was a great genius. he had studied a large number of languages, for, as a boy, nay, as a child in the cradle, he spoke four languages, because so many different languages were actually spoken in his home town. then at school he learned several more and it is due to this polyglotic experience and the evils caused daily by babel in his own circle that as a child, almost, he conceived the idea of constructing a language that should at once and for all time put an end to a foolish and intolerable situation. he must have been inspired in what he did, because he at once hit upon the only possible solution of the thing, and he hit upon it without knowing that scores of others, older and more learned, had tried the same thing and failed. his first stroke of genius was in the composing of his entire vocabulary by borrowing all his words from well-known sources. with the true insight of the genius he decided that the words of an artificial international language must be taken from international sources, and so he first of all hit upon the good idea to use first of all those words which are already common to most languages, and there are a great many more such words than we have dreamed of. he decided that that should be the starting point of his world tongue, because everybody would know those words to start with. take the names of animals and produce that come from certain parts of the world and carry their names with them, such as elephant, tiger, lion, camel, and a great many more. take the rose: the rose is a rose in every language; so an orange, a lemon, a nut, and tea, coffee, and tobacco, etc., are the same in most languages. they may not be spelled the same or pronounced the same, but they are international, and therefore they are esperanto. that was the foundation of the vocabulary in zamenhof's new language--take words that everybody would know and use them in esperanto ( ). mr. towner. how do you determine those common names? prof. christen. well, he formed his vocabulary; he selected these words because they were international--to the exclusion of anything else. mr. towner. well, that was not definite; it might be enlarged? prof. christen. oh, yes. mr. towner. what was the vocabulary that he first issued? prof. christen. offhand, i think, about words. mr. towner. what is the vocabulary now? prof. christen. probably about , words. now, i have dealt with the so-called international words; but the bulk of every language consists of what i would call home words, which every country has for its own; and the only way to bring equivalents for such words into the language was to select them from all the principal languages under consideration, which means, of course, the european languages and to select these words on the principle of greatest internationality--that is to say, such verbs as to come, to do, to write, etc., or the nouns, hand, knife, water, table, etc., or adjectives, like good, bad, healthy, etc. before he put these words into his vocabulary, zamenhof had their equivalents in all the european languages before him, and then he took from the whole list the root which was the most prominent, the root that occurred oftenest, and this became esperanto, the idea being that the words selected should be common to at least four or five different languages. mr. towner. you do not mean that, do you? you do not mean that the only words you would put into the esperanto vocabulary would be those that might be common to at least four or five of the principal languages? prof. christen. yes; whenever it is possible to find such words, and the words do not conflict with the general harmony of the language. mr. towner. that is what i thought you meant. prof. christen. the consequence is that a language formed on these lines must be a latin or romance language because latin gave birth to at least six languages: french, italian, spanish, portuguese, roumanian, and english, and besides, latin and french have influenced and enriched the literature and languages of every other modern nation. the dictionary of latin words contained, for instance, in russian or german would be a very large volume indeed. it is a fact that all modern attempts at making an artificial language, and their name is legion, especially since the acknowledged success of esperanto, are based on latin. consequently also, the international language must be largely english, because mostly those latin words will be chosen that are common at least to french and english. i have lectured to hundreds of english audiences, and i have given them numerous examples of esperanto words in my lectures that could be easily understood by everybody. take the words "skribi," to write; "lerni," to learn; "mangxi," to eat; "trinki," to drink; "tablo," a table; "glaso," a glass; "nazo," the nose, and "busxo," the mouth; "mano," the hand; take the adjectives, bona, bela, granda, kapabla, etc. few, indeed, are the esperanto words that do not connect at all with the english; in most cases, in at least cases out of , you will find those words connect with one or many english words. mr. towner. you mean that per cent of the words now in the esperanto vocabulary are formative words? prof. christen. yes: they are connected with the english language, and from each esperanto word you can form mechanically absolutely every word that sense and logic can possibly connect with the one and only meaning of the original esperanto word. i am accustomed to lecturing before audiences and making this statement, which i make without fear of contradiction, that "if all of you were to take up esperanto now and carry it on until you were as expert in it as i am, you would not in the whole of your studies come across more than words, probably not more than words, which are entirely new to you." mr. towner. of course, a vocabulary of , words is a very limited vocabulary; it is a primitive vocabulary? prof. christen. yes? mr. towner. how are you going to increase it? for instance, how are you going to make it a literary language? how are you going to write poems? prof. christen. personally i should not want an international language for poetry, although esperanto does in fact lend itself excellently to the purposes of the muses. but to answer your question: first of all, the esperanto language does not contain any words at all; i think there are only full-fledged words, prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions, but the rest of the vocabulary is formed of roots only. let us take the words "to sew," "to stitch." the root is "kudr." it is only a root, and that alone stands in the vocabulary. now, if you want to make this root into a noun "o" is added to it, "kudro": if you want to make it an adjective, you add "a" to it, "kudra"; if you want to make it an adverb you add "e," kudre, which would mean by or through sewing, "sewingly," if it could be so expressed in english; and if you want to make it a verb it would be "kudri," because every infinitive ends in "i." you see, with that root to begin with you can form four words, and you can express a great deal more in esperanto than anybody can possibly imagine; in fact esperanto is, on account of its perfect and absolutely complete flexibility, more precise and more comprehensive than any language under the sun. as i said before, you can form four words from every root at the start if sense allows it, and sense allows you a great deal more leeway in esperanto than anybody can possibly know about, because in no language are you allowed to proceed by sense. the english language does not allow it, nor does any other, not oven german or greek, but it is allowed in this most logical of all languages, esperanto. ( ) mr. towner. take the illustration you have just used. we say "the sewing is beautiful." and "we find her sewing assiduously." now, we use the same word, but the formation of the sentence determines whether or not it is a noun or a verb. prof. christen. you mean the distinction between the participle and the noun? mr. towner. yes. prof. christen. with your permission i will not answer that particularly, but will deal with the whole subject. i want to say that from every root you form four words, the four principal parts of speech. and the first thing to remember is this positive stroke of genius--that every noun ends with "o," every adjective with "a," every derived adverb with "e," and every infinitive with "i." mr. towner. how would you carry that to proper names? prof. christen. london would be londono; robert is roberto, but proper names you are at liberty to do with as you please; give them the esperanto ending or leave them in the original form. mr. towner. what about washington? prof. christen. washingtono. mr. towner. i mean, you would really change it? prof. christen. yes; if you prefer it; that is, if it sounds better. mr. towner. in the language? prof. christen. yes. mr. towner. for instance, if you were speaking about the city of washington, you would not say washington, but washingtono? prof. christen. you will find it frequently printed as washingtono. mr. towner. why do you do that, because washingtono is not the name of the city? prof. christen. let me say that you say london in english, but that is not french. mr. towner. but we always spell paris the french way, although we do not pronounce it the same way; that is, "paree." prof. christen. but london is not london in french; it is "londres" in french. mr. towner. do you mean to say that if a letter were addressed to london from paris the frenchman would not pronounce and write it london but londres? prof. christen. yes. mr. towner. he does not say london? prof. christen. no, he says londres. and the same is true with dover; dover is not french; the french would be douvres. however, i want to say this, that after the first three or four years after i took up esperanto geographical or proper names were left optional and they were not given any particular spelling in the esperanto language and are not now. many esperantists now would say washington and london. but you can make the change if you want to. mr. towner. internationally, has not that come to be the custom, to pronounce the geographical names and proper names in the way they are pronounced in the country in which they originate? prof. christen. i think so. as i said, there is no arbitrary rule about personal names or geographical names. now, let me proceed with this marvelous scheme and repeat that every part of speech is distinctive in itself; that is the reason a child, when it follows esperanto, will not find english so hard and will understand english better than in any other way. such a child will understand english far better than if it did not understand esperanto, and that is a statement i often make in my lectures. mr. ripley. we had a man here the other day who has a language which he claims is an improvement on esperanto. prof. christen. yes? mr. ripley. he is from ohio, i believe. prof. christen. i know. since esparanto began to move forward there have been at least to different schemes elaborated, and that is easily done. you can do it overnight. but there is no scheme that has ever touched and no scheme that can ever touch esperanto, because it has hit the mark from the first. ( ) mr. towner. what do you do with adverbs? do they have a definite form? prof. christen. every derived adverb ends in "e." mr. towner. so you could not distinguish from the form between a verb and an adverb, could you? prof. christen. perfectly. the adverb ends in "e" and the infinitive ends in "i." mr. ripley. it is your contention that children will do better in english if they acquire a knowledge of esperanto? prof. christen. undoubtedly; this is a statement i make in my lectures: if you gentlemen will give me a number of children aged or years i will give them a quarter of an hour's pleasant explanation about grammar, that is esperanto grammar, and they will understand it after a quarter of an hour's explanation; then i will jumble together a number of blocks, with various words on these blocks, and i will say to these children "pick out every noun," and they will be able to do it--that is, pick the nouns from the adjectives--and so with every part of speech. the chairman. because they will know to a certainty? prof. christen. yes; every word tells its own tale on account of its distinctive ending. now, that is a thing you can not do in english; that nobody can do in english, because we can not tell the parts of speech simply by the appearance of the words; we can only know from the context and that is not always easy! the chairman. how does that apply to other languages? prof. christen. the same thing applies more or less to all, because they are all irregular; they were not formed; they have "growd" like topsy. mr. towner. the latin language is more regular? prof. christen. yes: but it does not begin to compare with esperanto. now, we have had these four words, and i want to proceed a little further, and i will take up something that will help me to answer your questions. if i had to teach you gentlemen french i would have to make you commit to memory , endings and contractions for the verb alone; it would take you months and months to learn that alone. the same absurdities and even worse occur in italian, in spanish, in german, in english, and in all so-called natural languages. mr. towner. and we never could learn these irregularities and exceptions. prof. christen. well, if you did learn them you would never remember them at the right time because the whole scheme is so complicated. this is only one of the many reasons which make us so shy at speaking foreign languages. now, the same thing is true of german, and of all other languages, but it is not true of esperanto. i will teach you the whole esperanto conjugation in five minutes and you will never forget it, because there is nothing to remember. you already know that a noun ends in "o" and that the infinitive ends in "i," and so on: there is absolutely no difficulty whatever. ( ) now, i am sorry i have to speak so rapidly, because i would like to give you more information. the chairman. we would be glad to have you add to your remarks. mr. towner. you can extend your remarks. prof. christen. since my time is up and, indeed, far exceeded, i will be very glad to do so. but before i leave you, let me read one or two items, which will only take two minutes more. here is a quotation from the british esperantist, of november, , showing the progress esperanto is making: the central esperanto bureau, of paris, gives the following statistics: in , there had been published books in esperanto; in , ; in , , ; in (to august ), , . enough already to keep most readers going for full five years of sundays, and the output, both of bookshop and of press, is increasing daily. mr. towner. in a general way, what is the character of this literature? prof. christen. up to now chiefly textbooks for learning esperanto, such as this little book [indicating], which can be purchased for cents. you can learn the whole mechanism of the language from one of these little books. then there are a great many other publications, translations, scientific articles, etc., and we have already several novels originally written in the new language. mrs. crafts. may i say a word right here? i hold in my hand the new testament, published by the british and foreign bible society together with the scotch bible society. it is a translation from nestle's greek testament, and the old testament is now being translated by one of the most eminent hebrew scholars in the world. prof. christen. here is the next item, which i would like to read to you: evening classes for the study of esperanto under the auspices of the l.c.c. (london county council) are being held at the halstow road nonvocational institute, greenwich, s.e., on thursday, . - . p.m., and at bloomfield road commercial institute, plumstead, s.e., on fridays, . - . p. m. instructor mr. william h. dennis, b.d.e.a., , eglinton road, plumstead, s.e., from whom any information may be obtained. these classes are designed especially to meet the requirements of the serious student, beginner or advanced. ( ) that is from london. then i have another quotation which i want to read from edinburgh: the chief constable of edinburgh has interested himself in esperanto, especially in view of the congress. the chief constable has ordered a copy of "esperanto for all," to be sent to the members of the edinburgh police force, with a recommendation that the police learn the language. a class for policemen is being arranged, for which names have been received. esperanto classes for policemen have been conducted for several years in several towns in germany, in france, in spain, etc., and even during their hours of duty classes are going on in esperanto so that policemen may learn esperanto without the loss of their own personal time. i thank you, gentlemen, for bearing with me so long. mr. bartholdt. i should like to have an opportunity, if possible, at some future time to have you give us about or minutes to hear mrs. crafts. the chairman. we shall be very glad indeed to give you that time. (the additional matter submitted by prof. christen follows:) ( ) we are apt to lose sight of the fact that the whole world's business is daily becoming more and more internationalized and that what in former centuries was done parochially is now more and more done internationally. the first public international convention ever held took place less than years ago; it is a significant fact that this was a peace convention. to-day there are over societies: commercial, scientific, religious, sociological, industrial, sporting, etc., organized internationally. during those seventy-odd years over , international congresses of one kind or another have actually taken place, and now a days not one year passes without several scores being added to the total. an incomplete list for gives such prospective international gatherings and over one score of exhibitions, fairs, and festivals of an international character. what lamentable and foolish and provoking situation at such gatherings is due to the multitude of tongues only those know who have wasted time and money in attending them. usually three or more languages are officially accepted and most of the time is irretrievably lost in misunderstandings and more or less inadequate translations. compare with this the nine yearly international esperanto congresses held at boulogne, geneva, cambridge, dresden, barcelona, washington, cracow, antwerp, and berne, at which from to , delegates from to different countries spent a week in complete communion through this wonderful language. orations, discussions, sermons, concerts, theatrical performances, and general fellowship among the members being freely enjoyed by all, and often by individuals who had only had a few weeks of acquaintance with the language. an international language of some sort has become an absolute necessity of our new era of universal solidarity. a hopeful sign of progress is that many international organizations have already declared in favor of esperanto for their future meetings. ( ) the impossibility of ever making any national language international will at once become clear if we imagine the whole youth of the united states condemned to become proficient in french or spanish or german. say we take the easiest of them, spanish: does anyone dream the thing possible? only an infinitesimal fraction of our young people could attain even a smattering, and that at the cost of from two to three years' study; and even then it is quite unlikely that other nations would adopt the same language. but if they all did this impossible thing the spanish speaking peoples would still have the pull on them all because they grow up with the language and have not to acquire it artificially. what holds good for spanish holds good for even other so called natural language, including english, and more with english than any other on account of its barbarous spelling and pronunciation. none of these objections, neither structural nor national, apply to esperanto, which is entirely neutral and ideally simple. ( ) the u.e.a. (universala esperanto asocio) has its central office at rue de la bourse, geneva, switzerland. yearly dues cents for private members, $ . for business firms. these contributions entitle the members to use the machinery of the association for the acquisition of information--free of cost, except postage--on any subject whatever (except confidential matters), the only condition being that the request be written in esperanto. a sufficient amount of esperanto for this purpose can be acquired by anyone in a few days, or even in a few hours. it is not even necessary to have a teacher, the textbooks being very easy to master. in america, if local booksellers do not yet stock esperanto literature, the would-be student may apply to peter reilly, esperanto bookseller, north thirteenth street, philadelphia, pa. a growing number of esperantists all over the world are using the services of the u.e.a., not only in correspondence, but actually traveling through many countries for pleasure or profit by means of esperanto alone, and finding everywhere helpful hints and congenial surroundings in the local esperanto groups. in addition to the u.e.a. there is an international esperanto society for the propaganda of the language; this has its world center at rue de clichy, paris, france, and powerful national societies in france ( branches), in england ( branches), in germany (over branches), etc. ( ) i should, however, add, in justice to the american people, that wherever esperanto has been brought to their notice by press or platform it has been well received. i have myself lectured to large and sympathetic audiences in chautauqua, buffalo, new york, philadelphia, pittsburgh, and washington. public schools, high schools, and universities have frequently opened their doors to esperanto, and in my own case the university of pennsylvania and the university of columbia have shown their open-mindedness to the extent of engaging a paid lecturer for a prolonged course. so has the department of education of the city of new york. in the bureau of standards, washington, d.c., a considerable number of scientists have declared in favor of esperanto, and are adepts of the language. my experience is that in this country the informed public warmly approves of esperanto and the ideals it stands for, but expects the spread of the language to come through the schools. there is consequently in this country a special inertia in this matter, in spite of approval; this makes organised propaganda extremely difficult in such a vast territory. accordingly the national organization, the e.a.n.a. (esperanto association of north america), central offices, newton center, mass., has so far had but a checkered and precarious existence. a rival society, the u.s.e.a. (united states esperanto association) has its headquarters at shaller, iowa. ( ) if i were asked how esperanto could best be introduced into the schools, i should suggest that a limited course of lecture lessons, say, from to , to the teachers would suffice to give them all that is necessary to enable them to practice the language until complete proficiency is attained. in many places there is even now a supply of local esperantists ready to cooperate with the schools. after a month's study any teacher should be able to teach others and perfect himself in the process. at that i would teach the language only to the pupils in their last year of school; many of them could make immediate use of esperanto on entering business; most of them would probably get enough of the language during the last session at school to engage them to keep up the practice afterwards according to local opportunities. please do not judge of this probability by your experience with other languages, which most students drop as soon as possible. their endless complications make the study and practice irksome and futile, while esperanto is positively fascinating. in my opinion two lessons of minutes a week would amply suffice to secure practical results never dreamed of in the french, german, or spanish classes. after a very short course of study, the boys and girls would get an opportunity to correspond with scholars of their own age and station in many lands. there are even now hundreds of school boys and girls in france, germany, austria, spain, and even in china and japan eager for such interchange of thoughts by means of esperanto. the hour or hour and a half spent weekly on this subject would be amply repaid by the increased intelligence and linguistic feeling of the pupils, and ultimately the subject could be taught with great benefit to the whole school, doing away with the necessity of ineffectual attempts at teaching foreign languages to all and sundry, regardless of taste and capacity. ( ) perhaps a few remarks may be in place here to substantiate still more clearly the postulate that esperanto fulfills absolutely the ideal requirement of a language that means to be introduced throughout the world as a secondary or auxiliary language: facility of acquirement to all nations. (a) there is not one difficult sound, such as our th, our obscure vowels, the french nasals, the german ä, ö, ü, etc. the vowels are a, e, i, o, and u. each has but one sound value, and that long and full, approximately as in the phrase: "pa may we go, too?" (b) the tonic accent, an insuperable difficulty in english, on account of its irregularity and elusiveness, is in esperanto invariably on the last vowel but one. (c) the grammar is reduced to a minimum, the whole mechanism of esperanto being compassed within rules which any one can grasp and assimilate inside one hour. (d) the vocabulary is extremely small, less than , roots, mostly common to every aryan tongue, being sufficient for all ordinary purposes of language. this is due to the marvelously ingenious system of word building, which enables anyone to derive from a dozen to one hundred and more words from every root, there being to this derivation no limit but that of common sense. of course, the vocabulary for science and technology is considerably larger, but equally flexible. (e) there are no troublesome genders; sex is expressed by the insertion of "in" before the "o" ending of nouns, and of course only in the case of animate creation. for instance, "viro" is man, "virino" woman, "frato" brother, "fratino" sister, "kuzo" male cousin, "kuzino" female cousin, etc. and here esperanto has over all other languages not only the signal advantage that there are no irregularities, but the far more important advantage that the scheme is applicable to all cases. for instance, although we have in english from to different ways of forming the feminine such as father, mother; brother, sister; uncle, aunt; bull, cow; stallion, mare; fox, vixen; etc., yet in most cases we possess no decent or sensible way to indicate the sex of the individuals; as, for instance, in the cases of teacher, doctor, friend, cousin, neighbor, witness, elephant, camel, goat, typist, stenographer, companion, president, chairman, etc. last, but not least, every word parses itself by its distinctive ending. ( ) the stupendous flexibility of esperanto will be still better understood if i state here that it possesses some particles (prefixes and suffixes), each with a definite meaning and each available whenever you want to attach that particular meaning to any word. we have already seen that the suffix "in" expresses the female sex whenever it may be desirable to give it expression. so "id" denotes the offspring, "il" the tool or instrument, "isto" the profession, "ul" the person or individual, "ec" the quality (abstract), "ajx" the concrete thing, product, or result, "eg" means large, and "et" small, etc. now, let us see how this works out in practice. bovo is bull; bovino, cow; bovido, calf; bovajxo, beef; bovidino, female calf. and you may say bovego, boveto, bovinego, bovineto, bovidego, bovideto, bovidinego, and bovidineto if you wish to add the idea of size or smallness to the original or to the derived word. again: "lern" is the root for learning. we first get lerni, to learn; lerna, learned; lerne, learnedly; learno, learning. next, using a few of the particles we can make: lernebla, capable of being learned; lernema, inclined to learn (studious); lerninda, worth learning; lernilo, a text book (a tool); lernisto (a professional learner), a student; lernulo, a learned person, a scholar; lerneco, learning in the abstract; lernajxo, the matter to be learned (concrete), etc. and once more note that what you can do with one root you can do with every root in the vocabulary. so that the originally available number of words is multiplied ten and hundred fold. which simply means a tremendous saving of labor in learning words and forms and yet secures a range of expression and a degree of precision undreamed of in any other language. ( ) on the possible rivals, past, present, or future, to esperanto see closing remarks. ( ) to complete what i said on the verb during the hearing i give here the entire paradigm of the verb in esperanto. paroli, to speak; parolanta, speaking; parolata, spoken. present, i speak, etc.: mi parolas, vi parolas, li parolas, sxi parolas, ni parolas, vi parolas, ili parolas, oni (one) parolas, gxi (it) parolas. there a thus only one ending "as" for the present of every verb and the same for every person. in the past the ending is "is": mi parolis, i spoke, etc. in the future "os" mi parolos, i shall speak, etc. in the conditional "us": mi parolus, i should speak, etc. in the subjunctive "u": ke mi parolu, that i may or might speak, the tense being sufficiently indicated by the antecedent verb. for the imperative we use the subjunctive without conjunction and generally without subject. the participle has a most ingenious flexbility, it having three forms, anta, inta, onta for the active, and ata, ita, ota for the passive; parolanta, speaking now; parolinta, having spoken; parolonta, about to be speaking; parolata, being spoken now; parolita, spoken formerly; parolota, to be spoken later. only practice can reveal the wonderful usefulness of this scheme, again, of course, applicable to all verbs. one interesting sequel is, that as every word can be turned into a noun--if sense demands it--by simply changing the ending into o, we therefore get: parolanto, the present speaker; parolinto, the past speaker; parolonto, the future speaker. let no one say that such richness and possibility of precision is of no importance; many a life's jeopardy has turned on less. nor can it be said that this unlimited capacity of expression makes the mechanism of the language cumbersome, for the whole scheme of esperanto can be thoroughly mastered in a few hours. ( ) in england esperanto has been on the school rates for several years; any technical or continuation school can apply to the board of education for permission to put esperanto on its program. in it was already thus taught in centers. the london chamber of commerce holds examinations in esperanto every year, and has done so since . the united kingdom association of teachers prepares for the certificate of proficiency in esperanto. in the town of lille, france, esperanto has been taught in the high schools for at least nine years; about , pupils benefiting yearly from this. the same is true of rio de janeiro, in brasil. in conclusion, i wish to register my opinion as an unbiased student of the whole movement for the adoption of an international language that esperanto has nothing to fear from any rival scheme--present, past, or future. of upward of different projects that have seen the light since the seventeenth century, not one was born with a life worth saving but esperanto; not one has ever attained one-hundredth part the power and vogue and vitality that esperanto has achieved. one only of all these schemes has ever come prominently before the public before esperanto came into the field, volapük, and this failed of its own defects. one only among some or imitations of esperanto, namely, ido, succeeded for a time in creating a diversion in the esperanto camp. if volapük died of its defects, it is permissible to say that ido never lived on account of its numerous authors' everlasting chase after theoretical perfection, each one having a different opinion--and changing the same with every wind--as to what constitutes perfection in every one of a thousand features of a human language. accordingly, the idoists have altered their mock esperanto a hundred times in six years, so that no one has been able to keep track of the changes, and the adherents of the secession themselves have never been able to learn, speak, and use the language. during these six years esperanto has succeeded in establishing itself and getting a firm hold in every civilized country from china to peru and from greenland to zanzibar, because it is a live and growing language, perfect in so far that it is endowed from the start with all the power of evolution without the need of any internal changes in its wonderfully simple structure. here are a few quotations from great thinkers as to the need for an auxiliary language: the diversity of languages is fatal for genius and progress. if there were a universal language, we should save a third of life. (leibnitz.) the interrelationships of the peoples are so great that they most certainly need a universal language. (montesquieu.) one of the greatest torments of life is the diversity of language. (voltaire.) what an immeasurable profit it would be for the human race if we were able to intercommunicate by means of one language. (volney.) it seems to me quite possible--probable even--than an artificial language to be universally used will be greed upon. (herbert spencer.) the learning of many languages fills the memory with words instead of facts and thoughts, and this is a vessel which, with every person, can only contain certain limited amount of records. therefore the learning of many languages is injudicious, inasmuch as it arouses the belief in the possession of dexterity, and, as a matter of fact, it lends a kind of delusive importance to social intercourse. it is also injurious in that it opposes the acquirement of solid knowledge and the intention to win the respect of men in an honest way. finally, it is the ax which is laid at the root of a delicate sense of language in our mother tongue, which thereby is incurably injured and destroyed. the two nations which have produced the greatest stylists, the greeks and the french, learned no foreign languages; but as human intercourse grows more cosmopolitan, and as, for instance, a good merchant in london must now be able to read and write eight languages, the learning of many tongues has certainly become a necessary evil; but which, when finally carried to an extreme, will compel mankind to find a remedy, and in some far off future there will be a new language used at first as a language of commerce, then as a language of intellectual intercourse, then for all, as surely as some time or other there will be aviation. why else should philology have studied the laws of language for a whole century and have estimated the necessary, the valuable, and the successful portion of each separate language? (nietsche.) in this connection it may be well to repeat once more that esperanto is only an "auxiliary" language. nobody dreams of it being a "universal language." examples of esperanto. simpla, fleksebla, belsona, vere internacia en siaj elementoj[ ], la lingvo esperanto prezentas al la mondo civilizita la sole veran solvon[ ] de lingvo internacia: cxar[ ], tre facila por homoj nemulte instruitaj, esperanto estas komprenata sen peno de la personoj bone edukitaj. mil faktoj atestas la meriton praktikan de la nomita lingvo. [ ] "j" has the sound of english "y", as in boy, and is the sign for the plural of nouns and adjectives. [ ] "n" is the mark of the accusative or object of the verb. [ ] the diacritic sign ^ occurs on c, g, h, j, s and has the force of an h after the first and the last--ch, sh. gx is pronounced like english g in george, which g without sign has the value of g in good. jx is pronounced like s in pleasure, while j simple has the sound of y in yes, esp. jes. hx occurs rarely and is doomed to disappear in favor of k. kaj se vi pregxas, vi ne devas esti kiel la hipokrituloj, kiuj volonte staras kaj pregxas en la lernejoj, kaj apud la anguloj de la stratetoj; por ke ili estu vidataj de la homoj. vere, mi diras al vi: ili ricevis sian pagon. sed se vi pregxas, iru en la cxambreton kaj fermu la pordon, kaj pregxu al via patro en la kasxito, kaj via patro, kiu vidas en la kasxiton, rekompencos gxin al vi publike. kaj se vi pregxas, vi ne devas multe babili, kiel la idolistoj, cxar ili opinias ke gxi estos akceptata, se ili faras multe da paroloj. tial vi ne devas simili al ili. via patro scias, kion vi bezonas, antaux ol vi petas lin. tial vi devas pregxi tiamaniere. patro nia en la cxielo. via nomo estu sanktigata. via regno venu. via volo farigxu sur la tero, kiel en la cxielo. nian panon cxiutagan donu al ni hodiaux. kaj pardonu al ni niajn kulpojn, kiel ni pardonas niajn kulpulojn. kaj ne konduku nin en tenton, sed savu nin de la malbono. cxar via estas la regno, kaj la forto, kaj la gloro en eterneco. amen. cxar se vi pardonos al la homoj iliajn kulpojn, tiam via cxiela patro pardonos ankaux al vi. sed se vi ne pardonos al la homoj iliajn kulpojn, tiam via cxiela patro ankaux ne pardonos al vi viajn kulpojn. (la evangelio sankta mateo vi, - .) transcriber's note a number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of this book. they have been marked with a [tn-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the end of the text. the ancient phonetic alphabet of yucatan. by d. g. brinton, m. d. [illustration] new york: j. sabin & sons, no. nassau street. . [illustration] the ancient phonetic alphabet of yucatan. most readers are quite familiar with the fact that a well-developed method of picture writing, or "didactic painting," as it has been appropriately named, prevailed through mexico and central america for centuries before the conquest. but that, in the latter country, there was a true phonetic alphabet, is one of the more recent discoveries of american archæology, and certainly one of the most interesting, as it promises to restore to us the records of the most cultivated nation of ancient america for a number of centuries previous to the advent of the white man. it is well-known that the forests of yucatan conceal the ruins of cities and palaces built of stones covered with inscribed characters. all travelers who had seen these characters were convinced that they were intended to perpetuate ideas, but the key seemed to be irrevocably lost. fortunately, within the last few years (to be exact, in december, ), a diligent antiquarian, the abbé brasseur de bourbourg, unearthed in a library in madrid--that of the royal academy of history--a copy of an unpublished description of yucatan composed by diego de landa, the first bishop of the country. in this was contained the phonetic alphabet employed by the aboriginal mayas, with a tolerably full, but an intolerably obscure, explanation of their mode of using it. as de landa's words are so important, and also not a little difficult to comprehend, we cannot do better than transcribe them exactly as they appear in the copy of his work published at paris, in . he premises his remarks by saying that the natives used certain characters or letters with which they wrote in books their ancient histories and sciences, and by means of these letters, and figures, and certain signs in the figures, they could understand and teach from these manuscripts. the missionaries found very many of them, all of which, the good bishop informs us, proved on examination to contain more lies and superstitions, and were consequently burned, which pained the natives in the most marvelous manner (lo qual a maravilla sentian, y les dava pena). he then continues:-- "de sus letras porné aqui un _a_, _b_, _c_, que no permite su pesadumbre mas, porque usan para todas las aspiraciones de las letras de un caracter, y despues, al puntar de las partes otro, y assi viene a hazer _in infinitum_, como se podra ver en el siguiente exemplo. _lé_ quière dezir laço y caçar con el; para escrivirle con sus caracteres, haviendolos nosotros hecho entender que son dos letras, lo escrivian ellos con tres, poniendo a la aspiracion de la _l_ la vocal _é_, que antes de si trae, y en esto no hierran, aunque usense, si quisieron ellos de su curiosidad. exemplo:-- [illustration] dèspues al cabo le pegan la parte junta. _ha_ que quiere dezir agua, porque la _haché_ tiene _a_, _h_, antes de si la ponen ellos al principio con _a_, y al cabo desta manera:-- [illustration] tambien lo escriben a partes, pero de la una y otra manera, yo no pusiera aqui ni trétara dello sino por dar cuenta entera de las cosas desta gente. _ma in kati_ quiere decir no quiero, ellos lo escriben a partes desta manera:-- [illustration] this is all on the subject the bishop vouchsafes us. let us now attempt a free translation of his words, premising that they are so obscure in parts, and the composition so careless and provincial, that we shall not take it at all amiss if any reader thinks he can improve our rendering: "of their letters, i shall place here an a, b, c, their clumsiness not allowing more; for they employ one character for all the aspirations of the letters, and another to denote their repetitions, and so they go on _in infinitum_, as one may see in the following example: _le_ means a lasso and to hunt with one. in order to write with their characters, although we told them it contains but two letters, they make use of three, giving to the aspiration of the _l_ the vowel _é_, which is before it, and in this they are not in error, if they wish to write it in their curious manner. example: e l e lé afterwards they put at the end the part which is joined. again in _ha_, which means water, because the letter _h_ contains the sounds a, h, they place the _a_ both at the beginning and at the end, in this manner:-- a h a they can write it either with separate letters or united together. i would not have inserted nor have mentioned this but that i wished to give a complete description of this people. _ma in kati_ means _i do not wish_; they write it in separate letters in this way:-- ma i n ka ti ." from these valuable though too scanty hints we learn that the letters were employed connected together in a manner somewhat analogous to, though more intimately than our cursive shrift, and also separately, as in the roman alphabet. when the latter was the case, they were repeated apparently in their connected form. further, the vowel sound which is necessarily associated with the enunciation of every consonant (_la aspiracion_), and which in the maya language of yucatan is so pronounced as to have been called by the abbé de bourbourg, "_une certaine affectation gutturale_," was taken account of, and expressed in writing. then there were a number of arbitrary signs, figures, and symbols, with syllabic values, as we see in the last example given. these peculiarities, of course, make the system clumsy, but are by no means insurmountable difficulties in the way of elucidating it. immediately at the close of the foregoing extract bishop landa gives the alphabet subjoined, which has been carefully copied on wood, by mr. edward bensell, of philadelphia, the arrangement of the letters being slightly altered:-- [illustration: _a_] [illustration: _a_] [illustration: _a_] [illustration: _a_] [illustration: _b_] [illustration: _b_] [illustration: _c_] [illustration: _ca_] [illustration: ] [illustration: _t_] [illustration: _è_] [illustration: _h_] [illustration: _h_] [illustration: _ha_] [illustration: _i_] [illustration: _k_] [illustration: _ku_] [illustration: _l_] [illustration: _l_] [illustration: _m_] [illustration: _n_] [illustration: _o_] [illustration: _o_] [illustration: _p_] [illustration: _pp_] [illustration: _x_] [illustration: _x_] [illustration: _u_] [illustration: _u_] [illustration: _z_] besides these elementary sounds, he gives twenty arbitrary signs, one for each day of the maya month, which signs seem also to be used at their syllabic value in writing words. all of them have the same peculiar rounded or circular form which is observable in most of the letters, and which has induced some writers to call this the "calculiform" alphabet. but returning to the a, b, c, let us inquire the meanings of the figures adopted. knowing these, we shall be in better position to recognise their variations on existing inscriptions and manuscripts--for these, as we expect, are considerable; but not more so, perhaps, than the variations in the forms of the roman letters. _a._ nos. , , and , are representations of the heads of some animals, no. being evidently the head of a bird with a long curved beak, probably a species of parrot. no. has been supposed to represent a leg or a boot of some kind, but is probably also a rude figure of a head, (see plate xxxvi. of the _manuscrit[tn- ] troano_.) _b._ both these letters are supposed to represent a path or way bearing the marks of foot prints, indicated by the small figures inside the circle. _c._ this letter should probably be pronounced _ka_ (_a_ as in mate), and is imagined to represent a mouth displaying sharp teeth. _ca._ this sign is explained as the jaw of an animal thickly set with teeth; but a careful examination of its variations leads to the belief that it is a representation of the eye lashes. (see the _etudes sur le manuscrit troano_, p. .) _cu._ this has not been identified. _t._ as there is no d in maya this character stands for both t and d. it signifies space, the four marks leading towards the center representing the four cardinal points, and the phonetic base being the maya, preposition _ti_, in, toward, at, in space. _e._ probably a front view of the human face, surmounted by the hair, the dots marking the eyes, nose and mouth. _k._ nos. and , variations of the same, represent a joint of bamboo. no. is the guttural h, pronounced _ha_, which word in maya means water. the figure represents a stream flowing around some objects. _i._ this letter stems formed after the analogy of c, but no satisfactory analysis has yet been offered. _k, ku._ the k is beyond doubt derived from a head seen in profile. the upper figure within the circle is the closed eye with its lashes (compare no. ); that below on the right is the ear (compare no. ); that on the left the mouth. (see the variations in the _etudes sur le manuscrit troano_, p. .) the ku is supposed to be a drawing of the sacred "medicine bag." _l._ neither of these has been resolved. _m._ this also, is the figure of a head. it is distinguished from the k by the eye being open, from the p by the absence of dots around the mouth. _n._ possibly the figure of a serpent. _o._ variations of the same, of uncertain origin. _p, pp._ again the face in profile. _x._ the first figure is easily recognised as the human hand, the second as a face in profile, emitting breath from the mouth. _u._ the first sign represents the ear, the second is of uncertain derivation. _z._ this seems to be a vase of some kind. it is evident that many of these signs have received abbreviated and conventional forms quite remote from their original figures, precisely as we know occurred in the phenician and derived alphabets. the variations are numerous and puzzling. it will be observed that the basis of most of them is a head seen in front or in profile. bearing this in mind, and fixing definitely the differential marks, which alone were deemed of importance by the native artists, we could venture with considerable confidence on the interpretation of manuscripts and inscriptions, did we not meet with very serious obstacles in other directions. one of these is the resolution of the groups referred to by landa as _las partes juntas_. in these the rounded "calculiform" letters are arranged in quadrilateral masses, each representing a phrase, name, or title. we may seek the origin of this arrangement in what philologists call the incorporative, or "polysynthetic" character of the maya in common with all other american tongues, which tends to the expression of an idea with all its modifications, in one intricate grammatical synthesis. these groups must first be separated in their component parts, and then arranged in proper order. some of them read from right to left, and alternately from top to bottom and bottom to top; or, to illustrate by a diagram, as if we were to write the word _marvelous_, thus:-- o l m u e a s v r but the artist had no hesitation in changing this arrangement, if another would allow him to compose a neater group. especially is this the case on the sculptures, where the love of ornamentations constantly obscures the design and renders the letters almost unrecognisable, precisely as the fashion is at the present day to adorn the walls of our churche[tn- ] with inscriptions in ornamental and gothic characters, hardly legible to unpracticed eyes. there is also an obstacle in the very limited number of manuscripts in this character which have been preserved. of the vast number found among the natives at the conquest, only three or four are known to be in existence. one of these is the "dresden manuscript," another the "manuscript troano," the third the "manuscrit mexican, no. ," of the bibliothéque impériale; and perhaps the "pesth manuscript" is in the same shrift. of these the dresden manuscript may be seen in the large collection of lord kingsborough on mexican antiquities, and the manuscript troano was published in fac simile by the french government under the editorship of m. brasseur de bourbourg. (_mission scentifique au mexique et a l'amérique centrale, linguistique._ paris, . imprimeire imperiale.) there is, however, material almost inexhaustible in the inscriptions preserved upon the stone temples, altars, and pillars of yucatan, which we may with great confidence look to see deciphered before many years. the only serious difficulty which is at present in the way is our want of knowledge of the ancient maya language. all the published grammars and vocabularies are extremely deficient and incomplete, and quite inadequate to serve us in interpreting the inscriptions. but even this alarming obstacle is only temporary. there exists in manuscript a most complete and carefully composed dictionary of the maya, written about , two copies of which are in this country, one in the hands of the smithsonian institution, and which we earnestly hope will shortly be published under the efficient superintendence of dr. hermann berendt, the most accomplished maya scholar living. with it in hand, the deciphering of the inscriptions of palenque, uxmal, itza, and the other ruined cities of yucatan, and of the manuscripts already mentioned, will become certainly a less serious task than that of translating the cuneiform inscriptions of ninevah. even without other aids than the limited vocabularies already published, some antiquarians have boldly set to work on the yucatecan writings. most conspicuous of them is m. brasseur de bourbourg, who first published diego de landa's work containing the alphabet. (_relation des choses de yucatan de diego de landa. texte espagnol et traduction francaise en regard, comprenant les signes du calendrier, et de l'alphabet hiéroglyphique de la langue maya._ paris, .[tn- ] his recent edition of the manuscript troano is prefaced by an _etude_ in which he attempts to interpret several of its pages. it is painful to be unable to say a single word in favor of his views. they are thoroughly untenable and groundless. the abbé brasseur deserves the highest praise for his ardor and devotion to archæological studies, but his theories do not bear a moment's examination. they are so utterly wild that we are almost afraid to state them. he imagines that these inscriptions and manuscripts all contain geological reminiscences, chiefly concerning the submersion of a portion of the american continent and the consequent formation of the west india islands. he explains all the letters as "expressive images of the cataclysm of which they are the phonetic expression." the culture of the mayas and aztecs he regards as the debris of a far higher civilization, which once extended over most of the american continent, and _from which_ that of ancient egypt (!) was derived. he insists on the identity of the ancient maya and aztec tongues, for which there is not a shadow of proof, and going further, claims that they are both derived from _germanic_ roots. of course, with such notions as these, his "interpretation" of the manuscript is an absurdity, and can never obtain a serious hearing in scientific circles. a very different student is m. h. de charencey, long favorably known for his researches into the basque language, the dialects of central america, and other critical publications. in the first volume of the _actes la société philologique_ (paris, ) he has an "_essai de déchiffrement d'un fragment d'inscription palenquienne_." he takes for his subject the famous "bas-relief of the cross," found on the back of the great altar at palenque. it is portrayed in stephens's travels in central america,[tn- ] and more carefully in the work of cabrera on the ruins of palenque, from a drawing by m. de waldeck. it seems to represent the ceremony of baptism, or something analogous to it. the central figures are surrounded by inscriptions. immediately above the bird which surmounts the cross is found this character:-- [illustration] this he analyses as follows, commencing at the right: h (variation of no. of the alphabet), o (variation of no. enclosed in a circle), nab (the maya word for the palm of the hand which supports the middle letter), ku (variation of no. ),=_honabku_. this, in the orthography _hunabku_, a discrepancy of no great moment, is a familiar maya name of divinity, and means _the only_, or _the one god_. the course of argument by which he supports this analysis is careful and judicious. the second group which m. de charencey analyses is this:-- [illustration] this he resolves, commencing at the right hand upper figure, proceeding from above downward, and from right to left, into the following letters of landa's alphabet: u, ku, ku, l, ca, nab, meaning "it, or those, of the kukulcan." kukulcan, however was the name of the hero god of the mayas, corresponding to the quetzalcoatl of the aztecs. his worship was introduced into yucatan subsequent to the ninth century of the christian era, and his name means in maya precisely what quetzalcoatl does in aztec, namely, "the serpent with quetzal feathers," the quetzal being a species of parrot with bright green plumage. this interpretation, therefore, if admitted, fixes an important date in central american history; for it proves that the erection of the extraordinary monuments of palenque, which were found in ruins at the conquest, took place subsequent to the ninth century of our era. it is not our object at present to go into the details of these remarkable investigations, still less to criticise them at length, but simply to give their outlines and results. they should excite an earnest interest in this country, and stimulate our scholars to turn their attention to the antiquities of our own continent, which thus acquire an importance quite equal to those on the banks of the euphrates and the nile, which have commanded such profound study from european scholars. [illustration] transcriber's note the following typographical errors were maintained in this version of the book. page error tn- _manuscrit troano_ should read _manuscrit troano_ tn- churche should read churches tn- paris, . should read paris, .) tn- travels in central america should read _travels in central america_ the following words were inconsistently spelled: impériale / imperiale apu ollantay a drama of the time of the incas sovereigns of peru about a.d. first reduced to writing by dr. valdez, cuba of sicuani a.d. the original manuscript copied by dr. justo pastor justiniani this justiniani text copied at laris, in april , by clements r. markham a free translation into english by sir clements markham, k.c.b. [ ] introduction the drama was cultivated by the incas, and dramatic performances were enacted before them. garcilasso de la vega, molina, and salcamayhua are the authorities who received and have recorded the information given by the amautas respecting the inca drama. some of these dramas, and portions of others, were preserved in the memories of members of inca and amauta families. the spanish priests, especially the jesuits of juli, soon discovered the dramatic aptitude of the people. plays were composed and acted, under priestly auspices, which contained songs and other fragments of the ancient inca drama. these plays were called 'autos sacramentales.' but complete inca dramas were also preserved in the memories of members of the amauta caste and, until the rebellion of , they were acted. the drama of ollantay was first reduced to writing and arranged for acting by dr. don antonio valdez, the cura of tinto. it was acted before his friend jose gabriel condorcanqui[ ] in about . taking the name of his maternal ancestor, the inca tupac amaru, the ill-fated condorcanqui rose in rebellion, was defeated, taken, and put to death under torture, in the great square of cuzco. in the monstrous sentence 'the representation of dramas as well as all other festivals which the indians celebrate in memory of their incas' was prohibited.[ ] this is a clear proof that before these quichua dramas were acted. the original manuscript of valdez was copied by his friend don justo pastor justiniani, and this copy was inherited by his son. there was another copy in the convent of san domingo at cuzco, but it is corrupt, and there are several omissions and mistakes of a copyist. dr. valdez died, at a very advanced age, in . in the original manuscript was in the possession of his nephew and heir, don narciso cuentas of tinta. the justiniani copy was, in , in the possession of dr. don pablo justiniani, cura of laris, and son of don justo pastor justiniani. he is a descendant of the incas.[ ] in april i went to laris, a secluded valley of the andes, and made a careful copy of the drama of ollantay. from this justiniani text my first very faulty line-for-line translation was made in , as well as the present free translation. the first printed notice of ollantay appeared in the museo erudito, nos. to , published at cuzco in , and edited by don jose palacios. the next account of the drama, with extracts, was in the 'antiguedades peruanas,' a work published in jointly by dr. von tschudi and don mariaiao rivero of arequipa. the complete text, from the copy in the convent of san domingo at cuzco, was first published at vienna in by dr. von tschudi in his 'die kechua sprache. it was obtained for him by dr. ruggendas of munich. the manuscript was a corrupt version, and in very bad condition, in parts illegible from damp. in don jose barranca published a spanish translation, from the dominican text of von tschudi. the learned swiss naturalist, von tschudi, published a revised edition of his translation at vienna in , with a parallel german translation. in i printed the justiniani text with a literal, line-for-line translation, but with many mistakes, since corrected; and in , a peruvian, don jose fernandez nodal, published the quichua text with a spanish translation. in gavino pacheco zegarra published his version of ollantay, with a free translation in french. his text is a manuscript of the drama which he found in his uncle's library. zegarra, as a native of peru whose language was quichua, had great advantages. he was a very severe, and often unfair, critic of his predecessors. the work of zegarra is, however, exceedingly valuable. he was not only a quichua scholar, but also accomplished and well read. his notes on special words and on the construction of sentences are often very interesting. but his conclusions respecting several passages which are in the justiniani text, but not in the others, are certainly erroneous. thus he entirely spoils the dialogue between the uillac uma and piqui chaqui by omitting the humorous part contained in the justiniani text; and makes other similar omissions merely because the passages are not in his text. zegarra gives a useful vocabulary at the end of all the words which occur in the drama. the great drawback to the study of zegarra's work is that he invented a number of letters to express the various modifications of sound as they appealed to his ear. no one else can use them, while they render the reading of his own works difficult and intolerably tiresome. the last publication of a text of ollantay was by the rev. j. h. gybbon spilsbury, at buenos ayres in , accompanied by spanish, english, and french translations in parallel columns. there is truth in what zegarra says, that the attempts to translate line for line, by von tschudi and myself, 'fail to convey a proper idea of the original drama to european readers, the result being alike contrary to the genius of the modern languages of europe and to that of the quichua language.' zegarra accordingly gives a very free translation in french. in the present translation i believe that i have always preserved the sense of the original, without necessarily binding myself to the words. the original is in octosyllabic lines. songs and important speeches are in quatrains of octosyllabic lines, the first and last rhyming, and the second and third. i have endeavoured to keep to octosyllabic lines as far as possible, because they give a better idea of the original; and i have also tried to preserve the form of the songs and speeches. the drama opens towards the close of the reign of the inca pachacuti, the greatest of all the incas, and the scene is laid at cuzco or at ollantay-tampu, in the valley of the vilcamayu. the story turns on the love of a great chief, but not of the blood-royal, with a daughter of the inca. this would not have been prohibited in former reigns, for the marriage of a sister by the sovereign or his heir, and the marriage of princesses only with princes of the blood-royal, were rules first introduced by pachacuti.[ ] his imperial power and greatness led him to endeavour to raise the royal family far above all others. the play opens with a dialogue between ollantay and piqui chaqui, his page, a witty and humorous lad. ollantay talks of his love for the princess cusi coyllur, and wants piqui chaqui to take a message to her, while the page dwells on the danger of loving in such a quarter, and evades the question of taking a message. then to them enters the uillac uma, or high priest of the sun, who remonstrates with ollantay--a scene of great solemnity, and very effective. the next scene is in the queen's palace. anahuarqui, the queen, is discovered with the princess cusi coyllur, who bitterly laments the absence of ollantay. to them enters the inca pachacuti, quite ignorant that his daughter has not only married ollantay in secret, but that she is actually with child by him. her mother keeps her secret. the inca indulges in extravagant expressions of love for his daughter. then boys and girls enter dancing and singing a harvest song. another very melancholy yarahui is sung; both capable of being turned by the princess into presages of the fate of herself and her husband. in the third scene ollantay prefers his suit to the inca pachacuti in octosyllabic quatrains, the first and last lines rhyming, and the second and third. his suit is rejected with scorn and contempt. ollantay next appears on the heights above cuzco. in a soliloquy he declares himself the implacable enemy of cuzco and the inca. then piqui chaqui arrives with the news that the queen's palace is empty, and abandoned, and that cusi coyllur has quite disappeared; while search is being made for ollantay. while they are together a song is sung behind some rocks, in praise of cusi coyllur's beauty. then the sound of clarions and people approaching is heard, and ollantay and piqui chaqui take to flight. the next scene finds the inca enraged at the escape of ollantay, and ordering his general rumi-naui to march at once, and make him prisoner. to them enters a chasqui, or messenger, bringing the news that ollantay has collected a great army at ollantay-tampu, and that the rebels have proclaimed him inca. the second act opens with a grand scene in the hall of the fortress-palace of ollantay-tampu. ollantay is proclaimed inca by the people, and he appoints the mountain chief, urco huaranca, general of his army. urco huaranca explains the dispositions he has made to oppose the army advancing from cuzco, and his plan of defence. in the next scene rumi-naui, as a fugitive in the mountains, describes his defeat and the complete success of the strategy of ollantay and urco huaranca. his soliloquy is in the octosyllabic quatrains. the last scene of the second act is in the gardens of the convent of virgins of the sun. a young girl is standing by a gate which opens on the street. this, as afterwards appears, is yma sumac, the daughter of ollantay and cusi coyllur, aged ten, but ignorant of her parentage. to her enters pitu salla, an attendant, who chides her for being so fond of looking out at the gate. the conversation which follows shows that yma sumac detests the convent and refuses to take the vows. she also has heard the moans of some sufferer, and importunes pitu salla to tell her who it is. yma sumac goes as mama ccacca enters and cross examines pitu salla on her progress in persuading yma sumac to adopt convent life. this mama ccacca is one of the matrons or mama cuna, and she is also the jailer of cusi coyllur. the third act opens with an amusing scene between the uillac uma and piqui chaqui, who meet in a street in cuzco. piqui chaqui wants to get news, but to tell nothing, and in this he succeeds. the death of inca pachacuti is announced to him, and the accession of tupac yupanqui, and with this news he departs. next there is an interview between the new inca tupac yupanqui, the uillac uma, and the defeated general rumi-naui, who promises to retrieve the former disaster and bring the rebels to cuzco, dead or alive. it after wards appears that the scheme of rumi-naui was one of treachery. he intended to conceal his troops in eaves and gorges near ollantay-tampu ready to rush in, when a signal was made. rumi-naui then cut and slashed his face, covered himself with mud, and appeared at the gates of ollantay-tampu, declaring that he had received this treatment from the new inca, and imploring protection.[ ] ollantay received him with the greatest kindness and hospitality. in a few days ollantay and his people celebrated the raymi or great festival of the sun with much rejoicing and drinking. rumi-naui pretended to join in the festivities, but when most of them were wrapped in drunken sleep, he opened the gates, let in his own men, and made them all prisoners. there is next another scene in the garden of the convent, in which yma sumac importunes pitu salla to tell her the secret of the prisoner. pitu salla at last yields and opens a stone door. cusi coyllur is discovered, fastened to a wall, and in a dying state. she had been imprisoned, by order of her father, inca pachacuti on the birth of yma sumac. she is restored with food and water, and the relationship is discovered when cusi coyllur hears the child's name, for she had given it to her. next the inca tupac yupanqui is discovered in the great hall of his palace, seated on his tiana or throne, with the uillac uma in attendance. to them enters a chasqui, or messenger, who describes the result of rumi-naui's treachery in octosyllabic quatrains. rumi-naui himself enters and receives the thanks of his sovereign. then the prisoners are brought in guarded-ollantay, hanco huayllu, urco huaranca, and piqui chaqui. the inca upbraids them for their treason. he then asks the uillac uma for his judgment. the high priest recommends mercy. rumi-naui advises immediate execution: the inca seems to concur and they are ordered off, when suddenly the inca cries 'stop.' he causes them all to be released, appoints ollantay to the highest post in the empire next to himself, and urco huaranca to a high command. there are rejoicings, and in the midst of it all yma sumac forces her way into the hall, and throws herself at the inca's feet, entreating him to save her mother from death. the inca hands over the matter to ollantay, but this yma sumac will not have, and, the uillac uma intervening, the inca consents to go with the child. the final scene is in the gardens of the convent. the inca enters with yma sumac, followed by the whole strength of the company. mama ccacca is ordered to open the stone door and cusi coyllur is brought out. she proves to be the sister of the inca and the wife of ollantay. there are explanations, and all ends happily. of the antiquity of the drama of ollantay there is now no question. general mitre wrote an elaborate paper on its authenticity, raising several points to prove that it was of modern origin. but every point he raised has been satisfactorily refuted. at the same time there are many other points, some of them referred to by zegarra, which establish the antiquity of the drama beyond any doubt. the antiquity of the name ollantay-tampu, applied to the fortress in memory of the drama, is proved by its use in the narratives of molina ( ) and of salcamayhua. an able review of the literature connected with the drama of ollantay was written by don e. larrabure y unanue, the present vice-president of peru, who considers that ollantay would make a good acting play with magnificent scenic effects. ms. texts. . the original text of valdez. in the property of don narciso cuentas of tinta, heir of dr. valdez. . the justiniani text. in at laris. copy of the valdez text. . markham's copy of the justiniani text (printed ). . rosas copy of the justiniani text. . copy in the convent of san domingo at cuzco (the dominican text). . von tschudi's copy of the dominican text (printed ). . text of zegarra (printed ). . second text of von tschudi. . text of spilsbury. . text of sahuaraura penes dr. gonzalez de la rosa. there is light thrown upon the name ollantay by the evidence taken during the journey of the viceroy toledo from jauja to cuzco, from november to march . he wanted information respecting the origin of the inca government, and witnesses were examined, the parentage or lineage of each witness being recorded. among these we find six witnesses of the antasayac ayllu. sayac means a station or division, anta is a small town near cuzco. the names of the six anta witnesses were, ancaillo; usca; huacro; mancoy; auca puri; ullantay; besides antonio pacrotrica and punicu paucar, chiefs of anta. we thus find that the name of ollantay belonged to anta. now the incas were under great obligations to the chief of anta, for that chief had rescued the eldest son of inca rocca from the chief of ayamarca, and had restored him to his father. for this great service the chief of anta was declared to be a noble of the highest rank and cousin to the inca family. moreover, the daughter of the anta chief was married to the inca uira-cocha, and was the mother of pachacuti. assuming, as seems probable, that ollantay was a son of the chief of anta, he would be a cousin of the inca, and of very high rank, though not an agnate of the reigning family. this, i take it, is what is intended. pachacuti desired to raise his family high above all others, and that, consequently, there should be no marriages with subjects even of the highest rank; and his excessive severity on the transgression of his rule by his daughter is thus explained. ollantay acts and scenes act . sc. .--open space near cuzco. ollantay, piqui chaqui, uillac uma. sc. .--hall in the colcampata. anahuarqui, cusi coyllur, inca pachacuti, boys and girls, singers. sc. .--hall in the inca's palace. pachacuti, rumi-naui, ollantay. sc. .--height above cuzco. ollantay, piqui chaqui, unseen singer. sc. .--hall in the inca's palace. pachacuti, rumi-naui, and a chasqui. act ii. sc. .--ollantay-tampu hall. ollantay, urco huaranca, hanco huayllu, people and soldiers. sc. .--a wild place in the mountains. rumi-naui's soliloquy. sc. .--gardens of the virgins. yma sumac, pitu salla, mama ccacca. act iii. sc. .--pampa maroni at cuzco. uillac uma and piqui chaqui. sc. .--palace of tupac yupanqui. tupac yupanqui, uillac uma, rumi-naui. sc. .--ollantay-tampu, terrace. rumi-naui, ollantay, guards. sc. .--house of virgins, corridor. yma sumac, pitu salla. sc. .--house of virgins, garden. yma sumac, pitu salla, cusi coyllur. sc. .--palace of tupac yupanqui. tupac yupanqui, uillac uma, a chasqui, rumi-naui, ollantay, urco huaranca, hanco huayllu, piqui chaqui, chiefs and guards, then yma sumac. sc. .--house of virgins, garden. all of scene , and mama ccacca, cusi coyllur, pitu salla. scene in cuzco and its environs, and ollantay-tampu dramatis personae apu ollantay.--general of anti-suyu, the eastern province of the empire. a young chief, but not of the blood-royal. his rank was that of a tucuyricuo or viceroy. the name occurs among the witnesses examined by order of the viceroy toledo, being one of the six of the antasayac ayllu. pachacuti.--the sovereign inca. tupac yupanqui.--sovereign. inca, son and heir of pachacuti. rumi-naui.--a great chief, general of colla-suyu. the word means 'stone-eye.' uillac uma.--high priest of the sun. the word uma means head, and uillac, a councillor and diviner. urco huaranca.--a chief. the words mean' mountain chief.' the word huaranca means ; hence, chief of a thousand. hanco huayllu auqui.--an old officer, of the blood-royal. piqui chaqui.--page to ollantay. the words mean 'fleet-footed.' anahuarqui.--the ccoya or queen, wife of pachacuti. cusi coyllur nusta.--a princess, daughter of pachacuti. the words mean 'the joyful star.' yma sumac.--daughter of cusi coyllur. the words mean 'how beautiful.' pitu salla.--a girl, companion of yma sumac. ccacca mama.--a matron of virgins of the sun. jailer of cusi coyllur. nobles, captains, soldiers, boys and girls dancing, singers, attendants, messengers or chasqui. act i scene i an open space near the junction of the two torrents of cuzco, the huatanay and tullumayu or rodadero, called pumap chupan, just outside the gardens of the sun. the temple of the sun beyond the gardens, and the sacsahuaman hill surmounted by the fortress, rising in the distance. the palace of colcampata on the hillside. (enter ollantay l. [in a gilded tunic, breeches of llama sinews, usutas or shoes of llama hide, a red mantle of ccompi or fine cloth, and the chucu or head-dress of his rank, holding a battle-axe (champi) and club (macana)] and piqui chaqui coming up from the back r. [in a coarse brown tunic of auasca or llama cloth, girdle used as a sling, and chucu or head-dress of a cuzqueno].) ollantay. where, young fleet-foot, hast thou been? hast thou the starry nusta seen? piqui chaqui. the sun forbids such sacrilege 'tis not for me to see the star. dost thou, my master, fear no ill, thine eyes upon the inca's child? ollantay. in spite of all i swear to love that tender dove, that lovely star; my heart is as a lamb[ ] with her, and ever will her presence seek. piqui chaqui. such thoughts are prompted by supay[ ]; that evil being possesses thee. all round are beauteous girls to choose before old age, and weakness come. if the great inca knew thy plot and what thou seekest to attain, thy head would fall by his command, thy body would be quickly burnt. ollantay. boy, do not dare to cross me thus. one more such word and thou shalt die. these hands will tear thee limb from limb, if still thy councils are so base. piqui chaqui. well! treat thy servant as a dog, but do not night and day repeat, 'piqui chaqui! swift of foot! go once more to seek the star.' ollantay. have i not already said that e'en if death's fell scythe[ ] was here, if mountains should oppose my path like two fierce foes[ ] who block the way, yet will i fight all these combined and risk all else to gain my end, and whether it be life or death i'll cast myself at coyllur's feet. piqui chaqui. but if supay himself should come? ollantay. i'd strike the evil spirit down. piqui chaqui. if thou shouldst only see his nose, thou wouldst not speak as thou dost now. ollantay. now, piqui chaqui, speak the truth, seek not evasion or deceit. dost thou not already know, of all the flowers in the field, not one can equal my princess? piqui chaqui. still, my master, thou dost rave. i think i never saw thy love. stay! was it her who yesterday came forth with slow and faltering steps and sought a solitary[ ] path[ ]? if so, 'tis true she's like the sun, the moon less beauteous than her face.[ ] ollantay. it surely was my dearest love. how beautiful, how bright is she this very moment thou must go and take my message to the star. piqui chaqui. i dare not, master; in the day, i fear to pass the palace gate. with all the splendour of the court, i could not tell her from the rest. ollantay. didst thou not say thou sawest her? piqui chaqui. i said so, but it was not sense. a star can only shine at night only at night could i be sure. ollantay. begone, thou lazy good-for-nought. the joyful star that i adore, if placed in presence of the sun, would shine as brightly as before. piqui chaqui. lo! some person hither comes, perhaps an old crone seeking alms; yes! look! he quite resembles one. lot him the dangerous message take. send it by him, o noble chief! from me they would not hear the tale; thy page is but a humble lad. (enter the uillac uma, or high priest of the sun, at the back, arms raised to the sun. in a grey tunic and black mantle from the shoulders to the ground, a long knife in his belt, the undress chucu on his head.) uillac uma. o giver of all warmth and light o sun! i fall and worship thee. for thee the victims are prepared, a thousand llamas and their lambs are ready for thy festal day. the sacred fire'll lap their blood, in thy dread presence, mighty one, after long fast[ ] thy victims fall. ollantay. who comes hither, piqui chaqui? yes, 'tis the holy uillac uma; he brings his tools of augury. no puma[ ] more astute and wise i hate that ancient conjurer who prophesies of evil things, i feel the evils he foretells; 'tis he who ever brings ill-luck. piqui chaqui. silence, master, do not speak, the old man doubly is informed; fore-knowing every word you say, already he has guessed it all. (he lies down on a bank.) ollantay (aside). he sees me. i must speak to him. (the uillac uma comes forward.) o uillac uma, great high priest, i bow before thee with respect may the skies be clear for thee, and brightest sunshine meet thine eyes. uillac uma. brave ollantay! princely one! may all the teeming land be thine; may thy far-reaching arm of might reduce the wide-spread universe. ollantay. old man! thine aspect causes fear, thy presence here some ill forebodes; all round thee dead men's bones appear, baskets, flowers, sacrifice. all men when they see thy face are filled with terror and alarm. what means it all? why comest thou? it wants some months before the least. is it that the inca is ill? perchance hast thou some thought divined which soon will turn to flowing blood. why comest thou? the sun's great day, the moon's libations are not yet the moon has not yet nearly reached the solemn time for sacrifice. uillac uma. why dost thou these questions put, in tones of anger and reproach? am i, forsooth, thy humble slave? that i know all i'll quickly prove. ollantay. my beating heart is filled with dread, beholding thee so suddenly; perchance thy coming is a sign, of evils overtaking me. uillac uma. fear not, ollantay! not for that, the high priest comes to thee this day. it is perhaps for love of thee, that, as a straw is blown by wind, a friend, this day, encounters thee. speak to me as to a friend, hide nothing from my scrutiny. this day i come to offer thee a last and most momentous choice 'tis nothing less than life or death. ollantay. then make thy words more clear to me, that i may understand the choice till now 'tis but a tangled skein, unravel it that i may know. uillac uma. 'tis well. now listen, warlike. chief my science has enabled me, to learn and see all hidden things unknown to other mortal men. my power will enable me to make of thee a greater prince. i brought thee up from tender years, and cherished thee with love and care i now would guide thee in the right, and ward off all that threatens thee. as chief of anti-suyu now, the people venerate thy name; thy sovereign trusts and honours thee, e'en to sharing half his realm. from all the rest he chose thee out, and placed all power in thy hands; he made thy armies great and strong, and strengthened thee against thy foes how numerous soe'er they be, they have been hunted down by thee. are these good reasons for thy wish, to wound thy sovereign to the heart? his daughter is beloved by thee; thy passion thou wouldst fain indulge, lawless and forbidden though it be. i call upon thee, stop in time, tear this folly from thy heart. if thy passion is immense, still let honour hold its place. you reel, you stagger on the brink i'd snatch thee from the very edge. thou knowest well it cannot be, the inca never would consent. if thou didst e'en propose it now, he would be overcome with rage; from favoured prince and trusted chief, thou wouldst descend to lowest rank. ollantay. how is it that thou canst surely know what still is hidden in my heart? her mother only knows my love, yet thou revealest all to me. uillac uma. i read thy secret on the moon, as if upon the quipu knots; and what thou wouldst most surely hide, is plain to me as all the rest. ollantay. in my heart i had divined that thou wouldst search me through and through thou knowest all, o councillor, and wilt thou now desert thy son? uillac uma. how oft we mortals heedless drink, a certain death from golden cup recall to mind how ills befall, and that a stubborn heart 's the cause. ollantay (kneeling). plunge that dagger in my breast, thou holdst it ready in thy belt; cut out my sad and broken heart i ask the favour at thy feet. uillac uma (to piqui chaqui). gather me that flower, boy. (piqui chaqui gives him a withered flower and lies down again, pretending to sleep.) (to ollantay). behold, it is quite dead and dry. once more behold! e'en now it weeps, it weeps. the water flows from it. (water flows out of the flower.) ollantay. more easy for the barren rocks or for sand to send forth water, than that i should cease to love the fair princess, the joyful star. uillac uma. put a seed into the ground, it multiplies a hundredfold; the more thy crime shall grow and swell, the greater far thy sudden fall. ollantay. once for all, i now confess to thee, o great and mighty priest; now learn my fault. to thee i speak, since thou hast torn it from my heart. the lasso to tie me is long, 'tis ready to twist round my throat yet its threads are woven with gold, it avenges a brilliant crime. cusi coyllur e'en now is my wife, already we 're bound and are one; my blood now runs in her veins, e'en now i am noble as she. her mother has knowledge of all, the queen can attest what i say; let me tell all this to the king, i pray for thy help and advice. i will speak without fear and with force, he may perhaps give way to his rage yet he may consider my youth, may remember the battles i've fought; the record is carved on my club. (holds up his macana.) he may think of his enemies crushed, the thousands i've thrown at his feet. uillac uma. young prince! thy words are too bold, thou hast twisted the thread of thy fate-- beware, before 'tis too late; disentangle and weave it afresh, go alone to speak to the king, alone bear the blow that you seek; above all let thy words be but few, and say them with deepest respect; be it life, be it death that you find, i will never forget thee, my son. (walks up and exit.) ollantay. ollantay, thou art a man, no place in thy heart for fear; cusi coyllur, surround me with light. piqui chaqui, where art thou? piqui chaqui (jumping up). i was asleep, my master, and dreaming of evil things. ollantay. of what? piqui chaqui. of a fox with a rope round its neck. ollantay. sure enough, thou art the fox. piqui chaqui. it is true that my nose is growing finer, and my ears a good deal longer. ollantay. come, lead me to the coyllur. piqui chaqui. it is still daylight. (exeunt.) scene a great hall in the colcampata, then the palace of the queen or ccoya anahuarqui. in the centre of the back scene a doorway, and seen through it gardens with the snowy peak of vilcanota in the distance. walls covered with golden slabs. on either side of the doorway three recesses, with household gods in the shape of maize-cobs and llamas, and gold vases in them. on r. a golden tiana or throne. on l. two lower seats covered with cushions of fine woollen cloth. (anahuarqui, the queen or ccoya (in blue chucu, white cotton bodice, and red mantle secured by a golden topu or pin, set with emeralds, and a blue skirt), and the princess cusi coyllur (in a chucu, with feathers of the tunqui, white bodice and skirt, and grey mantle with topu, set with pearls) discovered seated.) anahuarqui. since when art thou feeling so sad, cusi coyllur! great inti's prunelle?[ ] since when hast thou lost all thy joy, thy smile and thy once merry laugh? tears of grief now pour down my face, as i watch and mourn over my child; thy grief makes me ready to die. thy union filled thee with joy, already you're really his wife. is he not the man of thy choice? o daughter, devotedly loved, why plunged in such terrible grief? (cusi coyllur has had her face hidden in the pillows. she now rises to her feet, throwing up her arms.) cusi coyllur. o my mother! o most gracious queen! how can my tears o'er cease to flow, how can my bitter sighs surcease, while the valiant chief i worship for many days and sleepless nights, all heedless of my tender years, seems quite to have forgotten me? he has turned his regard from his wife and no longer seeks for his love. o my mother! o most gracious queen! o my husband so beloved! since the day when i last saw my love the moon has been hidden from view; the sun shines no more as of old, in rising it rolls among mist; at night the stars are all dim, all nature seems sad and distressed the comet with fiery tail, announces my sorrow and grief surrounded by darkness and tears, evil auguries fill me with fears. o my mother! o most gracious queen! o my husband so beloved! anahuarqui. compose thyself and dry thine eyes, the king, thy father, has arrived. thou lovest ollantay, my child? (enter the inca pachacuti. on his head the mascapaycha, with the llautu or imperial fringe. a tunic of cotton embroidered with gold; on his breast the golden breastplate representing the sun, surrounded by the calendar of months. round his waist the fourfold belt of tocapu. a crimson mantle of fine vicuna wool, fastened on his shoulders by golden puma's heads. shoes of cloth of gold. he sits down on the golden tiana.) inca pachacuti. cusi coyllur! star of joy, most lovely of my progeny! thou symbol of parental love-- thy lips are like the huayruru.[ ] rest upon thy father's breast, repose, my child, within mine arms. (cusi coyllur comes across. they embrace.) unwind thyself, my precious one, a thread of gold within the woof. all my happiness rests upon thee, thou art my greatest delight. thine eyes are lovely and bright, as the rays of my father the sun. when thy lips are moving to speak, when thine eyelids are raised with a smile, the wide world is fairly entranced. thy breathing embalms the fresh air; without thee thy father would pine, life to him would be dreary and waste. he seeks for thy happiness, child, thy welfare is ever his care. (cusi coyllur throws herself at his feet.) cusi coyllur. o father, thy kindness to me i feel; and embracing thy knees all the grief of thy daughter will cease, at peace when protected by thee. pachacuti. how is this! my daughter before me on knees at my feet, and in tears? i fear some evil is near-- such emotion must needs be explained. cusi coyllur. the star does weep before inti, the limpid tears wash grief away. pachacuti. rise, my beloved, my star, thy place is on thy dear father's knee. (cusi coyllur rises and sits on a stool by her father. an attendant approaches.) attendant. o king! thy servants come to please thee. pachacuti. let them all enter. (boys and girls enter dancing. after the dance they sing a harvest song.) thou must not feed, o tuyallay,[ ] in nusta's field, o tuyallay. thou must not rob, o tuyallay, the harvest maize, o tuyallay. the grains are white, o tuyallay, so sweet for food, o tuyallay. the fruit is sweet, o tuyallay, the leaves are green o tuyallay; but the trap is set, o tuyallay. the lime is there, o tuyallay. we'll cut thy claws, o tuyallay, to seize thee quick, o tuyallay. ask piscaca,[ ] o tuyallay, nailed on a branch, o tuyallay. where is her heart, o tuyallay? where her plumes, o tuyallay? she is cut up, o tuyallay, for stealing grain, o tuyallay. see the fate, o tuyallay, of robber birds, o tuyallay. pachacuti. cusi coyllur, remain thou here, thy mother's palace is thy home fail not to amuse thyself, surrounded by thy maiden friends. (exeunt the inca pachacuti, the ccoya anahuarqui, and attendants.) cusi coyllur. i should better like a sadder song. my dearest friends, the last you sang to me foreshadowed evil things;[ ] you who sang it leave me now. (exeunt boys and girls, except one girl who sings.) two loving birds are in despair,[ ] they moan, they weep, they sigh; for snow has fallen on the pair, to hollow tree they fly. but lo! one dove is left alone and mourns her cruel fate; she makes a sad and piteous moan, alone without a mate. she fears her friend is dead and gone-- confirmed in her belief, her sorrow finds relief in song, and thus she tells her grief. 'sweet mate! alas, where art thou now? i miss thine eyes so bright, thy feet upon the tender bough, thy breast so pure and bright.' she wanders forth from stone to stone, she seeks her mate in vain; 'my love! my love!' she makes her moan, she falls, she dies in pain. cusi coyllur. that yarahui is too sad, leave me alone. (exit the girl who sang the yarahui.) now my tears can freely flow. scene great hall in the palace of pachacuti. the inca, as before, discovered seated on a golden tiana l. enter to him r. ollantay and rumi-naui. pachacuti. the time has arrived, o great chiefs, to decide on the coming campaign. the spring is approaching us now, and our army must start for the war. to the province of colla[ ] we march-- there is news of chayanta's[ ] advance. the enemies muster in strength, they sharpen their arrows and spears. ollantay. o king, that wild rabble untaught can never resist thine array; cuzco alone with its height is a barrier that cannot be stormed. twenty four thousand of mine, with their champis[ ] selected with care, impatiently wait for the sign, the sound of the beat of my drums,[ ] the strains of my clarion and fife. pachacuti. strive then to stir them to fight, arouse them to join in the fray, lest some should desire to yield, to escape the effusion of blood. rumi-naui. the enemies gather in force, the yuncas[ ] are called to their aid; they have put on their garbs for the war, and have stopped up the principal roads. all this is to hide their defects-- the men of chayanta are base. we hear they're destroying the roads, but we can force open the way; our llamas are laden with food-- we are ready to traverse the wilds. pachacuti. are you really ready to start to punish those angry snakes? but first you must give them a chance to surrender, retiring in peace, so that blood may not flow without cause, that no deaths of my soldiers befall. ollantay. i am ready to march with my men, every detail prepared and in place, but alas! i am heavy with care, almost mad with anxious suspense. pachacuti. speak, ollantay. tell thy wish-- 'tis granted, e'en my royal fringe. ollantay. hear me in secret, o king. pachacuti (to rumi-naui). noble chief of colla, retire; seek repose in thy house for a time. i will call thee before very long, having need of thy valour and skill. rumi-naui. with respect i obey thy command. (exit rumi-naui.) ollantay. thou knowest, o most gracious lord, that i have served thee from a youth, have worked with fortitude and truth, thy treasured praise was my reward.[ ] all dangers i have gladly met, for thee i always watched by night, for thee was forward in the fight, my forehead ever bathed in sweat. for thee i've been a savage foe, urging my antis[ ] not to spare, but kill and fill the land with fear, and make the blood of conquered flow. my name is as a dreaded rope,[ ] i've made the hardy yuncas[ ] yield, by me the fate of chancas[ ] sealed, they are thy thralls without a hope. 'twas i who struck the fatal blow, when warlike huancavilca[ ] rose, disturbing thy august repose, and laid the mighty traitor low. ollantay ever led the van, wherever men were doomed to die; when stubborn foes were forced to fly, ollantay ever was the man. now every tribe bows down to thee-- some nations peacefully were led, those that resist their blood is shed-- but all, o king, was due to me. o sovereign inca, great and brave, rewards i know were also mine, my gratitude and thanks are thine, to me the golden axe you gave. inca! thou gavest me command and rule o'er all the anti race, to me they ever yield with grace, and thine, great king, is all their land my deeds, my merits are thine own to thee alone my work is due. for one more favour i would sue, my faithful service--thy renown. (ollantay kneels before the inca.) thy thrall: i bow to thy behest, thy fiat now will seal my fate. o king, my services are great, i pray thee grant one last request. i ask for cusi coyllur's hand if the nusta's[ ] love i've won. o king! you'll have a faithful son, fearless, well tried, at thy command. pachacuti. ollantay, thou dost now presume. thou art a subject, nothing more. remember, bold one, who thou art, and learn to keep thy proper place. ollantay. strike me to the heart. pachacuti. 'tis for me to see to that, and not for thee to choose. thy presumption is absurd. be gone! (ollantay rises and exit r.) scene a rocky height above cuzco to the ne. distant view of the city of cuzco and of the sacsahuaman hill, crowned by the fortress. (enter ollantay armed.) ollantay. alas, ollantay! ollantay! thou master of so many lands, insulted by him thou servedst well. o my thrice-beloved coyllur, thee too i shall lose for ever. o the void[ ] within my heart, o my princess! o precious dove! cuzco! o thou beautiful city! henceforth behold thine enemy. i'll bare thy breast to stab thy heart, and throw it as food for condors; thy cruel inca i will slay. i will call my men in thousands, the antis will be assembled, collected as with a lasso. all will be trained, all fully armed, i will guide them to sacsahuaman. they will be as a cloud of curses, when flames rise to the heavens. cuzco shall sleep on a bloody couch, the king shall perish in its fall; then shall my insulter see how numerous are my followers. when thou, proud king, art at my feet, we then shall see if thou wilt say, 'thou art too base for coyllur's hand.' not then will i bow down and ask, for i, not thou, will be the king-- yet, until then, let prudence rule. (enter piqui chaqui from back, r.) piqui chaqui, go back with speed, tell the princess i come to-night. piqui chaqui. i have only just come from there-- the palace was deserted quite, no soul to tell me what had passed, not even a dog[ ] was there. all the doors were closed and fastened, except the principal doorway, and that was left without a guard. ollantay. and the servants? piqui chaqui. even the mice had fled and gone, for nothing had been left to eat. only an owl was brooding there, uttering its cry of evil omen. ollantay. perhaps then her father has taken her, to hide her in his palace bounds. piqui chaqui. the inca may have strangled her; her mother too has disappeared. ollantay. did no one ask for me before you went away? piqui chaqui. near a thousand men are seeking for you, and all are enemies, armed with their miserable clubs. ollantay. if they all arose against me, with this arm i'd fight them all no one yet has beat this hand, wielding the champi sharp and true. piqui chaqui. i too would like to give a stroke at least, if my enemy was unarmed. ollantay. to whom? piqui chaqui. i mean that urco huaranca chief, who lately was in search of thee. ollantay. perhaps the inca sends him here if so my anger is aroused. piqui chaqui. not from the king, i am assured, he cometh of his own accord and yet he is an ignoble man. ollantay. he has left cuzco, i believe; my own heart tells me it is so i'm sure that owl announces it. we'll take to the hills, at once. piqui chaqui. but wilt thou abandon the star? ollantay. what can i do, alas! since she has disappeared? alas, my dove! my sweet princess. (music heard among the rocks.) piqui chaqui. listen to that yarahui, the sound comes from somewhere near. (they sit on rocks.) song in a moment i lost my beloved, she was gone, and i never knew where; i sought her in fields and in woods, asking all if they 'd seen the coyllur. her face was so lovely and fair, they called her the beautiful star. no one else can be taken for her, with her beauty no girl can compare. both the sun and the moon seem to shine, resplendent they shine from a height, their rays to her beauty resign their brilliant light with delight. her hair is a soft raven black, her tresses are bound with gold thread, they fall in long folds down her back, and add charm to her beautiful head. her eyelashes brighten her face, two rainbows less brilliant and fair, her eyes full of mercy and grace, with nought but two, suns can compare. the eyelids with arrows concealed, gaily shoot their rays into the heart they open, lo! beauty revealed, pierces through like a glittering dart. her cheeks achancara[ ] on snow, her face more fair than the dawn, from her mouth the laughter doth flow, between pearls as bright as the morn. smooth as crystal and spotlessly clear is her throat, like the corn in a sheaf her bosoms, which scarcely appear, like flowers concealed by a leaf. her beautiful hand is a sight, as it rests from all dangers secure, her fingers transparently white, like icicles spotless and pure. ollantay (rising). that singer, unseen and unknown, has declared coyllur's beauty and grace; he should fly hence, where grief overwhelms. o princess! o loveliest star, i alone am the cause of thy death, i also should die with my love. piqui chaqui. perhaps thy star has passed away, for the heavens are sombre and grey. ollantay. when they know that their chief has fled, my people will rise at my call, they will leave the tyrant in crowds and he will be nearly alone. piqui chaqui. thou hast love and affection from men, for thy kindness endears thee to all, for thy hand's always open with gifts, and is closely shut only to me. ollantay. of what hast thou need? piqui chaqui. what? the means to got this and that, to offer a gift to my girl, to let others see what i have, so that i may be held in esteem. ollantay. be as brave as thou art covetous, and all the world will fear thee. piqui chaqui. my face is not suited for that; always gay and ready to laugh, my features are not shaped that way. to look brave! not becoming to me. what clarions sound on the hills? it quickly cometh near to us. (both look out at different sides.) ollantay. i doubt not those who seek me--come, let us depart and quickly march. piqui chaqui. when flight is the word, i am here. (exeunt.) scene the great hall of the palace of pachacuti. the inca, as before, seated on the tiana. enter to him rumi-naui. pachacuti. i ordered a search to be made, but ollantay was not to be found. my rage i can scarcely control-- hast thou found this infamous wretch? rumi-naui. his fear makes him hide from thy wrath. pachacuti. take a thousand men fully armed, and at once commence the pursuit. rumi-naui. who can tell what direction to take? three days have gone by since his flight, perchance he's concealed in some house, and till now he is there, safely hid. (enter a chasqui or messenger with quipus.) behold, o king, a messenger from urubamba he has come. chasqui. i was ordered to come to my king, swift as the wind, and behold me. pachacuti. what news bringest thou? chasqui. this quipu will tell thee, o king. pachacuti. examine it, o rumi-naui. rumi-naui. behold the llanta, and the knots[ ] announce the number of his men. pachacuti (to chasqui). and thou, what hast thou seen? chasqui. 'tis said that all the anti host received ollantay with acclaim; many have seen, and they recount, ollantay wears the royal fringe. rumi-naui. the quipu record says the same. pachacuti. scarcely can i restrain my rage! brave chief, commence thy march at once, before the traitor gathers strength. if thy force is not enough, add fifty thousand men of mine. advance at once with lightning speed, and halt not till the foe is reached. rumi-naui. to-morrow sees me on the route, i go to call the troops at once the rebels on the colla road, i drive them flying down the rocks. thine enemy i bring to thee, dead or alive, ollantay falls. meanwhile, o inca, mighty lord, rest and rely upon thy thrall. (exeunt.) end of act i. act ii scene ollantay-tampu. hall of the fortress-palace. back scene seven immense stone, slabs, resting on them a monolith right across. above masonry. at sides masonry with recesses; in the r. centre a great doorway. a golden tiana against the central slab. (enter ollantay and urco huaranca, both fully armed.) urco huaranca. ollantay, thou hast been proclaimed by all the antis as their lord. the women weep, as you will see-- they lose their husbands and their sons, ordered to the chayanta war. when will there be a final stop to distant wars? year after year they send us all to far-off lands, where blood is made to flow like rain. the king himself is well supplied with coca and all kinds of food. what cares he that his people starve? crossing the wilds our llamas die, our feet are wounded by the thorns, and if we would not die of thirst we carry water on our backs. ollantay. gallant friends! ye hear those words, ye listen to the mountain chief. filled with compassion for my men, i thus, with sore and heavy heart, have spoken to the cruel king: 'the anti-suyu must have rest; all her best men shan't die for thee, by battle, fire, and disease-- they die in numbers terrible. how many men have ne'er returned, how many chiefs have met their death for enterprises far away?' for this i left the inca's court,[ ] saying that we must rest in peace; lot none of us forsake our hearths, and if the inca still persists, proclaim with him a mortal feud. (enter hanco huayllu, several chiefs, and a great crowd of soldiers and people.) people. long eve our king, ollantay bring forth the standard and the fringe, invest him with the crimson fringe in tampu now the inca reigns, he rises like the star of day. (the chiefs, soldiers, and people range them selves round. ollantay is seated on the tiana by hanco huayllu, an aged auqui or prince.) hanco huayllu. receive from me the royal fringe, 'tis given by the people's will. uilcanota[ ] is a distant land, yet, even now, her people come to range themselves beneath thy law. (ollantay is invested with the fringe. he rises.) ollantay. urco huaranca, thee i name of anti-suyu chief and lord; receive the arrows and the plume, (gives them.) henceforth thou art our general. people. long life to the mountain chief. ollantay. hanco huayllu,[ ] of all my lords thou art most venerable and wise, being kin to the august high priest, it is my wish that thou shouldst give the ring unto the mountain chief. (urco huaranca kneels, and hanco huayllu addresses him.) hanco huayllu. this ring around thy finger's placed that thou mayst feel, and ne'er forget, that when in fight thou art engaged, clemency becomes a hero chief. urco huaranca. a thousand times, illustrious king, i bless thee for thy trust in me. hanco huayllu. behold the valiant mountain chief, now fully armed from head to foot, and bristling like the quiscahuan,[ ] accoutred as becomes a knight. (turning to urco huaranca.) ne'er let thine enemies take thee in rear man of the puna,[ ] it ne'er can be said you fled or trembled as a reed. urco huaranca. hear me, warriors of the andes! already we have a valiant king, it might be he will be attacked; 'tis said th' old inca sends a force, the men of cuzco now advance. we have not a single day to lose; call from the heights our puna men, prepare their arms without delay, make tampu strong with rampart walls, no outlet leave without a guard; on hill slopes gather pois'nous herbs to shoot our arrows, carrying death. ollantay (to urco huaranca). select the chiefs! fix all the posts for different tribes; our foes keep marching without sleep-- contrive to check them by surprise. the compi[ ] ruse may cause their flight. urco huaranca. thirty thousand brave antis are here, amongst them no weakling is found; apu maruti,[ ] the mighty in war, from high uilcapampa[ ] will come, on steep tinquiqueru[ ] he'll stand to march when the signal appears; on the opposite side of the stream prince chara[ ] has mustered his force; in the gorge charamuni[ ] i post ten thousand armed antis on watch; another such force is in wait on the left, in the vale of pachar.[ ] we are ready to meet our foes, we await them with resolute calm; they will march in their confident pride until their retreat is out off, then the trumpet of war shall resound, from the mountains the stones shall pour down, great blocks will be hurled from above. the huancas[ ] are crushed or dispersed, then the knife shall do its fell work, all will perish by blows from our hands, our arrows will follow their flight. people and soldiers. it is well! it is very well! (cheers and martial music.) (exeunt.) scene a wild place the mountains. distant view of ollantay-tampu. (enter rumi-naui, torn and ragged, and covered with blood, with two attendants.) rumi-naui. ah! rumi-naui--rumi-naui,[ ] thou art a fated rolling stone,[ ] escaped indeed, but quite alone, and this is now thy yarahui. ollantay posted on the height, thou couldst not either fight or see, thy men did quickly fall or flee; no room was there to move or fight. thou knowest now thy heart did beat and flutter like a butterfly; thy skill thou couldst not then apply, no course was left thee but retreat. they had recourse to a surprise, our warriors immolated quite. ah! that alone could turn thee white-- from shame like that, canst e'er arise? by thousands did thy warriors fall, i hardly could alone escape, with open mouth fell death did gape, a great disaster did befall. holding that traitor to be brave, i sought to meet him face to face-- rushing to seek him with my mace, i nearly found a warrior's grave. my army then was near the hill, when suddenly the massive stones came crashing down, with cries and moans, while clarions sounded loud and shrill. a rain of stones both great and small down on the crowd of warriors crashed, on every side destruction flashed, thy heart the slaughter did appal. like a strong flood the blood did flow, inundating the ravine; so sad a sight thou ne'er hast seen-- no man survived to strike a blow. o thou who art by this disgraced, what figure canst thou ever show before the king, who seeks to know the truth, which must be faced? 'tis better far myself to kill, or losing every scrap of hope, to hang my body with this rope. (takes a sling off his cap--going.) yet may it not be useful still? (turns again.) when bold ollantay's end has come.[ ] (exit.) scene a garden in the house of the virgins of the sun. chilca shrubs and mulli trees (schinus molle) with panicles of red berries. the walls of the house at the back, with a door. a gate (l.) opening on the street. (yma sumac discovered at the gate looking out. to her enters (r.) pitu salla. both dressed in white with golden belts.) pitu salla. yma sumac, do not approach so near that gate, and so often; it might arouse the mother's wrath. thy name, which is so dear to me, will surely pass from mouth to mouth. honour shall be shown to chosen ones,[ ] who wish to close the outer gate. amuse thyself within the walls, and no one then can say a word. think well what you can find within-- it gives you all you can desire, of dresses, gold, and dainty food. thou art beloved by every one, e'en virgins of the royal blood. the mothers love to carry thee, they give thee kisses and caress-- you they prefer to all the rest. what more could any one desire, than always to remain with them, destined to be servant of the sun? in contemplating him there's peace. yma sumac. pitu salla, ever you repeat the same thing and the same advice; i will open to thee my whole heart, and say exactly what i think. know that to me this court and house are insupportable--no less; the place oppresses--frightens me-- each day i curse my destiny. the faces of all the mama cuna fill me with hatred and disgust, and from the place they make me sit, nothing else is visible. around me there is nothing bright, all are weeping and ne'er cease if i could ever have my way, no person should remain within. i see the people pass outside, laughing as they walk along. the reason it is plain to see-- they are not mewed and cloistered here. is it because i have no mother, that i am kept a prisoner? or is it i 'm a rich novice? then from to-day i would be poor. last night i could not get to sleep, i wandered down a garden walk; in the dead silence of the night, i heard one mourn. a bitter cry, as one who sought and prayed for death. on every side i looked about, my hair almost on end with fright, trembling, i cried, 'who canst thou be?' then the voice murmured these sad words: 'o sun, release me from this place!' and this, amidst such sighs and groans! i searched about, but nothing found-- the grass was rustling in the wind. i joined my tears to that sad sound, my heart was torn with trembling fear. when now the recollection comes, i'm filled with sorrow and with dread. you know now why i hate this place. speak no more, my dearest friend, of reasons for remaining here. pitu salla. at least go in. the mother may appear. yma sumac. but pleasant is the light of day. (exit, r.) (enter mama ccacca, l., in grey with black edges and belt.) mama ccacca. pitu salla, hast thou spoken all i told thee to that child? pitu salla. i have said all to her. mama ccacca. and she, does she answer freely? pitu salla. she has wept and asked for pity, refusing to comply at all. she will not take the virgin's oath. mama ccacca. and this in spite of thy advice? pitu salla. i showed her the dress she will wear, telling her misfortune would befall if she refused to be a chosen one-- that she would ever be an outcast, and for us a child accursed. mama ccacca. what can she imagine, wretched child of an unknown father, a maid without a mother, just a fluttering butterfly? tell her plainly, very plainly, that these walls offer her a home, suited for outcasts such as she, and here no light is seen. (exit, l.) pitu salla. ay, my sumac! yma sumac! these walls will be cruel indeed, to hide thy surpassing beauty. (glancing to where mama ccacca went out.) what a serpent! what a puma! act iii scene the pampa moroni, a street in cuzco. enter rumi-naui (l.)[ ] in a long black cloak with a train, and piqui chaqui (r.), meeting each other. rumi-naui. whence, piqui chaqui, comest thou? dost thou here seek ollantay's fate? piqui chaqui. cuzco, great lord, is my birthplace; i hasten back unto my home. i care not more to pass my days in dismal and profound ravines. rumi-naui. tell me, ollantay--what does he? piqui chaqui. he is busy now entangling an already entangled skein. rumi-naui. what skein? piqui chaqui. should you not give me some present if you want me to talk to you. rumi-naui. with a stick will i give thee blows, with a rope i will hang thee. piqui chaqui. o, do not frighten me! rumi-naui. speak then. piqui chaqui. ollantay. is it ollantay? i can remember no more. rumi-naui. piqui chaqui! take care! piqui chaqui. but you will not listen! i am turning blind, my ears are getting deaf, my grandmother is dead, my mother is left alone. rumi-naui. where is ollantay? tell me. piqui chaqui. i am in want of bread, and the paccays[ ] are not ripe. i have a long journey to-day-- the desert is very far off. rumi-naui. if you continue to vex me i will take your life. piqui chaqui. ollantay, is it? he is at work. ollantay! he is building a wall, with very small stones indeed; they are brought by little dwarfs-- so small that to be a man's size they have to climb on each other's backs. but tell me, o friend of the king,[ ] why art thou in such long clothes, trailing like the wings of a sick bird[ ]-- as they are black it is better. rumi-naui. hast thou not seen already that cuzco is plunged in grief? the great inca pachacuti[ ] is dead, all the people are in mourning, every soul is shedding tears. piqui chaqui. who, then, succeeds to the place which pachacuti has left vacant? if tupac yupanqui succeeds, that prince is the youngest there are some others older.[ ] rumi-naui. all cuzco has elected him, for the late king chose him, giving him the royal fringe; we could elect no other. piqui chaqui. i hasten to bring my bed here.[ ] (exit running.) scene great hall of the palace of tupac yupanqui. the inca seated on golden tiana (c.). (enter the high priest or uillac uma, with priests and chosen virgins of the sun. the inca dressed as his father. uillac uma in full dress, wearing the huampar chucu. virgins in white with gold belts and diadems. they range themselves by the throne (l.). then enter rumi-naui and a crowd of chiefs, all in full dress, ranging themselves by the throne (r.).) tupac yupanqui. this day, o councillors and chiefs, let all receive my benison; you holy virgins of the sun[ ] receive our father's tenderest care. the realm, rejoicing, hails me king; from deep recesses of my heart i swear to seek the good of all. uillac uma. to-day the smoke of many beasts ascends on high towards the sun, the deity with joy accepts the sacrifice of prayer and praise. we found in ashes of the birds our only inca, king, and lord, in the great llama sacrifice; all there beheld an eagle's form, we opened it for augury, but lo! the heart and entrails gone. the eagle anti-suyu means-- to thy allegiance they return. (bowing to the inca.) thus i, thy augur, prophesy. (acclamation.) (exeunt all but uillac uma and rumi-naui.) tupac yupanqui (turning to rumi-naui). behold the hanan-suyu chief who let the enemy escape, who led to almost certain death so many thousands of my men. rumi-naui. before his death thy father knew disaster had befallen me; 'tis true, o king, it was my fault, like a stone[ ] i gave my orders, and volleying stones soon beat me down; it was with stones i had to fight, and in the end they crushed my men. oh! grant me, lord, a single chance, give perfect freedom to my plans, myself will to the fortress march, and i will leave it desolate. tupac yupanqui. for thee to strive with all thy might, for thee thine honour to regain, for thou shalt ne'er command my men unless thy worthiness is proved. uillac uma. not many days shall pass, o king, e'er all the antis are subdued. i've seen it in the quipu roll, haste! haste! thou rumi tunqui. [ ] (exeunt.) scene the great terrace entrance to ollantay-tampu. on r. a long masonry wall with recesses at intervals. at back a great entrance doorway. on l. terraces descend, with view of valley and mountains. (guards discovered at entrance doorway. to them enter rumi-naui in rags, his face cut and slashed with wounds, and covered with blood.) rumi-naui. will no one here have pity on me? one of the guards. who art thou, man? who has ill-treated thee? thou comest in a frightful state, covered with blood and gaping wounds. rumi-naui. go quickly to thy king and say that one he loves has come to him. one of the guards. thy name? rumi-naui. there is no need to give a name. one of the guards. wait here. (exit one of the guards.) (enter ollantay with guards, r. front.) rumi-naui. a thousand times i thee salute, ollantay, great and puissant king! have pity on a fugitive who seeks a refuge here with thee. ollantay. who art thou, man? approach nearer. who has thus ill-treated thee? were such deep and fearful wounds caused by a fall, or what mishap? rumi-naui. thou knowest me, o mighty chief. i am that stone that fell down once, but now i fall before thy feet; o inca! mercy! raise me up! (kneels.) ollantay. art thou the noble rumi-naui, great chief and lord of hanan-suyu? rumi-naui. yes, i was that well-known chief-- a bleeding fugitive to-day. ollantay. rise, comrade mine. let us embrace. (rises.) who has dared to treat thee thus, and who has brought thee here to me within my fortress, on my hearth? (to attendants.) bring new clothes for my oldest friend. (exit an attendant.) how is it that thou art alone? camest thou not fearing death? rumi-naui. a new king reigns in cuzco now-- tupac yupanqui is installed. against the universal wish, he rose upon a wave of blood; safety he sees in headless trunks, the sunchu[ ] and the nucchu[ ] red are sent to all he would destroy. doubtless you have not forgot that i was hanan-suyu's chief. yupanqui ordered me to come; arrived, i came before the king, and as he has a cruel heart, he had me wounded as you see; and now thou knowest, king and friend, how this new inca treated me. ollantay. grieve not, old friend rumi-naui, thy wounds before all must be cured; i see in thee th' avenging knife, to use against the tyrant's heart. at tampu now we celebrate the sun's great raymi festival; on that day all who love my name, throughout my realms hold festival. rumi-naui. those three days of festival to me will be a time of joy, perhaps i may be healed by then, so that my heart may pleasure seek. ollantay. it will be so. for three whole nights we drink and feast, to praise the sun, the better to cast all care aside we shall be shut in tampu fort. rumi-naui. the youths, as is their wont, will find their great delight in those three nights, then will they rest from all their toils, and carry off the willing girls. scene a corridor in the palace of chosen virgins. (enter yma sumac and pitu salla.) yma sumac. pitu salla, beloved friend, how long wilt thou conceal from me the secret that i long to know? think, dearest, of my anxious heart, how i shall be in constant grief until you tell the truth to me. within these hard and cruel bounds does some one suffer for my sins? my sweet companion, do not hide from me, who 'tis that mourns and weeps somewhere within the garden walls. how is it she is so concealed that i can never find the place? pitu salla. my sumac, now i'll tell thee all-- only concerning what you hear, and still more surely what you see, you must be dumb as any stone; and you too must be well prepared for a most sad heart-rending sight-- 'twill make thee weep for many days. yma sumac. i will not tell a living soul what you divulge. but tell me all, i'll shut it closely in my heart. scene a secluded part of the gardens of the virgins, (l.) flowers, (r.) a thicket of mulli[ ] and chilca,[ ] concealing a stone door. (pitu salla and yma sumac.) pitu salla. in this garden is a door of stone, but wait until the mothers sleep, the night comes on. wait here for me. (exit.) (yma sumac reclines on a bank and sleeps. night comes on, yma sumac awakes.) yma sumac. a thousand strange presentiments crowd on me now, i scarce know what-- perhaps i shall see that mournful one whose fate already breaks my heart. (pitu salla returns with a cup of water, a small covered vase containing food, and a torch which she gives to yma sumac. she leads yma sumac through bushes to the stone door, fixes the torch, presses something, and the door swings round.) (cusi coyllur is discovered senseless, extended on the ground, a snake twining itself round her waist.) pitu salla. behold the princess for whom you seek. well! is thy heart now satisfied? yma sumac. oh, my friend, what do i behold? is it a corpse that i must see? oh, horror! a dungeon for the dead! (she faints.) pitu salla. what misfortune has now arrived? o my sumac, my dearest love, o come to thyself without delay! arouse thee. arise, my lovely flower. (yma sumac revives.) fear not, my dove, my lovely friend, 'tis not a corpse. the princess lives, unhappy, forlorn, she lingers here. yma sumac. is she, then, still a living being? pitu salla. approach nearer, and you can help. she lives indeed. look. watch her now. give me the water and the food. (to cusi coyllur, while helping her to sit up.) o fair princess, i bring thee food and cooling water to refresh. try to sit up. i come with help. yma sumac. who art thou, my sweetest dove? why art thou shut in such a place? pitu salla. take a little food, we pray. perchance without it, you may die. cusi coyllur. how happy am i now to see, after these long and dismal years, the new and lovely face of one who comes with thee and gives me joy. yma sumac. o my princess, my sister dear, sweet bird, with bosom of pure gold, what crime can they accuse thee of, that they can make thee suffer thus? what cruel fate has placed thee here with death on watch in serpent's form? cusi coyllur. o charming child, the seed of love, sweet flower for my broken heart, i have been thrust in this abyss. i once was joined to a man as pupil is part of the eye; but alas! has he forgotten me? the king know not that we were joined by such indissoluble bonds, and when he came to ask my hand, that king dismissed him in a rage, and cruelly confined me here. many years have passed since then, yet, as you see, i'm still alive; no single soul have i beheld for all those sad and dismal years, nor have i found relief nor hope. but who art thou, my dear, my love, so young, so fresh, so pitiful? yma sumac. i too, like thee, am full of grief, for long i've wished to see and love, my poor forlorn and sad princess. no father, no mother are mine, and there are none to care for me. cusi coyllur. what age art thou? yma sumac. i ought to number many years, for i detest this dreadful house, and as it is a dreary place, the time in it seems very long. pitu salla. she ought to number just ten years according to the account i've kept. cusi coyllur. and what is thy name? yma sumac. they call me yma sumac now, but to give it me is a mistake. cusi coyllur. o my daughter! o my lost love, come to thy mother's yearning heart. (embraces yma sumac.) thou art all my happiness, my daughter, come, o come to me; this joy quite inundates my soul, it is the name i gave to thee. yma sumac. o my mother, to find thee thus! we must be parted never more. do not abandon me in grief. to whom can i turn to free thee, to whom can i appeal for right? pitu salla. make no noise, my dearest friend. to find us thus would ruin me. let us go. i fear the mothers. yma sumac (to cusi coyllur). suffer a short time longer here, until i come to take thee hence, patience for a few more days. alas! my mother dear! i go, but full of love, to seek for help. (exeunt closing the stone door, all but cusi coyllur. they extinguish the torch.) scene great hall in the palace of tupac yupanqui. (the inca discovered seated on the tiana. to him enter the uillac uma, in full dress.) tupac yupanqui. i greet thee, great and noble priest! hast thou no news of rumi-naui. uillac uma. last night, with guards, i wandered out on heights towards uilcanuta. far off i saw a crowd in chains, no doubt the anti prisoners, for they are all defeated quite. the cacti[ ] on the mountains smoke, e'en now the fortress is in flames. tupac yupanqui. and ollantay, is he taken? perhaps--i hope his life is saved. uillac uma. ollantay was among the flames, 'tis said that no one has escaped. tupac yupanqui. the sun, my father, is my shield, i am my father's chosen child. we must subdue the rebel host, for that i am appointed here. (enter a chasqui with a quipu in his hand.) the chasqui. this morning at the dawn of day, rumi-naui despatched this quipu. tupac yupanqui (to the uillac uma). see what it says. uillac uma. this knot, coloured burnt ahuarancu, tells us that tampu too is burnt; this triple knot to which is hung another which is quintuple, in all of quintuples are three, denotes that anti-suyu's thine, its ruler prisoner of war. tupac yupanqui (to the chasqui). and thou. where wert thou? the chasqui. sole king and lord! child of the sun! i am the first to bring the news, that thou mayst trample on the foe, and in thine anger drink their blood. tupac yupanqui. did i not reiterate commands to spare and not to shed their blood-- not anger but pity is my rule. the chasqui. o lord, we have not shed their blood; they were all captured in the night, unable to resist our force. tupac yupanqui. recount to me in full detail the circumstances of the war. the chasqui. for a signal thy warriors wait. the nights passed at tinquiqueru,[ ] concealed in the cavern below, yanahuara[ ] men joining us late. we waited within the large cave, thy men always ready to fight, behind foliage well out of sight, thy warriors patient and brave. but for three long days and dark nights, no food for the zealous and bold; feeling hungry, thirsty, and cold, we waited and watched for the lights.[ ] rumi-naui sent orders at length, when the raymi[ ] they carelessly keep, and all of them drunk or asleep, we were then to rush on with our strength. word came to surprise our foes, rumi-naui had opened the gate, as cautious and silent as fate-- we were masters with none to oppose. those rebels fell into the trap, the arrows came on them like rain, most died in their sleep without pain, not knowing their fatal mishap. ollantay, still trusting, was ta'en, the same urco huaranca befell; hanco huayllu is captive as well, we thy rebels in fetters detain. the antis by thousands are slain, a fearful example is made, they are beaten, crushed, and betrayed, their women in sorrow and pain. tupac yupanqui. as witness of what has occurred, on vilcamayu's storied banks, no doubt thou hast told me the truth. it was a well designed attack. (enter rumi-naui followed by several chiefs.) rumi-naui. great inca, i kneel at thy feet, this time you will hear my report, i beseech thee to deign to restore the trust that i forfeited once. (kneels.) tupac yupanqui. rise, great chief, receive my regard, i accept thy great service with joy; thou didst cast o'er the waters thy net, and hast captured a marvellous fish. rumi-naui. our enemies perished in crowds, their chiefs were captured and bound, overwhelmed by my terrible force, like a rook detached from the heights. tupac yupanqui. was much blood shed in the assault? rumi-naui. no, lord, not a drop has been shed, to thine orders i strictly adhered. those antis were strangled in sleep, but the fort is entirely razed. tupac yupanqui. where are the rebels? rumi-naui. they are waiting with agonised fear, for their fate, to perish by cords. the people are sending up cries, demanding their deaths without fail. their women are now in their midst, the children raise hideous cries; it is well that thine order should pass to finish their traitorous lives. tupac yupanqui. it must be so without any doubt, that the orphans may not be alone, let all perish, not sparing one, thus cuzco recovers her peace, let the traitors be brought before me. in my presence the sentence they'll hear. (exit rumi-naui, and re-enter followed by guards in charge of ollantay, urco huaranca, and hanco hauyllu, bound and blindfold, followed by guards with piqui chaqui bound.) tupac yupanqui. take the bands off the eyes of those men. and now, ollantay, where art thou? and where art thou, o mountain chief? soon thou wilt roll down from the heights. (to the soldiers who bring in piqui chaqui.) whom have we here? piqui chaqui. many fleas in the yuncas abound, and torment the people full sore, with boiling water they are killed, and i, poor flea,[ ] must also die. tupac yupanqui. tell me, hanco huayllu, tell me, why art thou ollantay's man? did not my father honour thee? did he not grant thy requests? did he ever have a secret from thee? speak also, you, the other rebels, ollantay and the mountain chief. ollantay. o father, we have nought to say, our crimes are overwhelming us. tupac yupanqui (to the uillac uma). pronounce their sentence, great high priest. uillac uma. the light that fills me from the sun brings mercy and pardon to my heart. tupac yupanqui. now thy sentence, rumi-naui. rumi-naui. for crimes enormous such as these death should ever be the doom it is the only way, o king! to warn all others from such guilt. to stout tocarpus[ ] they should be secured and bound with toughest rope, then should the warriors freely shoot their arrows until death is caused. piqui chaqui. must it be that evermore the antis must all perish thus? alas! then let the branches burn what pouring out of blood is here.[ ] rumi-naui. silence, rash man, nor dare to speak, (general lamentation outside.) having been rolled just like a stone, my heart has now become a stone.[ ] tupac yupanqui. know that tocarpus are prepared. remove those traitors from my sight, let them all perish, and at once. rumi-naui. take these three men without delay to the dreaded execution stakes; secure them with unyielding ropes, and hurl them from the lofty rocks. tupac yupanqui. stop! cast off their bonds. (the guards unbind them. they all kneel.) (to ollantay, kneeling). rise from thy knees; come to my side. (rises.) now thou hast seen death very near, you that have shown ingratitude, learn how mercy flows from my heart; i will raise thee higher than before. thou wert chief of anti-suyu, now see how far my love will go; i make thee chief in permanence. receive this plume[ ] as general, this arrow[ ] emblem of command.[ ] tupac yupanqui (to the uillac uma). thou mighty pontiff of the sun, robe him in the regal dress. raise up the others from their knees, and free them from the doom of death. (urco huaranca, hanco huayllu, and piqui chaqui rise, the latter looking much relieved. the uillac uma places the robe on ollantay's shoulders.) uillac uma. ollantay, learn to recognise tupac yupanqui's generous mind; from this day forth be thou his friend, and bless his magnanimity. this ring contains my potent charm, for this i place it on thy hand. (gives him a ring, or bracelet.) this mace receive, 'tis from the king, (gives him a mace (champi).) it is his gracious gift to thee. ollantay. with tears i shall nearly consume that mace thus presented to me; i am tenfold the great inca's slave, in this world no equal is found, my heart's fibres his latchets shall be; from this moment my body and soul to his service alone shall belong. tupac yupanqui. now, mountain chief! come near to me, ollantay is given the arrow and plume, though to me he gave fury and war. notwithstanding all that has passed he continues the andean chief, and will lead his rebels to peace; thee also i choose for the plume; from this day thou art a great chief, and never forget in thy thoughts, i saved thee from death and disgrace. urco huaranca. great king and most merciful lord, but now, expecting my death, i am ever thy most faithful slave. (uillac uma gives him the plume and arrow.) uillac uma. o urco, the inca has made a great and a powerful chief, and grants thee with marvellous grace the arrow and also the plume. rumi-naui. illustrious king, i venture to ask, will anti-suyu have two chiefs. tupac yupanqui. there will not be two, o rumi-naui the mountain chief will rule the antis; in cuzco ollantay will reign-- as viceroy deputed by me his duties will call him to act as ruler throughout the whole realm. ollantay. o king! thou dost raise me too high, a man without service or claim; i am thy obedient slave-- mayst thou live for a thousand years. tupac yupanqui. the mascapaycha now bring forth, and to it the llautu attach. uillac uma, adorn him with these, and proclaim his state to the world. yes, ollantay shall stand in my place, raised up like the star of the morn, for colla this month i shall start; all preparations are made. in cuzco ollantay will stay, my ranti[ ] and viceroy and friend. ollantay. i would fain, o magnanimous king, follow thee in the chayanta war; thou knowest my love for such work. peaceful cuzco is not to my taste, i prefer to be thy canari,[ ] to march in the van of thy force, and not to be left in the rear. tupac yupanqui. thou shouldst find the wife of thy choice, and with her reign happily here in cuzco; repose without care; rest here while i'm absent in war. ollantay. great king, thy sorrowful slave already had chosen a wife. tupac yupanqui. how is it i know not of this? it should be reported to me. i will load her with suitable gifts; why was this concealed from my eyes? ollantay. in cuzco itself disappeared that sweet and adorable dove; one day she did rest in my arms, and the next no more to be seen. in grief i made search far and near, earth seemed to have swallowed her up, to have buried her far from my sight; o such, mighty king, is my grief. tupac yupanqui. ollantay! afflict not thyself, for now thou must take up thy place without turning thy eyes from thy work. (to uillac uma.) high priest, obey my command. (the uillac uma goes to the wings (r.) and addresses the people outside.) uillac uma. o people, hear what i say: the inca, our king and our lord, thus declares his imperial will: ollantay shall reign in his place. people outside. ollantay ranti! ollantay ranti! (shouts and acclamations.) tupac yupanqui (to rumi-naui and other chiefs.) you also render him homage. rumi-naui. prince ollantay! incap ranti! thy promotion gives me joy. all the antis now released, return rejoicing to their homes. (he and all the chiefs bow to ollantay.) guards without. you cannot pass. go back! go back! voice without. why, is this a festive day? let me pass. i must see the king; i pray you do not stop me, do not drive me from the door; if you stop me i shall die. have a care. you will kill me. tupac yupanqui. what noise is that without? guard. it is a young girl who comes weeping and insists upon seeing the king. tupac yupanqui. let her come in. (enter yma sumac.) yma sumac. which is the inca, my lord, that i may kneel down at his feet? uillac uma. who art thou, charming maid? behold the king. (yma sumac throws herself at the king's feet.) yma sumac. o my king! be thou my father, snatch from evil thy poor servant. extend thy royal hand to me. o merciful child of the sun, my mother is dying at this hour in a foul and loathsome cave; she is killed in cruel martyrdom-- alas i she is bathed in her own blood. tupac yupanqui. what inhumanity, poor child! ollantay, take this case in hand. ollantay. young maiden, take me quickly there; we will see who it is that suffers. yma sumac. no, sir. not so. it is the king himself should go with me. perhaps he may recognise her; (to ollantay.) for you, i know not who you are. o king, arise, do not delay, i fear my mother breathes her last, at least may be in mortal pain; o inca! father! grant my prayer. uillac uma. illustrious king, thou wilt consent; let us all seek this luckless one-- thou canst release from cruel bonds. lot us go, o king! tupac yupanqui (rising). come all! come all! in midst of reconciliations this young maid assaults my heart. (exeunt.) scene the garden in the palace of virgins of the sun (same scene as act iii, scene ). stone door more visible. (enter the inca tupac yupanqui with yma sumac, ollantay, uillac uma and rumi naui; urco huaranca, hanco huayllu and piqui chaqui in the background.) tupac yupanqui. but this is the aclla huasi;[ ] my child, art thou not mistaken? where is thy imprisoned mother? yma sumac. in a dungeon within these bounds my mother has suffered for years, perhaps even now she is dead. (she points to the stone door.) tupac yupanqui. what door is this? (enter mama ccacca and pitu salla. mama ccacca kneels and kisses the inca's hand.) mama ccacca. is it a dream or reality, that i behold my sovereign? tupac yupanqui. open that door. (mama ccacca opens the door.) (cusi coyllur discovered chained and fainting, with a puma and a snake, one on each side of her.) yma sumac. o my mother, i feared to find that you had already passed away; pitu salla! haste. bring water. perhaps my dove may still revive. (exit pitu salla.) tupac yupanqui. what horrid cavern do i see? who is this woman? what means it? what cruel wretch thus tortures her? what means that chain bound around her? mama ccacca, come near to me what hast thou to say to this? is it the effect of malice that this poor creature lingers here? mama ccacca. it was thy father's dread command; a punishment for lawless love. tupac yupanqui. begone! begone! harder than rock.[ ] turn out that puma and the snake,[ ] break down that door of carved stone. (to mama ccacca.) let me not see thy face again. a woman living as a bat; this child has brought it all to light. (enter pitu salla with water. she sprinkles it over cusi coyllur, who revives.) cusi coyllur. where am i? who are these people? yma sumac, my beloved child, come to me, my most precious dove. who are all these men before me? (she begins to faint again and is restored by water.) yma sumac. fear not, my mother, 'tis the king; the king himself comes to see you. the great yupanqui is now here. speak to him. awake from thy trance. tupac yupanqui. my heart is torn and sorrowful at sight of so much misery. who art thou, my poor sufferer? child, tell me now thy mother's name? yma sumac. father! inca! clement prince! have those cruel bonds removed. the uillac uma. it is for me to remove them, and to relieve this sore distress. (cuts the rope fastening cusi coyllur to the wall.) ollantay (to yma sumac). what is thy mother's name? yma sumac. her name was once cusi coyllur, but it seems a mistake. her joy was gone when she was prisoned here. ollantay. o renowned king, great yupanqui, in her you see my long lost wife. (prostrates himself before the inca.) tupac yupanqui. it all appears a dream to me. the 'star'! my sister![ ] and thy wife. o sister! what newly found joy. o cusi coyllur, my sister, come here to me, and embrace me, now thou art delivered from woe. (music.) thou hast found thy loving brother; joy calms the anguish of my heart. (embraces cusi coyllur.) cusi coyllur. alas! my brother, now you know the cruel tortures i endured during those years of agony; thy compassion now has saved me. tupac yupanqui. who art thou, dove, that hast suffered? for what sin were you prisoned here? thou mightest have lost thy reason. thy face is worn, thy beauty gone, thy looks as one risen from death. ollantay. cusi coyllur, i had lost thee, thou wast quite hidden from my sight, but thou art brought again to life-- thy father should have killed us both. my whole heart is torn with sorrow. star of joy, where is now thy joy? where now thy beauty as a star? art thou under thy father's curse? cusi coyllur. ollantay, for ten dreary years that dungeon has kept us apart; but now, united for new life, some happiness may yet be ours. yupanqui makes joy succeed grief, he may well count[ ] for many years. uillac uma. bring new robes to dress the princess. (they put on her royal robes. the high priest kisses her hand.) tupac yupanqui. ollantay, behold thy royal wife, honour and cherish her henceforth. and thou, yma sumac, come to me, i enlace you in the thread of love; thou art the pure essence of coyllur. (embraces her.) ollantay. thou art our protector, great king, thy noble hands disperse our grief; thou art our faith and only hope-- thou workest by virtue's force. tupac yupanqui. thy wife is now in thy arms; all sorrow now should disappear, joy, new born, shall take its place. (acclamations from the chiefs, and piqui chaqui. music: huancars (drums), pincullus (flutes), and pututus (clarions).) footnotes: [footnote : inca-pachacuti | tupac yupanqui | inca huayna ccapac | manco inca | tupac amaru | juana nusta = diego condorcanqui | felipe condorcanqui | pedro condorcanqui | miguel condorcanqui | jose gabriel condorcanqui (tupac amaru)] [footnote : 'sentencia pronunciada en el cuzco por el visitador don jose antonio de areche, contra jose gabriel tupac amaru.' in coleccion de obras y documentos de don pedro de angelis, vol. v. (buenos ayres, - ).] [footnote : inca pachacuti. | tupac yupanqui | huayna ccapac | manco inca | maria tupac usca = pedro ortiz de orue | catalina ortiz =luis justiniani | luis justiniani | luis justiniani | nicolo justiniani | justo pastor justiniani | dr. pablo policarpo justiniani(cura of laris)] [footnote : the wives of the incas were called ccoya. the ccoya of the second inca was a daughter of the chief of sanoc. the third inca married a daughter of the chief of oma, the fourth married a girl of tacucaray, the wife of the fifth was a daughter of a cuzco chief. the sixth inca married a daughter of the chief of huayllacan, the seventh married a daughter of the chief of ayamarca, and the eighth went to anta for a wife. this anta lady was the mother of pachacuti. the wife of pachacuti, named anahuarqui, was a daughter of the chief of choco. there was no rule about marrying sisters when pachacuti succeeded. he introduced it by making his son tupac yupanqui marry his daughter mama ocllo, but this was quite unprecedented. the transgression of a rule which he had just made may account for his extreme severity.] [footnote : a bust, on an earthen vase, was presented to don antonio maria alvarez, the political chief of cuzco, in , by an indian who declared that it had been handed down in his family from time immemorial, as a likeness of the general, rumi-naui, who plays an important part in this drama of ollantay. the person represented must have been a general, from the ornament on the forehead, called mascapaycha, and there are wounds cut on the face.--museo erudito, no. b.] [footnote : chita is the lamb of the llama. a lamb of two or three months was a favourite pet in the time of the incas. it followed its mistress, adorned with a little bell and ribbons.] [footnote : supay, an evil spirit, according to some authorities.] [footnote : ichuna, a sickle or scythe. the expression has been cited by general mitre and others as an argument that the drama is modern, because this is a metaphor confined to the old world. but ichuna was in use, in quichua, in this sense, before the spaniards came. the word is from ichu, grass.] [footnote : the peruvians personified a mountain as two spirits, good and evil. in writing poetically of a mountain opposing, it would be referred to in the persons of its genii or spirits, and spoken of as two foes, not one.] [footnote : rurun, desert, solitude.] [footnote : tasquiy, to march; tasquina, promenade, path.] [footnote : cusi coyllur, while daylight lasted, was, in the eyes of piqui chaqui, like the sun. a change takes place at twilight, and at night she is like the moon.] [footnote : fasting was a preparation for all great religious ceremonies. victims for sacrifice underwent a previous fast, which was looked upon in the fight of purification before being offered to the deity.] [footnote : they gave the attributes we usually assign to the fox to the puma.] [footnote : intip llirpun, 'apple of the sun's eye.' there is no english equivalent that is suitable.] [footnote : huayruru is the seed of a thorny bush, erythrina rubra, of a bright red colour. zegarra has coral as the equivalent for huayruru.] [footnote : the tuya (coccoborus chrysogaster) is a small finch, and tuyallay means 'my little tuya.'] [footnote : the piscaca is a much larger bird than the tuya. these piscacas (coccoborus torridus) are nailed to trees as a warning to other birds. they are black, with white breasts.] [footnote : in the tuya she sees her husband ollantay, while the poor princess herself is the forbidden grain.] [footnote : this is a yarahui or mournful elegy, of which there are so many in the quichua language. the singers of them were known as yarahuec.] [footnote : colla-suyu, the basin of lake titicaca.] [footnote : chayanta, a tribe in the montana south of the collas.] [footnote : champi, a one-handed battle-axe.] [footnote : huancar, a drum; pututu, fife.] [footnote : yunca, inhabitant of warm valley. here it refers to the wild tribes of the montana.] [footnote : in the original quichua, ollantay makes his appeal to the inca in quatrains of octosyllabic verses, the first line rhyming with the last, and the second with the third. garcilasso de la vega and others testify to the proficiency of the incas in this form of composition.] [footnote : ollantay was viceroy of anti-suyu.] [footnote : chahuar, a rope of aloe fibre. a curb or restraint.] [footnote : raprancutan cuchurcani: literally, 'i have clipped their wings.' rapra, a wing.] [footnote : the powerful nation of chancas, with their chief, huancavilca, inhabited the great valley of andahuaylas and were formidable rivals of the incas. but they were subdued by pachacuti long before ollantay can have been born. an allowable dramatic anachronism.] [footnote : huancavilca was chief of the powerful nation of chancas.] [footnote : nusta, princess.] [footnote : pisipachiyqui, to suffer from the void caused by absence. pisipay, to regret the absence of, to miss any one.] [footnote : the dominican text has misi, a cat, instead of allco, a dog. von tschudi thought that misi was a word of spanish origin. zegarra says that it is not. before the spaniards came, there was a small wild cat in the andes called misi-puna. but the justiniani text has allco, a dog.] [footnote : achancara, a begonia. a red flower in the neighbourhood of cuzco, according to zegarra. one variety is red and white.] [footnote : the llanta is the main rope of the quipu, about a yard long. the small cords of llama wool, of various colours, denoting different subjects, each with various kinds of knots, recording numbers.] [footnote : this, as we have seen, was not the reason why ollantay fled from cuzco; but, from a leader's point of view, it was an excellent reason to give to the people of anti-suyu. the great wars of the incas were, to some extent, a heavy drain upon the people, but the recruiting was managed with such skill, and was so equally divided among a number of provinces, that it was not much felt.] [footnote : the snowy mountain far to the south, in sight from cuzco. uilca, sacred; unuta, water. here is the source of the river uilcamayu, which flows by ollantay-tampu.] [footnote : the aged hanco huayllu as auqui, or prince of the blood, and relation of the high priest, gave eclat to these ceremonies.] [footnote : quiscahuan. anything full of thorns.] [footnote : puna, the loftier parts of the andes.] [footnote : compi, cloth or a cloak. this was an expression of the ancient peruvians, perhaps equivalent to our 'hoodwinking.'] [footnote : apu maruti was the head of the ayllu of the inca yahuar huaccac, grandfather of pachacuti. it was called the ayllu aucaylli panaca.--mesa, anales del cuzco, quoted by zegarra.] [footnote : uilcapampa, mass of mountains between the uilcamayu and apurimac.] [footnote : tinqui queru, between urupampa and tampu. the word means 'two vases coupled.' here are two rounded hills connected by a saddle, three and a half miles from tampu.] [footnote : chara, was another descendant of yahuar huaccac.] [footnote : a ravine on the right bank of the vilcamayu.] [footnote : pachar is on the left bank of the vilcamayu opposite ollantay-tampu, with which it is connected by a rope bridge.] [footnote : huancas, natives of the valley of jauja--inca recruits.] [footnote : like ollantay in his appeal to the inca, rumi-naui, in the original quichua, has recourse to octosyllabic quatrains, the first and last lines rhyming, and the second and third.] [footnote : rumi, a stone.] [footnote : clearly, from rumi-naui's own account, the strategy of urco huaranca had been a complete and brilliant success.] [footnote : aclla cuna, the selected ones, the virgins of the sun. they were under the supervision of so called mothers--mama cuna. the novices were not obliged to take the oaths at the end of their novitiate.] [footnote : rumi-naui is the interlocutor in the justiniani text, in the dominican text, and in the text of spilsbury. yet zegarra would substitute the uillac uma or high priest for rumi-naui. his argument is that the interlocutor was of the blood-royal, and that the high priest was always of the blood-royal, while rumi-naui was not. but the text does not say that the interlocutor was of the royal blood. zegarra also says that the interlocutor wore a black cloak with a long train, and that this was the dress of the high priest. but it was not the dress of the high priest as described by the best authorities. it was probably the general mourning dress. the threats addressed to piqui chaqui were likely enough to come from a soldier, but not from the high priest as he is portrayed in this drama.] [footnote : paccay (mimosa incana), a tree with large pods, having a snow-white woolly substance round the seeds, with sweet juice.] [footnote : the zegarra and spilsbury texts have ccan incacri, which zegarra translates, 'relation of the inca, of the royal family.' spilsbury is more correct. he has 'partisan of the inca.' the more authentic justiniani text has ccan pana. the particle ri is one of emphasis or repetition. it does not mean a relation.] [footnote : the zegarra and spilsbury texts have hualpa, a game bird. the justiniani text has anca, an eagle, which is the correct reading.] [footnote : the inca pachacuti does not appear to advantage in the drama. but he was the greatest man of his dynasty, indeed the greatest that the red race has produced. he was a hero in his youth, a most able administrator in mature age. as a very old man some needless cruelties are reported of him which annoyed his son.] [footnote : the eldest son was amaru tupac. he was passed over by his father with his own consent, and was ever faithful to his younger brother. he was an able general.] [footnote : this was exactly what piqui chaqui was sent to cuzco to find out. the expression apumusac pununayta, 'i go to fetch my bed,' is one of joy at any fortunate event, in quichua.] [footnote : intic huamin caccunan (intic huarminca caycuna, correct), 'ye women of the sun.' zegarra thought, on the authority of garcilasso de la vega, that these could not be select virgins of the sun, because the virgins were never allowed outside their convent, and not even women might enter. he is clearly wrong. much higher authorities than garcilasso, as regards this point, especially valera, tell us that the virgins were treated with the greatest honour and respect. they took part in great receptions and festivals, and when they passed along the streets they had a guard of honour.] [footnote : rumi. he keeps playing upon his name.] [footnote : again playing upon the name of rumi-naui. the high priest calls for haste, so he substitutes tunqui for naui (eye), the tunqui (rupicola peruviana) being one of the most beautiful birds in the forests.] [footnote : sunchu, a very large composita with a yellow flower, growing round cuzco. it was one of those which were used on sacred festivals.] [footnote : nucchu is a salvia, also considered sacred. a red flower. perhaps these flowers were sent as a summons from the inca, but i have not seen the custom mentioned elsewhere.] [footnote : schineus molle, a tree with pinnate leaves, and panicles of red berries, well known in the mediterranean countries, into which it was introduced from peru. called by the english 'pepper tree.'] [footnote : several bushes are called chilca in peru. eupatorium chilca (r. p.), baccharis scandens, and molina latifolia. stereoxylon pendulum is called puna chilca.] [footnote : a kind of cactus, of which they make needles, grows abundantly on the mountains round ollantay-tampu. it is called ahuarancu. they set fire to the cacti as a war signal. zegarra calls it a thistle. the word in the justiniani text is ahuarancu.] [footnote : tinqui queru, between urupampa and tampu. the word means 'two vases coupled.' here are two rounded hills connected by a saddle, three and a half miles from tampu. (taken from fn# .)] [footnote : yanahuara, a ravine near urubamba, where some of the troops of rumi-naui had been posted.] [footnote : signal lights.] [footnote : ccapac raymi, the great festival of the sun. december .] [footnote : piqui chaqui is literally 'flea foot.' he is punning on his name.] [footnote : tocarpu, a pole or stake used at executions. condemned prisoners were fastened to a tocarpu before being hurled over a precipice.] [footnote : piqui chaqui had an inkling that the inca had expressed dislike at the shedding of blood. he ventured to say these words in the faint hope that they might remind the inca of this dislike.] [footnote : rumi-naui at it again: for ever ringing changes on his name rumi, a stone.] [footnote : the plume and the arrow were the insignia of a general.] [footnote : rather a staggerer for rumi-naui! perhaps, too, the change is too sudden, and infringes the probabilities. tupac yupanqui may have thought that his father had been unjust and that there were excuses. it is known that the young inca was indignant at some other cruelties of his father. as a magnanimous warrior he may have despised the treacherous methods of rumi-naui. he may have valued ollantay's known valour and ability, and have been loth to lose his services. all these considerations may have influenced him more or less. the rebels were the best men he had.] [footnote : ranti, a deputy.] [footnote : canari, a warlike tribe of indians, in the south part of the kingdom of quito. they were first conquered by tupac yupanqui, and they became devoted to him.] [footnote : aclla, chosen; huasi, house: palace of the virgins of the sun.] [footnote : ccacca means a rock.] [footnote : my former translation, and those of barranca and tschudi, treated puma and amaru (snake) as epithets applied to mama ccacca. zegarra considers that the puma and snake were intended to be actually in the dungeon, and i believe he is right. the puma would not have hurt his fellow-prisoner. unpleasant animals were occasionally put into the prisons of criminals. the incas kept pumas as pets.] [footnote : the early incas never married their sisters or relations. pachacuti's mother was daughter of the chief of anta. his wife, anahuarqui, was no relation. but the wife of tupac yupanqui was his sister mama ocllo.] [footnote : a play upon the word yupanqui, which means literally, 'you will count.' the word was a title of the incas, meaning, 'you will count as virtuous, brave,' &c.] hymns in the _chinook · jargon · language_ compiled by rev. m. eells, _missionary of the american missionary association_. second edition. revised and enlarged. portland, oregon: david steel, successor to himes the printer, - second street, . entered according to act of congress in the year , also , by geo. h. himes, in the office of the librarian of congress, washington, d. c. note. these hymns have grown out of christian work among the indians. they repeat often, because they are intended chiefly for indians who cannot read, and hence must memorize them; but as soon as they learn to read, they sing in english. it will be noticed that often two syllables must be sung to one note, as in the first word in no. , _nika_ is sung to the first note of "happy land," and in no. , in the first line, _skookum_ is sung to one note. the chief peculiarity which i have noticed in making hymns in this language is, that a large proportion of the words are often two syllables, and a large majority of these have the accent on the second syllable, which renders it almost impossible to compose any hymns in long, common or short metres. in the second edition a hymn has been added in each of the skokomish, nisqually and clallam languages, and also a medley in the four languages. m. e. skokomish, mason county, washington territory, _february, _ no. . tune, "john brown." . jesus chako kopa saghalie, (repeat twice.) jesus hias kloshe. jesus wawa kopa tillikums, (repeat twice.) jesus hias kloshe. . jesus wawa wake kliminiwhit, jesus hias kloshe. jesus wawa wake kapswalla. jesus hias kloshe. . kopa nika jesus mimaloose, jesus hias kloshe. jesus klatawa kopa saghalie, jesus hias kloshe. . alta jesus mitlite kopa saghalie, jesus hias kloshe. yaka jesus tikegh nika klatawa, jesus hias kloshe. translation. . jesus came from heaven, jesus is very good. jesus taught the people, jesus is very good. . jesus said, do not lie, jesus is very good. jesus said, do not steal, jesus is very good. . for me jesus died, jesus is very good. jesus went to heaven, jesus is very good. . now jesus lives in heaven, jesus is very good. there jesus wishes me to go, jesus is very good. no. . tune, "jesus loves me." . kwanesum jesus hias skookum, (repeat twice.) kahkwa yaka papeh wawa-- _chorus--_ delate, nawitka-- (repeat twice.) kahkwa yaka papeh wawa. . jesus kumtuks nika tumtum, kahkwa, etc. _chorus--_ . jesus nanitch konoway kah, kahkwa, etc. _chorus--_ translation. . always jesus is very strong, so his paper (the bible) says-- truly, yes-- so his paper says. . jesus knows my mind, so, etc. . jesus sees everywhere, so, etc. sunday. no. . tune, "come to jesus." . chaco yakwa (repeat twice.) okoke sun. (repeat once.) chako yakwa (repeat once.) okoke sun. . halo mamook okoke sun. . halo mahcook okoke sun. . halo huyhuy okoke sun. . halo cooley okoke sun. . iskum wawa okoke sun. . saghalie tyee yaka sun. translation. . come here,--_i. e._ to church, to-day. . do not work to-day. . do not buy to-day. . do not trade to-day. . do not play to-day. . get the talk to-day. . god (it is) his day (or, it is god's day.) whiskey. no. . tune, "bounding billows." . ahnkuttie nika tikegh whiskey, repeat twice. pe alta nika mash-- alta nika mash. repeat. ahnkuttie nika tikegh whiskey, repeat twice. pe alta nika mash. . whiskey hias cultus, pe alta, etc. . whiskey mimoluse tillikums, pe alta, etc. . cultus klaska muckamuck, pe alta, etc. translation. . formerly i loved whiskey, but now i throw it away-- now i throw it away. . whiskey is good for nothing, and now i, etc. . whiskey kills people, and now, etc. . they that drink it, drink what is worthless, and now, etc. whiskey. no. . tune, "a, b, c," etc. . spose nesika muckamuck whiskey, whiskey muckamuck nesika dolla, spose nesika muckamuck whiskey. whiskey muckamuck nesika dolla. repeat twice. spose nesika muckamuck whiskey, whiskey muckamuck nesika dolla. . spose nesika muckamuck whiskey, whiskey muckamuck nesika iktas. repeat as above. . spose nesika muckamuck whiskey, whiskey muckamuck nesika wind. . spose nesika muckamuck whiskey, whiskey muckamuck nesika tumtum. translation. . if we drink whiskey, whiskey will eat up our money. . if we drink whiskey, whiskey will eat up our things, _i. e._ clothes especially. . if we drink whiskey, whiskey will eat up our lives. . if we drink whiskey, whiskey will eat up our souls. god's omniscience. no. . tune, "harwell." . saghalie tyee, yaka seahost nanitch skookum konway kah. repeat both lines. _chorus--_ pe wake kunjih nika ipsoot kopa yaka seahost. repeat both lines. . kah kopet ikt tillikum mitlite, yahwa yaka seahost. _chorus--_ . kah kopet ikt man kapswalla, yahwa yaka seahost. _chorus--_ . kah ikt man kliminwhit wawa, yahwa, etc. _chorus--_ . kah ikt tillikum muckamuck whiskey, yahwa, etc. _chorus--_ . kah hiyu polaklie mitlite, yahwa, etc. _chorus--_ . kopa nika tumtum kwanesum, yahwa, etc. _chorus--_ translation. . god's eyes see strong everywhere; _chorus--_ and never can i be concealed from his eyes. . where there is only one person, there are his eyes. . where only one man steals, there are his eyes. . where one man tells lies, there are his eyes. . where one person drinks whiskey, there, etc. . where it is very dark, there, etc. . in my mind always, there, etc. no. . tune, "hebrew children." . kah, o kah mitlite noah alta? repeat twice. siah kopa kloshe illahee. _chorus--_ alki nesika klatawa nanitch, repeat twice. siah kopa kloshe illahee. . kah, o kah mitlite joseph alta? siah kopa kloshe illahee. _chorus--_ . kah, o kah mitlite moses alta? siah, etc. _chorus--_ . kah, o kah mitlite david alta? . kah, o kah mitlite elijah alta? . kah, o kah mitlite elisha alta? . kah, o kah mitlite jonah alta? . kah, o kah mitlite daniel alta? . kah, o kah mitlite lydia alta? . kah, o kah mitlite timothy alta? . kah, o kah mitlite jesus alta? translation. . where, o where is noah now? far off in the good land. after awhile we will go and see them, far off in the good land. . where, o where is joseph now? far off in the good land. . where, o where is moses now? . where, o where is david now? _and so forth._ heaven. no. . tune, "greenville." . kopa saghalie konoway tillikums halo olo, halo sick; wake kliminiwhit, halo solleks, halo pahtlum, halo cly. _chorus--_ jesus mitlite kopa saghalie, kunamoxt konoway tillikums kloshe. . yahwa tillikums wake klahowya, wake sick tumtum, halo till; halo mimoluse, wake mesachie, wake polaklie, halo cole. _chorus--_ . yahwa tillikums mitlite kwanesum, hiyu houses, hiyu sing; papa, mama, pe kloshe tenas, ooacut yaka chickamin pil. _chorus--_ . jesus potlatch kopa siwash, spose mesika hias kloshe, konoway iktas mesika tikegh kopa saghalie, kwanesum. _chorus--_ translation. . in heaven all the people are not hungry, are not sick; they do not tell lies, do not become angry, they do not become drunk, do not cry. jesus lives in heaven together with all good people. . there the people are not poor, have no sorrow, are not tired; they do not die, are not wicked, there is no darkness, no cold. there the people live always; there are many houses, and much singing; there is father, mother and good children; the street is of gold. . jesus will give to the indians, if you are very good, everything you wish, in heaven, always. no. . tune, "happy land." . nika mitlite yakwa alta kopa illahee. wake lala nika halo kopa illahee. kah nika klatawa, nika lala halo kumtuks;-- klale nika tumtum kopa siah illahee. . saghalie tyee mitlite siah kopa saghalie. yaka tikegh nika klatawa kopa saghalie. spose nika kloshe yakwa halo mamook cultus ikta, yaka tikegh nika klatawa kopa saghalie. . kloshe tillikums mitlite siah kopa saghalie. cultus tillicums mitlite keekwilee kopa hias piah. kopet, spose nika kloshe, mash mesachie konoway, delate okoke tyee lolo nika yahwa. translation. . i live here now, on the earth. not long shall i be gone from the earth. where i shall go, for a long time i did not know;-- dark was my mind about the far off land. . god lives far off in heaven. he wishes me to go to heaven. if i am good here, and do nothing wrong, he will wish me to go to heaven. . good people live far off in heaven. bad people live below in the great fire. only if i am good, throw away everything bad, truly this god will carry me there. prayer. no. . tune, "march along together." . saghalie tyee potlatch iktas kopa nika; repeat both lines. nika mahsie yaka; repeat. _chorus--_ kopa nesika yaka tumtum kloshe. repeat. . spose nesika tikegh mash mesachie tumtum, repeat as in first verse. nika wawa jesus; _chorus--_ kopa, etc. . spose nesika tikegh tumtum kahkwa jesus, nika wawa jesus. _chorus--_ . jesus tikegh nika wawa yaka kwanesum, nika wawa jesus. _chorus--_ translation. . god gives things to me. i thank him. to us his mind is good (or, he loves us). . if we wish to throw away our wicked hearts, i will pray (talk) to jesus. . if we wish hearts like jesus, i will pray to jesus. . jesus wishes me to pray to him always. i will pray to jesus. for funerals. no. . tune, "talmar." . konoway tillikums mimoluse by by, by by nika mimoluse. halo mimoluse nika tumtum; kopet nika mimoluse. . kah nesika tumtum klatawa, spose nesika mimoluse? klonass yahwa kopa saghalie; klonass kopa hias piah. . nika tikegh kopa saghalie. yahwa konoway tillikums kloshe. kunamoxt jesus klaska mitlite. jesus skookum kwanesum. . jesus, help nesika alta! nesika tumtum mamook kloshe! lolo nesika kopa saghalie, spose nesika mimoluse! translation. . all people will die by and by. by and by i will die. my soul will not die; only i (_i. e._ my body) will die. . where will our minds (souls) go if we die? perhaps there to heaven; perhaps to the great fire. . i wish to go to heaven. there are all good people. with jesus they dwell. jesus always very strong. . jesus help us now! make our minds good! carry us to heaven when we die. for children. no. . tune, "we are coming, blessed saviour." . ahnkuttie jesus kopa illahee,-- yaka chako kahkwa tenas. repeat both lines. _chorus--_ kopa konoway tenas alta yaka tumtum hias kloshe. repeat both lines. . kahkwa yaka mama wawa, kwanesum yaka hyak mamook. repeat as above. _chorus--_ kopa, etc. . kopa yaka lemah ahnkuttie yaka lolo hiyu tenas. _chorus--_ . kopa okoke tenas ahnkuttie yaka potlatch wawa kloshe. _chorus--_ translation. . formerly jesus (was) on the earth,-- he came as a child. _chorus--_ to all children now his mind is very good. . as his mother said, so he always quickly did. . in his arms formerly he carried many children. . to those children formerly he gave good talk (or advice). no. . tune, "silently" ("golden wreath"). . okoke kloshe! okoke kloshe! nika wawa kopa jesus. repeat both lines. kopa nika mesachie mamook nika tumtum hyas sick. okoke kloshe! okoke kloshe! nika wawa kopa jesus. . okoke kloshe! okoke kloshe! nika mash mesachie tumtum. repeat both lines. kopa nika mesachie, etc. . okoke kloshe! okoke kloshe! nika tikegh tumtum t'kope. repeat both lines. kopa, etc. . okoke kloshe! okoke kloshe! jesus, wash nesika tumtum. repeat both lines. kopa, etc. translation. . this is good! this is good! i will talk (or pray) to jesus. about my wicked deeds my mind is very sorry. . this is good! this is good! i will throw away my wicked heart. . this is good! this is good! i wish a white heart. . this is good! this is good! jesus wash our hearts. christ's power. no. . tune, "jesus loves me." . kwanesum jesus hyas skookum, repeat twice. kahkwa yaka papeh wawa,-- _chorus--_ delate nawitka,-- repeat twice. kahkwa yaka papeh wawa. . jesus tolo kopa chuck, repeat as above. kahkwa, etc. see matt. : . jesus tolo kopa wind, etc. mark : . . jesus tolo kopa mesachie, etc. . jesus tolo kopa lejaub. matt. : , . . jesus tolo kopa mimoluse. matt. : . translation. . always jesus is very strong, so his paper (the bible) says,-- truly so,-- so his paper says. . jesus conquered the water. . jesus conquered the wind. . jesus conquered the wickedness. . jesus conquered the devil. . jesus conquered death. the bible. no. . tune, "hold the fort." from "ten years at skokomish," by permission. . saghalie tyee yaka papeh, yaka bible kloshe; kopa konoway boston tillikums, yaka hias kloshe. _chorus--_ saghalie tyee yaka papeh, yaka bible kloshe; kopa konoway tillikums alta, yaka hias kloshe. . saghalie tyee yaka papeh, yaka bible kloshe, kopa konoway siwash tillikums, yaka hias kloshe. _chorus--_ . saghalie tyee, etc. kopa konoway pasaiooks tillikums, yaka, etc. . kopa konoway king george tillikums. . kopa konoway china tillikums. . kopa konoway klale man tillikums. . kopa konoway kanaka tillikums. translation. . god's paper, his bible is good; for all american people, it is good. _chorus--_ god's paper, his bible is good; for all people now, it is good. . god's paper, his bible is good; for all indian people, it is good. . for all french people, etc. . for all english people. . for all chinese people. . for all negro people. . for all sandwich island people. creation. s, s and . no. . tune, "saviour like a shepherd lead us" or "greenville." . saghalie tyee yaka mamook konaway iktas konoway kah; repeat both lines. yaka mamook repeat. konoway iktas konoway kah. repeat both lines. . saghalie tyee yaka mamook konoway illahee konoway kah, etc. . nd line. konoway tillikums konoway kah. . " konoway muckamuck konoway kah. . " konoway moosmoos konoway kah. . " konoway kuitan konoway kah. translation. . god made everything everywhere; he made everything everywhere. . god made all the earth everywhere, etc. . all people everywhere. . all food everywhere. . all cattle everywhere. . all horses everywhere. heaven. no. . tune, "i'm going home." twana or skokomish language. . ashoi astab uts wis sowulus tsit tsiah as tab atc kleets wis puttab duh slukate etl haydabchad aho kleets wis aiy tubbayhu. _chorus--_ klis hubbaydabchad aho kleets wis. repeat chorus as in "i'm going home." . jesus id atc tsu wis aiy tubbaychu, askwubkwap id atc tsu wis aiy tubbayhu, lesash id atc tsu wis aiy tubbayhu, dissiad atc tsu wis aiy tubbayhu. _chorus--_ . hwakats ala atcts aiy tubbayhu, hwakats ashatl atcts aiy tubbayhu, hwakats astakwahu atcts aiy tubbayhu, hwakats kailub atcts aiy tubbayhu. _chorus--_ . hwakats kweub atcts aiy tubbayhu, hwakats ashwud atcts aiy tubbayhu, hwakats dus-slahal atcts aiy tubbayhu, hwakats askaw atcts aiy tubbayhu. _chorus--_ translation. . god has a home prepared in heaven. what day shall we go and see that good land? i will go home to heaven. . jesus is in heaven, the good land, christians are in heaven, the angels are in heaven, my home is in heaven. . no one is sick in heaven, no one is angry in heaven, no one is hungry in heaven, no one is bad in heaven. . no one tells lies in heaven, no one is tired in heaven, no one gambles in heaven, no one is drunk in heaven. the sabbath. no. . tune, "come to jesus." clallam language. . n-a tiatla (repeat twice.) atia ainuk. (repeat once.) n-a tiatla. (repeat once.) atia ainuk. . k-kwai satci skwai atia ainuk. . ouits stcai atia ainuk. . ouits shutting atia ainuk. . ouits tawayyu atia ainuk. . ouits hoyu atia ainuk. . ouits kahaking atia ainuk. . tsitsl tsiam skwachess. translation. . come here to-day. . get the talk to-day. . do not work to-day. . do not travel to-day. . do not sell to-day. . do not buy to-day. . do not play to-day. . god, his day, (or, it is god's day). happy day. no. . tune, "happy day." nisqually language. o hatl slahail tl-sahhu kwabaetub, tuhwaltay tsahulayeahu kthwal-kwayshuk, tolal kasgakail djoah hutc, sas-eats idsbukhu aas kwabe ahu tcetl hatl slahail, hatl slahail, alkway klos tsagwuds kubuk tzu-us dzukhu. tuogosts hwal tzas hoy ahu klobe, tuhwal kway kltzas djoail buk slahail. hatl slahail, hatl slahail, alkway klos tsagwuds kubuk tzu-us dzukhu. translation. o happy day that i'll be fixed [baptized]. to this my saviour, well may this happy heart rejoice, and tell its raptures all abroad. happy day, happy day, when he will wash my sins away. he taught me how i ought to be where i'll be happy daily. happy day, happy day, when he will wash my sins away. medley. in four languages. no. . tune, "the hebrew children." from "ten years at skokomish," by permission. chinook jargon--kah, o kah mitlite noah alta? skokomish--dichad, dichad kaoway kleets noah? clallam--ahinkwa, ahinchees wia-a noah? english--far off in the promised land. _chorus--_ eng.--by and by we'll go ho home to meet them, chinook jargon--alki nesika klatawa nanitch, skokomish--atsoi, atsoi hoi klishaydab sublabad, clallam--ia chee hatl sche-tung a-whun. translation. where, o where is noah now? where, o where is noah? where, o where is noah now? far off in the promised land. _chorus--_ by and by we'll go home to meet them, soon we will go and see [him], soon we will go and see him, far off in the good land. the lord's prayer. nesika papa klaksta mitlite kopa saghalie, kloshe mika nem kopa our father who lives in the above, good thy name over konoway kah. kloshe spose mika chako delate tyee kopa konoway tillikums. everywhere. good if thou become true chief over all people. klosh spose mika tumtum mitlite kopa illahee, kahkwa kopa saghalie. good if thy mind is on the earth, as in the above. potlatch kopa nesika kopa okoke sun nesika muckamuck. mamook klahowya give to us during this day our food. pity nesika kopa nesika mesachie mamook, kahkwa nesika mamook klahowya klaksta us for our wickedness, as we pity any man spose yaka mamook mesachie kopa nesika. wake mika lolo nesika kopa man if he does evil to us. not thou carry us to kah mesachie mitlite; pe spose mesachie klap nesika, klose mika where evil is; but if evil find us good thou help nesika tolo okoke mesachie. delate konoway illahee mika illahee, help us conquer that evil. truly all earth thy earth, pe mika hias skookum, pe mika delate hias kloshe, kahkwa nesika tikegh and thou very strong, and thou truly very good, so we wish konoway okoke. kloshe kahkwa. all this. good so. a blessing before meals. o saghalie tyee, nesika papa, nesika wawa mahsie kopa mika, mika o god our father, we say thanks to thee, thou hast potlatch kopa nesika okoke muckamuck. kloshe spose mika kwanesum given to us this food. good if thou always potlatch muckamuck kopa nesika. kloshe spose mika potlatch mika wawa wilt give food to us. good if thou wilt give thy words kopa nesika, kahkwa muckamuck kopa tumtum. help nesika tumtum chaco to us as food to the mind. help our minds become kloshe. kopa jesus nesika tikegh konoway okoke. kloshe kahkwa. good. through jesus we wish all this. good so. alaska indian dictionary compiled by charles a. lee aleutian indian and english dictionary common words in the dialects of the aleutian indian language as spoken by the oogashik, egashik, egegik, anangashuk and misremie tribes around sulima river and neighboring parts of the alaska peninsula compiled by charles a. lee oogashik, * * * * * preface the author, in placing this little book before the public, feels that in so doing he adds his mite to the useful and timely literature of the day. the ground has not been covered before, and all travelers in the alaskan peninsula will appreciate to its fullest extent the purpose of this work. the aborigines of this far away country have no written language, and this work aims to put before the traveler or trader a means of communication with this people which it is hoped will be of mutual benefit to both. many years of residence in this country and thorough familiarity with its people, have, we believe, well equipped us for the realization of our task. the author * * * * * alaska indian dictionary. a anchor........................cets-yuk. arrow.........................rakik-vit. arm...........................tat lik. anger, exclamation of.........e-ke. almanac, date.................shis-lak. above, up.....................mia. all right, good...............a-shik-tuk. ahead, go, to take............cita. all gone......................beachie-muk, or beduk. b bad, ugly, no good............asi-duk. by and by, soon, after........ataku beer--made of flour...........ma-cooloe, or bi-vak. big, large, great.............bul-shoi. beaver........................ba-luk-tak. beans.........................bo-bik. bread.........................cla-oahk, or clip-par. breast........................cat-gat. box, chest....................ca-sik. butter........................mus-lik. boy, young man................malt-jiska. bag, pouch....................mu-shuk. black, sunburnt...............rap-kie. biscuit.......................shuko-lenik. brush.........................charie-duk. bear..........................ta go ga. bring, here...................tie-de-kruk. blankets......................u-lik. bend, to hide.................laffa-lutten. building, house...............damo. brave, get out................u-na. believe, to think.............ba-talie. break, to spoil...............cup-li-ku. buy, to sell..................ca-bu-shak. book, paper, letter...........cali-kam. below, down...................u-na-nie. boat..........................ba-lia. bless, to cross...............ma-lish-ie. beluga or white whale.........ba-tuku. bacon.........................shit-dinkie. barrel, keg...................bou-ska. c codfish.......................a-te-pa. chewing tobacco...............agolo-kuluk. cartridge.....................ba-tlouk. cover, to cover...............ba-tua. church........................chur-ko. coffee........................caffie-amuk. close by, short distance......lak-shini-tuk. church warden.................sta-rosta. calico........................shit-sak. coal..........................u-klie. coal oil, preacher............ca-shak. cry, to make noise............cia lu-ten. carry.........................elak-yuk. cross, to bless...............ma-lish-ie. clean, to drink...............shak-shak. cap, hat......................sla-bak. cold, old, year, winter.......snik. chief, king...................ty-on. come here.....................tia-lutten. cup...........................chie-shak. change........................uk-liku. come, to return...............atteirie-rie-kuk. cooking, pot..................as-juk. capsize, to turn over.........baluk-liku. cooper........................bou-skie. coat..........................la-mie. d door, to shut the door........batu-luko. deer..........................elinec. dried salmon..................ehku-lanie. dance, festivity..............que-elat. dislike, exclamation of.......chin. don't drop that...............chak-enilshu. dig, to mine, mineral.........com-juk. drilling, sheeting............mit-kalie. don't know....................mat-loun. drink, to clean...............shak-shak. duck..........................shako lu-gen. disgust, exclamation of.......u-nalu keja. down, below...................u na-nie. day after tomorrow............u-naku-miatsku. distance, long, far away......iak-shik-tuk. dog...........................sa-baccca. date, almanac.................shis-lak. dog harness...................ela-kat. e empty, nothing................bu-kau-coku. egg...........................ca yaunk, also ma-nik. eat, strychnine...............qi-shak. engine, machinery, reloading tools ............................ma-shin-ak. extinguish....................nipo-muko. ears..........................tin-duk. ebb, to go away...............te-ire-duk. enough........................tawia. f fishing boat..................ba-lia. father........................baba rat. finger........................cuni-umen. fire..........................ca-nak. fill up with water............emer-isna. foot..........................et-kat. far away, long distance.......qak shik-tok. festivity, dance..............que-elat. fur...........................musk-roa. flour.........................mu-kak. frying-pan....................skal-tuk. fetch here....................toe-skin. fish, salmon..................ariba, also sa-yak. g good, all right...............a-shik-tuk. great number, plenty..........min-nuko, also eme lik-tuk. get out, brave................u-na. go home.......................toa-lutten. go to.........................akie, also akink. get out of the way............aw wa. gone..........................be-duk. great, big, large.............bul-shoi. go ahead, to take.............cita. grouse........................cola baska. give to me....................emik-rue. go that way...................qachun. goose.........................la-yik. good (russian)................siabna. gong..........................cheaw jak. go ahead more.................chal-lie. good day, greeting............chie-moca, also chu-mia. go away, to ebb...............tie-ire-duk. girl..........................tueb-jouski. grass.........................u-bou-gik. gunpowder.....................bo-ruk. gray wolf.....................ca-yanie. h hand..........................arkat, also aig-what. hot cakes, slap jacks.........alat-jes. heavy.........................ak-tanak-tuk. higher degree.................bic ber-becka-luni. handkerchief..................bla-tuk. hurry up, go faster...........chuka-lutten. half..........................cup-muk. how many, how much............copt-jinik half of.......................cu-pa. heavy rope....................elaf-kuk. hide, to bend.................laffa-lutten. here..........................wai, also ma-na. hair..........................nu jat. head..........................na-shuk. how, who......................nalima, nau-gau, e-na-ma. hunting.......................shuk-tie, also layik-shuk-tie. hat...........................sla-bok. hour, watch...................cha-sat. hatchet.......................ta-puluk. horns.........................cherun-rak. harpoon.......................tak-shit. house.........................domo. hot, warm.....................ukt-nactuk. hammer........................mallie-tuk. holiday.......................bras snik. i i thank you (russian).........bassie-pa. i will not....................buft-jini-toa. i don't like to...............beningen-rituk. ill humor.....................comak luk. i thank you for what i ate....co-yana. inside, in the house..........ca-manie. i give to you.................cun-nie. in............................in liku. i don't know..................nat-loun. in that direction.............i-gai. in the village................co-nan-nie. i, me.........................min-gee. j joking........................lingen aka. jacket........................bal-duk. k kiss, to kiss.................betchie-luko. knife.........................nu-shuk. king salmon...................taria-kuk. kettle........................chij-nie. king salmon river.............cocto bik. kulicadak river...............culicu daknie. key, lock, to lock............cluts-juk. know, to think................ba-nem mia. keep quiet....................slades. l land otter....................o-ka-ja. large, big, great.............bul-shoi. letter, paper, book...........cali-kam. lock, to lock, key............cluts-juk. linen, thread.................cluk-yak. lie, to tell a lie............ek-lut. liar..........................eklu ten. leg...........................e-rut. lead..........................emar-ganuk. load, loaded..................emerk-tuk leaf tobacco..................ig-mik. lamp..........................lam-bak. look out now..................lengen-aka lard..........................man-tenka. look, to see..................ma-gut. look here, listen.............tauk-ru. long distance.................iak-shik-tuk. leave, to walk................a-jak-tuk. m much, many, very..............men-nuco, also au-gte. make, to work.................ala-bur-tut. molasses......................bata-kak. mink..........................copt-jik-shuk. mad, angry....................comuk-tuk. mine, mineral, to dig.........com-juk. moccasins.....................comuk-saks. moon, mouth...................ira-luk. mittens.......................lum-shuks. many years to you, a new year's greeting ............................men-nuco-elatta. machinery, engine, reloading gear ............................mashin-ak. mast, pole, stick.............na-pak-tet. matches.......................spit-kanik. match.........................spit-ska. money, to pay.................tinkie. mighty, strong................tul-ril-nik. me, i.........................win-gee. mouth.........................can-nent. make noise, to cry............cia-luten. more..........................chal lie. moose.........................tun-tun. n no good, bad..................asi-duk. native--one man canoe.........ca-yak. native--two man canoe.........ca-yak-bak. native--three man canoe.......by-darkey. native--skin overcoat.........barkey. native--water-proof...........cama-linka. native--earth house...........bearra-berrie. nothing, empty................bukan-kuka. noise, disturbance............cia-luten. no............................neito, also cong-a. nail, nails...................ek-yuk-tel. now...........................noo-lun. o outside.......................ok-man nie. oilskin.......................cama-linka. over night, sleep.............counk-tuk. over there....................can-nia. out of........................in-lika. old, year, winter.............snik. p pants.........................ut-ruks. pound.........................ush-hak. pay, money....................tinkie. plenty, great number..........eme-lik-tuk. pot cooking...................as juk. parents.......................an-jiat jie. pillow........................be tuska. preacher, coal oil............ca-shak. pike..........................cal-rek. paper, book, letter...........cali-kam. potatoes......................cal-tucket. primers.......................cap-silak. pocket........................cat manie. pain, sick....................coup tuk. pour out, to..................ela luko. pull out of, in, to...........in-liku. push..........................chin-liku. pouch, bag....................mu-shuk. pole, mast, stick.............na pak-tet. pipe..........................truth-ka. plate.........................tous-jik. put it down...................tick-hue. r right, here, there............wia. return, to come...............al-tierie-kuk. revolver......................pistol-tak. red fox.......................canel lenuk. red rock......................lis-sissa. rifle.........................russu, also rifet anak. rabbit........................us kanat. rope..........................bla-din ag. s shut up.......................cayaki-yui. sloop.........................skoon-ik. schooner, vessel..............skoon-ik. schooner, two masts...........cayak-bak skoon-ik. schooner, three masts.........bydarkey skoon-ik. stick, mast, pole.............na pak-tet. salt pork.....................shit-dinkie. sugar, sweet..................shak-alak. sunburnt, black...............rap kie. stocking......................re-ik-tik. shot gun......................na tuta. scissors......................nu-shu shuk. sheeting......................mit kalie. see, to look..................ma gut. soap..........................me-lak. small, little.................ma-linkie. spoon.........................lu-shaka. shirt.........................luma-han. strong, mighty................tul-ril-nik. salt..........................tarik-uk. shot..........................tlo-pit. shoes.........................sal-ka-ya. soldier.......................sol-da-tat. second chief..................sa-ga-sik. sit down......................accoma-luten, also sea-des. sun, day......................shinor-huk. swan..........................shakola. sea otter.....................acht-nak. slap-jacks, hot-cakes.........alat-jes. steamer.......................bala-kula. smoking tobacco...............bouj-wak. smoke--to smoke...............bo-juk stove.........................blilo, also ca-minak. snuff, tobacco box............bluska. sabbath, holiday..............bras-snik. saw, to saw...................bilok. sail, tent....................blat-ka. sleep, one night..............counk-tuk. snore.........................cona-jak. spoil, to break...............cup-liku. sell, to buy..................cabu-shak. speak, to tell................cop-rit. spyglass......................crino etuk. sleigh dog....................crik-mit. skates, to skate..............can gik. sick pain.....................capu tuk. squirrel......................can ganit strychnine, eat...............io shak. seal..........................i-shor-it. short distance................iak shini-tuk. sleigh........................i-con eak. store.........................laf ka. shovel, to shovel.............la patka. t to come, to return............al-tierie-kuk. to sit down...................accoma-luten, also sea-des. to make, to work..............ala-bur-tut. to go home....................aniten, also toa-luten. to travel, to get out.........an-na. to leave, to walk.............ayak-tuk. to smoke, smoke...............bo-juk. to kiss, kiss.................belchie-luko. to saw, saw...................bilok. to cover, cover...............ba-tua. tent, sail....................blat-ka. to understand, to know........banie-mia. to capsize, to turn...........buluk-likuk. to think, to believe..........ba-talie. to take, to go ahead..........cita. to break, to spoil............cup-liku. to buy, to sell...............ca-bu-shak. to trap, trap.................coup canie. to speak, to tell.............cap-rit. to cry, to make noise.........cia-luten. to lock, lock, key............cluts-juk. to mine, mineral, to dig......com-juk. to sea, to travel.............cayak-eluten. to skate, skate...............can gik. trader........................co-peska. thread, linen.................cluk-yak. to lie, falsehood.............ek-lutten. to pour out...................elak-luko. to carry to...................elak-yuk. to fill up with water.........emer-reis-na. to load, loaded...............emerk-tuk. to undress....................enak-ten. to eat, also strychnine.......io-shak. to pull out of, in............in-liku. to hide, to bend..............laffa-luten. to cross, to bless............ma lish-ie. tanned sealskin...............muk luk. to see, to look...............ma-gut. to-morrow.....................cun-no ko. that, this....................ma na. to extinguish.................nipa-lima. to drink, to clean............shak-shak. table.........................stu-lik. tea...........................chy, also chy amuk. to go away, to ebb............tie-ire-duk. tidewater.....................ta-nuk. teeth.........................u-dit, also ut-jank. to change.....................uk-liku. there, right, here............wai. to-day........................nu-tun. thank you.....................que ena. u understand, to know...........banie-mia. under, open, heaven, outside..cla-inie. up town, in the village.......cou anie. undress.......................enak ten. v very..........................an-gle. village.......................a-nit. vessel........................skoo-nik. w work, to make.................ala-bur-tut. whale.........................aror-un. walk, to leave................ayak-tuk. wind..........................ak lak. wind, n.w.....................cla-nik. wind, n.e.....................wa-shak. wind, s.w.....................wa-gak. wind, s.e.....................un-gal-lak. white whale, or beluga........batu-ku. water-proof...................cama-linak. who, whose, whom..............cina. water.........................muka-muk. wood..........................mo-ruk. wolverine.....................mats-jaro-alik. where.........................na-ma. whetstone.....................naru-vik. winter, cold, old, year.......snik. watch, hour...................chy-ganik, also cha-sat. what do you say...............tia-cia-lou. what do you want..............tie-ens-lou. woman, wife...................tar-link. whiskers......................un-gia. warm, hot.....................ukt-nak-tuk. whiskey (russian).............wodka. welcome.......................qee-enaduk. y yes...........................a-a. yard..........................iar-dak. you, yours....................spit. young man, boy................malt-jiska. * * * * * numbers and money . atrik, lomik, lok. . malruk, nik, aipia. . panioon, pania. . staman. . tatliman. . aig-hung, lingen. . maltromik. . engluligen. . coulati-anuk. . cola, colnik. . stamanik. . tatlimanik. . swie-nak. . en-javak. money cents......shit-veldak......... / ruble. cents......cupa cupmuk......... / ruble. cents......agiemuk, atrik...... ruble. cents......apia cupliku........ - / ruble. cents......penioon cupliku..... - / ruble. cents......tatliman cupliku.... ruble. money always expressed in rubles. * * * * * appendix it is the custom among these people to give persons and companies a name in their own language. here is a list of a few who have been re-christened: mr. a. garrick..................attegen. mr. j. ledger...................cumjak. mr. h. osborn...................patik. mr. f. kinger...................cumlulinuk. mr. p. engell...................pangenhacie. mr. chas. a. lee................tyeechuka-lutten. capt. johnson...................bulshoie, capitanik. capt. heegaard..................miktuk capitanik. capt. haze......................companishak, capitanik. alaska commercial co............companishak. wrangel.........................cujuju gamuk. trading posts on the bering sea side of peninsula ..............................misremie, chikong, anangashook. interior trading................ekegik. pilot station on sulima river...iyis amuk. alaska commercial co., headquarters ..............................mushigak. { transcriber's notes: punctuations and capitalization have been adjusted from the original text for consistency and readability. some instances of inconsistent spellings were adjusted when found corrected in an alternate edition of this book. other inconsistent spellings that did not have a clear resolution remain as found in the original text. } dictionary of the chinook jargon, or indian trade language, of the north pacific coast. victoria, b. c. t. n. hibben co., publishers. government street, . entered according to act of parliament of canada, in the year , by t. n. hibben, in the office of the minister of agriculture. jas. a. cohen, book and job printer, victoria, b. c. part i.--chinook--english. a. ah-ha, _adv._ yes. ahn-kut-te, or ahn-kot-tie. formerly; before now. with the accent prolonged on the first syllable, a long time ago. ex. ahnkutte lakit sun, four days ago; tenas ahnkutte, a little while since. al-ah. expression of surprise. ex. alah mika chahko! ah, you've come! al-kie. presently; in a little while; hold on; not so fast. al-ta. now; at the present time. a-mo-te. the strawberry. an-ah, _interj._ an exclamation denoting pain, displeasure or depreciation. ex. anah nawitka mika halo shem; ah, indeed you are without shame. ats, _n._ a sister younger than the speaker. a-yah-whul, _v._ to lend; borrow. b. be-be. a word used toward children; a kiss; to kiss. bed, _n._ a bed. bit or mit. a dime. bloom, _n._ a broom. mamook bloom, to sweep. boat. a boat, as distinguished from a canoe. bos-ton, _n._, _adj._ an american. boston illahie, the united states. bur-dash. an hermaphrodite. c. cal-li-peen, _n._ a rifle. ca-nim, _n._ a canoe. canim stick, the cedar, or wood from which canoes are usually made. ca-po. a coat. chah-ko. to come; to become. ex. kanish mika chahko? when did you come? chahko kloshe, to get well. chack-chack. the bald eagle. chee. lately; just now; new. chee nika ko, i have just arrived. hyas chee, entirely new. chet-lo or jet-lo, _n._ an oyster. chet-woot. a black bear. chick-a-min, _n._, _adj._ iron; metal; metallic. t'kope chikamin, silver; pil chickamin, gold or copper. chickamin lope, wire; a chain. chik-chik. a wagon or cart. chil-chil. buttons. chitsh, _n._ a grandmother. chope, _n._ a grandfather. cho-tub, _n._ a flea. chuck, _n._ water; a river or stream. salt chuck, the sea. skookum chuck, a rapid. solleks chuck, a rough sea. chuck chahko or kalipi, the tide rises or falls; saghilli and keekwillie chuck, high and low tide. chuck-kiu. to kick. close. see kloshe. cly, _v._ to cry. cole, _adj._ cold. cole illahie, winter. icht cole, a year. cole sick waum sick, the fever and ague. comb. a comb. mamook comb, to comb. mamook comb illahie, to harrow. coo-ley. to run. cooley kiuatan, a race-horse. yahka hyas kumtuks cooley, he can _i.e._ knows how to run well. coop-coop, _n._ shell money. see hykwa. co-sho, _n._ a hog; pork. siwash cosho, a seal. cultus, _adj._ worthless; good for nothing; without purpose. ex. cultus man, a worthless fellow; cultus potlatch, a present or free gift; cultus heehee, a jest; merely laughing; cultus nannitsh, to look around; cultus mitlite, to sit idle; cultus klatawa, to stroll. _ques._ what do you want? _ans._ cultus, _i.e._ nothing. d. de-late. straight; direct. ex. klatawa delate, go straight; delate wauwau, tell the truth. di-aub. the devil. dely. dry. chahko dely, to become dry; mamook dely, to dry. doc-tin. a doctor. dol-la. a dollar; money. chikamin dolla, silver; pil dolla, gold; dolla siaghost, spectacles. e. eh-kah-nam, _n._ a tale or story. eh-ko-li, _n._ a whale. ee-na, _n._ a beaver. eena stick (literally beaver wood), the willow. ee-na-poo or in-a-poo. a louse. sopen inapoo, a flea. ek-keh. a brother-in-law. e-la-han. aid; assistance; alms. mamook elahan, to help. e-lip. first; before. elip lolo chuck, in the first place carry water; elip kloshe, best; elip tilikum, the first people. elite. a slave. e-salt'h. indian corn or maize. g. get-up. to get up; rise. glease. grease. hyiu glease, very fat; too-toosh glease, butter. h. hah-lakl. wide, open. ex. mamook hahlakl la pote, open the door. haht-haht, _n._ the mallard duck. hak-at-shum, _n._ handkerchief. halo. none; absent. _q._ halo salmon mika? have you no fish? _a._ halo, none. _q._ kah mika papa? where is your father? _a._ halo, he is out. halo wind, breathless; dead. halo glease, lean. halo iktas, poor; destitute. haul, _v._ to haul or pull. hee-hee, _n._ laughter; amusement. cultus hee-hee, fun; mamook hee-hee, to amuse; hee-hee house, any place of amusement, as a tavern, bowling alley, etc. hoh-hoh, _n._, _v._ to cough. hool-hool, _n._ a mouse. hyas hool-hool, a rat. house, _n._ a house. mahkook house, a store. howh. turn to; hurry. how-kwutl. inability. ex. howkwutl nika klatawa? how could i go? hul-lel, _v._, _n._ to shake. hul-o-i-ma. other; another; different. ex. huloima tillikum, a different tribe or people; hyas huloima, very different. humm, _n._, _v._ a stink or smell, to stink. humm opootsh, a skunk. hunl-kik. curled or curly; knotted; crooked. huy-huy, _n._, _v._ to barter or trade. ex. huyhuy la sille, change the saddle; huyhuy tumtum, to change one's mind. hwah. surprise or admiration, also earnestness. hy-ak. swift; fast; quickly; hurry; make haste. hyas. large; great; very. hyas tyee, a great chief; hyas mahcook, a great price; dear; hyas ankutte, a long time ago; hyas closhe, very good. hy-iu. much, many, plenty, enough. hyiu tillicum, a crowd; many people; hyiu muckamuck, plenty to eat; tenas hyiu, some, few; wake hyiu, not many or not much. hy-kwa. the shell money of the pacific coast. i. ik-kik. a fish-hook. ik-poo-ie. to shut. ikpooie la pote, shut the door; mamook ikpooie, to surround; ikpooie kwillan, deaf. ikt. one, once. ikt man, a man; ikt nika klatawa copa yahka house, i have been once to his house. ik-tah. what. iktah okook? what is that? iktah mika tikegh? what do you want? iktah? well, what now? ikta-hs. goods; merchandise. hyiu iktahs, a great many goods or merchandise. il-la-hie, _n._ the ground; the earth; dirt. tipso illahie, prairie; saghillie illahie; mountains or high land; heaven. hy-iu illahie kopa, dirty (literally much dirt upon). in-a-poo. a louse. sopen inapoo, a flea. in-a-ti. across; opposite to; on the other side of. inati chuck, on the other side of the river; klatawa inati, to cross over. ip-soot. to hide one's self or anything; to keep secret. ipsoot klatawa, to steal off; ipsoot wau-wau, to whisper. is-ick, _n._ a paddle. mamook isick, to paddle. is-ick stick, _n._ the ash. literally paddle wood. is-kum, _v._ to take; take hold of; hold; get. iskum okook lope, hold on to that rope; mika na iskum? did you get it? it-lan, _n._ a fathom. it-lo-kum, _n._ the game of "hand". mamook itlokum, to gamble. itl-wil-lie, _n._ the flesh; meat of any animal. konaway nika itlwillie sick, all my flesh is sore. itswooat. a black bear. itswooat paseesie, thick dark cloth or blankets. k. kah. where; whither, whence. kah mika mitlite? where do you live? konaway kah, everywhere; hahkah, here and there. kah-kah. a crow. kah-kwa, _adv._ like, similar to; equal with. ex. kahkwa nika tumtum, so i think; kahkwa hyas nika, as large as i; kahkwa spose, as if; kloshe kahkwa, that is right; good so. kah-na-way, _n._ acorns. kahnaway stick, the oak. kahp-ho. brother, sister, or cousin. kah-ta. how; why. kahta mika mamook okook? why do you do that? kahta mika chahko? how did you come? kahta mika? what is the matter with you? pe kahta? and why so? kal-ak-a-lah-ma, _n._ goose. kal-a-kwah-tie, _n._ the inner bark of the cedar; the petticoat or shirt formerly worn by women and often made of strands of bark. kalakwahtie stick, the cedar tree. ka-li-tan, _n._ an arrow shot; a bullet. kalitan la sac, a quiver; a shot pouch. kal-lak-a-la. a bird. kamas. a bulbous root used for food. kam-ooks, _n._ a dog. kahkwa kamooks, like a dog; beastly. ka-mo-suk, _n._ beads. tyee kamosuk, (chief beads), the large blue glass beads. kap-swal-la. to steal. kapswalla klatawa, to steal away; kapswalla mamook; to do secretly. kat-suk. the middle or center of anything. kau-py. coffee. ka-wak, _v._ to fly. kaw-ka-wak. yellow or pale green. keek-wil-lie. low, below, under, beneath, down. mamook keekwillie, to lower. mitlite kee kwillie, to set down; put under. keep-woot. a needle; the sting of an insect; a thorn. shoes keepwoot, an awl. keh-loke, _n._ a swan. keh-see. an apron. keh-wa. because. kel-a-pie, _v._ to turn; return; overturn; upset. kalapie canim, to upset a canoe; hyak kelapie, come back quickly; kelapie kopa house, go back to the house; mamook kelapie, to bring, send or carry back; kelapie tumtum, to change one's mind. kes-chi. notwithstanding; although. ket-lin. a kettle, can, basin, etc. kil-it-sut, _n._ flint, a bottle, glass. kimtah. behind, after, afterwards, last, since. klatawa kimta, go behind; nika elip pe yahka kimtah, i first and he afterwards; okook kimtah, the one behind; kimtah nika nannitsh mika, since i saw you. king george. english. king george man, an englishman. ki-nootl. tobacco. kish-kish, _v._ to drive as cattle or horses. kiu-a-tan, _n._ a horse. stone kiuatan, a stallion. ki-wa. crooked. ki-yah, _n._ entrails. klah, _adj._ free or clean from; in sight. ex. chee yahka klah, now he is in sight. klatawa klah, to escape. chahko klah, (of seed) to come up; (of the woods) to open out; (of the weather) to clear up. mamook klah, to uncover. klah-hanie. out of doors; out; without. ex. mamook klahhanie okook, put that out; klatawa klahhanie, to go out. kla-how-ya. how do you? good bye. ex. klahowya sikhs, good bye, friend. kla-how-yum. poor; miserable; wretched; compassion. hyas klahowyum nika, i am very poor; mamook klahowyum, to take pity on; give alms; be generous. klah-wa, _adv._ slow; slowly. klahwa klatawa, go slowly. klak, _adv._ off. ex. mamook klak stone kiuatan, to castrate a horse; mamook klak l'assiette, take off the plates; klak kopo wayhut, get out of the road. klaks-ta. who. klaksta mamook okook? who made or did that? halo klaksta, no one. klak-wun or kleh-kwan. to wipe; to lick. klakwun l'assiette, to wipe a plate. klale or t'kale. black or dark blue or green. klap, _v._ to find. ex. mika na klap mika kiuatan? did you find your horse? klap tenas, to be with child. kla-pite, _n._ thread; twine. klas-ka or kluska. they; thine; them. klat-a-wa, _v._ to go. klatawa teahwhit, to walk; go on foot. klatawa kopa kiuatan, to ride. klatawa kopa boat, to sail. mamook klatawa, to send. kla-whap. a hole. mamook klawhap, to dig a hole. kle-ma-hun, _v._ to stab; to wound; to dart; to cast as a spear; to hook or gore as an ox. nika klemahun salmon, i spear salmon. klihl or klilt, _adj._ bitter. klik-a-muks, _n._ blackberries or more properly dewberries. klik-wal-lie. brass. klim-in-a-whit, _n._, _v._ a lie; to lie. hyas kumtuks kliminawhit, he is a great liar. klim-min. soft; fine in substance. ex. klimmin sapoleel, flour. klimmin illahie, mud; marshy ground. mamook klimmin, to soften as by dressing a skin. klip. deep; sunken. klip chuck, deep water. klip sun, sunset. klis-kwiss. a mat. klogh-klogh. oysters. klo-nass. uncertainty; doubt; i don't know; may be so; who knows? ex. klonass nika klatawa, perhaps i shall go. _q._ kah mika kahpho? where is your brother? _a._ klonass, i don't know. klone. three. klook. crooked. klook teahwit, broken legged; lame. klootch-man. a woman; a female of any animal. tenas klootchman, a girl. klootchman kiuatan, a mare. kloshe. good; well; enough. kloshe nannitsh, look out; take care. hyas kloshe, very well. klose-spose. shall or may i; let me. ex. klose-spose nika mamook pia okook? shall i cook that? (literally, [is it] good that i may cook that?) klugh. to tear. mamook klugh illahie, to plough. kluk-ulh. broad or wide, as of a plank. ko. to reach; arrival at. chee klaska ko, they have just come. kansih nesika ko kopa nisqually? when shall we reach nisqually? ko-ko. to knock. koko stick, a woodpecker. kok-shut. to break; broken; to beat. hyas kokshut, broken to pieces. kon-a-way. all; every. klaska konaway klatawa, they have all gone. konaway tilicum, everybody. konaway kah, everywhere. koo-sah. the sky. ko-pa. to; in; at; with; towards; of; about; concerning; there or in that place. ex. kopa nika house, at my house. lolo okook kopa nika, take that home with you. cultas kopa nika, it is nothing to me. ko-pet. to stop; leave off; enough. kopet wauwau, stop talking. kopet ikt, only one. kopet okook, that's all. wake siah kopet, nearly finished. kopet tomalla, day after to-morrow. kow. to tie; to fasten. kow mika kiuatan, tie your horse. ikt kow, a bundle. kul-lagh. a fence; corrall or enclosure. kullagh stick, fence rails. kull. hard in substance; difficult. chahko kull, to become hard. mamook kull, to harden; to cause to become hard. hyas kull spose mamook, it is very hard to do so. kull stick, oak or any hard wood. kumtuks. to know; understand; be acquainted with; imagine; believe. mamook kumtuks, to explain. kopet kumtuks, to forget. halo kumtuks, stupid; without understanding. kumtuks kliminawhit, to be a liar. nika kumtuks okook tyee, i know that chief. nika kumtuks klickitat wauwau, i understand the klickitat language. kun-sih. how many; when; ever. kunsih tilikum mitlite? how many people are there? kunsih mika klatawa? when do you go? wake kunsih, never. mamook kunsih, to count. konaway moxt. both; together. konaway moxt kahkwa, both alike. kush-is. stockings. kwah-ne-sum. always; forever. kwah-nice. a whale. kwahta. the quarter of a dollar. kwah-tin. see yakwahtin. kwaist. nine. kwa-lal. to gallop. kwal'h. an aunt. kwan-kwan. glad. kwash. fear; afraid; tame. mamook kwash, to frighten; to tame. kwates. sour. kweh-kweh. a mallard duck. kwek-wi-ens. a pin. kwek-kweo. a ring; a circle. kwetlh. proud. kwin-num. five. kwish. refusing anything contemptuously. kwit-shad-ie. the hare or rabbit. kwo-lann. the ear. halo kwolann or ikpooie kwolann, deaf. kwult'h. to hit; to wound with an arrow or gun. kwun-nun. a count; numbers. ex. mamook kwunnun, to count. kwutl. literally fast; to push or squeeze. hyas mamook kwutl, haul tight. l. la-bleed. a bridle. la-boos. the mouth; the mouth of a river. moxt laboos, the fork of a river. la-boo-ti. a bottle. la-cal-at. a carrot. la-ca-set. a box, trunk or chest. la-clo-a. a cross. lagh. to lean; to tip as a boat; to stoop; to bend over as a tree. wake mika lagh kopa okoot house, don't lean against that house. la-gome. pitch; glue. la gome stick, light-wood; the pitch-pine. la-gwin. a saw. la-hal. see slahal. lahb. the arbutus. la-hash. an axe or hatchet. lakit. four; four times. lakit tahtlelum, forty. la-kles. fat; oil. la-lah. to cheat; fool; to practice jokes. mamook lalah, to make fun. la-lahm. an oar. mamook lalahm, to row. la-lang. the tongue; a language. la-lim. a file. la-messe. the ceremony of the mass. la-mes-tin. medicine. lam-mi-eh. an old woman. la-mon-ti. a mountain. la-peep. a tobacco pipe. lapeep kullakala, the pipe bird. la-pehsh. a pole; the setting pole of a canoe or boat. la-pel-lah. roast. mamook lapellah, to roast before the fire. la-pelle. a shovel or spade. la-pe-osh. a mattock; a hoe. la-piege. a trap. eena lapiege, a beaver trap. la-plash. a board. la-po-el. a frying pan. mamook lapoel, to fry. la-pome. an apple. la-pool. a fowl; poultry. siwash lapool, the grouse. la-poo-shet. a fork. la-pote. a door. la-sanjel. a girth; a sash; a belt. la-see. a saw. la-sell. a saddle. la-shal-loo. a plough. la-shan-del. a candle. la-shase. a chair. la-shen. a chain. las-siet. a plate. la-sway. silk; silken. la-tahb. a table. la-tet. the head. pil latet, red-headed. la-tlah. a noise. mamook latlah, to make a noise. la-ween. oats. la-west. a waistcoat. lazy. lazy. le-bah-do. a shingle. le-bal. a ball; bullet. tennas lebal, shot. le-bis-kwie. biscuit; cracker; hard bread. le-blou. a sorrel horse; chestnut colored. le-clem. cream colored; a cream colored or light dun horse. le-cock. a cock; a fowl. le-doo. a finger. le-gley. a gray horse; gray. le-jaub. see diaub. le-kleh. a key. mamook lekleh, lock the door. le-klo. a nail; nails. le-koo. the neck. le-kye. a spot; spotted or speckled. lekye salmon, the spotted or winter salmon. lo-lo-ba. a ribbon. le-loo. a wolf. le-mah. the hand; the arm. kloshe lemah, the right hand. potlatch lemah, shake hands. le-mah-to. a hammer. le-mel. a mule. le-mo-lo. wild; untamed. le-mo-to. sheep. le-pan. bread; raised or light bread. le-pee. the feet. le-pish-e-mo. the saddle, blankets and housings of a horse. le-pet. a priest. le-pwau. peas. le-sak. a bag; a pocket. le-sap. an egg; eggs. le-see-blo. spurs. le-see-zo. scissors. le-sook. sugar. le-tah. the teeth. le-whet. a whip. mamook lewhet, to whip. lice. rice. lik-pu-hu. an elder sister. lip-lip. to boil. mamook liplip, to make or cause to boil. lo-lo. to carry; to load. lolo kopa chickchick, to carry in a cart. mamook lolo kopa canim, to load into a canoe. lo-wul-lo. round; whole; the entire of anything. lowullo sapeleel, whole wheat. mamook lowullo, to roll up. lope. a rope. tenas lope, a cord. skin lope, a rawhide. lum. rum, or any spirits. luk-ut-chee. clams. m. mah-kook. to buy or sell. kah mika mahkook okook calipeen? where did you buy that rifle? hyas mahkook, dear. tenas mahkook, cheap. mah-kook-house. a trading house or store. mah-lie. to forget. mahsh. to leave; to turn out; to throw away; to part with; remove. ex. mahsh chuck kopa boat, bail the boat out. mahsh okook salmon, throw away that fish. mahsh mika capo, take off your coat. yahka mahsh tum-tum kopa nika, he has given me his orders. mah-sie. thank you. maht-lin-nie. off shore. maht-wil-lie. in shore; shoreward; keep in. ma-lah. tinware; crockery; earthenware. mal-i-eh. to marry. ma-ma. a mother mam-ook. to make; to do; to work. ex. mamook isick, to paddle; mamook illahee, to dig. man. a man; the male of any animal. ex. man moolock, a buck elk. tenas man, a young man or boy. mel-a-kwa. a mosquito. mel-ass. molasses. mem-a-loost. to die; dead. mamook memaloost, to kill. me-sah-chie. bad; wicked. me-si-ka. you; your; yours. mika. thou; thy; thine. mi-mie. down stream. mist-chi-mas. a slave. mit-ass. leggings. mit-lite. to sit; sit down; stay at; reside; remain. ex. mitlite nika hyiu salmon kopa, sit down i have plenty of salmon. mitlite keekwillie, to put down. mit-whit. to stand; stand up. mitwhit stick, a standing tree; a mast. mokst. twice. moo-la. a mill. stick moola, a saw-mill. moo-lock. an elk. moon. the moon. ikt moon, a month. sick moon, the wane or old moon. moos-moos. buffalo; horned cattle. moo-sum. to sleep; sleep. nika hyas moosum, i slept very sound. mow-itsh. a deer; venison. muck-a-muck. to eat; to bite; food. muckamuck chuck, to drink water. musket. a gun or musket. stick musket, a bow. n. na. the interrogative particle. ex. mika na klatawa okook sun? do you go to-day? interrogation is, however, often conveyed by intonation only. nah. look here! i say! nah sikhs! halloo, friend. nan-itsh. to see; look; look for; seek. nanitsh yahwa, look there. klose nanitsh, look out; take care. cultus nanitsh, to look round idly or from curiosity only. mamook nanitsh, to show. nau-its. the sea beach. na-wit-ka. yes; certainly; yes indeed; to be sure. nawitka wake nika kumtuks, indeed i don't know. wake mika nanitsh? did you not see [it]? nawitka, i did not. nem. a name. mamook nem, to name or call by name. ne-nam-ooks. the land otter. ne-si-ka. we; us; our. ne-whah. hither; come, or bring it hither. ex. newhah nika nanitsh, here, let me see it. ni-ka. i; me; my; mine. nose. the nose; also, a promontory. boat nose, the bow of a boat. o. o-kook. this; that; it. iktah okook? what is that? okook sun, to-day. okook klaksta, he who. okook klaska; they (being present). o-la-pits-ki. fire. o-le-man. old man; old; worn out. hyas oleman kiuatan, a very old horse. ol-hy-iu. a seal. o-lil-lie. berries. shot olillie, huckleberries. siahpult olillie, raspberries. salmon olillie, salmon berries. o-lo. hungry. olo chuck, thirsty; olo moosum, sleepy. o-luk. a snake. oos-kan. a cup; a bowl. o-pe-kwan. a basket; tin kettle. o-pitl-kegh. a bow. o-pit-sah. a knife. opitsah yahka sikhs, (the knife's friend) a fork. this word is also used to denote a sweetheart. o-poots. the posterior; the tail of an animal. boat opoots, the rudder. opoots-sill, a breech clout. ote-lagh. the sun. ow. a brother younger than the speaker. p. pahtl. full. pahtl lum or paht-lum, drunk. pahtl chuck, wet. pent. paint. mamook pent, to paint. papa. a father. pa-see-sie. a blanket; woolen cloth. pa-siooks. a frenchman. pchih or pit-chih. thin in dimensions. pe-chugh. green. pee. then; besides; and; or; but. pee weght, and also; besides which. pee nika wauwau wake, but i say, no. peh-pah. paper; a letter; any writing. mamook pehpah, to write. pel-ton. a fool; foolish; crazy. kahkwa pelton, like a fool. hyas pelton mika, you are very silly. pe-shak. bad. pe-what-tie. thin, like paper. pi-ah. fire; ripe; cooked. mamook piah, to cook; to burn. piah ship, a steamer. piah olillie, ripe berries. piah sapolill, baked bread. piah sick, the venereal disease. saghalie piah, lightning. pil. red; of a reddish color. pil illahie, red clay or vermillion. pil dolla, gold. pil chikimin, copper. pil kiuatan, a bay or chestnut horse. pil-pil. blood. mahsh pilpil, to bleed. pish. fish. pit-lilh. thick in consistence, as molasses. piu-piu. to stink; a skunk. poh. to blow. mamook poh, to blow out or extinguish, as a candle. po-lak-lie. night; darkness; dark. tenas polaklie, evening. hyas polaklie, late at night; very dark. sit-kum polaklie, midnight. po-lal-lie. gunpowder; dust; sand. polallie illahie, sandy ground. poo. the sound of a gun. mamook poo, to shoot. moxt poo, a double-barrelled gun. tohum poo, a six shooter. poo-lie. rotten. pot-latch. a gift; to give. cultus potlatch, a present or free gift. pow-itsh. a crab apple. puk-puk. a blow with the fist; a fist-fight. mamook pukpuk, to box; to fight with the fists. pukpuk solleks, to fight in anger. puss-puss. a cat. hyas pusspuss, a panther or cougar. s. sagh-a-lie. up; above; high. saghalie tyee, (literally the chief above) god. sail. a sail; any cotton or linen goods. mamook sail, to make sail. mamook keekwillie sail, to take in sail. tzum sail, printed cloth or calico. sa-kol-eks. leggings; trowsers; pantaloons. keekwillie sakoleks, drawers. sal-lal. the sallal berry. salmon. the salmon. tyee salmon, _i.e._ chief salmon, the spring salmon. salt. salt or salt taste. salt chuck, the sea. san-de-lie. ash colored; a roan horse; roan colored. sap-o-lill. wheat; flour or meal. pish sapolill, baked bread. lolo sapolill, whole wheat. se-ah-host. the face; the eyes. halo seahhost, blind. icht seahhost, one-eyed. lakit seahhost, (four eyes) spectacles. se-ah-po. a hat or cap. seahpo olillie, the raspberry. shame or shem. shame. halo shem mika? arn't [sic] you ashamed of yourself? shan-tie. to sing. she-lok-um. a looking-glass; glass. ship. ship or vessel. stick ship, a sailing vessel. piah ship, a steamer. ship man, a sailor. shoes. shoes. stick shoes, boots and shoes made of leather. shot. shot; lead. shot olillie, huckleberries. shugah. sugar. shugh. a rattle. shugh opoots, a rattlesnake. shut. a shirt. shwah-kuk. a frog. si-ah. far; far off. comparative distance is expressed by intonation or repetition; as siah-siah, very far. wake siah, near; not far. si-am. the grizzly bear. sick. sick. cole sick, the ague. sick tumtum, grieved; sorry; jealous; unhappy. sikhs. a friend. sin-a-moxt. seven. si-pah. straight, like a ramrod. sis-ki-you. a bob-tailed horse. sit-kum. a half; a part. sitkum dolla, half a dollar. sitkum sun, noon. tenas sitkum, a quarter or small part. sit-lay. stirrups. sit-shum. to swim. si-wash. an indian. skin. skin. skin shoes, moccasins. stick skin, the bark of a tree. skoo-kum. strong; strength; a ghost; an evil spirit or demon. skookum tumtum, brave. skookum chuck, a rapid. skwak-wal. a lamprey eel. skwis-kwis. a squirrel. sla-hal. a game played with eight small disks, one of which is marked. smoke. smoke; clouds; fog; steam. snass. rain. cole snass, snow. snow. snow. soap. soap. so-le-mie. the cranberry. sol-leks. anger; angry. mamook solleks, to fight. tikegh solleks, to be hostile. kumtuks solleks, to be passionate. so-pe-na. to jump; to leap. spo-oh. faded; any light color, as pale blue; drab &c. chahko spooh, to fade. spoon. a spoon. spose. suppose; if; supposing; provided that; in order that. spose mika nanitsh nika canim, if you see my canoe. spose nika klatawa kopa victoria, if or when i go to victoria. kahkwa spose, as if. stick. a stick; a tree; wood; wooden. stick skin, bark. ship stick, a mast. mitwhit stick, a standing tree. icht stick, a yard measure. stick shoes, leather shoes or boots. isick stick, the ash. stock-en. stockings or socks. stoh. loose. mamook stoh, to untie; unloose. stone. a rock or stone; bone; horn; the testicles. stone kinatan, a stallion. mahsh stone, to castrate. stote-kin. eight. stutchun. the sturgeon. suk-wal-al. a gun or musket. sun. the sun; a day. tenas sun, early. sitkum sun, noon. klip sun, sunset. sunday. sunday. icht sunday, a week. hyas sunday, a holiday. ex. icht, mokst, klone sun kopet sunday, one, two or three days after sunday. t. tagh-um. six. tahl-kie. yesterday. icht tahlkie, day before yesterday. tah-nim. to measure. tah-tle-lum. ten. mokst klone, etc., tahtlelum, signifying twenty, thirty, etc. tahtlelum pe icht, eleven, twelve. tal-a-pus. the coyote or prairie wolf, a sort of deity or supernatural being, prominent in indian mythology; a sneak. ta-mah-no-us. magic; luck; fortune; anything supernatural. ta-mo-litsh. a tub; barrel; bucket. icht tamolitsh, a bushel measure. tanse. to dance. tea. tea. te-ah-wit. the leg; the foot. klatawa teahwit, to go on foot, to walk. klook teawhit, lame. teh-teh. to trot as a horse. tenas. small; few; little; a child; the young of any animal. mokst uika tenas, i have two children. tenas hyiu, a few. tenas sun, early. te-pah. quills; the wing of a bird. tik-egh. to want; wish; love; like. hyas tikegh, to long for. ikta mika tikegh? what do you want? tik-tik. a watch. til-i-kum. people. cultus tilikum, common or insignificant persons. huloima tilikum, strangers. nika tilikum, my relations. til-i-kum-ma-ma. a father. till. tired; heavy; weight; a weight. hyas till nika, i am very tired. kansih till okook, how much does that weigh? mamook till, to weigh. tin-tin. a bell; a musical instrument. mamook tintin, to ring a bell. tipso. grass; leaves; fringe; feathers; fur. tipso illahie, prairie. dely tipso, hay. t'kope. white; light colored. tl'kope. to cut; hew; chop. toh. spit. mamook spit. toke-tie. pretty. to-lo. to earn; to win at a game; to gain. kansih dolla nika tolo spose mamook? how many dollars will i earn if i work? to-mol-la. to-morrow. ikt tomolla, the day after. tot. an uncle. to-to. to shake; sift anything; winnow. to-toosh. the breast of a female; milk. totoosh lakles, butter. to-wagh. bright; shining; light. tsee. sweet. tsee-pie. to miss a mark; to make a blunder. tseepie wayhut, to take the wrong road. tshi-ke. directly; soon. tshish. cold. tsi-at-ka. a nocturnal demon much feared by the indians. tshik-tshik. a wagon; a cart; a wheel. tchik-tchik way-hut, wagon-road. tsil-tsil or chil-chil. buttons; the stars. tsish. sharpen. mamook tsish, to sharpen. tsole-pat. a shot pouch. tso-lo. to wander in the dark; to lose one's way. tsugh. a crack or split. mamook tsugh, to split. chahko tsugh, to become split or cracked. tuk-a-mo-nuk. a hundred. it is, like ten, combined with the digits; as icht, mokst, klone tukamonuk, one hundred, two hundred, three hundred, etc. tuk-wil-la. the hazel nut; nuts in general. tum-tum. the heart; the will; opinion. mahsh tumtum, to give orders. mamook tumtum, to make up one's mind. mamook kloshe tumtum, to make friends or peace. sick tumtum, grief; jealousy. mokst tumtum nika, i am undecided. _q._ kah nesika klatawa? where shall we go? mika tumtum, whenever you please; as you will. ikta mika tumtum? what do you think? tum-wa-ta. a waterfall, cascade or cataract. tup-shin. a needle. mamook tupshin, to sew; to mend; to patch. tyee. a chief. saghalie tyee, the deity. tyee salmon, the spring salmon. tzum. mixed colors; spots or stripes; a mark or figure; writing, paint, painted. tzum sill, printed calico. tzum pehpah, writing. mamook tzum, to write. tzum illahie, blazed or surveyed land. w. wagh. to pour; to spill; to vomit. mamook wagh chuck, pour out some water. wake. no; not. wa-ki. to-morrow. wap-pa-to. a potato. wash. wash. mamook wash, to wash. waum. warm. hyas waum, hot. waum illahie, summer. mamook waum, to heat. waum-sick-cole-sick, fever and ague. wau-wau. to talk; speak; call; ask; tell; answer; talk or conversation. cultus wauwau, idle talk; stuff; nonsense. hyas wauwau, to shout. way-hut. a road or trail. chickchick wayhut, a wagon road. weght. again; also; more. pe nika weght, and i too. potlatch weght, give me some more. tenas weght, a little more yet. whim. to fell. whim stick, a fallen tree. mamook whim okook stick, fell that tree; also to throw in wrestling. win-a-pie. by-and-bye; presently; wait. wind. wind. halo wind, out of breath (dead). y. yah-hul. a name. yah-ka. he; his; him; she; it, etc. yah-kis-ilth. sharp, or cutting. yah-wa. there; thither; thence; beyond. yak-so. the hair of the head; hair generally. yak-wa. here; hither; this side of; this way. yakwa kopa okook house, this side of that house. ya-kwah-tin. the belly; the entrails. yi-em. to relate; to tell a story; to confess to a priest; a story or tale. youtl. glad; pleased; proud; (of a horse) spirited. hyas youtl yahka tumtum, his heart is very glad. youtl-kut. long; length. yout-skut. short (in dimension). part ii.--english--chinook. a. above, sagh-a-lie. absolve, mamook-stoh. acorns, kah-na-way. across, in-a-ti. admiration, hwah. afraid, kwass. after; afterwards, kim-ta. again, weght. all, kon-a-way. alms, e-la-han or e-lann. also, weght. altogether, kegh-tchie. always, kwah-ne-sum. american, boston. amusement, he-hee. and, pee. anger; angry, sol-leks. another, aallyma. ants, kuckwalla. apple, le pome. apron, keh-su or ki-su. arbutus, uva ursi; lahb. arrive at, ko. arrow, ka-li-tan. ash, isick stick. assistance, e-la-han. as if, kah-kwa spose. at, ko-pa. aunt, kwal'h. awl, shoes keep-wot. axe, la-hash. b. bad, mesahchie or peshack. bag, le sak. ball, le bal. bargain, mahkook; huyhuy. bark, stick skin. barley, la reh. barrel, tamolitsh. basin, ketling. basket, opekwan. beads, kamosuk. bear (black), chet-woot; its-woot. (grizzly), siam. beat, to, kokshut. beaver, ee-na. because, kehwa. become, to, chahko. bed, bed. before, e-lip or el-ip. behind, kimta. bell, tintin. belly, yakwahtin. below, keekwillie. belt, la sanjel. berries, olillie; olallie. best, elip kloshe. between, patsuck. beyond, yahwa. bird, kulakula. biscuit, lebiskwee. bit or dime, bit. bitter, klihl. black, klale. blackberries, klikamuks. blanket, paseesie. blind, halo seahhost. blood, pilpil. blow out, mamook pox. blue (light), spooh. blue (dark), klale. blunder, to, tsee-pie. board, la plash. boat, boat. bob-tailed; a bob-tailed horse, siskiyou. boil, to, liplip. bone, stone. borrow, to, ayahwhul. bosom (female), totoosh. both, kunamoxt. bottle, labooti. bow, opitlkegh. bowl, ooskan. box, lacasett. bracelet, klikwallie. brass, klikwallie. brave, skookum tumtum. bread, piah sapolill or le pan. break, to, kokshut. breasts, totoosh. breech clout, opoots sill. bridle, la bleed. bright, towagh. bring hither, mamook chahko. broad, klukulh. broken, klook. broom, bloom. brother, kahpho, if older than the speaker; ow, if younger. male cousins the same. brother-in-law, ek-keh. bucket, tamolitsh. buffalo, moosmoos. bullet, le bal; kalitan. bundle, kow. but, pee. butter, totoosh lakles. buttons, tsil tsil. buy, to, mahkook. by-and-by, winapie. c. candle, la shandel. calf, tenas moosmoos. calico, tzum sail. canoe, canim. carrot, la calat. carry, to, lolo. cart, tsik tsik; chickchick. cascade, tumwater. castrate, to, mahsh stone. cat, pusspuss. cataract, tumwater. cattle, moosmoos. cedar, la plash stick. certainly, nawitka. chain, la shen; chickamin lope. chair, la shase. change, to, huyhuy. christmas day, hyas sunday. cheat, to, la lah. chicken, la pool. chief, ty-ee. child, tenas. clams, ona; lukutchee; lakwitchee. clams, large kind, smetocks. clear up, to, chahko klah. cloth (cotton), sail. clouds, smoke. coal, coal. coat, capo. coffee, kaupy. cold, cole; tshis. colors, mixed, tzum. comb, comb. comb, to, mamook comb. come, to, chahko. conceal, to, mamook ipsoot. confess, to, yiem. conjuring, tamahnous. cook, to, mamook piah. copper, pil chickamin. cord, tenas lope. corn, esalth or yesalth. corrall, kullagh. cotton goods, sail. cougar, hyas pusspuss. cough, hohhoh. count, to, mamook kwunnun. cousin, see brother and sister. cow, moosmoos. coyote, talapus. crab apple, powitsh. cranberry, solemie. crazy, pel-ton. cream colored, le clem. crockery, piah lah. crooked, kiwa. cross, la cloa. crow, kahkah. cry, to, cly. cup, ooskan. curly, hunlkih. cut, to, tl'kope. d. dance, to, tanse. dark; darkness, polaklie. day, sun. dead, memaloost. deaf, ikpooie kwillan. dear, hyas mahkook. deep, klip. deer, mowitsh. demon, skookum. devil, diaub; yaub; lejaub. different, huloima. difficult, kull. dig, to, mamook illahie. dime, bit or mit. directly, tshike. dirty, paht illahie. displeasure, anah. do, to, mamook. doctor, doctin. dog, kamooks. dollar, dolla or tahla. door, la pote. doubtful, klonas. down stream, mi-mie. drawers, keekwillie sakoleks. drink, to, muckamuck chuck. drive, to, kish kish. drunk, pahtlum. dry, dely. duck (mallard), kweh kweh and hahl-hahl. dust, polallie. e. eagle, chack chack. ear, klowann. early, tenas sun. earn, to, tolo. earth, illahie. east, sun chahko. eat, to, muckamuck. egg, le sap; le zep. eight, stotekin. elk, moolock. enclosure, kullagh. english, king george. englishman, king george. enough, hyiu; kopet. entrails, kiyagh. evening, tenas polaklie. every, konaway. exchange, huyhuy. extinguish, mamook poh. eyes, seahhost. f. face, seahhost. faded, spooh. falsehood, kliminawhit. far, siah. fast, (quick), hyak. fast, (tight), kwutl. fasten, to, kow. fat, glease. father, papa. fathom, itlan. fear, kwass. feathers, tupso. fell, to, (as a tree), mamook whim. fence, kullagh. fetch, to, mamook chahko. fever, waum sick. few, tenas. field, klackan. fight, to, mamook solleks. fight with fists, mamook pukpuk. figured (as calico), tzum. file, la leem. fill, to, mamook pahtl. find, to, klap. fingers, le doo. finish, kopet. fire, piah; olapitski. first, e-lip or el-ip. fish, pish. fish-hook, ikkik. five, kwinnum. flea, sopen enapoo; chotub. flesh, itlwillie. flint, ilitsut. flour, sapolill. fly, to, kawak. fog, smoke. food, muckamuck. fool, pelton. foolish, pelton. foot, le pee. forever, kwahnesum. forget, to, mahlie. fork, la pooshet. formerly, ahnkutte; ahnkottie. four, lakit or lokit. fowl, la pool. french; frenchman, pasiooks. friends, sikhs or shihks. frog, shwahkuk. fry, to, mamook lapoel. frying pan, lapoel. full, pahtl. fundament, opoots. g. gallop, to, kwalal kwalal. gamble, mamook itlokum. gather, to, hokumelk. get, to, iskum. get out, mahkh. get up, get up or ketop. ghost, skookum. gift, cultas potlatch. glad, kwann. go, to, klatawa. god, saghalie tyee. gold, pil chickamin. good, kloshe. good-by, klahowya. goods, iktah. goose, whuywhuy; kulakulama. grandfather, chope. grandmother, chitsh. grass, tupso. grease, lakles; glease. green, pechugh. grey; a grey horse, le gley. grieved, sick tumtum. grizzly bear, siam. ground, illahie. grouse, siwash la pool. gun; musket, sukwalal. gunpowder, poh-lallie. h. hair, yakso. half, sitkum. hammer, lemahto. hand, le mah. hand, (game of), itlokum. handkerchief, hakatshum. hard, kull. hare, kwitshadie. harrow, to, mamook comb illahie. hat, seahpo; seahpult. haul, haul. hawk, shak-shak. hay, dely tupso. he; his, yahka. head, la tet. heart, tumtum. heaven, saghalie illahie. heavy, till. held to, mamook elann. hen, la pool. here, yakwa. hermaphrodite, burdash. hide, to, ipsoot. high, saghalie. hit, to, kwul'h. hoe, la peosh. hog, cosho. hole, klawhap. holiday, sunday. horn, stone. horse, kiuatan. horseshoes, chickamin shoes. house, house. how, kahta. how are you, klahowya. how many, kunsih; kunjuk. hundred, tukamonuk. hungry, olo. huckleberries, shot olillie. hurry, howh; hyak. i. i, nika. if, spose. in, kopa. inability, kowkwuti. indeed, whaah. indian, siwash. in shore, mahtwallie. iron, chickamin. island, statejay. it, yahka. j. jealous, sick tumtum. jump, to, sopena. k. kamass-root, lakamass. kettle, ketling. key, la kley. kick, to, chakkin. kiss; to kiss, bebe. knife, opitsah. knock, to, koko. knotty, hunl-kih. know, to, kumtuks. l. lame, klook teahwhit. lamprey eel, skwakwal. land, illahee. language, la lang. large, hyas. lately, chee. laughter, heehee. lazy, lazy. lead, kalitan. leaf, tupso or tipso. leap, to, sopena. lean, to, lagh. leave, to, mahsh. leave off, to, kopet. leg, teahwhit. leggings, mitass. lend, to, ayahwhul. lick, to, klakwun. lie, to, kliminawhit. light, towagh. lightning, saghalie piah. like, kahkwa. like, to, tikegh. little, tenas. long, youtlkut. long ago, ahnkutte or ahnkottie. look, to, nanitsh. look here! nah. look out! kloshe nanitsh. looking-glass, sholokum. loose, stoh. lose the way, to, tsolo; tseepie wayhut. louse, enapoo or inapoo. love, to, tikegh. m. magic, tamahnous. make, to, mamook. man, man. many, hyiu. marry, to, malieh. mass, (ceremony of), la messe. mast, ship stick. mat, kliskwiss. mattock, la peosh. measure, to, tahnim. meat, itlwillie. medicine, la mestin. mend, to, mamook tipshin. menstruate, to, mahsh pilpil. metal, or metallic, chickamin. middle, the, katsuk or kotsuk. midnight, sitkum polaklie. milk, totoosh. mill, moola. mind, the, tumtum. miss, to, tseepie. moccasins, skin shoes. molasses, melass. money, chickamin. month, moon. mole, skad. more, weght. morning, tenas sun. mosquito, melakwa. mother, mama; na-ah. mountain, lamonti. mouse, hoolhool. month, la boos. muck, hyiu. mule, le mel. musical instrument, tintin. musket, musket. mussels, toluks. my; mine, nika. n. nails, le cloo. name, nem; yahhul. near, wake siah. neck, le cou. needle, keepot. never, wake kunsik. new, chee. night, polaklie. nine, kwaist or kweest. no; not, wake. noise, la tlah. none, halo. nonsense, cultus wauwau. noon, sitkum sun. north, stowbelow. nose, nose. nothing, cultus. notwithstanding, keghtchie. now, alta. numerals-- , ikt. , mokst. , klone. , lakit. , kwinnum. , taghum. , sinnamokst. , stotekin. , kwaist. , tahtlelum. , tahtlelum pe ikt. , mokst taht-lelum. , ikt tukamonuk. nuts, tukwilla. o. oak, kull stick. oar, la lahm; la lum. oats, la wen. off, klak. off shore, mahtlinnie. oil, glease. old, oleman. old man, oleman. old woman, lam-mieh. one, ikt. one-eyed, ikt seahhost. onion, la onion. open, hahlakl. opinion, tumtum. opposite to, inati. or, pe. order, to, mahsh tumtum. other, huloima. otter (land), nemamooks. our, nesika. out doors, klagh-a-nie. owl, waugh waugh. ox, moosmoos. oyster, chetlo or jetlo; klogh-klogh. p. paddle, a, isick. paddle, to, mamook isick. paint, pent. paint, to, mamook pent. paper, pehpah. pantaloons, sakoleks. part, sitkum. panther, swaawa. peas, le pwau. people, tilikum. perhaps, klonas. petticoat, kalakwahtie. piebald, le kye. pin, kwekwiens. pine, la gome stick. pipe, la peep. pistol, tenas musket. pitch, la gome. plank, la plosh. plate, la siet. pleased, youtl. plough, le shalloo. plough, to, klugh illahie. pole, le pehsh. poor, klahowyum; halo ikta. pork, cosho. porpoise, tuiceco. posteriors, opoots. potato, wappatoo. pour, to, wagh. pot, ketling. powder, polallie. prairie wolf, talapus. presently, alkie; winapie. pretty, toketie. priest, le plet. proud, youtl; kwetl'h. provided that, spose. pull, haul. q. quarter, tenas sitkum. quarter (of a dollar), kwahta. quick, hyak. quills, tepeh. r. rabbit, kwitshadie. racehorse, coolie kiuatan. rain, snass. raspberries, seahpult olillie. rat, hyas hoolhool. rattle, shugh. rattlesnake, shughopoots. razor-fish, ona. reach, ko. red, pil. relate, to, yiem. remain, mitlite. return, to, kelipi. ribbon, le loba. ribs, etlinwill. rice, lice. rifle, calipeen. ring, a, kweokweo. ripe, piah. ripe berries, piah olillie. river, chuck. rooster, la pool. road, wayhut. roan colored, sandelie. roast, mamook la pellah. rock, stone. rope, lope. rotten, poolie. round, lolo. rudder, boat opoots. rum, lum. run, coolie. s. sack, le sak. saddle, la sell. saddle housings, le pishemo. sail, sail. sailor, ship-man. salmon berries, salmon olillie. salt, salt. sand, polallie. sandwich island, oihee. sash, la sanjel. saw, la gwin; la scie. say, to, wauwau. scissors, la seezo. sea, salt chuck. seal, olhyiu siwash cosho. see, to, nanitsh. sell, to, mahcook. seven, sinamoxt. sew, to, mamook tipshin. shake, to, toto; hullel. shame, shem. sharp, yahkisilt'h. sharpen, to, mamook tsish. she; her, yahka. shell money, (the small size), coop-coop; (the large), hykwa. sheep, la mooto. shingle, lebahdo. shining, towagh. ship, ship. shirt, shut. shoes, shoes. shoot, to, mamook poh. short, yuteskut. shot pouch, kalitan le sac; tsolepat. shot, shot; tenas le bal. shout, to, hyas wauwau. shovel, la pell. shut, to, ikpooie. sick, sick. sift, to, toto. sight, in, klah. silk, la sway. silver, t'kope chickamin. similar, kahkwa. since, kimta. sing, to, shantie. sister, kahpho, if older than the speaker; ats, if younger. sit, to, mitlite. six, taghum. skin, skin. skunk, hum opoots; piupiu; skubeyou. sky, koosagh. slave, eletie; mistshimus. sleep, moosum. slowly, klahwa. small, tenas. smell, a, humm. smoke, smoke. snake, oluk. snow, snow; cole snass. soap, soap. soft, klimmin. sorrel colored; a sorrel horse, le blau. sorry, sick tumtum. sour, kwates. south, stegwaah. spade, la pell. speak, to, wauwau. spill, to, wagh. spirits, lum. split, to, tsugh. spectacles, dolla seahhost or lakit seahhost. spit, to, mamook toh. split, to become, chohko tsugh. spoon, spoon. spotted, le kye; tzum. spurs, le seeblo. squirrel, skwiskwis. stab, to, klemahun. stand, to, mitwhit. stars, tsil tsil. stay, to, mitlite. steal, to, kapswalla. steam, smoke. steamer, piah ship. stick, a, stick. stink, a, piupiu; humm. stirrup, sitlay. stockings, stocken; kushis. stone, stone. stop, to, kopet. store, mahkook house. story, ehkahnam. straight, delate or delet; sipah. strawberries, amotee. strong, skookum. sturgeon, stutchin. stubborn, howklkult. sugar, le sook; shughae; shukwa. summer, waum illahie. sun, sun; otelagh. sunday, sunday. sunset, klip sun. suppose, spose. surprise, kwah. swan, kahloke. sweep, to, mamook bloom. sweet, tsee. swim, sitshum. t. table, la tahb. tail, opoots. take, to, iskum. take care! kloshe nanitsh! take off or out, mamook klak; mahsh. tale or story, yiem; ehkahnam. talk, to, wauwau. tame, kwass. tea, tea. teach, to, mamook kumtuks. tear, to, klugh. teeth, la lah. tell, to, wauwau. ten, tahtlelum. testicles, stone. thank you, mahsie. that, okook. that way, yahwa. there, yahwa; kopah. they, klaska. thick (as molasses), pitlilh. thin (as a board), p'chih; pewhatie. thing, iktah. think, pittuck. this, okook. this way, yukwa. thou; thy; thine, mika. thread, klapite. three, klone. throw away, mahsh. tide, see chuck. tie, to, kow. tight, kwutl. tinware, malah. tip, to, lagh. tired, till. to; towards, kopa. tobacco, kinootl; kinoos. to-morrow, tomolla. tongue, la lang. tough, kull. trail, wayhut. trap, la piege. tree, stick. tree fallen, whim stick. trot, to, tehteh. trout, tzum salmon. trowsers, sakoleks. true, delate. trunk, daessett. truth, delate; wauwau. tub, tamolitsh. turnips, la moo-ow. twine, tenas lope; klapite. two; twice, mokst. u. uncle, tot. under, keekwillie. understand, to, kumtuks. unhappy, sick tumtum. untamed, le molo. untie, to, mamook stoh; mahsh kow. up, saghalie. upset, to, kelipi. us, nesika. v. venereal, the, piah sick. venison, mowitsh. very, hyas. vessel, ship. vest, la west. vomit, to, wagh. w. wagon, tsik-tsik; chickchick. wait, winapie. wander, to, tsolo. want, to, tikegh. warm, waum. wash, to, mamook wash. watch, a, tiktik. water, chuck. waterfall, tumwater. we, nesika. weigh, to, mamook till. wet, pahtl chuck. week, ikt sunday. well then, abba. west, sun mitlite. whale, eh-ko-lie; kwah-nic; kwadis. what, iktah. wheat, sapolill. wheel, tsik-tsik; chikchik. when, kansih; kanjuk. where, kah. whip, le whet. white, t'kope. who, klaksta. whole, lolo. why, kahta. wicked, mesahchie. wide, klukulh. wild, le molo. will, the, tumtum. willow, eenastick. win, to, tolo. wind, wind. window, glass. winter, cole illahie. wipe, to, klakwun. wire, chickamin lope. wish, to, tikegh. with, kopa. witchcraft, tamahnous. without, halo. wolf, leloo. woman, klootchman. woman (old), lammieh. woman's gown, coat. wood; wooden, stick. work, to, mamook. worn out, oleman. worthless, cultus. wound, to, klemahun. write, to, mamook pehpah; mamook tzum. writing, tzum. y. yard, ikt stick. year, ikt cole. yellow, kwakawak. yes, nawitka; ah-ha; e-eh. yes indeed, nawitka. yesterday, tahlkie; tahlkie sun. you; your; yours, mesika. young, tenas. the lord's prayer in jargon. nesika papa klaksta mitlite kopa saghalie, kloshe kopa our father who stayeth in the above, good in nesika tumtum mika nem; kloshe mika tyee kopa konaway our hearts (be) thy name; good thou chief among all tilicum; kloshe mika tumtum kopa illahie, kahkwa kopa people; good thy will upon earth as in saghalie. potlatch konaway sun nesika muckamuck. spose the above. give every day our food. if nesika mamook masachie wake nika hyas solleks pe spose we do ill (be) not thou very angry and if klaska masahchie, kopa nesika wake nesika solleks kopa any one evil towards us not we angry towards klaska. mahsh siah kopa nesika konaway masahchie. them. send away far from us all evil. kloshe kahkwa. * * * * * t. n. hibben & co., booksellers & stationers. [established .] sole agents for macmunn's views of canadian pacific railway, victoria and surroundings. government street, victoria, b. c. * * * * * indian curiosities. the finest collection of indian curios is to be found at e. j. salmon & co's furniture and crockery store, johnson st., below government. victoria, b. c. _tourists are invited to see our collection_ picturegraphs free. don't forget the sign of the salmon. * * * * * victoria planing mill, constance st., victoria, b. c. muirhead & mann, manufacturers and dealers in doors, windows, mouldings, guttering, --in and outside blinds-- conductors, finished pickets, scroll sawing and turning, door and window frames _also, small finishing lumber of every description._ ship and steamboat work. general finishing work for contractors a specialty. * * * * * { transcriber's note: this ad appeared inside the front cover in the original. } c. a. lombard & co., --direct importers of-- pianos, organs, band and string instruments, book and sheet music. =sole agents for british columbia of= =steinway & sons= pianos, of new york, =carl ronisch= pianos, of dresden, =w. bell & co.= pianos, of canada, =weber= pianos, of new york, =sohmer= pianos, of new york --and-- =bell & co's celebrated organs=, --also for-- edwin ashdown's valuable musical publications. we call the special attention of the public to our ronisch pianos, which for _price_, _tone_, _touch_ and _durability_ have not their superior in this country, a fact we can attest by the large number we have sold, and the numerous letters of praise received from purchasers. pianos to rent or sold on instalments. repairing and tuning. government st next door to hibben & co., p. o. box . victoria, b. c.