pictures of jewish home-life fifty years ago by hannah trager author of _stories of child-life in palestine_ _festival stories of child-life in palestine_ _pioneers in palestine_ with a prefatory letter by leo jung with four plates and a glossary new york bloch publishing co., inc. printed in great britain by the stanhope press, ltd. rochester to my beloved parents in reverence and gratitude for their beautiful and holy example foreword my dear mrs. trager, it gives me great pleasure to write a preface to your new book. i consider it a real privilege, since it represents the fulfilment of a hope expressed some five years ago. when you sent me the first article for "the sinaist" i told you that your pen would win the love and the esteem not only of the child, but essentially also of the adult readers. the simple joyousness of your style, the beauty and freshness of the atmosphere, which you very well succeed in bringing to the pages of your books, the strength of your faith, and the vividness of your description, the love of jew above the love of palestine, all these combine to render your volumes valuable additions to the small stock of good jewish literature in english. it is not only that you teach, while talking so pleasantly; that you instruct while you interest and amuse; that you have your own personality in the stories; that you convey the charm of eretz israel, and the beauty of holiday spirit; but because your stories help us to feel the depth of faith and the height of ideal as the self-evident, normal factors of jewish life. for the children of our age, both young and old, should know that that god-consciousness of the jew, that wondrous sense of eternity in his mission, is not a laboriously acquired conviction, not the result of some spasmodic effort of grasping the innermost meaning of our history, but the natural pervading spirit of jewish life, the air which the jew breathes, when he lives with torah as his guide and mitzvah as his ladder towards heaven. they who read your stories conceive a deep love of judaism, they find a desire growing in them to live the life which produces such happiness and goodness, they will want to study the law and lore, of which that life is an outward expression. i have given your tales to children in various countries and all of them were enchanted with them, regretting that "there were only two books by mrs. trager." i am glad indeed to find that another one is coming out. and it is in the interest of our youth that i hope you will give us every year some of these nourishing and very palatable fruits of your pen. you will thereby be doing an additional bit for our god and our people whom you are serving so loyally. you reinterpret to the jewish youth of to-day the treasures they are so carelessly abandoning, you will shed light and reawaken love and hope in the heart of many a jew, who seemed to feel that our glorious faith had no message for the child of to-day, unless it were shorn by our 'religious' barbers, robbed of its native beauty and reduced to some platform-commonplace. as a lamented london maggid told me, "there still live some real soldiers of god." such are those who use persuasion from the pulpit, such as shine through the example of their own humane jewishness and such as capture our hearts by artless beautiful tales of jewish life and lore. i wish you every success in the world, yours very sincerely, leo jung contents the arrival in jerusalem the welcome the celebration of purim the baking of matzos lag b'omer the sabbath in palestine the succah how charity is given father frost in jerusalem engagement and wedding ceremonies jubilee of zorach barnett glossary list of illustrations the father teaching the child the meaning of the tsitsith chadar (school) yenshva (talmudical school) the old lady the arrival in jerusalem on a friday afternoon everyone was very busy in benjamin's home washing and dressing to go to shule. the mother was getting the living-room clean and tidy for the sabbath. the offence the family lived in a few rooms off commercial road, in one of the many back streets. the underground kitchen had to be used as the dining-and sitting-room, for they had not been many years in england and it was a hard struggle for benjamin's parents to make ends meet and provide for a large family. the father and the elder boys were dressing as best they could in this room. just then the mother came in, very excited, and said to her husband: "what will you say to this? i gave benjamin his sabbath clothes and a clean tsitsith, and what do you think he did?" "what?" asked the father, and stopped brushing his clothes. "why, he took the tsitsith and threw it on the floor, and said he would never wear it again. i punished him, and told him to put it on again. so you had better go to him and give him what he deserves." "you are rather hasty, my dear wife," said the father; "for, before punishing him, you should have asked him why he did such a thing." "what!" exclaimed the mother, "do you think i have nothing else to do but to stand and argue with him just before sabbath, when i have so much work? you are far too easy-going, jacob--you should really be firmer with the children." "no, no!" said jacob, who was a kindly man and understood human nature better than his hasty, but well-meaning and loving, wife. the struggle and constant hard work in keeping the home of a large family was telling upon her, and any disobedience in the children irritated her very much. "we must not be hasty with the children," continued jacob, "especially now-a-days, for they live under different circumstances from those we knew when we were young. instead of hastily scolding and punishing them, let us rather quietly reason with them, when possible, and show them where they are wrong." "perhaps you may be right," said benjamin's mother; "so let us leave the matter till you return from shule and have had our sabbath meal--then you can quietly ask benjamin why he acted as he did." the boy benjamin an elder brother was sent to call benjamin to go to shule with his father and brothers. benjamin expected a scolding from his father similar to that which he had had from his mother, so he came into the room looking very sulky. as nothing was said to him on the subject when he came into the room, he took his prayer-book, and followed his father to shule. benjamin was like many other boys of , not very clever, but blessed with a good deal of common sense. his great ambition was to become a teacher, and so he worked steadily at his lessons. his reason for wishing to be a teacher was that he wanted to rule and to punish boys as his master did. whenever he had a caning from his headmaster he always consoled himself with the thought that _his_ turn would come some day--when he was a teacher--to do the same to other boys. when they returned from shule and nothing was said, even at the evening meal, about the way benjamin had annoyed his mother, he was rather surprised. his mother, during the time they were at shule, had made the living-room, which was really the kitchen, look so clean and bright with the five lighted candles placed on the snow-white table-cloth, and the old stove so well polished, that it almost looked as bright as a looking glass. what interested the young ones most was the saucepan which stood on one side of the stove waiting for its contents to be put on the table, and, oh, how they enjoyed the sweet savour which came from it! friday eve they all gathered round the table to welcome the princess sabbath. the father made kiddush, and the wine cup was handed round to all. then they washed their hands and said a prayer before sitting down to the evening meal, which passed off very pleasantly, and zmires (or songs or psalms of praise) were sung at intervals during the meal. when the meal was ended, and the grace said by the father, they all separated: one or two went out for a walk, while the other members of the family took a newspaper or a book and quietly read. when the table was cleared, the mother sat down to rest. grateful, indeed, was she for this sabbath rest after her week's hard work. she often said that, for such as herself, no blessing was as great as the command: "thou shalt not do any work on the sabbath." word of love when all were quietly settled down, benjamin's father took him between his knees, and said: "my son, i wish to ask you something, and i want you to answer my question frankly and truly. what made you throw the tsitsith down on the floor this afternoon and say to your mother that you would not wear it?" the boy benjamin dropped his head and was silent for a minute or two, for to hear his father speak in a kindly way made benjamin far more ashamed of himself and his deed than if his father had scolded him and given him a whipping--in fact, he felt so wretched that he longed to run out of the room and hide himself from everybody. his father's knowledge of human nature made him understand what was passing through benjamin's mind, and he said: "do not fear to tell me, my son, why you acted in such an unusual way, for there must be some reason for a jewish boy to act so." with his head still down, benjamin said: "when i go swimming in the baths, my school-fellows see my tsitsith when i undress, and they make fun of it and pull it about, and say all sorts of nasty things to me for wearing it, and it makes me feel i cannot stand it any longer. i will gladly put on my tsitsith at home in the morning when i say my prayers, but, father, do let me go to school without wearing it?" "i expected something like this," said his father, looking at his wife. "listen to me, my child--instead of being ashamed, you should feel it a privilege to wear tsitsith." "but i can't see why," said benjamin. "well," said his father, "i will tell you the idea of the tsitsith. when you say the shema twice a day, as every good jew is expected to do, you read in it that god commanded us, through moses, to wear a fringe on our garment--the tsitsith, a visible sign to remind us of his commandments, just in the same way as a table, spread ready for a meal, reminds us of our meals. our religion is not a thing to be kept only for the sabbath and the holy days, and left out of our minds on all other days. our religion must be a living influence, always with us, so the tsitsith is a very simple kind of symbol to be ever worn to remind a jew of his god, his duty to him and to his neighbour. it is not only we jews who have religious symbols; every other religion has them. now imagine if you were to go up to a christian boy and mock him and say nasty words to him for wearing a cross, or crucifix, he would turn round and fight you, and he would be right in doing so, for no one has a right to insult another for wearing or doing what he believes to be holy. instead of being ashamed when you were mocked and laughed at by christian boys for wearing your tsitsith, you should have asked them to hear you explain the reason for wearing it. i am sure they would not have laughed at you any more. they would respect you for trying to be true and to live up to your convictions. "we jews have, in the past, made a great mistake in not letting the outside world know more of the deeper spiritual meaning of each of our symbols. had we not done this, we should have been better understood by non-jews, and our children would not have suffered as you and many others also have done, through the ignorant mocking of your christian schoolmates. "i know that in palestine the jews, whether old or young, greatly love to wear their tsitsith, and take a pride in letting them be seen, so that the arabs and the turks look upon the tsitsith as a sacred garment." [illustration: the father teaching the child the meaning of the tsitsith (sacred garment)] uncle's letter "how do you know this, father?" said benjamin. by this time all in the room had dropped their papers and books, and were listening to their father. "well, this is how i know: nearly thirty years ago my uncle and his family went to live in jerusalem, and for many years one of my cousins used to write to me about once a month. his letters were most interesting. when his letters came i could almost imagine, when reading them, that i was living in bible times. "have you any of his letters still, father?" they all exclaimed. "yes," said the father, "i have many of them." "oh, do read some of them to us!" they pleaded. "all right, i will; and i will first try to find the one about the tsitsith." the father went up to his bedroom, and soon came down with a bundle of letters wrapped in a newspaper. he started looking through them while all the family stood around him, watching as eagerly as if he were searching for an heirloom. "i will choose a very short one," said the father, "for it is on the subject i have spoken to benjamin about; but if you like i will make it a rule every friday evening, after our sabbath meal, to read some of the letters to you." the holy city when all were quietly and comfortably seated, their father started reading: "my dear cousin,--after a great many adventures and suffering (which i will write to you about another time) we arrived safely in jerusalem. to me, it seemed rather dull after london, but both father and mother shed tears of joy when they at last arrived in the holy city. some people met us a little way out, for father had written telling them we were coming. we were almost royally received and heartily welcomed, for very few jews come here with their young families. "we must have looked a sight--you in london could not imagine anything like our cavalcade! first went father riding on a mule, with mother following on another mule. mother's saddle was made with pillows, for it is impossible for a woman to ride for sixteen or eighteen hours without a soft, comfortable seat. "you go up high hills, and then down again, imagining every time you go down that you will topple over and fall over the precipice and be killed. in fact, your heart is in your mouth every five minutes, so that by the time you arrive in jerusalem (which is surrounded by hills) you are almost too weak to rejoice at the beauty that greets your sight, for nowhere in the world can, i think, anything be seen more beautiful than a sunrise over the mountains around jerusalem. "oh, i forgot to tell you that we youngsters were put into baskets on a camel's back, and how we were shaken! i felt as if i were praying and shaking all the time, for it seemed as if we could never get to jerusalem alive in this way." the proud boys of jerusalem "at last we entered the holy city, and arrived at father's friend's house, where we were made very welcome and treated most kindly. i soon made friends with the boys, for, you know, i can speak yiddish quite well. "they are funny little chaps. they look like old men, with long kaftans (coats) and side ear-locks of hair, carrying their prayer book or bible to shule. the first thing i noticed was the tsitsith. they wear really long ones, with long fringes hanging down about a quarter of a yard or more. they wear them as we do a waistcoat, so that they can be seen by everyone, not as we wear them in england, tucked away out of sight. here young and old, even little boys who can only just walk and lisp their prayers, wear them, and, what is more, take a real pleasure in wearing them. i asked some of them why they wore them so openly, and they answered: 'because when we look at them we always remember that our chief duty in life is to try to obey god's commands, and if we had them tucked away out of sight we should forget to be obedient.' 'besides,' they said, 'we are commanded in the torah to do so openly.' then i told them if we wore them so openly in europe we should perhaps be laughed at by some people and made fun of. they said: 'why should doing so make us be laughed at by other nations? do we laugh at the symbols and charms that many of them wear? every nation,' they said, 'has its tokens and symbols, and we jews have ours, and we should rejoice in wearing ours when they are to help us to feel that god is near us when we think and act rightly.' all this made me think very seriously, and in a way i had never thought before. i began to realize that they were more in the right than we jews are in england. "so now i have decided to wear my tsitsith, too, on the outside, as the jerusalem boys do. the boys never play except on the quiet, just now and then, for their parents think that their only duty in life is to study and do as many mitzvoth as they can. really, the boys are as full of fun and pranks as we english boys, and they just love a bit of play and larking when they can get it. "i must now end this letter, but i have a lot more to tell you, and i will keep my promise and write you by degrees of all i see. meanwhile, i send you the greeting of zion and sabbath. rachael wanted to put a letter into my envelope to your sister, but she says she has not finished it yet, although she has already written ten pages. so i will wait no longer, in case i miss the post, as it goes only once a week from here, and sometimes only once a month." thus ended the first letter, and benjamin's brothers and sisters were so pleased with it that they were delighted that one of the bundle of letters should be read aloud after the sabbath meal on every friday evening. benjamin was quite happy now, for, although he had done a thing which was not right, now that he had repented good would come out of it, for there was a chance of their now having pleasanter and more instructive sabbath evenings than they had ever had before. besides, he now made up his mind always to wear his tsitsith. the welcome on the following friday, after the sabbath evening meal, the boys asked their father to read them another letter from his cousin in jerusalem. he was pleased at their eagerness, and, while upstairs getting the letter, some of the boys' friends came in and settled comfortably down, for all were eager to hear the letter read. mr jacob said: "this time i will read a letter from your cousin dora to my sister which will certainly interest you, my dear," turning to his daughter, "but at the same time, i think it will interest you all." "my dear milly,--isaac must have written to jacob all about our arrival, so i will begin by giving you some idea of our life here and my impressions. the people, who so kindly asked us to stay with them till father finds a dwelling, have a few rooms in a house, which has a marble paved courtyard. six other families also have two or three rooms each. all the work is done in the courtyard, even the cooking; for each family uses tiny stoves, made of mud, into which they put a little lighted charcoal and cook just outside or near their own doors; for there are no kitchens or fireplaces in any of the rooms, and thus we see what each family cooks. the sephardim (jews who have lived here for years) eat their meals in the courtyard. they lay a mat on the marble tiles, on which they place a small low table, and they sit on the mat and eat. two sephardim families have rooms in the house and they speak arabic and spanish, and their ways of living are more like those of the turks, just as the jews in england live more like the english. "everyone seems most interested in us. many people have come to visit us, to see the new arrivals! "the evening of the day on which we arrived was friday; there was a clear moonlight such as you would not often see in england, and it was very warm, too; so we and our visitors sat in the courtyard. all eagerly asked us many questions, till quite late; and thus the evening passed very quickly and pleasantly. "after prayers on sabbath some people sent a bottle of wine and a most delicious pudding, which is made nowhere but in jerusalem. it tastes like milk and honey, with other tasty things mixed up in it. others sent a lovely sponge cake, coated with different-coloured sugar-icing: many other good things were also given to us; and they lasted us for nearly a month. "later in the day the people who sent the eatables paid us visits, and ate some of the good things. it is rather a nice custom, i think, for new arrivals to have no bother to prepare food for their visitors, as it gives them time to enjoy their company. what a lot of talking there was! the men discussed several things with father, while the women wanted to know many things about england which mother could tell them. the boys and girls could not take their eyes off our clothes, so much did they admire them! it was quite amusing, the funny questions they asked us about them. they all promised to help us look for a dwelling; and they kept their promise. i can tell you it was a great help and comfort to us that they did, for i don't know what would have become of us out here, away from our old friends, where the ways of living are so different from what we have been used to. whether it will always be so or not, of course i can't say--time alone will show. "very soon afterwards they found us a vacant dwelling, which father was very thankful to get, and in my next letter i will tell you something of our life after we had moved in; but i must tell you more of what happened when we were staying with our kind host. the first afternoon, one of our visitors insisted on our i going to her home; so, when i and our youngsters arrived, we were taken to a room, and in it was a table covered with lovely apricots, and delicious-looking pastries and jams; also wine which only cost d. a bottle, so it is very nearly as cheap as buying water. when they handed us some of the good things we naturally took them and ate them. "suddenly i saw our host's children move away from us saying: 'she is a shiksa,' and 'he is a shakitz,' and they kept on whispering and pointing to us. i could not think what we had done to make them act in such a way, and so asked their mother. she answered: 'they are surprised to see you eating without making a brocha (a blessing), for our children unless they first make a brocha never taste anything.' "you know, dear milly, that, though we too were taught to do as they here, yet the hurry and scurry of going to school and the busy life in london have made us forget to practise these religious laws. we, however, felt very uncomfortable and ashamed of ourselves, and made up our minds to get into the habit of doing it--that is to remember to thank our creator for every blessing we receive, including food--so that it should become a matter-of-course. "now i must tell you about our water-supply, for the scarcity of water struck us, very much, coming from london; for here every drop is precious and is used for several things, as every drop has to be bought, and money amongst our jerusalem brethren is very scarce. in fact, it often costs more than the wine of the country. "a water-carrier brings us up every morning a skin bag of water (it is made of skins sewn together, with a small outlet at the top); for it we pay twopence, which is equal to more than a shilling in london. the water that he brings he pours into a large earthern jar, which keeps it cool, and to it is attached over the mouth of the jar a sieve which is made of thick unbleached calico: if this were not done, hundreds of little red worms would get into the jar, because the water in palestine is full of them. a law was made by the jews that to drink water that had not been passed through a sieve was a sin; and, as little children are taught not to commit any sin, they do not drink any water that has not been passed through a sieve; owing to this, many illnesses are prevented among the jews that are rampant among the arabs and others. "the jews are also very careful about their water for ordinary use, yet they really employ it more plentifully than we do in london when used in connection with laws of health as laid down in the shulchan aruch (a book of laws). for example, as soon as you step out of your bed, you pour water over your hands, wash your face, gargle your throat, and rub your teeth with a clean finger and rinse your mouth. no one would think of moving out of the room without doing this. i know among the very orthodox jews in london they do the same thing, but the average jew does not do it, and here it is done by everyone--even a baby is taught to do it the same way. "later in the day, or when the men go to synagogue, and we have finished with our household duties, we have the regular soap-and-water wash. then again, everytime we have a meal we have to wash our hands and repeat a blessing; and, as this is done at various other times in a large family, it takes a good deal of water, but as it is used for cleaning purposes we need not stint ourselves. this law is especially valuable here, for it is very hot, and, if we were not very clean and especially careful about cleansing our eyes and mouths and throat, we should run the risk of catching a great many diseases which are quite common in the holy land at present. "i remarked to some women that it surprised me how much water was used for personal washing considering how scarce it was, but they told me that they were as careful with every drop of water as they were with food; none was wasted. where the religious laws commanded the use of water for personal washing and cleansing they did not grudge it; for was not the body of man the temple where the holy spirit of god dwelt? god's spirit is in each one of us, and, therefore, we must do our best to keep our bodies clean for the presence of our heavenly king, just as carefully as we should keep a house or palace clean in which our earthly king dwelt--more carefully indeed. what would courtiers around an earthly king say if they saw us take our food in the presence of the king, and praise him, with dirty hands? "they save water in many ways that are rather amusing to a stranger until he gets to know the reason for it. for instance, they do not, at meals, use different plates on the sabbath, when they have a few courses: they eat the fish on one side of the plate, and then they wipe it and turn the plate over, and have soup and meat on the deeper side--thus saving the washing of many plates. "in my next letter i will write you all my tribulations and struggles in getting used to the new life when we moved into our own house. my great comfort is that we have got to know an american family, and they have been so kind to us and so cheery that it has made us feel a bit brighter, and mother says that in time we shall get used to our new life. but i doubt it after living in london." when mr jacob had finished reading the letter the young folks began talking, the older ones listening and giving a smile now and then. one said: "i should not like to be there." "neither should i," said another girl; "it must be awful after london." "the only thing that i like about the life," said the former, "is the hospitality and the friendliness that they show to one another, and the jolly good time they give to people who are utter strangers to them. we don't do that here--we seem cold and unfriendly." the celebration of purim as had now become a custom, the young friends of the jacobs had all collected on the next friday evening in the bright and warm kitchen-sitting room. after a short friendly chat with them mr jacobs said: "as purim will begin in two days, perhaps you would like to hear how our cousins saw it celebrated when they went to palestine, so i have chosen this letter to read to you this evening: "in jerusalem a week is none too long to prepare for purim. as you know, when we lived in london we always were strict about keeping our holy days; but while there i never realized the pleasure and excitement during purim that one sees in jerusalem. "old and young are equally full of fun and joy, and there is plenty of rushing about with sleeves tucked up. at other times the women here gossip a great deal, and the girls naturally copy their elders and gossip too; but, when preparing for purim, they are all too busy to talk or even to ask questions. the boys, too, up to the age of twelve, are allowed to help. some break up the big pieces of loaf-sugar, and beat up the eggs, and take the cakes, when ready, to the public ovens, for here there are no proper ovens as there are in london houses, so a public oven is built not far from the synagogue. it is very large, and each family sends its cakes in its own tins to be baked in it. generally about half a dozen tins are carried by each boy. nothing i have seen before can be compared with the many kinds of delicious cakes and stuffed monkeys that are seen here. my mouth waters even when i think of the delicious strudels filled with sesames and plenty of raisins and shiros! these things are very cheap here. "as there are not many boys free to help, you see quite young children, as well as young women and even grandmothers, going to and from the public oven, carrying tins of all the purim delicacies. as they wait while the cakes are being baked, or waiting their turn to have their cakes put in, oh! what a chatter there is, and i imagine nowhere else can there be anything like it. i called it the 'female club' instead of 'an old maids club,' as mr zangwill did, for there were no old maids waiting near the oven. "most of them come as early as a.m., and none care to leave till they have their cakes baked, for, if you do, your tins will be pushed aside as you are not there to scream at and scold the baker--if someone slips a copper into his hand he, on the quiet, puts their tins in first, though they may have come later! "besides, if you are not there to watch carefully (for the tins are not named or numbered), someone might take your tins in exchange for his own, if the cakes, etc., look more tempting. during purim this is not looked upon as stealing, but merely as a joke or a bit of fun. the youngsters will not move an inch unless they can trust someone to take their place. so i leave you to try to imagine the noise and the chatter. there is probably not a thing that has happened in jerusalem during the last two months that is not discussed around the public oven while people are waiting for their cake-tins; and, as everyone wants to talk rather than to listen, the noise is like the buzz in a factory. "after all the cooking and so forth was finished, of course we had to keep the fast of esther, and everyone, even babies went to shule to hear the megilla (the _book of esther_) read; and, when the chazan came to haman, the gragers went off with just such a noise as they do in the london shules in old montague street or booth street. then we went home; and after the evening meal the joyfulness began, for they did not wait till the next day, as we do in england. "as only one room was lighted up by each family to economize light and for other reasons--there are no curtains or blinds to draw down--we were able to go through all meah sheorim and stop a minute or two at every lighted window and watch the goings on. we heard nothing but singing and clapping of hands, while the children danced. sometimes one of the elders looking on could not resist joining in the fun, and tied his kaftan behind his back so as to leave his legs free, put one of the youngsters on his shoulders, and danced like a chassid or a jolly irishman. "as we went from house to house peeping in at the windows, sometimes some of the family would come out and drag us in by force, and make us drink wine and eat cakes. if we did not wish to join in the dancing, but wanted to leave, they would just say 'shalom'--'go in peace but come again.' i can tell you it was jolly, and nowhere else in all the world could yomtov be kept up as it is here. "we were given wine in so many houses that from the eldest to the youngest we were beginning to feel rather funny. next morning, after being well shaken up by father, and after we had had a wash with cold water in the open air, we made up our minds to be firmer at the next purim. "after going in the morning to hear the chazan again, and coming home and enjoying the hamantaschen and other good things, then begins the pleasure and excitement of sending shalach-manoth to friends, acquaintances, and chiefly to the poor, and even to enemies if you have any. as you are supposed, if possible, to send back to the sender something similar to what is sent to you, things cannot be made ready beforehand. to the poor you always send useful presents as well as delicacies which are likely to last them for months or longer. "as to the beggars, i never imagined there could be so many in one country. we generally get enough beggars coming to us on fridays and before holy days, but at yom kippur and purim they come in crowds. most of them are sephardim and yeminites. it is true you give each of them only a para, which is about a quarter of a farthing, and they give you a blessing for it; but, if they come to a rich class of home and are not given there according to the style of the house, they upbraid the people, and even curse them, so the children are told to stand at the doors with paras and cakes, etc. at some houses they are invited in. each carries a sack on his shoulder, expecting, i suppose, that it will be filled with good things by the time purim is over; and, as they never pass a door without begging, they are not likely to be disappointed. "the fun i enjoyed best was the uncovering of our plates and seeing what shalach-monus had been sent to us. a cap had been sent to father, made of velvet, with tails of sable and other skins round it. father felt very downcast, for he did not at all like the idea of giving up wearing the high hat that he always wore in london on sabbaths and holidays. whether he will wear the velvet schtramel or not i cannot tell, but i will wait and see who wins--father or the community--for we have some idea who sent it. "mother received a beautiful, soft silk kerchief to wear on her head, and it seemed a sign that the community wanted her to put her wig aside and wear a kerchief instead. i was most thankful they did not send me a pair of scissors. if they had, i should have thought they wanted me to cut my plaits off. well, i should have fought for my hair as i would for life! "in the afternoon i went to visit some friends, and i found a house full of men, young and old, with their schtramel on their heads, and their kaftans tied back, singing at the very top of their voices (and some have very fine voices); others were clapping their hands, while eight men, four on each side, were dancing what looked like a pantomime ballet that i once went to. it was simply grand to watch them, for some were old men with long, white beards, while others were serious-looking young men who are to be seen daily in the street walking to and from their homes and shules, always deep in thought and so very serious-looking that you would imagine that they did not know how to smile. here they were, on this purim afternoon, dancing with all their might, and with bright, smiling eyes! you could see it was not wine that had made them bright and cheery: it was the spirit, or fire, of their religious zeal commemorating with thankfulness the anniversary of the day when their nation was saved from destruction. of course i was too fascinated watching them at the time to think this was the reason for this unusual sight. "after a while, they went to pay visits to the rav and to others who were scholars or pious men in the community. often when walking to the various houses they would catch hold of others and dance with them in the open streets as you see children doing when an organ-grinder plays. "i was so attracted by them, and so was everyone who saw them, that we followed them at a respectful distance. sometimes someone had had a little too much wine when visiting and it had gone to his head. then some of the party would say: 'ah well, it is purim--there is no shame.' "i told father this when i returned home, and he explained to me that their rejoicing during purim did not mean simply a material satisfaction--it was a spiritual rejoicing, as on simhath torah, when the reading of the law was started again, so that during purim and simhath torah allowance is made if a little more wine is taken than is usually the case. "then we had purim schpielers, who visited every house, dressed up very funnily and full of jokes; some acted, and some were disguised. in fact, it was the happiest purim i have ever spent, and i doubt if there is any other place where it could be spent so happily. for here in jerusalem we are all like one large family: respect is paid to the righteous and to worthy scholars, whether they are poor or rich. money has not the same power here. there is a good deal of quarrelling and mischief going on among our female neighbours, but the quarrels are not very serious but more like quarrels in a large family. in another letter i will write about our 'female club.'" the baking of the matzos friday evening came round again, and the friends of the jacob family were comfortably seated in the bright cellar-kitchen, eagerly waiting to hear another letter read, for old and young were equally interested in hearing details of life in palestine so many years ago. on coming in with a letter mr jacob said: "as preparation for the passover is not far off, i think it will interest you to hear how it was done in palestine." they all agreed, so he began: "my dear jacob,--please forgive my not having written sooner, but i have really been too busy. we have just had passover. i think you will be glad to hear how we prepared for it here. each family is forced to bake its own matzos, as none can be bought from abroad. it was no easy matter, i can tell you, especially the baking, and it is a good thing we had strong teeth, as the matzos are not rolled out as thin as in london and are pretty hard to eat. there's a lot of fun attached to making matzos, but i am thankful the baking comes only once a year. "as each family in turn gets the use of the public baking-oven, it is necessary to start soon after purim to prepare the special flour used for matzos. in every house a room is set apart and thoroughly cleansed for the wheat, which is laid out on large trays. then during the winter it is examined by the mother and girls to see that no dust be mixed with it, and sometimes neighbours come in and help. all who enter this room must have very clean hands; even the finger-nails must be carefully cleaned, and clean clothes put on, so that there is no chance of any chometz. when enough of the best grains have been selected, they are washed, dried, and then ground into flour. "as each family's turn comes round for the use of the bakehouse, those who help always wash very carefully and put on clean overalls; also new cooking-utensils are always used. "water is carried by a few of the elder men of the family, as the youngsters would not be trusted to carry it without spilling it. adventures "there is great talking among those waiting their turn for the use of the oven, and great teasing, and sometimes fighting, amongst the boys. now and then one of the elder men pulls their ears with a vengeance for being 'shkotzim', as he calls it. then they keep quiet till he goes away. when our turn came, millie kneaded the flour, while father poured the water on for her. you remember what a strong girl she is, and she did the kneading with such a will that i warned her not to get too hot. no flour-dredgers are used. my duty was to roll out the dough, but mother wasn't satisfied with the way i did it, and sent me to put more wood in the oven. when the oven was hot enough, i had to sweep all the burnt wood and ashes out to get it nice and clean. [illustration: chadar (school)] "then we started to put the matzos in, one by one. oh, it was hot work! i hardly knew what to do, it was so hot. mother came and pushed me aside, saying to herself i was good for nothing. in fact, my dear jacob, one wants training to stand such heat, as one does to be a blacksmith. mother said that making matzos teaches us to realize what some of the hardships were that our forefathers went through in egypt. i hope it will become easier in time, for all the others are quite happy making and baking them, singing at the same time. "well, well! to be a true jew is a hard matter. as i grow older and get more knowledge and sense i shall find a pleasure in doing these things. temptation--and jonathan "after a few hours of hard work all the newly baked matzos were put in a basket, in which had been laid a clean table-cloth; and, when all had been carefully packed in, they were covered with another white cloth. what i felt most was not being allowed to taste a bit, for it is forbidden till seder to eat any of the matzos. as i was carrying the basket home, i felt as if the devil was in me, and the temptation was so strong that i undid the cord and took one out. hearing someone coming up behind me, i slipped it hurriedly into my pocket and took up the basket and started off again. "i heard the footsteps coming closer until who should come up to me but my best friend, jonathan? he glared at me and said: 'oh you sinner in israel!' 'why, what have i done?' i exclaimed. 'i saw you put a matzo in your pocket!' he said. "i felt hot all over, for i did not want him to have a bad opinion of me, as we had sworn friendship to each other like jonathan and david. "so i took the matzo out of my pocket, threw it in the gutter, and jumped on it. "'why have you done that?' he said. 'because i don't want you to think badly of me.' 'yet you did not care for what god thought!' he said. 'don't you know that our rabbis say that a bad thought is just as evil as a bad deed; for, if we check a bad thought or wish, it helps us not to put the bad thoughts or wish into action. if we were as anxious to please god as we are to please our friends, and to be as well thought of by him, we should check our bad thoughts before they led us to do bad deeds.' "he said, too, that he was sorry to see that i cared more for his approval than i did for god's approval. i promised for the future to try to overcome any evil thoughts or wishes that came into my mind so that i should not be so tempted to do wrong--in fact i would try to check a bad thought in the bud. "then he forgave me, and we parted good friends, for i love him. he is exactly what i think jonathan must have been to david, and i will write more about him in another letter. "when i arrived home, we had to prepare and cleanse the house for passover. we had to do all the work ourselves, for we could not hire any helpers except, by a stroke of luck, the 'white-washers,' as they are called. spring cleaning "all the furniture is put out of doors, not even a pin is left in the house. as everyone does the same, a stranger passing by would think there must be a 'jumble sale' going on. "passover time is usually like lovely english summer weather. as very little water can be got, guess how everything is scrubbed and rubbed! "outside meah sheorim there are large holes from which clay has been taken for building purposes, and during the winter-rains they get filled with water and they look nearly as large as ponds. "we carried or pushed all the furniture to one of these ponds, took sand moistened with a little water, and rubbed the furniture till it was white and clean. this we have to do three times: such is the rule. if any of the furniture was polished, you can imagine that not much of the polish was left after all this scrubbing and rubbing. "we threw into the pond whatever we could, and as it was not deep, we pulled up our trousers, and washed those pieces of furniture in the water. some threw in boards, and we made see-saws and played on them till one of us fell in. it was such fun! sometimes the furniture got mixed, and it was hard to tell to whom it belonged. indeed, i never enjoyed myself so much as on this erev passover. even more than in london when i went to see _sindbad the sailor_. there is plenty of fun going on when we are left free, but that is not often, you may be sure. the best fun we had was when someone threw a chair into the pond and sat on it while other boys pushed it along. somebody else threw in a barrel and a few of us got on it, and then over we went into the water. lots of fun "we were not anxious to go home, even for meals, when our mothers called us. when we did get home, we found all the walls looking lovely with fresh whitewash. for a few days we were not allowed to go into the house unless we took our outer clothes off to prevent our bringing in some chometz. the weather was beautifully warm, so that we really enjoyed eating our meals out of doors and calling out to other boys as they ate theirs. "on the eve before passover we had the fun of going to the turkish bath and then to mikva and help to have all new things 'tavelt', and then the greatest enjoyment was on the day for the preparation of the seder! the bonfire "before i stop writing i must tell you of the bonfire we had on erev passover, when over a hundred of us each threw the wooden spoon and remnants of chometz on the lighted fire, and then there was such a blaze for nearly two hours! we caught hold of each other's hands and danced round the bonfire. oh! it was a grand sight. now i'm called to go to a bar mitzvah, but will write you again very soon. how i wish you were here with me, jacob!" "i wish i was, too," exclaimed benjamin, who had sat listening quietly whilst the letter was being read. on the faces of several of the elder people there was a far-away look and sometimes a smile, for the scenes described in the letter brought back memories of their own childhood when the holidays and the preparations for them were similar to those in palestine. how to enjoy the passover in london one of the boy-listeners said: "i see now why some of us in london do not enjoy the holidays. it is due to our surroundings. many of us here have to work or go to business whether it is a holiday or not, and so we do not enjoy them in the same spirit as the boys and girls in palestine, where they are freer to carry out the teaching of our religion." "well!" said benjamin; "there's one thing at least i can do, and that is to help my mother to prepare for the passover in my spare time." "and i, too," and "i, too," exclaimed others. "bravo, boys!" said mr jacob. "even if you do not enjoy it so much physically, you will do so spiritually, for anyone who tries to help his mother to keep up our fine old customs will be blessed." lag b'omer it was a week before lag b'omer, and the friends of the jacobs family continued to attend every friday evening to hear a letter from jerusalem read. there was only one drawback to these friday re-unions, and that was that every week the little cellar-kitchen sitting-room got more and more crowded, for each friend became so interested that he brought another with him without asking permission. however, as no one complained, mr and mrs jacobs said nothing, and were indeed thankful that so many were interested in those old letters; and mr jacobs at once started reading as follows:-- "dear millie,--i want to tell you how we spent lag b'omer here, for in london we used not to make much of a holy day of it. here days are taken in preparing for it, baking cakes and preparing tasty meals. both old and young spend that day in visits to the graves of our great rabbis and in picnics on the mount of olives or in the cool shade of the many caves in the neighbourhood. those who have large families have their hands full, for the walks in the open air give the children huge appetites; and, unless you are prepared for such appetites it is difficult to supply all that is needed, for you cannot buy extra food, as in england, except perhaps a few nuts and a drink of water. "before dawn, our youngsters awakened us and hurried us to get ready to start, as if we should not have quite enough of their pranks even if we left a few hours later. as we have to form ourselves into large groups, we arrange these a day or two beforehand, for there are a great number of arabs and turks about, and many of them are very wild. if you go alone, or even in pairs, they are often known to attack you, especially in the case of a girl or a woman. at first i laughed at the girls fearing to go alone when in the country, but, after having had an unpleasant adventure myself, i determined to be more careful and obey those who knew better than i did as to what was safe and what not. "it happened in this way. one sabbath afternoon i went out of the suburb with a few girls, who, like myself, had the spirit of adventure. as we went along chatting merrily together, we felt ourselves caught from behind by some turks. fortunately we had not got far, so that when we shrieked out our cries were heard in the town, and to our great relief we soon heard a horse galloping in our direction. we kept on screaming, and one turk put his hand over my friend's mouth; but she bit and scratched his hand. then, suddenly, we were let loose, and the turks took to their heels, for they saw europeans galloping up to us. two of them jumped off their horses and asked if we were hurt, for we had been so frightened that we could not quickly leave off crying. they kindly brought us home, and after that experience i never wanted to go out without enough men in our party to guard us. "now this lag b'omer a number of girls wanted to go to see some special places, so we formed ourselves into a large party and started very early, for you rarely get such an outing. it was a most glorious spring morning, and a few of us had donkeys to ride. to do so is not as much pleasure as you might think, for the donkeys in palestine stop every few minutes, and, unless you beat them cruelly, which we did not like doing, they will not budge an inch. sometimes they consent to be led, but they will not be driven, and you have a weary time of it. now and then a donkey will suddenly start off on a quick trot, and, being thus taken unawares, the rider often falls off. you can imagine the laughter of your friends and how stupid the girl feels, but somehow it is always taken in good part. "our visit first was to david's tomb, but we were not allowed to go in. next we walked round the walls of jerusalem, climbed up the mount of olives, then rested under the shade of a large olive-tree, where we spread out our table-cloth and arranged on it all the good things we had brought with us. the long walk had given us good appetites. after we had finished our meals, other groups of friends came close to us, and then some of the men in turns told us tales of our nation's ancient glory, and each one had something interesting to relate. then a middle-aged man with a group of boys came near us. i think he must have been a teacher, for he started telling the boys about bar cochba and his struggle with the romans. "'fierce struggles for jewish freedom went on for three years, and the jews were proving so successful under the leadership of bar cochba that the romans thought it necessary to bring their greatest general, julius severus, from britain to command the roman army in palestine. at last the samaritans betrayed our people: our last remaining fortified city, bethar, fell, and bar cochba died in defending it on th of ab, c.e. "'the jews were the last people under roman rule in those days to fight for freedom, and over half-a-million of them lost their lives in this long struggle. rabbi akiba, the wise and dearly-loved jewish scholar, was taken prisoner and scourged, until he expired under his sufferings. jerusalem was turned into a roman colony called aelia capitolina, and no jew dared appear in the neighbourhood of jerusalem, under penalty of death. jews under the roman rules were forbidden to practise their religion, and anyone found teaching or preaching judaism was horribly tortured.' "the rabbi, continuing, reminded his boys that, in remembrance of the brave deeds of bar cochba and his jewish soldiers, jewish boys to this present time play with bows and arrows on lag b'omer. "i was most interested to hear all the rabbi had to tell his boys, and glad to feel i was at last living in the holy land where so many of our noble heroes of past ages lived and fought and suffered martyrdom. i could not prevent tears coming to my eyes when thinking on our nation's past glory and praying silently we may come again into our own; but i believe it will not be so much by the power of the sword, but as the prophet zachariah foretold unto zerubbabel: 'not by might, nor by power (or arms), but by my spirit, saith the lord.' those who have been born here or lived here for many years cannot understand our feeling thus, though they love their country and their nation dearly. "when the rabbi had ended, we all stood up and received his blessing. we then went on to the grave of rabbi shiman, which was in a beautiful, cool, and shady spot. there we found numbers of people. some groups were having a lively time singing and clapping their hands, while the men were dancing; but none of the women or girls danced, as it would be thought immodest of them, but they helped by singing and clapping their hands. then other folks came to pray at the saint's grave for the health of some of their children that were ailing. others dropped letters or pieces of paper into the rabbi's tomb with special requests written on them. some put money into the charity-boxes hanging at different parts around the tomb. there was also no end of beggars there. one nice-looking man went about with a red handkerchief tied up by the four corners, asking people to put in as much as they could spare to uphold the yeshibas and the hospital or the home for the aged, and other institutions. but as most of the people there around the rabbi's grave lived on charity, i could not see what they could spare. "i happened to mention this to father and said how i disliked seeing people living on chalukha (alms sent them from europe), and i could not understand why they were not ashamed to take it, for they did not look like ordinary beggars, but quite the reverse--independent, studious, and refined-looking, as i found out later when i spoke to them. they seemed indeed to think they were conferring a favour by accepting alms. father said to a certain degree they were wrong, but from another point of view it is difficult for a man to progress in business and at the same time devote many hours to the study of the torah. our ancient rabbis realized this, and said that those who had not the leisure or the inclination to devote much time to the study of the torah should make it their duty to give of their means towards the up-keep of those who did. if they did this god would bless them. so it is now a recognized duty for every jew in europe who has any respect for the torah and other religious learning or teaching to send his 'bit' towards the yearly support of the scholars here. "the latter, who do nothing but study the torah, think that it is through their efforts in this direction that israel is saved. they do not consider the money given for their support a charity, but believe they hold a similar position in palestine to that of professors and students who hold scholarships in the various universities in great britain and europe. the jews in certain countries send more money for the support of their fellow-countrymen who are teachers and scholars than the jews of some of the eastern european countries, and that is why some appear to be better off than many of their fellow-teachers and scholars. "this chat with father helped me to understand other things as well which had puzzled me before. about this i will write more in another letter. "now i must return to lag b'omer, and tell you what struck me as very strange on that day. as i went with a few of my girl-friends from group to group to see and hear all i could about what was going on, we came to a group of women, girls, and youngsters, and in the centre of them all a lovely little child about three years of age sitting dressed in silk, and a plate near by with some lovely black curls lying on it. i, of course, asked what it all meant, and was told that those people who had only one boy, or who had lost some by death, never cut the hair of their children till they were between three and four years of age. then, when it was cut, they put all they had cut off upon a scale, and upon the other side of the scale copper, silver, or gold money, according to their means. if poor, they put copper coins upon the scales to test the weight of the hair, and then distributed these copper coins among the poor. in fact, it just looks as if those who receive charity take it in one hand and distribute it with the other. [illustration: yeushiva (talmudical school)] "nowhere have i ever seen so much almsgiving as here. alms-boxes are hung up in various places, where in europe you would see only ornaments. for every joy or blessing and for those who have relatives or friends ill or in danger, money is freely dropped into the box. this money is given towards the up-keep of the hospital for the very poor, and so on. really, it must be very hard for those people who have little to spare, but father says this is one of the means by which every jew in palestine is trained to love his neighbour as himself. i feel he is right, for i never saw so much kindness and thoughtfulness for others as i have seen since we arrived here. everyone naturally does what the others do, and it has proved to me how true it is that example is far more powerful than preaching or teaching. "as we appeared so interested in what they told us, they kindly invited us to sit down and offered us wine, cake, delicious pasties, and jams, and later on baked nuts, though we were quite strangers to them. it is this kindliness that surprised me so much. altogether we spent a very joyful day, returning home by moonlight, when we girls and women thoroughly enjoyed listening to the groups of men and boys who sang and danced on the way home. "i don't think i could ever make you realize all the drawbacks to the life here; but yet it has a very pleasant and happy side too, and you really see far more pleasure than you ever do in london. in my next letter i'll tell you about the engagement and marriage of my friend who is only fifteen years old. now i must stop, hoping that we may see you here some day soon." the older folks started discussing the life in palestine. directly mr jacobs had finished reading the letter, they agreed that it could only be in palestine that a truly jewish life could be lived, for everything depends so much on environment. "in london the surroundings are against a consistently jewish religious life," said one; "if you try, it is just like swimming against a strong current." "but here comes our chance," replied another, "for if we fight or swim against the current, we gradually become stronger, and at last we are able to swim well in spite of it, and so win the race and prize. if we just swim with the current, or just suit our life to our environment, which of course at first is much easier and pleasanter, the current at last carries us along so rapidly that we are unable to avoid rocks or crags in the river, and then we 'go under,' or make shipwreck of our lives." "that's true indeed," said all the elders, shaking their heads solemnly. "then," replied mr jacobs, "our greatest duty is to have one thought and one aim constantly in our minds, no matter what our environment may be, and that thought is that god's holy spirit is in and around all who try to obey him, no matter where they are; and it is only by the guidance and help of his holy spirit that we can lead true, consistent, jewish lives, live up to the old familiar words of the shema, and love our neighbours as ourselves." the sabbath in palestine when mr jacobs' family and friends assembled again on friday evening, he said: "you know what discussions there have been lately in england about the proper way to keep the sabbath, so it may interest you to hear a letter from my cousin, giving an account how sabbath was kept in jerusalem." "my dear millie,--i will explain as well as i can what it means to prepare for sabbath here, and how it is spent. about four o'clock on friday mornings mother and i get up and prepare the sabbath loaves. i can tell you it is no easy matter, for, even when the weather is not frosty, the exertion of kneading the dough makes you perspire. if you finish kneading early enough, you get back to bed while the dough is rising. "early on friday mornings beggars start going from house to house (especially the sephardim and yemenites or arabian jews). at each house they are given small, fresh-baked chola, bun, or beigel. no one refuses to give this. later on, two respectable men or women go from house to house collecting in a large bag whatever anyone gives them, such as cholas, meat, cereals, oil, wine, or money. the community know that these things are not for themselves, but are to be distributed amongst the sick and the most needy, who cannot beg for themselves. sometimes we have as many as six or seven people who come collecting, and no one ever thinks of refusing them. in fact, everyone prepares for this, and gives most willingly, knowing that the sabbath must be celebrated by rich and poor alike with the best one has. "in a future letter i will tell you more about certain people who give up a part of their time to works of charity, and how they do it; for there is no board of guardians here, as there is in london. "then when father and the boys go to synagogue, we start to prepare for the day's work. first we take all the furniture we can out of the house, so as to leave the rooms free for the lower part of the walls to be whitewashed and the marble floors cleaned. of course, we try to use as little water as possible, as it is scarce, but even so the floors must be clean and look well polished, and the wooden furniture washed and rubbed well with sand. "then the tea-urn and all the saucepans and trays, which are either brass or copper, have to be cleaned and brightened; and, as we cannot get brass-polish here, we rub them with fine sand. it needs plenty of 'elbow grease' to make them look bright, but the rubbing well repays us. since we came here i quite understand how brass or copper looking-glasses were used by our ancestors, for, after rubbing very hard with fine sand and a piece of lemon peel, you can see your face clearly reflected in the trays. some who had no mirror used the trays for looking-glasses. "mother prepares our sabbath meals, whilst we girls are doing the hard work--hanging up our best curtains or putting our best covers on the beds and cushions, and spreading the sabbath table-cloth. these are put away again on saturday evenings. those who have them also use special sabbath china, glass, and silver for their meals. "this work keeps us busy nearly all day. about three hours before sunset father and the boys go to the public baths, and by the time they return we are all dressed in our best clothes, the samovar (the urn) is placed on a table in the porch, and we all sit there to rest and drink tea, awaiting the coming in of 'princess sabbath.' a matter of an hour before sabbath a voice is heard calling out: 'sabbath is in, friends! sabbath is in!' "the first time i heard the call i could not understand the reason until father told me that, as there are no bells in the suburb and very few people have clocks, one of the highly-respected members of the community undertakes the job of going right round meah sheorim every friday, so that the women may know when to light their sabbath lamps--for directly the sabbath call is heard all the women stop whatever work they are at and go to light the sabbath lamp, which has seven wicks, in a basin of oil hanging from the ceiling, for there are no candles here. when this is done the men and children go to synagogue, and some of the women too. as they all love bright colours, when you see them from a distance walking to synagogue, the suburb looks like a flower-garden. "after sabbath dinner, which consists of the _cholent_ baked on the previous day, father gathers the boys round the table to hear what lessons they have learnt during the week. he discusses and explains part of the torah to them, while mother and we girls read the zeene ureene (a commentary on the bible for women), the ethics of the fathers, and the like. this goes on for some time, and then we are free to go and visit our friends. we and several of our friends often go to an old lady's house, where we spend pleasant sabbath afternoons. "years ago this dear old lady came from russia to end her days in the holy land. she is well provided for by her children, so she has the time and means to lead a happy and useful life here, and does a lot of good quietly, by the cheery, sensible way she often gives a "helping hand" to those who need it. "she so understands all our fun that we sometimes forget she is old. we just talk things over with her as we would with our young friends. not only we girls, but young married women, just love spending part of the sabbath afternoons with her. the room is often so full that we have to sit cross-legged, like the turks, on the marble floor, which in summer time is quite the coolest seat. "we then play 'nuts.' each one puts a certain number into a cap, but to win the game one has to be very quick and sharp: it is really quite exciting. what we like best is when the old lady sits amongst us and reads us a tale from a book, or some of the papers sent her from abroad. the stories are very tantalizing, for they always leave off at the most interesting part, and then we may have to wait a week or two before we get the next number! during the week we try to imagine what the next chapter will be like. "sometimes she reads from the ethics of the fathers--those wise sayings of the ancient rabbis. i remember last week she told us of one of the rabbis who wrote that 'those who control or overcome their hasty tempers are greater than those who take a city from an enemy,' she, as usual, asks us to give our views on what she has read, and an excited discussion follows. those of us who naturally have a calm, good temper said that they did not agree with the rabbi, because they did not think it at all hard to keep their temper when provoked. others, who had hasty passionate tempers, said the rabbi was quite right: it would be far easier, they felt sure, to take a city than to control their tempers, for the whole nation would help them to take a city, as it was considered a grand thing to do, but very few people would help them to control their tempers. in fact, even their relatives and friends provoked them to be hasty and passionate. when provoked or irritated the blood rushes so quickly to the head that it makes it very, very hard to remain calm, and then we often say or do things we are really sorry for afterwards. "as we could not agree, we turned to the old lady, for she is full of wisdom and understanding. she tried to pacify us, for we were nearly on the verge of quarreling. she said that if, when young, we tried, with the almighty's help, to keep our hasty tempers under control, it would be easier to do so every time we were provoked, but the older we were before beginning, the more difficult it would be to be successful. even then we had always to keep a watch over ourselves, for one of our wise sages wrote: 'one is never sure of himself till the day of his death.' we all saw the wisdom of her advice, and made up our minds that we must all help each other, for very often the calm quiet natures are those who love teasing and provoking the hasty-tempered ones, for the fun of seeing them get into a temper; and this, we realized after her talk with us, was not pleasing to god. [illustration: the old lady] "after we leave her we take a walk outside the suburb. at sunset, when we return home, until the time to go to bed, we are kept very busy washing up all the things used at meals, as no washing up is done during the sabbath. then, too, all the sabbath curtains, coverlets, glass, china, and silver have to be carefully put away. "in my next letter i will write you more about our old lady." when mr jacobs had finished the letter, the usual talk started. one said that "such a sabbath might be all very well in palestine!" an elderly friend said: "well! in palestine they at least _know_ what the sabbath is, whilst here in london, unless one keeps it strictly and remains indoors all day, except to go to synagogue, one never sees any difference between the sabbath and any other day of the week." mr jacobs said: "i think what you both say is true, and the only way is to try to keep our sabbath in the spirit, as well as in the letter as much as possible. if each of us tried to do this in his own home, even in london, gradually a difference would be seen in the neighbourhood in which we live. a wise man wrote: 'all reforms begin with _man_ and not with _men_.' the first important step is to think good thoughts; for 'thoughts have wings,' and, when expressed, they are readily impressed upon the minds of those in sympathy with the thinker." "true, very true!" exclaimed the others. "let us each, with god's help, strive to remember more often those thoughts of our prophet isaiah (chap. ): 'if thou call the sabbath a delight, and the holy of the lord honourable, and shalt honour it, not doing thy wonted ways, nor pursuing thy business, nor speaking thereof, then shalt thou delight thyself in the lord, and i will make thee to ride upon the high places of the earth, and i will feed thee with the heritage of jacob thy father: for the mouth of the lord hath spoken it.'" by this the prophet meant that we were to drive all thoughts of business from our minds on the sabbath. no thoughts of scandal, evil, or uncharitableness were to be harboured, but our minds and hearts were to delight in words of prayer, in the study of the holy law. it was to be truly a day of peace, a day of rest. the succah mr jacob told his friends the next friday evening, when they arrived as usual, that he thought they would be interested in the letter describing the succah. "my dear millie,--after the day of atonement, everyone was very busy preparing for the feast of tabernacles, which is still celebrated here as it must have been in bible times. "with great merriment all the young people decorate their succahs, while their mothers with the baby in their arms watch the young folks at work. "the succahs in palestine are not made as they are in europe. the saplings are covered with palm-leaves woven together, the roof with branches of trees, as there is no chance of rain at this time of the year in palestine. everything that is beautiful in the home is brought out to decorate the interior of the succah. the poor make their succahs of doors or wooden boxes. "as this was the first succah since our arrival, we were invited by our neighbours to join them. the father, a patriarchal looking old man with a saintly face, sat at the head of the table, and we were fascinated by his looks. his eldest son came in soon after, followed by his other grown-up sons and his daughters. he greeted his aged father with a smile, and wished him good 'yom tov' and bowed his head for his father's blessing. then one by one all the children came to greet him and receive his blessing, with quite a number of grandchildren and great-grandchildren, and last but not least the little great-great-grandchild. "when my parents looked astonished at the number, one of the daughters quietly said: 'you see that here we marry our children while very young, so that the psalmist's words are very often fulfilled in palestine, and nearly everyone has his quiver full.' when all were quiet, our aged friend repeated a prayer over the wine, and the large silver cup was passed from one to the other. this was very solemnly and reverently done. "after this, our aged neighbour's children who had large families went to their own homes, while those of his children who had small families remained to celebrate the feast with him. when he had washed his hands before eating and repeated the blessing upon the meal, he took his youngest great-grandchild on his knee. "the only thing that saddened the scene was the empty chair beside our aged friend--his wife had died during the course of the year. the family all looked at the empty chair and sighed, and the great-great-grandfather, with tears glistening in his eyes, also gave a sigh, and then turned with a smile to his large family and said: 'let us begin. my little samuel will start a brocha,' and the rest listened to hear how the little one lisped the words after his great-grandfather. "the following day our aged friend sat like a king in his succah, while relatives and friends came to pay their respects to him, and all was joy and merriment. "some of the younger grandchildren wanted to show their grandfather what they had lately learned, and there was quite a scramble around his knees to try and be first heard. with a wave of his hand he said: 'i will hear you all in turn, my children.' this quietened the eager little souls, and they waited patiently for their turns to come. "while the children were thus busy with their grandfather, the elder sons and sons-in-law and their wives sat around, discussing quietly various topics of interest, till the time for mincha came round. "then the great grandfather went to shule, followed by all his children. "visiting other neighbours during the succah weeks, we found that they preserved this beautiful and ancient way of keeping the festival. "i never realized till then what a great influence for good the surroundings and teaching in childhood can be, and how a father and mother can leave the impress of their teaching in early life upon both sons and daughters. it is the mother specially who forms the child's soul, quite as clearly on the boys as on the girls from their cradle-days, and the father and the teacher only builds on the foundation laid by the mother: this is seen here more than elsewhere." "very true," exclaimed the others; "a great deal is done by the mother; but the environment has a great influence on the character." this caused a good deal of discussion and the meeting did not close till one o'clock in the morning. how charity is given on the following friday evening, the next letter that mr jacob chose for reading to his family and friends was on the way almsgiving, or charity, was managed in palestine. before starting to read, he advised his hearers not to forget that the jewish community in palestine was very small when this letter was written, and the majority of the people were very poor. many had spent most of their money and worldly goods in the expenses of travelling there, with the object of ending their days in their beloved land, and being buried with their forefathers. mr jacob then began the letter. "my dear millie,--you seem so interested in all i have so far told you about our life in palestine, that i think you will like to hear of some of the ways that our poorer brethren are helped in palestine. "many of the ways will appear strange to you; yet i think some of them are really better than those adopted by our community in england. "here, there is no board of guardians, so that the giving of charity, or a 'helping hand' to the sick or needy, is more of a direct personal matter. the givers strive to be wise and tactful, so that our people may not lose their self-respect; for, as a rule, they are naturally very sensitive, and if self-respect is lost some are encouraged to become beggars proper. "mother tells us that our jewish ethics teaches 'that true charity, or almsgiving, is to make personal sacrifices when helping others. there is no self-sacrifice in giving what you cannot make use of yourself.' indeed, one jewish ethical teacher wrote: 'if one who has lived a luxurious life becomes sick and in need, we should try to deny ourselves, in order to give the sick one dainties such as chicken and wine.' "really some of our neighbours here seem to rejoice in giving away not only all they can spare, but also in making personal sacrifices in helping to relieve a needy neighbour. "from early childhood they were trained to give. in every jewish home in palestine we see from two to perhaps more than a dozen boxes placed in various parts of the house, and written on each is the special charity to which the box is devoted. into these boxes even tiny children are trained to drop a coin at special times, and it is considered a happy privilege to do so at times of thanksgiving to god. the coins thus collected are from time to time distributed amongst the sick and the needy. "there is one hospital near us; and, though it is known to be well managed, very few jews whom we know go there for treatment, for it is a missionary hospital, and we strongly object to the methods of christian missionaries. instead of many of them as formerly, persecuting us for clinging to our dearly beloved religion, they now try, by acts of kindness in times of sickness and poverty, to influence our people in favour of accepting their religion. "indeed, i have heard some of our people say that they would rather go to the arabs for treatment than enter the missionary hospital! therefore those who cannot nurse the sick ones at home take them to the bikkur-holim, which a doctor visits once every few days. a mother, wife, or father goes with the patients to give them the necessary food and medicine, for in the bikkur-cholem there are no trained nurses. the relatives also keep the patients clean and tidy; but little cooking is done there, as the food is generally brought cooked from the patients' homes. "i once went to visit the bikkur-cholem. one patient i saw had a jug of cold water brought to her, and, though her own lips were very parched, she would not take even one sip, but had the water given to those near her, who, in a very high state of fever, were clamouring for water. other patients i saw were cheerfully and willingly sharing their food with those who had none. until i had visited that bikkur-cholem i had never realized what real charity meant. for these sufferers, in their love and thoughtfulness and genuine self-sacrifice towards fellow-sufferers less fortunate than themselves, were obeying in spirit as well as in the letter the time-honoured commandment given us 'to love one's neighbour as oneself.' "the arrangements in the bikkur-cholem are most insanitary; disinfectants are unheard of; and i greatly pitied the poor unfortunates that have to go there." mr. jacob was too overcome by his feelings to continue--so for a few minutes there was a deep silence. then one of the listeners said: "one is thankful to remember that this letter was written fifty years ago, and conditions must have improved since our writer first went to palestine." "yes, thank god!" replied kind-hearted mr jacob; and then he continued reading the letter. "most of the patients die; but a few get cured and leave. if they do, it is certainly more through faith in god's love and mercy than through the remedies they receive while there. "now, i want to tell you of a voluntary service which respectable, well-to-do men and women, and even scholars, do, for the poor who die. these kind folk are called 'the chevra kadisha.' no doubt because of the heat, there is a strict law that no one who dies in palestine is allowed to remain unburied long; and it is believed here that the dead continue to suffer until they are entombed. so the custom is to bury within twelve hours every one who dies. the chevra kadisha look upon such a deed as a mitzvoth. if a poor woman dies, one of these kind women at once goes to wash the corpse and lay it out ready to be put on the bier--then when all the relatives and friends of the deceased have given vent to their sorrow by weeping, some men and some scholars belonging to the chevra kadisha voluntarily carry the bier on their shoulders to the place of burial (which i think is the mount of olives), while others dig the grave and a scholar or two read the prayers over the dead. "by the chevra kadisha beggars and tramps are thus washed and buried when dead, free of expense, by these good, self-sacrificing people, at all times and in all weathers, as a sign that in death all are equal. the people who can afford it leave enough money to pay all their own burial expenses or these are paid for by their relatives. "acts of charity towards very poor girls who have no dowry or suitable wedding-clothes are very touching and generous. it is considered a disgrace to the community if a poor girl is not given the opportunity to marry, and a community not only provides a dower, but also seeks for a bridegroom for her. the housewives willingly and generously prepare the wedding-feast, for everyone is willing to give something from their store-room. no shame is attached to poor girls accepting such help; for it is considered a duty by all our brethren to provide what is necessary for a bride who has not the means to get things for herself. "i am sorry that i cannot write more by this mail." one listener interrupted, saying: "most of what you have read mr jacob happens in russia and in other parts of the world where jews live in ghettos." "quite true," said mr jacob, "for wherever jews live together they keep up old customs, and all old customs are more or less alike in all ghettos. it is only when we jews live outside the ghettos, under different surroundings, that we are tempted to throw over many religious customs. the unfortunate thing is, that we are too often inclined to throw off the really good customs rather than the useless ones, and more inclined to adopt the bad traits and customs of our neighbours rather than the good ones amongst whom we live, be it in england, france, germany, india, or elsewhere. this is a bad habit, and we must do our utmost in the future to guard against it; for, if we all made an effort to retain our own ancient customs that are really good and beneficial to ourselves and others and adopt only the good and healthy customs of our neighbours, then, indeed, we might feel we had a right to call ourselves and be recognized by those we live amongst as 'god's chosen people.'" father frost in jerusalem the next friday evening mr jacob read the following letter. "my dear cousin mill,--i have not yet written to tell you how we manage during cold weather. before we arrived, we were under the impression that it was always warm in palestine. certainly the sun does shine more in winter here than in england, and while it shines the weather is very pleasant; but we get very cold weather, too, especially in jerusalem. we get very little snow, but a good deal of frost, which no one enjoys. no doubt you wonder why, because we all enjoyed the cold and frost in england, and loved the skating and the snowballing. "the reason is very clear, for here we have no cheery open fireplaces, which give out so much heat in england; in fact there are not even any steel or iron ovens, and the result is, the palestinian houses are intensely cold in frosty weather. the ceilings are all lofty and in the shape of a dome, which, with the very thick stone walls is very pleasant in summer but very cold in the winter. then there is very little firewood to be had here, as the turks try to prevent much tree-planting, so fire wood is a luxury which very few can afford. instead, we have all copper buckets pierced with holes standing on a tripod and filled with burning charcoal, which is placed in the middle of the room. "how we all eagerly cluster round it and watch the red hot charcoal, hoping that by _looking at it_ the warmth will go into our bodies! such a small amount of charcoal as we can afford does not warm a room very much, so all the windows are closed tightly to prevent any cold air coming in. this also prevents the fumes of the burning charcoal from escaping, so naturally the air gets very stuffy, and many suffer from headaches or fall into a heavy sleep. "you will wonder why it is many people do not get frozen. well, the old proverb holds good here, that 'necessity is the mother of invention,' so even in the coldest weather we have a remedy; for we heat also our brass samovar, which holds about thirty glasses of tea, and we drink a glass of hot tea every now and then. "as the samovar boils all day the steam also sends out some warmth into the room. "then, again, the younger children are during the very cold weather kept warm in bed with feather coverlets and pillows, which the elder people try to keep warm in doing the necessary household duties. very few go out in the streets, except the men when they go to shule, and the elder boys when they go to the yeshiba or cheder, and even they are very often kept at home. "one comfort is that 'father frost' does not stay long, so we can manage to bear his icy breath: the greatest hardship is when he visits us on a sabbath, for of course on that day we cannot heat the samovar and so we have to do with less tea. "we prepare our sabbath meals in a small scullery, or porch, in which a small brick oven is built to keep the food hot for the sabbath. a few pieces of wood are put in, and, when well lighted, the oven is half-filled with charcoal-dust--this again is covered by pieces of tin or lime, and, on top of all, the saucepans are put containing food for the sabbath meals: also bottles or jars of water are thus kept hot for tea or coffee. neighbours who are not lucky enough to have such an oven bring in their food, and we let them put it in our ovens. in this way we have enough for every one to drink who may come in. sometimes twenty poor people come in on a sabbath day and say: 'spare me, please, a little hot water?' no one would think of refusing to give them some, even if they had to share their last glass with them. "generally on cold sabbath afternoons our parents have a nap after eating the nice hot cholent, and we girls and the young married women go and spend a few hours with our old lady friend, who always entertains us with stories and discussions on various interesting subjects. so the time passes very quickly and so pleasantly that we forget how cold it is. about twenty or thirty of us all sit close together on her divan covered up with rugs, and this with the excitement over the tales she tells us, helps to keep us warm. "last sabbath our old lady was not very well, and we were feeling very miserable without her entertaining tales. suddenly, one of my girl-friends asked me to tell them about our life in london. "as they had never read or heard about life outside jerusalem, it was most amusing to hear their exclamations of wonder; for they could hardly believe what i told them was true, till our old lady confirmed our statements. "first, they wanted to know how young men and women behaved toward each other. "i told them that every man and every woman, whether young or old, either in the street or in-doors, always shook hands with friends--at this they looked very surprised and some seemed even horrified, exclaiming: 'what a sin to commit.' i asked them where it was written that this was a sin? 'well,' some replied, 'our parents or husbands say it is a sin,' 'i don't think it is a sin, but only a custom,' said i. 'but it _is_ a sin,' insisted one little wife of fifteen 'to touch one another's hands.' i tried to explain to her, but she would not listen to me and we were on the verge of quarreling but as usual, when there was a difference of opinion between any of us, we always appealed to our old lady and she agreed with me that there was no sin in shaking hands. 'sin,' she said, 'comes from thoughts--if while talking or laughing or even shaking hands, evil thoughts pass through the minds of men or women then, and then only, is the act likely to be a sin. in europe,' she went on to say, 'it is quite a natural thing for men and women to shake hands and talk to each other naturally.' "then i asked my new friend huldah (a young wife of fifteen years of age) to tell us all about her own love-affair and marriage. she was greatly shocked to hear me speaking of love _before_ marriage--'such a thing could never happen to a modest jewish maiden in those days,' she said. "i told her that it did happen in europe. 'may be,' she replied; 'it may happen in lands where jews mix with non-jews and copy their ways!' "as i rather liked to tease her, i said she was mistaken, for here in jerusalem did the great rabbi akiba fall in love with his wife before marriage. 'oh, that was quite different!' she replied. 'not at all,' said i, for were not feasts and rejoicing held so that youths and maidens could meet one another in the vineyards and dance in the meadows?--look in the bible,' i continued, 'and you will see it is mentioned there.' then all looked abashed. the only one who smiled was our old lady. "'don't unsettle their minds, dear,' she whispered softly to me. 'i don't want to,' i said; 'i only want to show them that, though such things are done in other countries, there is no sin in it as they have been brought up to believe.' 'well, well!' she said, 'let us hope god will restore our beloved land to us in his own good time, and then we shall again, as in days of old, celebrate such festivals!' "we all said 'amen,' most heartily, to this wish. "in my next letter i will tell you of our friend's engagement and marriage. your loving cousin, millie." engagement and wedding ceremonies the hearers waited with eagerness for the next friday evening, as they enjoyed so much hearing those interesting letters. the next mr jacobs read was this: "hulda is only fifteen years of age, and has already been married six months. if she were dressed as girls are dressed in england, she would really look beautiful; but her beauty is, i think, marred by the silk handkerchief she wears on her head, which covers half her forehead and her ears, so that none of her hair can be seen, i mean that part of it that was shaved off. over the silk handkerchief she wears a black velvet band, to which gold coins are attached and these are put on so coquettishly that it makes the head-gear look quite artistic. sometimes she wears ornaments with pearls in them. these special trinkets are, of course, worn only on sabbaths and festivals or some other special occasions. "the shaving of part of the young wife's head the day after her marriage is a custom to prevent young married women from being tempted by vanity to show off their hair, which is generally in palestine very beautiful. the poor things cover up the part so well that there is no fear of any of it being seen. "hulda is tall and well-developed for her age, and lively as a cricket, always ready to play and laugh and joke with us. she started by telling me: 'i was invited to visit my betrothed's family during the holidays, and my future mother-in-law let me help her with the baking and cooking, and was specially pleased with the way i stretched out the dough for the lockshen--i made it look so thin, like a paper wrapper. she told me that i would make a good housewife. then i showed all the family some of the linen garments i had made and had with me, and the crochet i had trimmed them with.' "here hulda turned to me and said: 'our mothers encourage us at eight years of age to begin to make garments for our trousseaux, and at the age of ten we start to crochet lace and embroider, so by the time we get married we have all our things ready, for they cannot be bought ready-made in palestine. when we become betrothed we work our future initials on our things and make our dresses.' "'while i was staying at my betrothed's home, we never spoke to each other, except to say good-morning and good-night. sometimes when no one saw us we looked at one another, for already i liked my young man, though he was not handsome. a wise girl does not want good looks in a husband so much as that he should be a good talmudist and be a good character; this he is, and i could listen to him for ever,' she said, blushing like a rose; 'when he sings zmires, his voice is like a nightingale, and even in the mornings, when he thinks i am asleep, it is just lovely to hear his sing-song as he studies--it is to me the sweetest of all music,' she said. "'so it should be, my child,' said our old lady, 'and it is a privilege for us women to help them to study.' "'so my mother says,' said hulda, naturally. "at the same time i thought to myself: 'a nice thing it would be if only our men were to study and our women to work, as they mostly do here and in russian ghetto towns. no,' i thought, 'i would rather that the men did some manual labour as well as study, and the women have some time for study as well as for household work.' "but i kept these thoughts to myself, while hulda continued to tell me what a longing she had to see more of her betrothed; but she did not see him again till after the marriage ceremony. "i will try to describe the ceremonies to you in detail, as i have now been to several weddings here, and i think you would like to know. "a week before the wedding, all the relations and friends come to help bake and prepare the wedding-feast; for, as these proceedings last about eight days, it is no easy matter to celebrate them. "the bride's trousseau is shown to the guests who come, and everything is examined and counted by all, especially the relations of the bridegrooms. when there happens to be less than expected, woe betide the bride, for she is always reproached about it by her mother-in-law or his other relatives. "on the sabbath before the marriage the bridegroom is called up to read the law, and friends pay him visits.--first they send him nicely baked cakes or puddings and a bottle of wine. (it is a good thing that this is the custom, or else a poor man would be ruined by the cost of all the feasting that he is expected to provide). "during the week the bride's friends come every evening and dance and sing in her home, coffee and cakes and baked nuts being handed round. "the morning of the wedding, both bride and bridegroom fast, and each goes with his or her parents to the wailing wall in jerusalem, to pray for a blessing on their married life, and then they go to be blessed by the rav. "when the bride returns home, she is dressed in her bridal dress. then she is led up to a chair that has been raised off the floor; her hair is unloosed and allowed to hang over her shoulders; and this is the last time, for the next day most of it is shaved off. "her young friends stand near her and each sings a song, bidding good-bye to her maiden days; and the bride weeps, fearing what the future may hold in store for her. then the bridegroom comes in, led by his friends, who carry candles. he is given a veil, which he throws over his bride's head, and then leaves with his friends for the synagogue. "though some parts of the ceremony look ridiculous, yet all is carried out so solemnly that one feels very much impressed. "the bride is then led by two of her relatives or friends, who carry candles, and all the other friends follow them through the streets, some also carrying candles. as there are no carriages to be had in jerusalem, they have sometimes to walk some distance to the synagogue. "the usual bridal canopy is in the synagogue, and they walk round it seven times; then prayers are said, and the glass is broken; mazzeltov is said, and with songs and clapping of hands the bridal pair is led home again. near the home a large bagel is held by a friend, and as the couple cross the threshold it is broken over their heads, and the pieces are distributed among the guests. the bride and bridegroom are then led into a room, and the door is closed for five minutes--i suppose to be sure that they are the right persons, anyhow the bridegroom lifts the bride's veil and gives her the first kiss he has ever given her. (i do not know if she kisses him, for she may be too shy: they will not tell when i ask). "after the five minutes have passed, the bride is led out of the room to a room where the women-guests are assembled, while the bridegroom goes to a room where the men-guests are. the feasting lasts for a few hours in each room. then the bride is led by some of her women friends to the room where the men are, and the bridegroom takes her by the hand and starts dancing; the other guests follow suit. it is amusing to see the old grey-bearded scholars, who, one would think, could not move their legs, dance and rejoice while the lookers-on clap and sing. it is far more exciting than a wedding in london, for it is considered a 'mitzvah' to rejoice with a young bridal couple. "the dancing goes on for some time, the only miserable pair, i expect, are the bride and bridegroom, who generally become very weary of it all, for they started their wedding pilgrimage very early in the morning and had fasted till the feasting began late in the afternoon--i often wonder that they have any energy left in them, poor things, for they cannot retire till late at night. "the next day comes the ceremony of cutting off the bride's hair. the bridegroom's mother hands her a few silk handkerchiefs to be worn on her head on special occasions. sometimes the poor little bride is so young that she cries while her beautiful plaits are being cut off. "at times a quarrel begins between the two mothers: the bride's mother sometimes insisting that her child's hair shall only be cut short and not shaved, and she generally gets her way. "some brides do not mind being shaved, for they like the idea of wearing the pretty coloured silk handkerchiefs. "at nearly every wedding a table is spread for the poor, and i was present at a wedding when more than a hundred poor men came regularly for eight days, and the table was spread as bountifully for them as for the other guests. here in palestine the poor share in the joys of their richer brethren. "when the eight days of festival are over, the young couple usually settle down close by or in one of their parents' homes, who give them a room. a great deal of the happiness of young couples depends on the character of the mother-in-law, for they have the power of making or marring their happiness more than anyone else. "huldah told me that she would have been quite happy in her mother-in-law (for she really was a good kind woman) if only she would more often allow her to talk to her husband, 'and i do so like a talk with him,' she said to me with a sigh, 'for he is so wise. when my mother-in-law sleeps after the sabbath dinner, we go into the next room and we sit talking, and he tells me tales from the talmud, and sometimes reads aloud from it. i do so enjoy those sabbath hours,' she continued, 'for i have only my bedroom which i can call my own, but i am not allowed to be much in it,--the little time i have with my husband each day makes me very happy, for i know he loves me dearly (although he does not say so), for when he comes home his first word is for me,' "'sometimes, when my mother-in-law is in a good temper, she lets us eat out of the same dish, and then he jokingly puts the daintiest bits on my side; often when i wake in the mornings i find pinned to my pillow a few words he has copied from the _song of songs_, put there before leaving for the synagogue.' then huldah added 'after returning himself from the synagogue on sabbath eve, my dear husband always looks at me with a loving smile when he reads that part where it says: ''the price of a virtuous woman is far above rubies, the heart of her husband trusteth in her.' 'yes indeed,' she said, 'thanks be to god--i am a very happy wife, and when god blesses us with children, my cup of joy will be very full.' "and this child-wife of fifteen did indeed look very happy as she spoke--and i, deep down in my heart, thought, 'what would they say to such match-making in england and western europe,' and yet in palestine such marriages arranged by the parents are nearly always happy. "i must close now, your loving millie." when mr jacob had finished reading, some of his young listeners said they thought it was a very foolish way to arrange marriages. one of them remarked: "how could there be any love, if a couple rarely met each other before marriage." another said: "for my part, i would never marry unless i felt sure that i was in love with my husband to-be and that he also was in love with me. love is everything in life, _i_ think." then said a middle-aged lady, much loved and respected by all the listeners: "how often has many a marriage not turned out well, even when as young people a husband and wife had a passionate love for each other. the seed of love may be sown before or after marriage; but, unless carefully cultivated during married life by both husband and wife, through deeds of kindness and thoughtfulness and forbearance and mutual sympathy and understanding, the tender plant may soon wither and die. the old customs of our race, which this letter shows are still kept up in palestine and i believe in other parts where ghetto life still obtains, if they are not carried to extremes, are, i think, very wise; but, unfortunately, our people are very tempted to go to extremes, and a good custom can thus be distorted and brought to ridicule." "true, true," murmured some of the older people. "in all things moderation and balance are safe guides to follow," said mr. jacobs. the next book will be all about millie's love affairs and marriage and her life, impressions, and tribulations in palestine. appendix the celebration of the jubilee of zorach barnett (translated from the _palestine daily mail_ of friday, december nd, ). those who felt stirred to celebrate the jubilee of this illustrious old pioneer did very well indeed. for a young man who leaves all his business enterprises far behind him in london and who migrates to eretz-israel over fifty years ago--at a time when jaffe did not posses even a minyan foreign jews; and at a time when the way from jaffe to jerusalem was a very long and tedious one--aye, a way fraught with all possible dangers, and moreover, teeming with robbers, a journey which lasted three whole days, such a jew is indeed entitled to some mark of appreciation and respect. a jew who has worked for the re-building of our land for over fifty consecutive years in which period he visited the lands of the diaspora fifteen times and all that he did and profited there was afterwards invested in the re-building of eretz-israel such a jew has indeed merited to be praised even during his life-time. a jew who was one of the first to found the colony of petah-tikvah and therefore merited that people in jerusalem should mark him out as an object of derision and scorn because he was a dreamer--a man who built the first house in this petah-tikvah--who was one of the founders of the "me'ah shearim in jerusalem--who constructed perfect roads in jaffe--who founded zionist societies in the lands of the diaspora at a time when zion did not occupy such a foremost part in the heart of the jew--such a jew is indeed worthy that a monument of his splendid achievement be erected for him even during his life-time!" it must, moreover, be mentioned that z. barnett and his wife are one of the remnant of those noble men who participated in that famous assembly of kattovitz--that noble gathering of illustrious men which can be verily described as the aurora as the dawn of the conception of the restoration of the land of israel. the celebration took place on sunday, november th, in the private house of mr. barnett. those who had assembled were many, in fact, there were present representatives of every shade and section of jewish communal life in palestine. thus there came along rabbis of all the various congregations, various jewish communal workers, heads of colonies, teachers, business men and workpeople and even beggars who came to enjoy the material blessings of this great national festivity. mr. joseph lipshitz opened the proceedings by explaining the importance of this great red letter day for mr. barnett and then called upon rabbi auerbach of jerusalem who had come specially to take part in this celebration. rabbi auerbach delivered a long talmudical dissertation in which he recited the great merits of the jubilant. he compared z. barnett to a king, because he based himself on a talmudic statement concerning omri which asserts that he who builds a little town or village is worthy to be called a king. the learned rabbi also emphasised the importance of acquiring land in palestine by many pithy remarks. then spoke the rabbis: joseph ha-levi, shneiur lenskin, joseph arwatz and joseph rabbi. all these testified to the great qualities of their host, who besides being a great idealist was also a very practical man too. after the rabbis, mr. s. nissim, chief of the colony of petah-tikvah spoke. he narrated in a very realistic and eloquent way how that pioneer zorach barnett came fifty years ago to build up the ruins of the land and how he bought up the land of petah-tikvah, which was now a flourishing colony, but which was then a howling desert wilderness, such as only insane men could ever think of converting this into an habitation of men. at the present day, thousands of pioneers are flocking to the land, but they are only a continuation of the pioneering of z. barnett and his stalwart companions. the speaker concluded by blessing the jubilant that he should survive to see thousands of jewish colonies in palestine and tens of thousands of pioneers flocking here from every part of the world. mr. i. adler, chief representative of the council at jaffe, also spoke on this great member of the jewish community at jaffe. such men are really a blessing to the whole of israel; they are not only banim (sons) of the jewish people, but also bonim (builders). many were the letters and telegrams of congratulation received on this occasion from various ranks of jewish representatives in palestine. the private secretary of sir herbert samuel wrote: "i am commanded by his excellency, the high commissioner, to acknowledge your invitation to partake in your celebration of the th inst. his excellency, is, however, restrained from accepting this invitation owing to the various duties which occupy him at present. he sends you his blessing and hopes that all your ambitions will be realised with, the greatest success." the chief rabbi of eretz-israel, rabbi a.i. kook, wrote: "i should very much have wished to be present at the occasion of the jubilee of my dear and respected friend, who first trod upon this holy soil over fifty years ago and who has since then been building up the ruins of our land, but, unfortunately, to my great pain, i am not able to realise this my wish, owing to the present troubled state of the jewish community. please accept my heartiest blessings for a happy old age, in which you may verily see the re-birth of our people and of our land." rabbi rabbinowitz wrote: "i bless our jubilant from the depths of my heart. this occasion is not only a happy one for him, it is also for us. this shows that though the enemies of re-building palestine were, and are still, many, palestine is, nevertheless, steadily but surely being rebuilt." mr. diznoff, in the name of the colony of tel-avis wrote: "on this great occasion, we should like to say, that as you have merited to see that the "howling desert" you have found, you have succeeded in creating into a "garden of eden," thus may you merit to see the flourishing state of the whole of palestine." mr. ephraim blumenfeld wrote: "though i should have very much have liked to be present, yet my present bad state of health does not enable me to do so. this is a happy moment for all lovers of zion. may you merit to see with your own eyes the restoration of israel on its own land." messages and telegrams were also received from the yeshivah me'ah shearim, mr. d. slutskin, from the scholars of the yeshivah "or zoraiah" of jaffa and many synagogues. also from mr. friedenberg of jerusalem, mr. s. tolkovsky, dr. eliash, from the chief rabbi of alexandria, from the "old aged" home in jaffe, from the mizrachi, from rabbi s.l. shapiro of jerusalem, etc., etc. at the request of the host, who is a british subject, a special prayer was offered up for the divine protection of king george the fifth, and also prayers in the name of r. barnett for the health of the high commissioner, the secretary, the leaders of the zionist movement--weitzman, sokolov and usishkin, for the chief rabbis of palestine and for the rabbi sonnenfeld, rabbis diskin, epstein, etc., etc. mr. barnett offered a certain sum in the name of each, and among the numerous institutions to which he contributed were the following: hebrew archaeological society at jerusalem, the building of a synagogue on the site of the old temple wall, the school for the blind, the poor of jaffe, the home for aged jews, etc., etc. mr. barnett was then enrolled in the golden book by those present. great indeed was the honour which r. zorach barnett and his wife received on that day, but they were really worthy of it. may theirs be an example to others! glossary bar cochba. the heroic jewish leader who led the final revolt against the romans in the year a.d. . bar mitzvah. confirmation of a boy at the age of thirteen. bezel. a cake made in the shape of a ring. bikkur-holim. used to denote a hospital. brocha. a blessing or a thanksgiving used on various occasions. challah. white bread shaped as a twist used for the sabbath sanctification. chassid. pietist; a name assumed by a sect of jews mainly in galicia established by "baal shemtob." chazah. a cantor, or synagogue reader. chevra-kadisha. a burial society. cholent. a dish of various vegetables and meat, eaten on the sabbath. chometz. leavened bread. erev. evening. hamantaschen. a triangular cake eaten on purim, shaped according to the hat haman was supposed to have worn. kaftan. a long coat, worn by jews in eastern europe. kiddush. a blessing of sanctification over wine, said at the ushering in of sabbath and of festivals. lag b'omer. the rd day of the seven weeks between passover and pentecost: a students' holiday. mazzeltov. a greeting signifying good luck. meah sheorim. a hundred gates: the name of a suburb of jerusalem. mincha. the afternoon service. mitzvoth. acts of piety. para. a turkish coin of small value. pesach. passover. princess sabbath. a poetical expression, used for welcoming the sabbath. purim. the festival referred to in _the book of esther_. rav. one learned in rabbinical lore. samovar. a tea-urn. schpielers. strolling-players. schtramel. head-gear worn by chassidim. seder. the service on the first two nights of passover. sephardim. jews of spanish or of portuguese origin. shalach manoth. gifts--especially used with reference to distributions on purim (vide _the book of esther_). shalom. peace. shiros. oil made from the sesame seed. shulchan aruch. the jewish religious code; compiled in the middle of the th century and regarded as of high authority. shule. synagogue, derived from the german _schule_ (school). simhath torah. the festival of the law, following the tabernacle festival when the reading of the _pentateuch_ is completed and recommenced amid great rejoicing. strudel. a sweet pudding or cake. succah. the tabernacle used as a dwelling on the feast of tabernacles. tavelt. immersed; used in reference to the ritual bath. torah. the law; specially referring to the mosaic code and its derivatives. tsennah urennah. a jewish german translation of the _pentateuch_, embellished with legends for the use of women. tsitsith. knotted fringes worn by men according to mosaic injunction on tallith or praying-scarf, and also used for a small four-cornered fringed garment worn on the chest, under the coat. yemenites. south-arabian jews. yeshibah. a jewish theological academy. yom kippur. the day of atonement. yomtov. holy-day hebraic literature; translations from the talmud, midrashim and kabbala tudor publishing co. new york special introduction among the absurd notions as to what the talmud was, given credence in the middle ages, one was that it was a man! the mediaeval priest or peasant was perhaps wiser than he knew. almost, might we say, the talmud was man, for it is a record of the doings, the beliefs, the usages, the hopes, the sufferings, the patience, the humor, the mentality, and the morality of the jewish people for half a millennium. what is the talmud? there is more than one answer. ostensibly it is the _corpus juris_ of the jews from about the first century before the christian era to about the fourth after it. but we shall see as we proceed that the talmud was much more than this. the very word "law" in hebrew--"torah"--means more than its translation would imply. the jew interpreted his whole religion in terms of law. it is his name in fact for the bible's first five books--the pentateuch. to explain what the talmud is we must first explain the theory of its growth more remarkable perhaps than the work itself. what was that theory? the divine law was revealed to moses, not only through the commands that were found written in the bible, but also through all the later rules and regulations of post-exilic days. these additional laws it was presumed were handed down orally from moses to joshua, thence to the prophets, and later still transmitted to the scribes, and eventually to the rabbis. the reason why the rabbis ascribed to moses the laws that they later evolved, was due to their intense reverence for scripture, and their modest sense of their own authority and qualification. "if the men of old were giants then we are pigmies," said they. they felt and believed that all duty for the guidance of man was found in the bible either directly or inferentially. their motto was then, "search the scriptures," and they did search them with a literalness and a painstaking thoroughness never since repeated. not a word, not a letter escaped them. every redundancy of expression was freighted with meaning, every repetition was made to give birth to new truth. some of the inferences were logical and natural, some artificial and far-fetched, but all ingenious. sometimes the method was inductive and sometimes deductive. that is, occasionally a needed law was promulgated by the jewish sanhedrin, and then its authority sought in the scripture, or the scripture would be sought in the first instance to reveal new law. so while the jewish code, religious and civil, continued to grow during the era of the restoration of the second temple, to meet the more complex conditions of later times, still the theory was maintained that all was evolved from original scripture and always transmitted, either written or oral, from moses from mount sinai. it was not, however, till the year after the christian era that a compiled summary of the so-called oral law was made--perhaps compiled from earlier summaries--by rabbi jehudah hanassi (the prince), and the added work was called the mishnah or second law. mark the date. we have passed the period of the fall of judea's nationality. and it was these very academies in which the jewish tradition--the jewish law was studied, that kept alive the jewish people as a religious community after they had ceased to be a nation. this mishnah, divided into six _sedarim_ or chapters, and subdivided into thirty-six treatises, became now in the academies of palestine, and later in babylonia, the text of further legal elaboration, with the theory of deduction from scripture still maintained. although the life of denationalized israel was much narrower and more circumscribed, with fewer outlets to their capacities, nevertheless the new laws deduced from the mishnah code in the academies grew far larger than the original source, while the discussions which grew around each halacha, as the final decision was termed, and which was usually transmitted with the decision, grew so voluminous that it became gradually impossible to retain the complex tradition in the memory--remarkable as the oriental memory was and is. that fact, added to the growing persecutions from israel's over-lords, and the consequent precarious fate of these precious traditions, made it necessary to write them down in spite of the prejudice against committing the oral law to writing at all. this work was undertaken by rav asche and his disciples, and was completed before the year . the mishnah, together with the laws that later grew out of it, called also gamara, or commentary, form the talmud. while the palestinian school evolved a gamara from the mishnah which is called the "palestinian talmud," it was the tradition of the babylonian academies, far vaster because they continued for so many more centuries, that is the talmud _per se_, that great work of , folio leaves. were we to continue the tradition further, we might show how often this vast legal compilation was the subject of further commentary, discussion and deduction by yet later scholars. but that takes us beyond our theme and is another story. in forming an estimate of these laws, we must first remember that they belonged to the days when religion and state were one. so we shall find priestly laws mixed up with police laws, sanitary regulations side by side with regulations of sanctity, the injunctions teaching political economy and morality almost in the same line. it should rather then be compared to codes of law than to religious scriptures, though often there the comparison would be incomplete, since the religious atmosphere pervaded even the most secular circumstance of the life of the jew. there was no secular. the meanest function in life must be brought in relation to the great divine. this must be understood in studying the talmud, this must be understood in studying the jew. as law, it compares favorably with the roman code--its contemporary in part. in the treatment of a criminal it is almost quixotically humane. it abhors the shedding of blood, and no man can be put to death on circumstantial evidence. many of its injunctions are intensely minute and hair-splitting to the extreme of casuistry. yet these elements are familiar in the interpretation of law, not only in the olden time, but in some measure even to-day. there are instances where talmudic law is tenderer than the biblical; for example, the _lex talionis_ is softened into an equivalent. yet the legal does not form the whole of the talmud, nor perhaps the part that would most interest the casual reader or the world at large. it is the dry, prosaic half. there is a poetic half, let us say a homiletic half, what we call agada, as distinct from the legal portion called halacha. the term agada, "narrative," is wofully insufficient to describe the diverse material that falls under this head, for it comprehends all the discursive elements that come up in the legal discussions in the old babylonian and palestinian academies. these elements are occasionally biographical,--fragments of the lives of the great scholars, occasionally historical,--little bits of israel's long tragedy, occasionally didactic,--facts, morals, life lessons taught by the way; occasionally anecdotic, stories told to relieve the monotony of discussion; not infrequently fanciful; bits of philosophy, old folk-lore, weird imaginings, quaint beliefs, superstitions and humor. they are presented haphazard, most irrelevantly introduced in between the complex discussions, breaking the thread that however is never lost, but always taken up again. from this point of view the talmud is a great maze and apparently the simplest roads lead off into strange, winding by-paths. it is hard to deduce any distinct system of ethics, any consistent philosophy, any coherent doctrine. yet patience rewards the student here too, and from this confused medley of material, he can build the intellectual world of the early mediæval jew. in the realm of doctrine we find that "original sin," "vicarious atonement," and "everlasting punishment," are denied. man is made the author of his own salvation. life beyond the grave is still progressive; the soul is pre-existent. a suggestion of the wit and wisdom of the talmud may be gathered from the following quotations:-- a single light answers as well for a hundred men as for one. the ass complains of cold even in july. a myrtle in the desert remains a myrtle. teach thy tongue to say, "i do not know." hospitality is an expression of divine worship. thy friend has a friend, and thy friend's friend has a friend; be discreet. attend no auctions if thou hast no money. rather flay a carcass, than be idly dependent on charity. the place honors not the man, 'tis the man who gives honor to the place. drain not the waters of thy well while other people may desire them. the rose grows among thorns. two pieces of coin in one bag make more noise than a hundred. the rivalry of scholars advances science. truth is heavy, therefore few care to carry it. he who is loved by man is loved by god. use thy noble vase to-day; to-morrow it may break. the soldiers fight and the kings are heroes. commit a sin twice, it will seem a sin no longer. the world is saved by the breath of the school children. a miser is as wicked as an idolater. do not make woman weep, for god counts her tears. the best preacher is the heart; the best teacher time; the best book the world; the best friend god. the philosophy in the talmud, rather than the philosophy of it, has been made the subject of separate treatment just as the whole of the agada has been drawn out of the talmud and published as a separate work. what is the talmud to the jew to-day? it is literature rather than law. he no longer goes to the voluminous talmud to find specific injunction for specific need. search in that vast sea would be tedious and unfruitful. its legal portion has long been codified in separate digests. maimonides was the first to classify talmudic law. still later one ascheri prepared a digest called the "four rows," in which the decisions of later rabbis were incorporated. but it was the famous shulchan aruch (a prepared table) written by joseph caro in the sixteenth century, that formed the most complete code of talmudic law enlarged to date, and accepted as religious authority by the orthodox jews to-day. i have already referred to the literature that has grown out of the talmud. the "jewish encyclopedia" treats every law recognized by nations from the talmudic stand-point. this will give the world a complete talmudic point of view. in speaking of it as literature, it lacks perhaps that beauty of form in its language which the stricter demand as literature _sine qua non_, and yet its language is unique. it is something more than terse, for many a word is a whole sentence. written in aramaic, it contains many words in the languages of the nations with whom israel came in contact--greek, roman, persian, and words from other tongues. like the jew, the talmud has had a history, almost as checkered as that of its creator. like him it was singled out for persecution. louis ix. burned twenty-four cart-loads of talmuds in paris. its right of survival had often been wrested through church synods and councils. it has been banned, it has been excommunicated, it has been made the subject of popish bulls; but it was in the sixteenth century that the benedictine monks made a particular determined effort to destroy it. fortunately they knew not the times. it was the age of humanism, the forerunner of the reformation, and the talmud found its ablest defender in the great christian humanist, john reuchlin. he was the one first to tell his co-religionists, "do not condemn the talmud before you understand it. burning is no argument. instead of burning all jewish literature, it were better to found chairs in the universities for its exposition." the cause of liberality and light gained the day, and the printing-press decided the perpetuation of the talmud. in the second stage of its persecution the censor figures. his philistine pen passed ruthlessly over everything that seemed to hint at criticism of the church; but not content with expunging the heretical and the inferentially heretical, the censor at times went even so far as to erase sentiments particularly lofty, in order that the talmud should not have the credit of expounding noble doctrine, nor the jew the advantage of studying it. but the latest stage of its persecution belongs to more modern days, when inquisitions were out of date and monkish claws were cut. the traducer would spitefully engage the services of some renegade jew, to gather from the talmud all portions and passages that might seem grotesque and ridiculous, so that the world might form an unfavorable impression of the talmud and of the people who treasure it. this has been done with so much success that up till very recently the gentile world, including the christian clergy, knew of the talmud only through these unfortunate perversions and caricatures. imagine the citation of a chapter from _leviticus_ and one from _chronicles_, of some vindictive passages in the _psalms_, of a few skeptical bits in _ecclesiastes_ and _job_, and one or two of the barbaric stories in _judges_, to be offered to the world as a fair picture of the bible, and you will understand the sort of treatment the talmud has received from the world at large and the kind of estimate it has been given opportunity to form. what is the value of the talmud for the jew? certainly its greatest value was rendered in the middle ages, when literature was scant and copies of the few books in existence were rarer. when the jew was shut out of the world's pleasure and the world's culture and barred up in ghetto slums, then it was that the talmud became his recreation and his consolation, feeding his mind and his faith. in this way it not only became in the middle ages a picture of the jew, but largely formed his character. it made him a keen dialectician, tempered with a thoughtful and poetic touch. it fostered his patience and his humor and kept vivid his ideals. it linked him with the orient, while living in the occident and made him a bridge between the old and the new. to the world at large it has great value archæologically. here are preserved ancient laws, glint lights on past history, forgotten forms in the classic tongues, and pictures of old civilization. no one criticism can cover the whole work. it is so many-sided. it includes so many different standards of worth and value. if we take it as a whole, it is good, it is bad and indifferent; it is trash and it is treasure; it is dust and it is diamonds; it is potsherd and it is pearls; and in the hands of impartial scholars, it is one of the great monuments of mental achievement, one of the world's wonders. maurice h. harris the talmud * * * * * where do we learn that the shechinah rests even upon one who studies the law? in exodus xx. , where it is written, "in all places where i record my name i will come unto thee, and i will bless thee." _berachoth_, fol. , col. . one pang of remorse at a man's heart is of more avail than many stripes applied to him. (see prov. xvii. .) ibid., fol. , col. . "here, o israel, the lord our god is one lord!" (deut. vi. .) whosoever prolongs the utterance of the word one, shall have his days and years prolonged to him. so also _zohar_, syn. tit. ii. ibid., fol. , col. . once, as the rabbis tell us, the roman government issued a decree forbidding israel to study the law. whereupon pappus, the son of yehudah, one day found rabbi akiva teaching it openly to multitudes, whom he had gathered round him to hear it. "akiva," said he, "art thou not afraid of the government?" "list," was the reply, "and i will tell thee how it is by a parable. it is with me as with the fishes whom a fox, walking once by a river's side, saw darting distractedly to and fro in the stream; and, addressing, inquired, 'from what, pray, are ye fleeing?' 'from the nets,' they replied, 'which the children of men have set to ensnare us.' 'why, then,' rejoined the fox, 'not try the dry land with me, where you and i can live together, as our fathers managed to do before us?' 'surely,' exclaimed they, 'thou art not he of whom we have heard so much as the most cunning of animals, for herein thou art not wise, but foolish. for if we have cause to fear where it is natural for us to live, how much more reason have we to do so where we needs must die!' just so," continued akiva, "is it with us who study the law, in which (deut. xxx. ) it is written, 'he is thy life and the length of thy days;' for if we suffer while we study the law, how much more shall we if we neglect it?" not many days after, it is related, this rabbi akiva was apprehended and thrown into prison. as it happened, they led him out for execution just at the time when "hear, o israel!" fell to be repeated, and as they tore his flesh with currycombs, and as he was with long-drawn breath sounding forth the word one, his soul departed from him. then came forth a voice from heaven which said, "blessed art thou, rabbi akiva, for thy soul and the word one left thy body together." _berachoth_, fol. , col. . the badger, as it existed in the days of moses, was an animal of unique type, and the learned are not agreed whether it was a wild one or a domestic. it had only one horn on its forehead; and was assigned for the time to moses, who made a covering of its skin for the tabernacle; after which it became extinct, having served the purpose of its existence. rabbi yehudah says, "the ox, also, which the first man, adam, sacrificed, had but one horn on its forehead." _shabbath_, fol. , col. . once a gentile came to shamai, and said, "proselytize me, but on condition that thou teach me the whole law, even the whole of it, while i stand upon one leg." shamai drove him off with the builder's rod which he held in his hand. when he came to hillel with the same challenge, hillel converted him by answering him on the spot, "that which is hateful to thyself, do not do to thy neighbor. this is the whole law, and the rest is its commentary." (tobit, iv. ; matt. vii. .) ibid., fol. , col. . when rabbi shimon ben yochai and his son, rabbi elazar, came out of their cave on a friday afternoon, they saw an old man hurrying along with two bunches of myrtle in his hand. "what." said they, accosting him, "dost thou want with these?" "to smell them in honor of the sabbath," was the reply. "would not one bunch," they remarked, "be enough for that purpose?" "nay," the old man replied; "one is in honor of 'remember' (exod. xxii. ); and one in honor of 'keep' (deut. v. )." thereupon rabbi shimon remarked to his son, "behold how the commandments are regarded by israel!" ibid., fol. , col. . not one single thing has god created in vain. he created the snail as a remedy for a blister; the fly for the sting of a wasp; the gnat for the bite of a serpent; the serpent itself for healing the itch (or the scab); and the lizard (or the spider) for the sting of a scorpion. ibid., fol. . col. . when a man is dangerously ill, the law grants dispensation, for it says, "you may break one sabbath on his behalf, that he may be preserved to keep many sabbaths." _shabbath_, fol. , col. . once when rabbi ishmael paid a visit to rabbi shimon, he was offered a cup of wine, which he at once, without being asked twice, accepted, and drained at one draught. "sir," said his host, "dost thou not know the proverb, that he who drinks off a cup of wine at a draught is a greedy one?" "ah!" was the answer, "that fits not this case; for thy cup is small, thy wine is sweet, and my stomach is capacious." _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . at the time when nimrod the wicked had cast our father abraham into the fiery furnace, gabriel stood forth in the presence of the holy one--blessed be he!--and said, "lord of the universe, let me, i pray thee, go down and cool the furnace, and deliver that righteous one from it." then the holy one--blessed be he!--said unto him, "i am one in my world and he is one in his world; it is more becoming that he who is one should deliver him who is one." but as god does not withhold his reward from any creature, he said to gabriel, "for this thy good intention, be thine the honor of rescuing three of his descendants." at the time when nebuchadnezzar the wicked cast hananiah, mishael, and azariah into the fiery furnace, yourkami, the prince of hail, arose before god and said, "lord of the universe, let me, i pray thee, go down and cool the fiery furnace, and rescue these righteous men from its fury." whereupon gabriel interposed, and said, "god's power is not to be demonstrated thus, for thou art the prince of hail, and everybody knows that water quenches fire; but i, the prince of fire, will go down and cool the flame within and intensify it without (so as to consume the executioners), and thus will i perform a miracle within a miracle." then the holy one--blessed be he!--said to him, "go down." upon which gabriel exclaimed, "verily the truth of the lord endureth forever!" (ps. cxvii. .) _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . one peppercorn to-day is better than a basketful of pumpkins to-morrow. _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . one day of a year is counted for a whole year. _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . if a king be crowned on the twenty-ninth of adar (the last month of the sacred year), on the morrow--the first of nissan--it is reckoned that he commences his second year, that being the new year's day for royal and ecclesiastical affairs. for the sake of one righteous man the whole world is preserved in existence, as it is written (prov. x. ), "the righteous man is an everlasting foundation." _yoma_, fol. , col. . rabbi meyer saith, "great is repentance, because for the sake of one that truly repenteth the whole world is pardoned; as it is written (hosea xiv. ), 'i will heal their backsliding, i will love them freely, for mine anger is turned away from him.'" it is not said, "from them," but "from him." ibid., fol. , col. . he who observes one precept, in addition to those which, as originally laid upon him, he has discharged, shall receive favor from above, and is equal to him who has fulfilled the whole law. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . if any man vow a vow by only one of all the utensils of the altar, he has vowed by the corban, even although he did not mention the word in his oath. rabbi yehuda says, "he who swears by the word jerusalem is as though he had said nothing." _nedarim_, fol. , col. . balaam was lame in one foot and blind in one eye. _soteh_, fol. , col. , and _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . one wins eternal life after a struggle of years; another finds it in one hour (see luke xxiii. ). _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . this saying is applied by rabbi the holy to rabbi eliezar, the son of durdia, a profligate who recommended himself to the favor of heaven by one prolonged act of determined penitence, placing his head between his knees and groaning and weeping till his soul departed from him, and his sin and misery along with it; for at the moment of death a voice from heaven came forth and said, "rabbi eliezar, the son of durdia, is appointed to life everlasting." when rabbi the holy heard this, he wept, and said, "one wins eternal life after a struggle of years; another finds it in one hour." (compare luke xv. - .) whosoever destroyeth one soul of israel, scripture counts it to him as though he had destroyed the whole world; and whoso preserveth one soul of israel, scripture counts it as though he had preserved the whole world. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . the greatness of god is infinite; for while with one die man impresses many coins and all are exactly alike, the king of kings, the holy one--blessed be he!--with one die impresses the same image (of adam) on all men, and yet not one of them is like his neighbor. so that every one ought to say, "for myself is the world created." ibid., fol. , col. . "he caused the lame to mount on the back of the blind, and judged them both as one." antoninus said to the rabbi, "body and soul might each plead right of acquittal at the day of judgment." "how so?" he asked. "the body might plead that it was the soul that had sinned, and urge, saying, 'see, since the departure of the soul i have lain in the grave as still as a stone.' and the soul might plead, 'it was the body that sinned, for since the day i left it, i have flitted about in the air as innocent as a bird.'" to which the rabbi replied and said, "whereunto this thing is like, i will tell thee in a parable. it is like unto a king who had an orchard with some fine young fig trees planted in it. he set two gardeners to take care of them, of whom one was lame and the other blind. one day the lame one said to the blind 'i see some fine figs in the garden; come, take me on thy shoulders, and we will pluck them and eat them.' by and by the lord of the garden came, and missing the fruit from the fig trees, began to make inquiry after them. the lame one, to excuse himself, pleaded, 'i have no legs to walk with;' and the blind one, to excuse himself, pleaded, 'i have no eyes to see with.' what did the lord of the garden do? he caused the lame to mount upon the back of the blind, and judged them both as one." so likewise will god re-unite soul and body, and judge them both as one together; as it is written (ps. , ), "he shall call to the heavens from above, and to the earth, that he may judge his people." "he shall call to the heavens from above," that alludes to the soul; "and to the earth, that he may judge his people," that refers to the body. _sanhedrin_, fol. , cols, , . rabbi yehudah, surnamed the holy, the editor of the mishnah, is the personage here and elsewhere spoken of as the rabbi by pre eminence. he was an intimate friend of the roman emperor antoninus pius. one thing obtained with difficulty is far better than a hundred things procured with ease. _avoth d'rab. nathan_, ch. . in the name of rav, rabbi yehoshua bar abba says, "whoso buys a scroll of the law in the market seizes possession of another's meritorious act; but if he himself copies out a scroll of the law, scripture considers him as if he had himself received it direct from mount sinai." "nay," adds rav yehudah, in the name of rav, "even if he has amended one letter in it, scripture considers him as if he had written it out entirely." _menachoth_, fol. , col. . he who forgets one thing that he has learned breaks a negative commandment; for it is written (deut. iv. ), "take heed to thyself ... lest thou forget the things." _menachoth_, fol. , col. . a proselyte who has taken it upon himself to observe the law, but is suspected of neglecting one point, is to be suspected of being guilty of neglecting the whole law, and therefore regarded as an apostate israelite, and to be punished accordingly. _bechoroth_, fol. , col. . it is written (gen. xxviii. ii), "and he took from the stones of the place;" and again it is written (ver. ), "and he took the stone." rabbi isaac says this teaches that all these stones gathered themselves together into one place, as if each were eager that the saint should lay his head upon it. it happened, as the rabbis tell us, that all the stones were swallowed up by one another, and thus merged into one stone. _chullin_, fol. , col. . though the midrash and two of the targums, that of jonathan and the yerushalmi, tell the same fanciful story about these stones, aben ezra and r. shemuel ben meir among others adopt the opposite and common-sense interpretation which assigns to the word in gen. xxviii. ii, no such occult meaning. the psalms commencing "blessed is the man" and "why do the heathen rage" constitute but one psalm. _berachoth_ fol. , col. . the former chasidim used to sit still one hour, and then pray for one hour, and then again sit still for one hour. ibid., fol. , col. . all the benedictions in the temple used to conclude with the words "blessed be the lord god of israel unto eternity;" but when the sadducees, corrupting the faith, maintained that there was only one world, it was enacted that they should conclude with the words "from eternity unto eternity." _berachoth_, fol. , col. i. the sadducees (zadokim), so called after zadok their master, as is known, stood rigidly by the original mosaic code, and set themselves determinedly against all traditional developments. to the talmudists, therefore, they were especially obnoxious, and their bald, cold creed is looked upon by them with something like horror. it is thus the talmud warns against them--"believe not in thyself till the day of thy death, for, behold, yochanan, after officiating in the high priesthood for eighty years, became in the end a sadducee." (_berachoth_, fol. , col. .) in derech eretz zuta, chap. i., a caution is given which might well provoke attention--"learn or inquire nothing of the sadducees, lest thou be drawn into hell." rabbi yehudah tells us that rav says a man should never absent himself from the lecture hall, not even for one hour; for the above mishnah had been taught at college for many years, but the reason of it had never been made plain till the hour when rabbi chanina ben akavia came and explained it. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . the mishnah alluded to is short and simple, viz, where is it taught that a ship is clean to the touch? from prov. xxx. , "the way of a ship in the midst of the sea." (i.e., as the sea is clean to the touch, therefore a ship must also be clean to the touch). it is indiscreet for one to sleep in a house as the sole occupant, for lilith will seize hold of him. ibid., fol. , col. . lilith (the night-visiting one) is the name of a night spectre, said to have been adam's first wife, but who, for her refractory conduct, was transformed into a demon endowed with power to injure and even destroy infants unprotected by the necessary amulet or charm. "thou hast acknowledged the lord this day to be thy god; and the lord hath acknowledged thee this day to be his peculiar people" (deut. xxvi. , ). the holy one--blessed be he!--said unto israel, "ye have made me a name in the world, as it is written (deut. vi. ), 'hear, o israel, the lord our god is one lord;' and so i will make you a name in the world, as it is said ( chron. xvii. ), 'and what one nation in the earth is like thy people israel?'" _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . why are the words of the law compared to fire? (jer. xxiii. .) because, as fire does not burn when there is but one piece of wood, so do the words of the law not maintain the fire of life when meditated on by one alone (see, in confirmation, matt, xviii. ). _taanith_, fol. , col. i. "and moses went up from the plains of moab unto the mountain of nebo" (deut. xxxiv, i). tradition says there were twelve stairs, but that moses surmounted them all in one step. _soteh_, fol. , col. . pieces of money given in charity should not be counted over by twos, but one by one. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . "knowest thou the time when the wild goats of the rock bring forth?" (job xxxix. .) the wild goat is cruel to her offspring. as soon as they are brought forth, she climbs with them to the steep cliffs, that they may fall headlong and die. but, said god to job, to prevent this i provide an eagle to catch the kid upon its wings, and then carry and lay it before its cruel mother. now, if that eagle should be too soon or too late by one second only, instant death to the kid could not be averted; but with me one second is never changed for another. shall job be now changed by me, therefore, into an enemy. (comp. job ix. , and xxxiv. .) _bava bathra_, fol. , cols. , . a generation can have one leader only, and not two. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . "like the hammer that breaketh the rock in pieces" (jer. xxiii. ). as a hammer divideth fire into many sparks, so one verse of scripture has many meanings and many explanations. ibid., fol. , col. . in the machser for pentecost (p. ) god is said to have "explained the law to his people, face to face, and on every point ninety-eight explanations are given." adam was created one without eve. why? that the sadducees might not assert the plurality of powers in heaven. ibid., fol. , col. i. as the sadducees did not believe in a plurality of powers in heaven, but only the christians, in the regard of the jews, did so (by their profession of the doctrine of the trinity), it is obvious that here, as well as often elsewhere, the latter and not the former are intended. "and the frog came up and covered the land of egypt" (exod. viii. i; a. v. viii. ). "there was but one frog," said rabbi elazar, "and she so multiplied as to fill the whole land of egypt." "yes, indeed," said rabbi akiva. "there was, as you say, but one frog, but she herself was so large as to fill all the land of egypt." whereupon rabbi elazar ben azariah said unto him, "akiva, what business hast thou with haggadah? be off with thy legends, and get thee to the laws thou art familiar with about plagues and tents. though thou sayest right in this matter, for there was only one frog, but she croaked so loud that the frogs came from everywhere else to her croaking." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . rabba, the grandson of channa, said that he himself once saw a frog larger than any seen now, though not so large as the frog in egypt. it was as large as acra, a village of some sixty houses (_bava bathra_, fol. , col. .) apropos to the part the frog was conceived to play or symbolize in the jewish conception of the mode and ministry of divine judgment, we quote the following:--"we are told that samuel once saw a frog carrying a scorpion on its back across a river, upon the opposite bank of which a man stood waiting ready to be stung. the sting proving fatal, so that the man died; upon which samuel exclaimed, 'lord, they wait for thy judgments this day: for all are thy servants.' (ps. cxix. .)" (_nedarim_, fol. , col. .) "according to the days of one king" (isa. xxiii. ). what king is this that is singled out as one? thou must say this is the king messiah, and no other. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . rabbi levi contends that manasseh has no portion in the world to come, while rabbi yehudah maintains that he has; and each supports his conclusion in contradiction of the other, from one and the same scripture text. ibid., fol. , col. . the words, "remember the sabbath day," in exod. xx. , and "keep the sabbath day," in deut. v. , were uttered in one breath, as no man's mouth could utter them, and no man's ear could hear. _shevuoth_, fol. , col. . the officer who inflicts flagellation on a criminal must smite with one hand only, but yet with all his force. _maccoth_, fol. , col. . i would rather be called a fool all my days than sin one hour before god. _edioth_, chap. , mish. . he who observes but one precept secures for himself an advocate, and he who commits one single sin procures for himself an accuser. _avoth_, chap. , mish. . he who learns from another one chapter, one halachah, one verse, or one word or even a single letter, is bound to respect him. ibid., chap. , mish. . the above is one evidence, among many, of the high esteem in which learning and the office of a teacher are held among the jews. education is one of the virtues--of which the following, extracted from the talmud, is a list--the interest of which the jew considers he enjoys in this world, while the capital remains intact against the exigencies of the world to come. these are:--the honoring of father and mother, acts of benevolence, hospitality to strangers, visiting the sick, devotion in prayer, promotion of peace between man and man, and study in general, but the study of the law outweighs them all. (_shabbath_, fol. , col. .) the study of the law, it is said, is of greater merit to rescue one from accidental death, than building the temple, and greater than honoring father or mother. (_meggillah_, fol. , col .) "repent one day before thy death." in relation to which rabbi eliezer was asked by his disciples, "how is a man to repent one day before his death, since he does not know on what day he shall die?" "so much the more reason is there," he replied, "that he should repent to-day, lest he die to-morrow; and repent to-morrow, lest he die the day after: and thus will all his days be penitential ones." _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . he who obliterates one letter from the written name of god, breaks a negative command, for it is said, "and destroy the names of them out of that place. ye shall not do so unto the lord your god" (deut. xii. , ). _sophrim_, chap. , hal. . rabbi chanina could put on and off his shoes while standing on one leg only, though he was eighty years of age. _chullin_, fol. , col. . a priest who is blind in one eye should not be judge of the plague; for it is said (lev. xiii. ), "wheresoever the priest (with both eyes) looketh." _negaim_, chap. , mish. . the twig of a bunch without any grapes is clean; but if there remained one grape on it, it is unclean. _okzin_, chap, i, mish. . not every man deserves to have two tables. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . the meaning of this rather ambiguous sentence may either be, that all men are not able to succeed in more enterprises than one at a time; or that it is not given to every one to make the best both of the present world and of that which is to come. abba benjamin used to say "there are two things about which i have all my life been much concerned: that my prayer should be offered in front of my bed, and that the position of my bed should be from north to south." ibid., fol. , col. . there are several reasons which may be adduced to account for abba benjamin's anxiety, and they are all more or less connected with the important consequences which were supposed to depend upon determining his position with reference to the shechinah, which rested in the east or the west. abba benjamin felt anxious to have children, for "any man not having children is counted as dead," as it is written (gen. xxx. ), "give me children, or else i die." (_nedarin_, fol. , col. .) with the jew one great consideration of life is to have children, and more especially male children; because when a boy is born all rejoice over him, but over a girl they all mourn. when a boy comes into the world he brings peace with him, and a loaf of bread in his hand, but a girl brings nothing. (_niddah_, fol. , col. .) it is impossible for the world to be without males and females, but blessed is he whose children are boys, and hapless is he whose children are girls. (_kiddushin_, fol. , col. .) whosoever does not leave a son to be heir, god will heap wrath upon him. (scripture is quoted in proof of this, compare numb. xxvii. with zeph. i. .) (_bava bathra_, fol. , col. .) "there are two ways before me, one leading into paradise, the other into hell." when yochanan, the son of zachai, was sick unto death, his disciples came to visit him; and when he saw them he wept, upon which his disciples exclaimed, "light of israel! pillar of the right! mighty hammer! why weepest thou?" he replied, "if i were going to be led into the presence of a king, who is but flesh and blood, to-day here and to-morrow in the grave, whose anger with me could not last forever, whose sentence against me, were it even unto death, could not endure forever, and whom perhaps i might pacify with words or bribe with money, yet for all that should i weep; but now that i am about to enter the presence of the king of kings, the holy one--blessed be he forever and ever!--whose anger would be everlasting, whose sentence of death or imprisonment admits of no reprieve, and who is not to be pacified with words nor bribed with money, and in whose presence there are two roads before me, one leading into paradise and the other into hell, and should i not weep?" then prayed they him, and said, "rabbi, give us thy farewell blessing;" and he said unto them, "oh that the fear of god may be as much upon you as the fear of man." _berachoth_, fol. , col. . rabbi ami says, "knowledge is of great price, for it is placed between two divine names, as it is written (i sam. ii. ), 'a god of knowledge is the lord,' and therefore mercy is to be denied to him who has no knowledge; for it is written (isa. xxvii. ), 'it is a people of no understanding, therefore he that hath made them will not have mercy on them.'" _berachoth_ fol. , col. . here we have a clear law, drawn from scripture, forbidding, or at any rate denying, mercy to the ignorant. the words of rabbi (the holy) are a practical commentary on the text worth quoting, "woe is unto me because i have given my morsel to an ignorant one." (_bava bathra_, fol. , col. .) but who is the ignorant one from whom this mercy is to be withheld? here the doctors disagree. he, says rabbi eliezer, who does not read the shema, "hear, o israel," etc., both morning and evening. according to rabbi yehudah, he that does not put on phylacteries is an ignorant one. rabbi azai affirms that he who wears no fringes to his garment is an ignorant one, etc. others again say he who even reads the bible and the mishna but does not serve the disciples of the wise, is an ignorant one. rabbi huna winds up with the words "the law is as the others have said," and so leaves the difficulty where he finds it. (_berachoth_, fol. , col. .) of him "who transgresses the words of the wise, which he is commanded to obey," it is written, "he is guilty of death and has forfeited his life." (_berachoth_, fol. , col. , and _yevamoth_, fol. , col. .) whoso, therefore, shows mercy to him contradicts the purpose and incurs the displeasure of god. it was in application of this principle, literally interpreted, that the wise should hold no parley with the ignorant, which led the jews to condemn the contrary procedure of jesus christ. it was this prohibition to show mercy to the ignorant, together with the solemn threatenings directed against those who neglected the study of the law, that worked such a wonderful revolution in hezekiah's time; for it is said that then "they searched from dan to beersheba, and did not find an ignorant one." (_sanhedrin_, fol. , col. .) when the holy one--blessed be he!--remembers that his children are in trouble among the nations of the world, he drops two tears into the great ocean, the noise of which startles the world from one end to the other, and causes the earth to quake. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . we read in the talmud that a gentile once came to shamai and said, "how many laws have you?" shamai replied, "we have two, the written law and the oral law." to which the gentile made answer, "when you speak of the written law, i believe you, but in your oral law i have no faith. nevertheless, you may make me a proselyte on condition that you teach me the written law only." upon this shamai rated him sharply, and sent him away with indignant abuse. when, however, this gentile came with the same object, and proposed the same terms to hillel, the latter proceeded at once to proselytize him, and on the first day taught him aleph, beth, gemel, daleth. on the morrow hillel reversed the order of these letters, upon which the proselyte remonstrated and said, "but thou didst not teach me so yesterday." "true," said hillel, "but thou didst trust me in what i taught thee then; why, then, dost thou not trust me now in what i tell thee respecting the oral law?" _shabbath_, fol. , col. . every man as he goes on the eve of the sabbath from the synagogue to his house is escorted by two angels, one of which is a good angel and the other an evil. when the man comes home and finds the lamps lit, the table spread, and the bed in order, the good angel says, "may the coming sabbath be even as the present;" to which the evil angel (though with reluctance) is obliged to say, "amen." but if all be in disorder, then the bad angel says, "may the coming sabbath be even as the present," and the good angel is (with equal reluctance), obliged to say "amen" to it. ibid., fol. , col. . two are better than three. alas! for the one that goes and does not return again. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . as in the riddle of the sphinx, the "two" here stands for youth with its two sufficient legs, and the "three" for old age, which requires a third support in a staff. there were two things which god first thought of creating on the eve of the sabbath, which, however, were not created till after the sabbath had closed. the first was fire, which adam by divine suggestion drew forth by striking together two stones; and the second, was the mule, produced by the crossing of two different animals. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . "every one has two portions, one in paradise and another in hell." acheer asked rabbi meyer, "what meaneth this that is written (eccl. vii. ), 'god also has set the one over against the other'?" rabbi meyer replied, "there is nothing which god has created of which he has not also created the opposite. he who created mountains and hills created also seas and rivers." but said acheer to rabbi meyer, "thy master, rabbi akiva, did not say so, but spake in this way: he created the righteous and also the wicked; he created paradise and hell: every man has two portions, one portion in paradise, and the other in hell. the righteous, who has personal merit, carries both his own portion of good and that of his wicked neighbor away with him to paradise; the wicked, who is guilty and condemned, carries both his own portion of evil and also that of his righteous neighbor away with him to hell." when rav mesharshia asked what scripture guarantee there was for this, this was the reply: "with regard to the righteous, it is written (isa. lxi. ), 'they shall rejoice in their portion, therefore in their land (beyond the grave) they shall possess the double.' respecting the wicked it is written (jer. xvii. ), 'and destroy them with double destruction.'" _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . the question asked above by acheer has been practically resolved by all wise men from the beginning of the world, but it is the boast of the hegelians that it has for the first time been resolved philosophically by their master. others had maintained that you could not think a thing but through its opposite; he first maintained it could not exist but through its opposite, that, in fact, the thing and its opposite must needs arise together, and that eternally, as complements of one unity: the white is not there without the black, nor the black without the white; the good is not there without the evil, nor the evil without the good. pride is unbecoming in women. there were two proud women, and their names were contemptible; the name of the one, deborah, meaning wasp, and of the other, huldah, weasel. respecting the wasp it is written (judges iv. ), "and she sent and called barak," whereas she ought to have gone to him. concerning the weasel it is written ( kings xxii. ), "tell the man that sent you," whereas she should have said, "tell the king." _meggillah_, fol. , col. . if speech is worth one sela (a small coin so called), silence is worth two. ibid., fol. , col. . the swiss motto, "speech is worth silver, silence worth gold," expresses a sentiment which finds great favor with the authors and varied expression in the pages of the talmud. if silence be good for wise men, how much better must it be for fools! _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . for every evil silence is the best remedy. _meggillah_, fol. , col. . silence is as good as confession. _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . silence in a babylonian was a mark of his being of good family. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . simeon, the son of gamliel, said, "i have been brought up all my life among the wise, and i have never found anything of more material benefit than silence." _avoth_, chap. . rabbi akiva said, "laughter and levity lead a man to lewdness; but tradition is a fence to the law, tithes are a fence to riches, vows are a fence to abstinence, while the fence of wisdom is silence." ibid., chap. . when they opened his brain, they found in it a gnat as big as a swallow and weighing two selas. _gittin_, fol. , col. . the context of the above states a tradition current among the jews in reference to titus, the destroyer of jerusalem. it is said that when, after taking the city, he had shamefully violated and profaned the temple, he took the sacred vessels of the sanctuary, wrapped them in the veil of the holy place, and sailed with them to rome. at sea a storm arose and threatened to sink the ship; upon which he was heard reflecting, "it seems the god of these jews has no power anywhere but at sea. pharaoh he drowned, and sisera he drowned, and now he is about to drown me also. if he be mighty, let him go ashore and contend with me there." then came a voice from heaven and said, "o thou wicked one, son of a wicked man and grandson of esau the wicked, go ashore. i have a creature--an insignificant one in my world--go and fight with it." this creature was a gnat, and is called insignificant because it must receive and discharge what it eats by one aperture. immediately, therefore, he landed, when a gnat flew up his nostrils and made its way to his brain, on which it fed for a period of seven years. one day he happened to pass a blacksmith's forge, when the noise of the hammer soothed the gnawing at his brain. "aha" said titus, "i have found a remedy at last;" and he ordered a blacksmith to hammer before him. to a gentile for this he (for a time) paid four zuzim a day, but to a jewish blacksmith he paid nothing, remarking to him, "it is payment enough to thee to see thy enemy suffering so painfully." for thirty days he felt relieved, but after, no amount of hammering in the least relieved him. as to what happened after his death, we have this testimony from rabbi phineas, the son of aruba: "i myself was among the roman magnates when an inquest was held upon the body of titus, and on opening his brain they found therein a gnat as big as a swallow, weighing two selas." others say it was as large as a pigeon a year old and weighed two litras. abaii says, "we found its mouth was of copper and its claws of iron." titus gave instructions that after his death his body should be burned, and the ashes thereof scattered over the surface of the seven seas, that the god of the jews might not find him and bring him to judgment. (_gittin_, fol. , col. .) "the man with two wives, one young and the other old." rav ami and rav assi were in social converse with rabbi isaac naphcha, when one of them said to him, "tell us, sir, some pretty legend," and the other said, "pray explain to us rather some nice point of law." when he began the legend he displeased the one, and when he proceeded to explain a point of law, he offended the other. whereupon he took up this parable in illustration of the plight in which their obstinacy placed him. "i am like the man with the two wives, the one young and the other old. the young one plucked out all his gray hairs (that he might look young), and the old wife pulled out all his black hairs (that he might look old); and so between the one and the other he became bald. so is it with me between you. however, i've something nice for both of you. it is written (exod. xxii. ), 'if a fire break out and catch in thorns, so that the stacks of corn, or the standing corn, or the field be consumed therewith, he that kindled the fire shall surely make restoration.' the holy one--blessed be he!--hath said, 'i must both judge myself and take upon myself to indemnify the evil of the conflagration i have caused, for i have kindled a fire in zion,' as it is written (lament, iv. ), 'he hath kindled a fire in zion, and hath devoured the foundations thereof.' i must therefore rebuild her with fire, as it is written (zech. ii. ), 'i will be unto her a wall of fire round about, and will be the glory in the midst of her.'" _bava kama_, fol. , col. . rabbi oshaia asked, "what is this that is written, (zech. xi. ), 'i took unto me two staves; the one i called amiable and the other destroyer'?" the staff called amiable represents the disciples of the wise in the land of israel, who were friendly one toward another in their debates about the law. the staff called destroyer represents the disciples of the wise of babylon, who in the like debates were fierce tempered and not friendly toward one another. what is the meaning of babel or babylon? rabbi yochanan says it means "confused in the bible, confused in the mishna, and confused in the talmud." "he hath set me in dark places, as they that be dead of old" (lam. iii. ). rabbi jeremiah said by this we are to understand the babylonian talmud. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . the rabbis say these three hate their fellows--dogs, cocks, and conjurors; to which some add, among others, the disciples of the wise of babylon. (_p'sachim_, fol. , col. .) on his return from babylon to the land of israel, rabbi zira fasted a hundred fasts, during which he prayed that he might be enabled to forget the babylonian talmud. (_bava metzia_, fol. , col. .) rabbi yochanan and rabbi yonathan traveled one day together; they came to two roads, one of which led by the door of a place devoted to the worship of idols, and the other by a place of ill fame. upon which one said to the other, "let us go by the former, because our inclination to the evil that waylays us there is already extinguished." "nay, rather," said the other, "let us go by the latter, and curb our desires; so shall we receive a reward in recompense." in this resolution they went on, and as they passed the place the women humbled themselves before them and withdrew ashamed into their chambers. then yochanan asked the other, "how didst thou know that this would occur to us?" he made answer, "from what is written (in prov. ii. ), 'discretion (in the law) shall preserve thee.'" _avodah zarah_, fol. , cols. , . given two dry firebrands and one piece of green wood, the dry will set fire to the green. _sanhedrin_, fol , col. . with two dogs they caught the lion. ibid., fol. , col. . both these proverbs express the same idea, that a minority, be it ever so strong, must give way to a majority. "and the elders of moab and the elders of midian departed together" (numb. xxii. ). midian and moab were never friendly toward each other; they were like two dogs tending a flock, always at variance. when the wolf came upon the one, however, the other thought, "if i do not help my neighbor to-day, the wolf may come upon myself to-morrow;" therefore the two dogs leagued together and, killed the wolf. hence, says rabbi pappa, the popular saying, "the mouse and the cat are combined to make a feast on the fat of the unfortunate." ibid., fol. , col. . rabbi yochanan, in the name of yossi, the son of zimra, asks, "what is this that is written (ps. cxx. ), 'what shall be given unto thee, or what shall be added unto thee, o thou false tongue'?" the holy one--blessed be he!--said to the tongue, "all the members of the body are erect, thou only art recumbent; all other members are without, thou art within, and not only so, for i have surrounded thee with two walls, one of bone and the other of flesh. what shall be given to thee, or what shall be added unto thee, o thou false tongue?" rabbi yochanan, in the name of yossi, says, "he who slanders is an atheist, for it is written (ps. xii. ), 'who have said, with our tongues will we prevail; our lips are with us; who is lord over us?'" _erchin_, fol. , col. . here are a few sayings from the talmud on the abuse of the tongue. he who slanders, he who receives slander, and he who bears false witness against his neighbor, deserve to be cast to the dogs. _psachim_, fol. , col. . all animals will one day remonstrate with the serpent and say, "the lion treads upon his prey and devours it, the wolf tears and eats it, but thou, what profit hast thou in biting?" the serpent will reply (eccl. viii. ii), "i am no worse than a slanderer." _taanith_, fol. , col. . adonijah was deprived of life for no other reason than that he was given to quarreling. it is lawful to slander one so evil disposed as he was. _perek hashalom._ god will say to the prince of hell, "i from above and thou from below shall judge and condemn the slanderer." _erchin_, fol. , col. . the third tongue (i.e., slander) hurts three parties: the slanderer himself, the receiver of slander, and the person slandered. ibid. four classes do not receive the presence of the shechinah: scorners, liars, flatterers, and slanderers. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . where are we told that when two sit together and study the law the shechinah is with them? in mal. iii. , where it is written, "they that feared the lord spake often one to another, and the lord hearkened and heard it." _berachoth_, fol. , col. . why did elijah employ two invocations, saying twice over, "hear me! hear me!" ( kings xviii. .) elijah first prayed before god, "o lord, king of the universe, hear me!" that he might send fire down from heaven and consume all that was upon the altar; and again he prayed, "hear me!" that they might not imagine that the result was a matter of sorcery; for it is said, "thou hast turned their heart back again." _berachoth_, fol. , col. . the twofold invocation of elijah, which betokens his intense earnestness, anagrammatically expressed, is echoed in the words of the bystanders, "the lord he is the god, the lord he is the god." "i dreamed," said bar kappara one day to rabbi (the holy), "that i beheld two pigeons, and they flew away from me." "thy dream is this," replied rabbi, "thou hast had two wives, and art separated from them both without a bill of divorcement." ibid., fol. , col. . the rabbis teach concerning the two kidneys in man, that one counsels him to do good and the other to do evil; and it appears that the former is situated on the right side and the latter on the left. hence it is written (eccl. x. ), "a wise man's heart is at his right hand, but a fool's heart is at his left." ibid., fol. , col. . for two sins the common people perish: they speak of the holy ark as a box and the synagogue as a resort for the ignorant vulgar. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . on the self-same day when jeroboam introduced the two golden calves, the one into bethel and the other into dan, a hut was erected in a part of italy which was then subject to the greeks. ibid., fol. , col. . in the context where the above tradition occurs, which, as is obvious, relates to the founding of rome, we meet with another on the same subject as follows:--when solomon married the daughter of pharaoh, the angel gabriel thrust a reed into the sea, stirring up therewith the sand and mud from the bottom. this, gradually collecting, first shaped itself into an island and then expanded so as to unite itself with the continent. and thus was the land created for the erection of the hut which should one day swell into the proportion of a proud imperial city. if israel kept only two sabbaths, according to the strict requirement of the law, they would be freed at once from their compelled dispersion; for it is written (isa. lvi. , ), "thus saith the lord unto the eunuchs that keep my sabbaths, even them will i bring to my holy mountain." _shabbath_, fol. , col. . adam had two faces; for it is said (ps. cxxxix. ), "thou hast made me behind and before." _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . there is a notion among the rabbis that adam was possessed originally of a bisexual organization, and this conclusion they draw from gen. i. , where it is said, "god created man in his own image; male-female created he them." these two natures, it was thought, lay side by side; according to some, the male on the right and the female on the left; according to others, back to back; while there were those who maintained that adam was created with a tail, and that it was from this appendage eve was fashioned. other jewish traditions tell us that eve was made from "the thirteenth rib of the right side" (targ. jonath.), and that "she was not drawn out by the head, lest she should be vain; nor by the eyes, lest she should be wanton; nor from the mouth, lest she should be given to garrulity; nor by the ears, lest she should be an eavesdropper; nor by the hands, lest she should be intermeddling; nor by the feet, lest she be a gadder; nor by the heart, for fear she should be jealous; but she was taken out from the side. yet, in spite of all these precautions, she had all the faults so carefully provided against." if in time of national calamity a man withdraw himself from his kindred and refuse to share in their sorrow, his two guardian angels come and lay their hands upon his head and say, "this man has isolated himself from his country in the day of its need, let him not live to see and enjoy the day when god shall restore its prosperity." when the community is in trouble, let no man say, "i will go home and eat and drink, and say, peace be unto thee, oh my soul!" (luke xii. ); for to him scripture hath solemnly said (isa. xxii. , ), "surely this iniquity shall not be purged from you till you die." _taanith_, fol. , col. . an infant that has died under a month old is (to be) carried to the grave in the arms (not in a coffin), and buried by one woman and two men, but not by one man and two women. _moed katan_, fol. , col. . both rashi and the tosephoth allude to a case which justifies the rule given here, where a woman actually carried a living child in a coffin, in order to avoid the suspicion of an assignation she had made with a man, who set out to join her. but the tosephoth, after noticing this version of rashi, gives another more to the point. the story in the tosephoth is to this effect:--a woman was once weeping and groaning over the grave of her husband, and not very far away was a man who was guarding the corpse of a person who had been crucified. in the moment of mourning an affection sprung up between the two, and in the engrossment of it the corpse which the man guarded was stolen. he was in great trepidation for fear of the king's command. the woman said, "don't be afraid; exhume my husband, and hang him up instead." this was accordingly done. (see _kiddushin_, fol. , col. .) there were two date trees in the valley of hinnom from between which smoke ascended, and this is the gate of hell. _succah_, fol. , col. . according to jewish tradition, there are three gates to gehinnom, one in the desert, one in the sea, and one in jerusalem: in the desert, as it is written (numb. xvi. ), "they went down, and all that belonged to them, alive into hell." in the sea, as it is written (jonah ii. ), "out of the belly of hell have i called," etc. in jerusalem, as it is written (isa. xxxi. ), "thus saith the lord, whose fire is in zion, and his furnace in jerusalem." when two women are seen sitting on opposite sides of a cross road facing each other, it is to be presumed that they are up to witchcraft and contemplate mischief. what in that case must you do? go by another road, if there is one, and if not, with a companion, should such turn up, passing the crones arm-in-arm with him; but should there be no other road and no other man, then walk straight on repeating the counter-charm, as you pass them-- agrath is to asia gone, and blussia's killed in battle. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . agrath and blussia are two amazons well known to those familiar with rabbinic demonology. "if mordecai, before whom thou hast began to fall, be of the seed of the jews, expect not to prevail against him, but thou shalt fall" (esth. vi. ). wherefore these two fallings? they told haman, saying, "this nation is likened to the dust, and is also likened to the stars; when they are down, they are down even to the dust, but when they begin to rise, they rise to the stars." _meggillah_, fol. , col. . if any two disciples of the wise, dwelling in the same city, have a difference respecting the halachah, let them remember what scripture denounces against them, "and also i gave them statutes that are not good, and judgments by which they shall not live" (ezek. xx. ). ibid., fol. , col. . if a man espouse one of two sisters, and does not know which he has espoused, he must give both a bill of divorce. if two men espouse two sisters, and neither of them know which he has espoused, then each man must give two bills of divorce, one to each woman. _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . there is a time coming (i.e., in the days of the messiah), when a grain of wheat will be as large as the two kidneys of the great ox. _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . according to a recent discovery, which has been confirmed by subsequent observation and experiment, wheat is a development by cultivation of the tiny grain of the _Ægilops ovata_, a sort of grass; but we are indebted to rabbinic lore for the curious information that before the fall of man wheat grew upon a tree whose trunk looked like gold, its branches like silver, and its leaves like so many emeralds. the wheat ears themselves were as red as rubies, and each bore five sparkling grains as white as snow, as sweet as honey, and as fragrant as musk. at first the grains were as big as an ostrich's egg, but in the time of enoch they diminished to the size of a goose's egg, and in elijah's to that of a hen, while at the commencement of the common era, they shrank so small as not to be larger than grapes, according to a law the inverse of the order of nature. rabbi yehudah (_sanhedrin_, fol. , col. ) says that wheat was the forbidden fruit. hence probably the degeneracy. of two that quarrel, the one that first gives in shows the nobler nature. ibid., fol. , col. . he who sets aside a portion of his wealth for the relief of the poor will be delivered from the judgment of hell. of this the parable of the two sheep that attempted to ford a river is an illustration; one was shorn of its wool and the other not; the former, therefore, managed to get over, but the latter, being heavy-laden, sank. _gittin_, fol. , col. . zoreah and eshtaol (josh. xv. ) were two large mountains, but samson tore them up and grated the one against the other. _soteh_, fol. , col. . the above tradition is founded on judges xiii. , in which it is said of samson, "and the spirit of god began to move him at times in the camp of dan, between zoreah and eshtaol," in which the word "move," signifies also to "strike a stroke," "step a step," and "once." founding on which last two meanings, rabbi yehudah says, "samson strode in one stride from zoreah to eshtaol," a giant stride of two miles or more. taking the word in the sense of "strike," or "producing a ringing sound," another rabbi tells us that the hairs of samson's head stood upright, tinkling one against another like bells, the jingle of which might be heard from zoreah to eshtaol. the version in the text takes the same word in the sense of to "strike together." on the day when isaac was weaned, abraham made a great feast, to which he invited all the people of the land. not all of those who came to enjoy the feast believed in the alleged occasion of its celebration, for some said contemptuously, "this old couple have adopted a foundling, and provided a feast to persuade us to believe that the child is their own offspring." what did abraham do? he invited all the great men of the day, and sarah invited their wives, who brought their infants, but not their nurses, along with them. on this occasion sarah's breasts became like two fountains, for she supplied, of her own body, nourishment to all the children. still some were unconvinced, and said, "shall a child be born to one that is a hundred years old, and shall sarah, who is ninety years old, bear?" (gen. xvii. .) whereupon, to silence this objection, isaac's face was changed, so that it became the very picture of abraham's; then one and all exclaimed, "abraham begat isaac." _bara metzia_, fol. , col. . rava relates the following in the name of rabbi yochanan:--"two jewish slaves were one day walking along, when their master, who was following, overheard the one saying to the other, 'there is a camel ahead of us, as i judge--for i have not seen--that is blind of one eye and laden with two skin-bottles, one of which contains wine and the other oil, while two drivers attend it, one of them an israelite, and the other a gentile.' 'you perverse men,' said their master, 'how can you fabricate such a story as that?' the slave answered, and gave this as his reason, 'the grass is cropped only on one side of the track, the wine, that must have dripped, has soaked into the earth on the right, and the oil has trickled down, and may be seen on the left; while one of the drivers turned aside from the track to ease himself, but the other has not even left the road for the purpose.' upon this the master stepped on before them in order to verify the correctness of their inferences, and found the conclusion true in every particular. he then turned back, and ... after complimenting the two slaves for their shrewdness, he at once gave them their liberty." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . when the disciples of shamai and hillel increased in israel, contention increased along with them, so much so, that the one law became as two laws (and these contradictory). _soteh_, fol. , col. . if two parties deposit money with a third, one a single manah and the other two hundred, and both afterward appear and claim the larger sum, the depositary should give each depositor one manah only, and leave the rest undivided till the coming of elijah. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . "till elijah comes" is a phrase which is in use among the jews to express postponement forever, like _ad kalendas græcas_. it is applied to questions that would take elijah to settle, which, it is believed, he will not appear to do till doomsday. "and i will make thy windows of agates" (isa. liv. ). two of the angels in heaven, gabriel and michael, once disputed about this: one maintained that the stone should be an onyx, and the other asserted it should be a jasper; but the holy one--blessed be he!--said unto them, "let it be as both say, which, in hebrew, abbreviated, is an agate." _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . "the horseleech has two daughters, crying, give! give!" (prov. xxx. .) mar ukva says, "this has reference to the voice of two daughters crying out from torture in hell, because their voice is heard in this world crying, 'give! give!'--namely--heresy and officialism." _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . rashi says heresy here refers to the "heresy of james," or, in other words, christianity. two cemeteries were provided by the judicial authorities, one for beheaded and strangled criminals, and the other for those that were stoned or burned. when the flesh of these was consumed, they collected the bones and buried them in their own place, after which the relations came and saluted the judge and the witnesses, and said, "we owe you no grudge, for you passed a just judgment." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . alas! for the loss which the world has sustained in the degradation of the helpful serpent. if the serpent had not been degraded, every israelite would have been attended by two of kindly disposition, one of which might have been sent to the north, and the other to the south, to bring for its owner precious corals and costly stones and pearls. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . here are two or three other sayings from the talmud relative to the serpent. benjamin the son of jacob, amram the father of moses, and jesse the father of david all died, not because of their own sin (for they had none, says rashi), but because of the (original) sin committed under the serpent's temptation. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . no man was ever injured by a serpent or scorpion in jerusalem. _yoma_, fol. , col. . "and dust is the serpent's food" (isa. lxv. ). rav ammi says, "to the serpent no delicacy in the world has any other flavor than that of dust;" and rav assi says, "no delicacy in the world satisfies him like dust." ibid., fol. , col. . two negatives or two affirmatives are as good as an oath. _shevuoth_, fol. , col. . like two pearls were the two drops of holy oil that were suspended from the two corners of the beard of aaron. _horayoth_, fol. , col. . for two to sit together and have no discourse about the law, is to sit in the seat of the scornful; as it is said (ps. i. i), "and sitteth not in the seat of the scornful." _avoth_, chap. iii. when two are seated together at table, the younger shall not partake before the elder, otherwise the younger shall be justly accounted a glutton. _derech eretz_, chap. vii. philemo once asked rabbi (the holy), "if a man has two heads, on which is he to put the phylactery?" to which rabbi replied, "either get up and be off, or take an anathema; for thou art making fun of me." _menachoth_, fol. , col. . it is thus rav yoseph taught what is meant when it is written in isaiah xii. i, "i will praise thee, o lord, because thou wast angry with me: thine anger will depart and thou wilt comfort me." "the text applies," he says, "to two men who were going abroad on a mercantile enterprise, one of whom, having had a thorn run into his foot, had to forego his intended journey, and began in consequence to utter reproaches and blaspheme. having afterward learned that the ship in which his companion had sailed had sunk to the bottom of the sea, he confessed his shortsightedness and praised god for his mercy." _niddah_, fol. , col. . the night is divided into three watches, and at each watch the holy one--blessed be he!--sits and roars like a lion; as it is written (jer. xxv. ), "the lord will roar from on high, ... roaring, he will roar over his habitation." the marks by which this division of the night is recognized are these:--in the first watch the ass brays; in the second the dog barks; and in the third the babe is at the breast and the wife converses with her husband. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught that there are three reasons why a person should not enter a ruin:-- . because he may be suspected of evil intent; . because the walls might tumble upon him; . and because of evil spirits that frequent such places. ibid., fol. , col. . he who three times a day repeats david's psalm of praise (ps. cxlv.) may be sure of an inheritance in the world to come. ibid., fol. , col. . three precious gifts were given to israel, but none of them without a special affliction: these three gifts were the law, the land of israel, and the world to come. ibid., fol. , col. . these are also from the talmud anent israel and the israelites. all israelites are princes. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . all israelites are holy. ibid., fol. , col. . happy are ye, o israel! for every one of you, from the least to the greatest, is a great philosopher. (_eiruvin_, fol. , col. .) the machzor for pentecost says, israelites are as "full of meritorious works as a pomegranate is full of pips." see also _chaggigah_, fol. , col, . as it is impossible for the world to be without air, so also is it impossible for the world to be without israel. _taanith_, fol. , col. . if the ox of an israelite bruise the ox of a gentile, the israelite is exempt from paying damages; but should the ox of a gentile bruise the ox of an israelite, the gentile is bound to recompense him in full. _bava kama_, fol. , col. . when an israelite and a gentile have a lawsuit before thee, if thou canst, acquit the former according to the laws of israel, and tell the latter such is our law; if thou canst get him off in accordance with gentile law, do so, and say to the plaintiff such is your law; but if he cannot be acquitted according to either law, then bring forward adroit pretexts and secure his acquittal. these are the words of the rabbi ishmael. rabbi akiva says, "no false pretext should be brought forward, because, if found out, the name of god would be blasphemed; but if there be no fear of that, then it may be adduced." ibid., fol. , col. . if one find lost property in a locality where the majority are israelites, he is bound to proclaim it; but he is not bound to do so if the majority be gentiles. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . (prov. xiv. ), "almsgiving exalteth a nation, but benevolence is a sin to nations." "almsgiving exalteth a nation," that is to say, the nation of israel; as it is written ( sam. vii. ), "and what one nation in the earth is like thy people, even like israel?" but "benevolence" is a sin to nations, that is to say, for the gentiles to exercise charity and benevolence is sin. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . if a gentile smite an israelite, he is guilty of death; as it is written (exod. ii. ), "and he looked this way and that way, and when he saw there was no man, he slew the egyptian." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . all israelites have a portion in the world to come; as it is written (isa. lx. ), "and thy people are all righteous: they shall inherit the land." ibid., fol. , col. . "and they shall fall one on account of another" (lev. xxvi. ),--one on account of the sins of another. this teaches us that all israel are surety for one another. _shevuoth_, fol. , col. . if one find a foundling in a locality where the majority are gentiles, then the child is (to be reckoned) a gentile; if the majority be israelites, it is to be considered as an israelite; and so also it is to be, providing the numbers are equal. _machsheerin_, chap. , mish. . "one generation passeth away, and another generation cometh, but the earth abideth forever" (eccl. i. ). one empire cometh and another passeth away, but israel abideth forever. _perek hashalom._ the world was created only for israel: none are called the children of god but israel; none are beloved before god but israel. _gerim_, chap. . the jew that has no wife abideth without joy, without a blessing, and without any good. without joy, as it is written (deut. xiv. ), "and thou shalt reject, thou and thy household;" without blessing, as it is written (ezek. xliv. ), "that he may cause a blessing to rest on thy household;" without any good, for it is written (gen. ii. ), "it is not good that man should be alone." _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . the jew that has no wife is not a man; for it is written (gen. v. ), "male and female created he them and called their name man." to which rabbi eleazar adds, "so every one who has no landed property is no man; for it is written (ps. cxv. ), 'the heaven, even the heavens, are the lord's, but the earth (the land, that is), hath he given to the children of man.'" _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . three things did moses ask of god:-- . he asked that the shechinah might rest upon israel; . that the shechinah might rest upon none but israel; and . that god's ways might be made known unto him; and all these requests were granted. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . what was the shechinah? was it the presence of a divine person or only of a divine power? the following quotations will show what is the teaching of the talmud on the matter, and will be read with interest by the theologian, whether jew or christian. where do we learn that when ten persons pray together the shechinah is with them? in ps. lxxxii. , where it is written, "god standeth in the congregation of the mighty." and where do we learn that when two sit together and study the law the shechinah is with them? in mal. iii. , where it is written, "then they that feared the lord spake often one to another, and the lord hearkened and heard it." (_berachoth_, fol. , col. .) where do we learn that the shechinah does strengthen the sick? in ps. xli. , where it is written, "the lord will strengthen him upon the bed of languishing." (_shabbath_, fol. , col. .) he who goes from the synagogue to the lecture-room, and from the lecture-room back to the synagogue, will become worthy to receive the presence of the shechinah; as it is written (ps. lxxxiv. ), "they go from strength to strength; every one of them in zion appeareth before god." (_moed katan_, fol. , col. .) rabbi yossi says, "the shechinah never came down here below, nor did moses and elijah ever ascend on high, because it is written (ps. cxv. ), 'the heaven, even the heavens, are the lord's, but the earth hath he given to the children of men.'" (_succah_, fol. , col. .) esther "stood in the inner court of the king's house" (esth. v, ). rabbi levi says, "when she reached the house of the images the shechinah departed from her. then she exclaimed, 'my god! my god! why hast thou forsaken me?'" (_meggillah_, fol. , col. .) "but ye that did cleave unto the lord your god are alive every one of you this day" (deut. iv. ). is it possible to cleave to the shechinah? is it not written (_ibid._, verse ), "for the lord thy god is a consuming fire"? the reply is:--he that bestows his daughter in marriage on a disciple of the wise (that is, a rabbi), or does business on behalf of the disciples of the wise, or maintains them from his property, scripture accounts it as if he did cleave to the shechinah. (_kethuboth_, fol. iii, col. .) he who is angry has no regard even for the shechinah; as it is written (ps. x. ), "the wicked, when his anger rises, does not inquire after god; god is not in all his thoughts." (_nedarim_, fol. , col. .) he who visits the sick should not sit upon the bed, nor even upon a stool or a chair beside it, but he should wrap his mantle round him and sit upon the floor, because of the shechinah which rests at the head of the bed of the invalid; as it is written (ps. xli. ), "the lord will strengthen him upon the bed of languishing." (ibid., fol. , col. .) when israel went up out of the red sea, both the babe on its mother's lap and the suckling at the breast saw the shechinah, and said, "this is my god, and i will prepare him a habitation;" as it is written (ps. viii. ), "out of the mouths of babes and sucklings thou hast ordained strength." (_soteh_, fol. , col. .) where do we read that the shechinah is present everywhere? in zech. ii. , where it is written, "and behold the angel that talked with me went forth, and another angel went out to meet him." it is not said went out after him, but "went out to meet him." from this we know that the shechinah is present everywhere. (_bava bathra_ fol. , col. .) rabbi akiva says, "for three things i admire the medes:-- . when they carve meat, they do it on the table; . when they kiss, they only do so upon the hand; . and when they consult, they do so only in the field." _berachoth_, fol. , col. . the stone which og, king of bashan, meant to throw upon israel is the subject of a tradition delivered on sinai. "the camp of israel i see," he said, "extends three miles; i shall therefore go and root up a mountain three miles in extent and throw it upon them." so off he went, and finding such a mountain, raised it on his head, but the holy one--blessed be he!--sent an army of ants against him, which so bored the mountain over his head that it slipped down upon his shoulders, from which he could not lift it, because his teeth, protruding, had riveted it upon him. this explains that which is written (ps. iii. ), "thou hast broken the teeth of the ungodly;" where read not "thou hast broken," but "thou hast ramified," that is, "thou hast caused to branch out." moses being ten ells in height, seized an axe ten ells long, and springing up ten ells, struck a blow on og's ankle and killed him. ibid., fol. , col. . this same story is given with more than talmudic exaggeration in the targum of jonathan ben uzziel, while the author of the book of jasher (chap. lxv., verses , ) makes the camp and the mountain forty miles in extent. the giant here figures in antediluvian tradition. he is said to have been saved at the flood by laying hold of the ark, and being fed day by day through a hole in the side of the ark by noah himself. a tradition which says the soles of his feet were forty miles long at once explains all the extraordinary feats ascribed to him. rav yehudah used to say, "three things shorten a man's days and years:-- . neglecting to read the law when it is given to him for that purpose; seeing it is written (deut. xxx. ), 'for he (who gave it) is thy life and the length of thy days.' . omitting to repeat the customary benediction over a cup of blessing; for it is written (gen. xii. ), 'and i will bless them that bless thee.' . and the assumption of a rabbinical air; for rabbi chama bar chanena says, 'joseph died before any of his brethren, because he domineered over them.'" _berachoth_, fol. , col. . the first of these refers to the reading of the law in public worship, the second to a practice after meals when more than two adult jews were present, and the third to the dictatorial air often assumed by the rabbis. three things proceed by pre-eminence from god himself:--famine, plenty, and a wise ruler. famine ( kings viii. ): "the lord hath called for a famine;" plenty (ezek. xxxvi. ): "i will call for corn and increase it;" a wise ruler; for it is written (exod. xxxi. ), "i have called by name bezaleel." rabbi yitzchak says, "a ruler is not to be appointed unless the community be first consulted. god first consulted moses, then moses consulted the nation concerning the appointment of bezaleel." ibid., fol. , col. . three dreams come to pass:--that which is dreamed in the morning; that which is also dreamed by one's neighbor; and a dream which is interpreted within a dream; to which some add, one that is dreamed by the same person twice; as it is written (gen. xli. ), "and for that the dream was doubled unto pharaoh twice." ibid., fol. , col. . three things tranquilize the mind of man:--melody, scenery, and sweet odor. three things develop the mind of man:--a fine house, a handsome wife, and elegant furniture. ibid., fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught that there are three sorts of dropsy:--thick, resulting from sin; bloated, in consequence of insufficient food; and thin, due to sorcery. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . these three grow stronger as they grow older:--the fish, the serpent, and the pig. ibid., fol. , col. . it were better to cut the hands off than to touch the eye, or the nose, or the mouth, or the ear, etc., with them without having first washed them. unwashed hands may cause blindness, deafness, foulness of breath, or a polypus. it is taught that rabbi nathan has said, "the evil spirit bath chorin, which rests upon the hands at night, is very strict; he will not depart till water is poured upon the hands three times over." ibid. fol. , col. . the great importance of this ceremonial washing of the hands will appear from the following anecdote, which we quote _verbatim_ from another part of the talmud:--"it happened once, as the rabbis teach, that rabbi akiva was immured in a prison, and yehoshua hagarsi was his attendant. one day the gaoler said to the latter as he entered, 'what a lot of water thou hast brought to-day! dost thou need it to sap the walls of the prison?' so saying, he seized the vessel and poured out half of the water. when yehoshua brought in what was left of the water to rabbi akiva, the latter, who was weary of waiting, for he was faint and thirsty, reproachfully said to him, 'yehoshua, dost thou forget that i am old, and my very life depends upon thee?' when the servant related what had happened, the rabbi asked for the water to wash his hands, 'why, master,' said yehoshua, 'there's not enough for thee to drink, much less to cleanse thy hands with.' to which the rabbi replied, 'what am i to do? they who neglect to wash their hands are judged worthy of death; 'tis better that i should die by my own act from thirst than act against the rules of my associates.' and accordingly it is related that he abstained from tasting anything till they brought him water to wash his hands." (_eiruvin_, fol. , col. . see also _maimonides, hilc. berach._, vi. .) from the context of the passage just quoted we cull the following, which proves that the talmud itself bases the precept concerning the washing of hands on oral tradition and not on the written law:--"rav yehudah ascribes this saying to shemuel, that when solomon gave to the traditional rules that regulated the washing of hands and other ceremonial rites the form and sanction of law, a bath kol came forth and said (prov. xxiii. ), 'my son, if thy heart be wise, my heart shall rejoice, even mine;' and again it said (prov. xxvii, ), 'my son, be wise, and make my heart glad, that i may answer him that reproacheth me.'" (see prov. xxx. , .) there is a great deal in the talmud about washing the hands, in addition to what is said in the treatise yadaim, which is entirely devoted to the subject. but this topic is subordinate to another, namely, the alleged inferiority of the precepts of the bible to the prescriptions of the rabbis, of which the punctilious rules regulative of hand washing form only a small fraction. this is illustrated by an anecdote from the talmudic leaflet entitled callah, respecting rabbi akiva, whose fame extends from one end of the world to the other. (see _yevamoth_, fol. , col. ). once upon a time, as the elders were sitting together, two lads passed by them, one with his head covered and the other bareheaded. of the latter boy as he passed rabbi elazar said, "he is a mamzer," and rabbi yehoshua, "he is a ben haniddah," but rabbi akiva contended, "he is both a mamzer and a ben haniddah." upon which the elders said to rabbi akiva, "how darest thou be so bold as dispute the assertion of thy masters?" "because i can substantiate what i say," was his answer. he then went to the mother of the lad, and found her selling pease in the market place. "daughter," said he to her, "if thou wilt answer all that i ask of thee, i will ensure thee a portion in the life to come." she replied, "let me have thy oath and i will do so." then taking the oath with his lips but nullifying it in his heart, he asked her, "what sort of a son is thy lad?" she replied, "when i entered my bridal chamber i was a niddah, and consequently my husband kept away from me." thus it was found out that the boy was a mamzer and a ben haniddah; upon which the sages exclaimed, "great is rabbi akiva, for he has overcome his masters;" and as they congratulated him they said, "blessed be the lord god of israel, who hath revealed his secret unto akiva the son of joseph." thus did the rabbi forswear himself, and thus did his companions compliment him on the success of his perjury; yet the bible says, "thou shalt not take the name of the lord thy god in vain" (exod. xx. ), and "keep thou far from a falsehood" (exod. xxiii. ). here is a companion picture from yoma, fol. , col. .--"rabbi yochanan was suffering from scurvy, and he applied to a gentile woman, who prepared a remedy for the fifth and then the sixth day of the week. 'but what shall i do to-morrow?' said he; 'i must not walk so far on the sabbath.' 'thou wilt not require any more,' she answered. 'but suppose i do,' he replied. 'take an oath,' she answered, 'that thou wilt not reveal it, and i will tell thee how to compound the remedy.' this he did in the following words: 'by the god of israel, i swear i will not divulge it.' nevertheless, when he learned the secret, he went and revealed it. 'but was not that profaning the name of god?' asks one. 'no,' pleads another rabbi, 'for, as he told her afterward, that what he meant was that he would not tell it to the god of israel.' the remedy was yeast, water, oil, and salt." the anecdote that follows is from sanhedrin, fol. , col :--"in reference to the remark of ravina, who said, 'i used to think that there was no truth in the world,' one of the rabbis, toviah (or tavyoomah, as some say), would protest and say, 'if all the riches of the world were offered me, i would not tell a falsehood.' and he used to clench his protestation with the following apologue: 'i once went to a place called kushta, where the people never swerve from the truth, and where (as a reward for their integrity) they do not die until old age; and there i married and settled down, and had two sons born unto me. one day as my wife was sitting and combing her hair, a woman who dwelt close by came to the door and asked to see her. thinking that it was a breach of etiquette (that any one should see her at her toilet), i said she was not in. soon after this my two children died, and the people came to inquire into the cause of their premature decease. when i told them of my evasive reply to the woman, they asked me to leave the town, lest by my misconduct i might involve the whole community in a like calamity, and death might be enticed to their place." food remains for three days in the stomach of the dog, because god knew that his food would be scanty. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . he who is born on the third day of the week will be rich and amorous. ibid., fol. , col. . rabbi abba, in the name of shemuel, says, "the schools of shammai and hillel were at variance three years, the one party contending and saying, 'the halacha is according to us;' and the other, 'the halacha is according to us.' then came a voice from the lord and said, 'both these and those are the words of the living god, but yet the halacha is according to the school of hillel.' what was the merit of the school of hillel that the halacha should be pronounced to be according to it? its disciples were gentle and forbearing, for while they stood by their own decisions, they also stated those maintained by the school of shammai, and often even mentioned the tenets of the school of shammai first and their own afterward. this teaches us that him who humbles himself, god will exalt; and him who exalts himself, god will abase. whoso pursueth greatness, greatness will flee from him; and whoso fleeth from greatness, greatness will pursue him." _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . there are three entrances to hell:--one in the desert, one in the sea, and one in jerusalem. ibid., fol. , col. i. these three will never see hell:--he who is purified by poverty; he who is purged by a painful flux; and he who is harassed by importunate creditors; and some say, he also who is plagued with a termagant wife. _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . three effects are ascribed to babylonian broth (which was made of moldy bread, sour milk, and salt):--it retards the action of the heart, it affects the eyesight, and emaciates the body. _p'sachim_, fol. , col . these three are not permitted to come between two men, nor is a man allowed to pass between any two of these three:--a dog, a palm tree, or a woman; to which some add the pig, and others the serpent as well. ibid., fol. , col. . one part of this regulation is rather hard and should surely be abolished; that, viz, which ordains a woman shall not come between two men or a man pass between two women. the compiler of this miscellany was once witness to a case which illustrates its inconvenience: it occurred at tiberias. a pious young jew who had to traverse a narrow road to pass from the lake to the town was kept standing for a very considerable time under a broiling sun, simply because two young women, to tease him, guarded the entrance, and dared him to pass between them. of course he dared not accept the challenge, otherwise he would have incurred the penalty of death, according to the judgment of the talmud; for "whosoever transgresses any of the words of the scribes is guilty of death." (_eiruvin_, fol. , col. .) these three will inherit the world to come:--he who dwells in the land of israel; he who brings up his sons to the study of the law; and he who repeats the ritual blessing over the appointed cup of wine at the close of the sabbath. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . there are three whom the holy one--blessed be he!--himself proclaims virtuous:--the unmarried man who lives in a city and does not sin; the poor man who restores a lost thing which he has found to its owner; and the rich man who pays the tithes of his increase unostentatiously. rav saphra was a bachelor, and he dwelt in a large city. a disciple of the wise once descanted upon the merits of a celibate life in the presence of rava and this rav saphra, and the face of the latter beamed with delight. remarking which, rava said to him, "this does not refer to such a bachelor as thou art, but to such as rabbi chanena and rabbi oshaia." they were single men, who followed the trade of shoemakers, and dwelt in a street mostly occupied by _meretrices_, for whom they made shoes; but when they fitted these on, they never raised their eyes to look at their faces. for this the women conceived such a respect for them, that when they swore, they swore by the life of the holy rabbis of the land of israel. _psachim_, fol. , cols, , . there are three whom the holy one--blessed be he!--abhorreth: he who says one thing but thinks another; he who might bear witness in favor of his neighbor but refrains from doing so; and he who, having seen his neighbor act disgracefully, goes and appears singly as a witness against him (thus only condemning, but not convicting, him, as the law requires two witnesses). as, for example, when toviah transgressed and zigud appeared against him singly before rav pappa, and rav pappa ordered this witness to receive forty stripes save one in return. "what!" said he, "toviah has sinned, and should zigud be flogged?" "yes," replied the rabbi, "for by testifying singly against him thou bringest him only into bad repute." (see deut. xix. .) _p'sachim_ fol. , col. . "toviah has sinned and zigud is flogged," has long been a proverb among jews. there are three whose life is no life:--the sympathetic, the irascible, and the melancholy. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . there are three which despise their fellows:--dogs, cocks, and sorcerers. some say strange women also, and some the disciples of the babylonian rabbis. ibid. these three love their fellows:--proselytes, slaves, and ravens. ibid. these three are apt to strut:--israel among the nations, the dog among animals, the cock among birds. some say also the goat among small cattle, and some the caper shrub among trees. ibid., fol. , col. . there are three whose life is no life:--he who lives at another's table; he whose wife domineers over him; and he who suffers bodily affliction. some say also he who has only a single shirt in his wardrobe. ibid., fol. , col. . three things are said respecting the finger-nails:--he who trims his nails and buries the parings is a pious man; he who burns these is a righteous man; but he who throws them away is a wicked man, for mischance might follow, should a female step over them. _moed katan_, fol. , col. . the orthodox jews in poland are to this day careful to bury away or burn their nail parings. three classes appear on the day of judgment:--the perfectly righteous, who are at once written and sealed for eternal life; the thoroughly bad, who are at once written and sealed for hell; as it is written (dan. xii. ), "and many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt;" and those in the intermediate state, who go down into hell, where they cry and howl for a time, whence they ascend again; as it is written (zech. xiii. ), "and i will bring the third part through the fire, and will refine them as silver is refined, and will try them as gold is tried; they shall call on my name, and i will hear them." it is of them hannah said ( sam. ii. ), "the lord killeth and maketh alive; he bringeth down to hell and bringeth up." _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . our rabbis have taught that there are three voices which can be heard from one end of the world to the other:--the sound emitted from the sphere of the sun; the hum and din of the city of rome; and the voice of anguish uttered by the soul as it quits the body; ... but our rabbis prayed that the soul might be spared this torture, and therefore the voice of its terrors has not since been heard. _yoma_, fol. , col. . in three particulars is benevolence superior to almsgiving:--almsgiving is only the bestowment of money, but benevolence can be exercised by personal service as well. alms can be given only to the poor, but benevolence can be shown no less to the rich. alms are confined to the living, but benevolence may extend to both the dead and the living. _succah_, fol. , col. . three marks characterize the nation of israel:--they are compassionate, they are modest, and they are benevolent. compassionate, as it is written (deut. xiii. ), "and show thee mercy, and have compassion upon thee, and multiply thee." modest, as it is written (exod. xx. ), "that his fear may be before your faces." benevolent, as it is written (gen. xviii. ), "for i know him," etc. _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . dates are good after meals in the morning and in the evening, but hurtful in the afternoon; on the other hand, at noon they are most excellent, and an antidote to these three maladies:--evil thought, constipation, and hemorrhoids. _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . beware of these three things:--do not sit too much, for it brings on hemorrhoids; do not stand too much, for it is bad for the heart; do not walk too much, for it is hurtful to the eyes. but sit a third, stand a third, and walk a third. ibid., fol. , col. . he who holds his household in terror tempts to the commission of three sins:--fornication, murder, and sabbath breaking. _gittin_, fol. , col. . three things weaken the strength of man:--fear, travel, and sin. fear, as it is written (ps. xxxviii. ), "my heart palpitates, my strength faileth me." travel, as it is written (ps. cii. ), "he hath weakened my strength in the way." ... sin, as it is written (ps. xxxi. ), "my strength faileth me, because of my iniquity." ibid., fol. , col . abraham was three years old when he first learned to know his creator; as it is said (gen. xxvi. ), "because abraham obeyed my voice." _nedarim_, fol. , col. . the conclusion arrived at here is founded on interpreting the hebrew letters of the word rendered "because" numerically, in which the value of the letters gives a total of one hundred and seventy-two; so that the sense of the text is, "abraham obeyed my voice" one hundred and seventy-two years. now abraham died when he was a hundred and seventy-five, therefore he must have been only three when he began to serve the lord. as abraham plays so important a part both in the history and the imagination of the jewish race, we may quote here a score or so of the talmudic traditions regarding him. the traditions, as is like, contributed quite as much, if not more, to give character to his descendants as his actual personality and that spirit of faith which was the central fact in his history. races and nations often draw more inspiration from what they fancy about their ancestry and early history than from what they know; their fables therefore are often more illuminative than the facts. abraham was ethan the ezrahite, who is mentioned in ps. lxxxvii. . _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . abraham's mother was amathlai, the daughter of karnebo. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . abraham was the head of a seminary for youth, and kept both laws, the written and the oral. _yoma_, fol. , col. . abraham observed the whole ceremonial law, even before it was given on sinai. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . from the day abraham was compelled to leave the idolatrous worship and country of his fathers, it is reasonable to suppose that his tent would become a rendezvous for his neighbors who shrunk like himself from the abominations around them. there, from his character, by which he recommended himself as the friend of god, he might very naturally be looked upon as a religious teacher, and men might gather together to learn from his lips or profit by his example. hence, making due allowance for eastern hyperbole, the statement of the book of jasher (chap. xxvi. verse ) is not undeserving of credit, where it is said that "abraham brought all the children of the land to the service of god, and he taught them the ways of the lord." the same remark applies to what is said in targ. yerushalmi (gen. xxi.), that abraham's guests went not away until "he had made them proselytes, and had taught them the way everlasting." his son isaac, says the targ. of ben uzziel, went to school at the "beth medrasha de shem rabba." though abraham kept all the commandments, he was not perfect till he was circumcised. _nedarim_, fol. , col. . in whatever sense this may have been written, and whatever the interpretation that may be put upon it, there is one sense in which it is absolutely and eternally true, and that is, that, in order to be perfect, a man's life must be as pronounced on the negative side as the positive, in its denials as in its affirmations, and that it is futile to attempt to obey god unless one at the same time renounce all co-partnery with the devil. circumcision is the symbol of this renunciation, and it is only as such it has any radical spiritual significance. till he was circumcised, it is said, god did not speak to abraham in hebrew. not till then is sacredness of speech, any more than sacredness of life, possible. doubtless among the jews circumcision was the symbol of their separation from the ethnic religions; and hence the jealousy with which their prophets looked upon any compromise with idolatry. hatred of that, utter and intense, was the one essential negative pole of genuine judaism, and circumcision was its sign and seal. abraham was the first of the proselytes. _succah_, fol. , col. . abraham it was that ordained the form of prayer for morning worship, which is extant to this very day. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . as he himself was pious, so were his very camels, for they would not enter into a place where there were idols; as it is written (gen. xxiv. ), "i have prepared," i.e., removed the idols from, "the house and room for the camels." _avoth d' rabbi nathan_, chap. . abraham had a daughter, and her name was bakol. ibid., fol. , col. . abraham was free from evil passion. _bava bathra_ fol. , col. . he was also free from the angel of death. ibid., fol. , col. . he delivered to the children he had by keturah a secret name, with which they learned to practice witchcraft and do the works of the devil. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . though great, he personally waited on his guests, who had the appearance of arabs and not of angels. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . rabbi yehudah says abraham planted an ornamental garden with all kinds of choice fruits in it, and rabbi nehemiah says he erected an inn for travelers in order to make known the name of god to all who sojourned in it. _soteh_, fol. , col. . both the targum of ben uzziel and the yerushalmi say that abraham planted a paradise at beersheba for the entertainment and delectation of his guests; and in jasher (chap, xxvii. verse ) it is said that "abraham formed a grove and planted a vineyard there, and had always ready in his tent meat and drink for those that passed through the land, so that they might satisfy themselves in his house." he ranked as one of the seven shepherds of israel (micah v. ). in this group david was the central figure, with adam, seth, and methusaleh on his right hand, and abraham, jacob, and moses on his left. _succah_, fol. , col. . the coin of jerusalem had the impress of david and solomon on the one side, and the holy city of jerusalem on the other. but the impress on the coin of our father abraham was an old man and an old woman on one side, and a young man and a damsel on the other. _bava kama_, fol. , col. . this, it is to be presumed, must be taken in some symbolical sense, for coins cannot be traced back to a date so early as this; and when abraham purchased the cave to bury sarah in from the sons of heth, we read that he weighed to ephron the silver. abraham pleaded with god on the behalf of israel and said, "while there is a temple they will get their sins atoned for, but when there shall be no temple, what will become of them?" god, in answer to his prayer, assured him that he had prepared a prayer for them, by which, as often as they read it, he would be propitiated and would pardon all their sins. _meggillah_, fol. , col. . he was punished by his posterity being compelled to serve the egyptians two hundred and ten years, because he had pressed the rabbis under his tuition into military service in the expedition he had undertaken to recover lot from those who had carried him off captive; for it is written (gen. xiv. ), "he armed his instructed." samuel says abraham was punished because he perversely distrusted the assurance of god; as it is written (gen. xv. ), "whereby shall i know that i shall inherit it?" _nedarim_, fol. , col. . abraham was thrown into a fiery furnace by nimrod, and god would not permit gabriel to rescue him, but did so himself; because god is one and abraham was one, therefore it behooved the one to rescue the one. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . the fire from which abraham is here said to be delivered may simply refer to his deliverance by the hand of god from ur of the chaldees; ur meaning "fire," and being the name of a place celebrated for fire worship. the midrash (p. ) says, "when the wicked nimrod cast abraham into the furnace, gabriel said, 'lord of the universe! permit me to deliver this holy one from the fire!' but the lord made answer, 'i am the one supreme in my world, and he is supreme in his; it is fitting therefore that the supreme should rescue the supreme.'" abraham was a giant of giants; his height was as that of seventy-four men put together. his food, his drink, and his strength were in the proportion of seventy-four men's to one man's. he built an iron city for the abode of his seventeen children by keturah, the walls of which were so lofty that the sun never penetrated them: he gave them a bowl full of precious stones, the brilliancy of which supplied them with light in the absence of the sun. _sophrim_, chap. . abraham our father had a precious stone suspended from his neck, and every sick person that gazed upon it was immediately healed of his disease. but when abraham died, god hung up the stone on the sphere of the sun. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . till abraham's time there was no such thing as a beard; but as many mistook abraham for isaac, and isaac for abraham, they looked so exactly alike, abraham prayed to god for a beard to enable people to distinguish him from his son, isaac, and it was granted him; as it is written (gen. xxiv. ), "and to abraham a beard came when he was well stricken in age." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . here the word which the translators of the english version render "was old," is taken in another of its cognate meanings as a beard. the midrash is a trifle more modest in this legendary assertion. there we read, "before abraham there was no special mark of old age," and that for distinction's sake "the beard was made to turn gray." when he died, all the chiefs of the nations of the world stood in a line and exclaimed, "alas for the world that has lost its leader! alas for the ship that has lost its helmsman!" _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . as rabbi banna went about to measure and to mark off the outward and inward dimensions of the different caves, when he came to the cave of machpelah he found eliezar, abraham's servant, at the entrance, and asked him, "what is abraham doing?" the answer he received was, "he is asleep in the arms of sarah." ibid., fol. , col. . abraham being greater than moses, for while the latter is only called by god "my servant" (mal. iv. ), the former is called "my friend" (isa. xli. ), we devote a little more space for a few more extracts from other jewish sources than the talmud, in order to make the picture they supply of abraham's character a little more complete. rabbi yochanan ben nuri says:--"the holy one--blessed be he!--took shem and separated him to be a priest to himself, that he might serve before him. he also caused his shechinah to rest with him, and called his name melchizedek, priest of the most high and king of salem. his brother japheth even studied the law in his school, until abraham came and also learned the law in the school of shem, where god himself instructed abraham, so that all else he had learned from the lips of man was forgotten. then came abraham and prayed to god that his shechinah might ever rest in the house of shem, which also was promised to him; as it is said (ps. ex. ), 'thou art a priest forever after the order of melchizedek.'" _avodath hakkodesh_, part , chap. . wherever jacob resided he studied the law as his fathers did. how is this, seeing the law had not yet been given, it is nevertheless written of abraham (gen. xxvi. ), "and he kept my charge"? whence then did abraham learn the law? rabbi shimon says his reins (literally kidneys) were made like two water-jars, from which the law flowed forth. where do we learn that it was so? from what is said in ps. xvi. , "my reins also instruct me in the night season." _bereshith rabba_, chap. . the masters of the kabbalah, of blessed memory, say that abraham's rabbi, i.e., teacher, was the angel zadkiel. _rabbi menachem's comment on the pent._, exod. iii. . adam's book, which contained celestial mysteries and holy wisdom, came down as an heirloom into the hands of abraham, and he by means of it was able to see the glory of his lord. _zohar parashah bereshith._ abraham was the author of a treatise on the subject of different kinds of witchcraft and its unholy workings and fruits, as also of the book of creation, through holy names (by means of which, namely, anything could be created). _nishmath chayim_, chap. . the whole world once believed that the souls of men were perishable, and that man had no pre-eminence above a beast, till abraham came and preached the doctrine of immortality and transmigration. ibid., fol. , col. . a good son delivers his father from the punishment of hell, for thus we find that abraham our father delivered terah, as it is said in gen. xv. , "and thou shalt go to thy fathers in peace." this implies that god had communicated to him the tidings that his father had a portion in the world to come and was now "in peace" there. _pesikta zotarta_, fol. , col. . before abraham was circumcised god spake to him in the chaldee language, that the angels should not understand it. (this is proved from gen. xv. .) _yalkut chadash_, fol. . rabbi levi said abraham sits at the gate of hell and does not permit any circumcised israelite to enter. but if any appear who happen to have sinned unduly, these he (by an indescribable contrivance) causes to become uncircumcised and lets pass without scruple into the region of torment; and this is what is said in ps. lv. , "he hath put forth his hands against such as be at peace with him: he hath broken his covenant." _yalkut shimoni_, fol. , col. , sec. . abraham was circumcised on the day of atonement, and god looks that day annually on the blood of the covenant of our father abraham's circumcision as atoning for all our iniquities, as it is said in lev. xvi. , "for on that day shall he make an atonement for you, to cleanse you from all your sins." _yalkut chadash_, fol. , col. , sec. . "and it came to pass that when abram was come into egypt" (gen. xii. ). and where was sarah? he confined her in a chest, into which he locked her, lest any one should gaze on her beauty. when he came to the receipt of custom, he was summoned to open the chest, but declined, and offered payment of the duty. the officers said, "thou carriest garments;" and he offered duty for garments. "nay, it is gold thou carriest;" and he offered the impost laid on gold. then they said, "it is costly silks, belike pearls, thou concealest;" and he offered the custom on such articles. at length the egyptian officers insisted, and he opened the box. and when he did so, all the land of egypt was illumined by her beauty. _bereshith rabba_, chap. . the question may naturally be asked why abraham hid his wife from the gaze of others first then and not before. the reply is to be deduced from the following double rendering of gen. xii. :--"behold now i know that thou art a fair woman." as if to say, "usually people lose their good looks on a long journey, but thou art as beautiful as ever." the second explanation is this:--abraham was so piously modest that in all his life he never once looked a female in the face, his own wife not excepted. as he approached egypt and was crossing some water, he saw in it the reflection of her face, and it was then that he exclaimed, "behold now i know that thou art a fair woman." as the egyptians are swarthy, abraham at once perceived the magnitude of the danger, and hence his precaution to hide her beauty in a chest. _zeenah ureenah_ ( in russia), fol. , col. . when abraham came to the cave of machpelah to bury sarah, adam and eve rose from their grave and protested against his committing her to the dust in that receptacle. "for," said they, "we are ever ashamed in the presence of the holy one--blessed be he!--on account of the sin which we committed, and now comest thou to add to our shame by the contrast therewith of the good works which ye two have done." on abraham's assurance that he would intercede with god on their behalf that they should not bear the shame any longer, adam immediately retired to his sepulchre, but eve being still unwilling to do so, abraham took her by the hand and led her back to the side of adam; and then he buried sarah. _yalkut chadash_, fol. , col. , sec. . abraham's father, terah, was both an idolater, a manufacturer of idols, and a dealer in them. once when terah had some engagement elsewhere he left his son abraham to attend to his business. when a customer came to purchase an idol, abraham asked him, "how old art thou?" "lo! so many years," was the ready reply. "what," exclaimed abraham, "is it possible that a man of so many years should desire to worship a thing only a day old?" the customer, being ashamed of himself, went his way; and so did all other customers, who underwent a similar inquisition. once an old woman brought a measure of fine flour and wished to present it as an offering to the gods. this so enraged abraham that he took a staff and broke all the images, excepting the largest, into whose hands he fixed the staff. when his father came and questioned him about the destruction of the gods, he replied, "an old woman placed an offering of flour before them, which immediately set them all by the ears, for every one was hungrier than another, but the biggest god killed all the rest with this staff which thou now seest he still holds in his hands." superstition, especially when combined with mercenary motives, knows neither reason nor human affection, therefore the father handed over his son abraham to the inquisition of nimrod, who threw him into the fiery furnace, as recorded elsewhere in this miscellany. this is an historical fact, to the truth of which the whole orthodox jewish world will bear testimony, and is solemnly recorded in _shalsheleth hakkabalah_ fol. , col . there are three graces:--the grace of a place in the eyes of its inhabitants; the grace of a woman in the eyes of her husband; the grace of a purchase in the eyes of the buyer. _soteh_, fol. , col. . a man should divide his capital into three parts, and invest one-third in land, employ one-third in merchandise, and reserve one-third in ready money. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . all who go down to hell shall come up again, except these three:--he who commits adultery; he who shames another in public; and he who gives another a bad name. ibid., fol. , col. . these three complain, but no one sympathizes with them:--he who lends money without witnesses; he who buys to himself a master; and he who is lorded over by his wife. ibid., fol. , col. . there are three things on which the world stands:--the law, the temple service, and benevolence. _avoth_, chap. . if three eat at one table and do not converse together on the law of the lord, it is as if they ate from the sacrifices for the dead; but they, on the contrary, are as if they partook from a table of the lord's own furnishing who, while they sit down to meat, season their talk with its holy precepts. _avoth_, chap. . there are three crowns:--the crown of the law, the crown of the priesthood, and the crown of royalty; but the crown of a good name surpasses them all. ibid., chap. . he who possesses these three virtues is a disciple of abraham our father, and he who possesses the three contrary vices is a son of balaam the wicked. the disciples of our father abraham have a kindly eye, a loyal spirit, and a lowly mind. the disciples of balaam the wicked have an evil eye, a proud spirit, and a grasping soul. ibid., chap. . three things are said respecting the children of men:--he who gives alms brings a blessing on himself; he who lends does better; he who gives away half of what he hath to spare does best of all. _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . there are three classes of disciples, and among them three grades of worth:--he ranks first who asks and answers when asked; he who asks but does not answer ranks next; but he who neither asks nor answers ranks lowest of all. ibid. over these three does god weep every day:--over him who is able to study the law but neglects it; over him who studies it amid difficulties hard to overcome; and over the ruler who behaves arrogantly toward the community he should protect. _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . rabbi yochanan says there are three keys in the hands of the holy one!--blessed be he!--which he never intrusts to the disposal of a messenger, and they are these:--( .) the key of rain, ( .) the key of life, and ( .) the key of reviving the dead. the key of rain, for it is written (deut. xxviii. ), "the lord shall open unto thee his good treasure, the heaven to give the rain unto thy land in season;" the key of life, as it is written (gen. xxx. ), "god hearkened unto her, and opened her womb;" the key of reviving the dead, for it is written (ezek. xxxvii. ), "when i have opened your graves, and brought you up out of your graves, and shall put my spirit in you, and ye shall live," etc. _taanith_, fol. , cols, , . a disciple of the wise who makes light of the washing of hands is contemptible; but more contemptible is he who begins to eat before his guest; more contemptible is that guest who invites another guest; and still more contemptible is he who begins to eat before a disciple of the wise; but contemptible before all these three put together is that guest which troubles another guest. _derech eretz zuta_, chap. viii. a roll of the law which has two mistakes to a column should be corrected; but if there be three, it should be stowed away altogether. _menachoth_, fol. , col. . the wolf, the lion, the bear, the leopard, the panther, the elephant, and the sea-cat, each bear three years. ibid. rav yehudah says, in the name of rav, "the butcher is bound to have three knives; one to slaughter with, one for cutting up the carcass, and one to cut away the suet. suet being as unlawful for food as pork." _chullin_, fol. , col. . three classes of ministering angels raise a song of praise every day. one class says, holy! the second responds, holy! and the third continues, holy is the lord of hosts! but in the presence of the holy one--blessed be he!--israel is more beloved than the ministering angels; for israel reiterates the song every hour, while the ministering angels repeat it only once a day, some say once a week, others once a month, others once a year, others once in seven years, others once in a jubilee, and others only once in eternity. again, israel mentions the name after two words, as it is said (deut. vi. ), "hear israel, yehovah," but the ministering angels do not mention the name till after three, as it is written (isa. vi. ), "holy! holy! holy! yehovah zebaoth." moreover, the ministering angels do not take up the song above till israel has started it below; for it is said (job xxxviii. ), "when the morning stars sang together, then all the sons of god shouted for joy." _chullin_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught, a man should not sell to his neighbor shoes made from the hide of a beast that has died of disease, as if of a beast that had been slaughtered in the shambles, for two reasons: first, because he imposes on him (for the skin of a beast that dies of itself is not so durable as the hide of a slaughtered animal); second, because there is danger (for the beast that died of itself might have been stung by a serpent, and the poison remaining in the leather might prove fatal to the wearer of shoes made of that leather). a man should not send his neighbor a barrel of wine with oil floating upon its surface; for it happened once that a man did so, and the recipient went and invited his friends to a feast, in the preparation of which oil was to form a chief ingredient; but when the guests assembled, it was found out that the cask contained wine, and not oil; and because the host had nothing else in preparation for a worthy feast, he went and committed suicide. neither should guests give anything from what is set before them to the son or daughter of their host, unless the host himself give them leave to do so; for it once happened during a time of scarcity that a man invited three of his friends to dine, and he had nothing but three eggs to place before them. meanwhile, as the guests were seated at the board, the son of the host came into the room, and first one of the guests gave him his share, and then the other two followed his example. shortly afterward the host himself came in, and seeing the child with his mouth full and both hands, he knocked him down to the ground, so that he died on the instant. the mother, seeing this, went and threw herself headlong, from the housetop, and the father followed her example. thus rabbi eliezar ben yacob said, "there perished in this affair three souls of israel." ibid., fol. , col. . once the roman government issued a decree that the israelites should neither observe the sabbath nor circumcise their sons. thereupon reuben the son of istrubli trimmed his hair as a gentile, and went among the roman senators and plied them with wise remonstrance. "if one," said he, "has an enemy, does he wish him to be poor or rich?" "to be poor," was the reply. "then," he argued, "won't he be poorer if you prohibit him from working on the sabbath?" "it is well said," observed the senators; and they at once abolished their decree respecting the sabbath. again he asked, "if one has an enemy, does he wish him to be weak or strong?" "why, weak, to be sure," was the inevitable answer. "then," said he, "let the jews circumcise their children, then will they be weakened." "the argument is good," said they, and the decree against circumcision was rescinded. again he asked, "if one has an enemy, does he wish him to increase or decrease?" "to decrease, of course," said they. in response to his argument the decree against catamenia was accordingly abolished. when, however, they found out that he was a jew, they at once re-enacted the decrees they had canceled. upon this the question arose who should go to rome and appeal against these enactments. it was resolved that rabbi shimon ben yochai, who was reputed experienced in miracles, should go, accompanied by rabbi elazar, the son of rabbi yossi.... as they journeyed along, the question was proposed to them, "whence is it proved that the blood of a reptile is unclean?" rabbi elazar replied with a curl of the lip, and quoted lev. ii. . "and these shall be unclean unto you." rabbi shimon said unto him, "by the curl of thy lip art thou recognizable as a disciple of the wise! may the son never return to his father!" for he was annoyed that he should presume to teach a halachah in his presence, and then and there he condemned him to death. (see _berachoth_, fol. , col. .) thereupon ben temalion (an evil sprite or imp) came, and greeting him, said, "do ye wish me to accompany you?" rabbi shimon wept and said, "alas! a maid-servant of my ancestor (abraham) was assisted by three angels, and i have not one to attend me! however, let a miracle be worked for us anyhow." then the evil spirit entered into the emperor's daughter, and when the rabbi was called in to cure the princess, he exorcised the spirit by saying, "depart, ben temalion! ben temalion, depart!" and the evil spirit left her. by way of reward the rabbis were bidden to ask whatsoever they pleased, and admitted into the imperial treasury that they might choose what seemed good to them. espying there the edict against israel, they chose it, and tore it to pieces. _meyilah_, fol. , col. , . at the time when the high priest enters to worship, three acolytes take hold of him, one by the right hand and another by the left, while the third lifts the gems attached to the train of his pontifical vestment. _tamid_, chap. ; _mishna_, . "i once, when a grave-digger," says abba shaul, as the rabbis relate, "chased a roe which had entered the shinbone of a dead man; and though i ran three miles after it, i could not overtake it, nor reach the end of the bone. when i returned, i was told that it was a bone of og, king of bashan." _niddah_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught that during the first three months (of pregnancy) the child lies in the lower part (of the uterus); during the next three it occupies the middle part; and during the last three it is in the upper part; and that when the time of parturition comes, it turns over first, and this causes the birth-pains. we are also taught that the pains caused by a female child are greater than those caused by a male. rabbi elazar said, "what scripture is there for this? 'when i was made in secret and curiously wrought, in the lowest parts of the earth' (ps. cxxxix. ). it is not said, 'i abode,' but, 'i was curiously wrought.' why the difference? why are the pains caused by a girl greater than those caused by a boy?" ibid., fol. , col. . the rabbis teach there are three that have a share in a man; god, and his father and mother. the father's part consists of all that is white in him--the bones, the veins, the nails, the brain, and the white of the eye. the mother's part consists of all that is red in him--the skin, the flesh, the hair, and the black part of the eye. god's part consists of the breath, the soul, the physiognomy, sight and hearing, speech, motive power, knowledge, understanding, and wisdom. and when the time comes that the man should depart from the world, god takes away his part, and leaves those which belong to the father and mother. rav pappa says, "this is the meaning of the proverb, 'shake off the salt and throw the flesh to the dogs.'" _niddah_, fol. . col. . rashi's explanatory note is this: "shake off the salt from the flesh and it becomes fit only for dogs. the soul is the salt which preserves the body; when it departs, the body putrefies." four things require fortitude in the observance:--the law, good works, prayer, and social duties. respecting the law and good works it is written (josh. i. ), "be thou strong and firm, that thou mayest observe to do all the law;" in which the word "strong" refers to the law, and the word "firm" to good works. of prayer it is written, "wait on the lord; be strong, and he shall make thine heart firm; wait, i say, upon the lord" (ps. xxvii. ). in respect to social duties it is written ( sam. x. ), "be strong, and let us strengthen ourselves for our people, and for the cities of our god." _berachoth_, fol. , col. . there are four signs which tell tales:--dropsy is a sign of sin; jaundice is a sign of hatred without a cause; poverty is a sign of pride; and quinsy is a sign of slander. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . "unto mamre, unto the city of arbah," i.e., four (gen. xxxv. ). rabbi isaac calls it the city of four couples, i.e., adam and eve, abraham and sarah, isaac and rebekah, jacob and leah. these four couples being buried in mamre, it was therefore called "the city of four." _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . the sun makes four quarterly circuits. in april, may, and june, i.e., nisan, iyar, and sivan, his circuit is between the mountains, in order to dissolve the snow; in july, august, and september, i.e., tamuz, ab, and ellul, his circuit is over the habitable parts of the earth, in order to ripen the fruits; in october, november, and december, i.e., tishri, marcheshvan, and kislev, his circuit is over the seas, to evaporate the waters; in january, february, and march, i.e., tebeth, shebat, and adar, his circuit is over the deserts, in order to protect the seed sown from being scorched. _psachim_, fol. , col. . four persons are intolerable:--a poor man who is proud, a rich man who is a liar, an old man who is incontinent, and a warden who behaves haughtily to a community for whom he has done nothing. to these some add him who has divorced his wife once or twice and married her again. ibid., fol. , col. . four things cancel the decrees of heaven:--alms, prayer, change of name, and reformation of conduct. alms, as it is written (prov. x. ), "but alms (more correctly, righteousness) delivereth from death." prayer as it is written (ps. cvii. ). "then they cried unto the lord in their trouble, and he delivered them out of their distresses." change of name, as it is said (gen. xvii. , ), "as for sarai thy wife, thou shalt not call her name sarai, but sarah shall be her name." and after this change of name it is written, "and i will bless her, and give thee a son of her." reformation of conduct, as it is written (jonah iii. ), "and god saw their works," and "god repented of the evil," etc. some say also change of residence has the effect of turning back the decree of heaven (gen. xii. ), "and the lord said unto abram, get thee out of thy country;" and then it is said, "i will make of thee a great nation." _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . four things cause an eclipse of the sun:--when a chief magistrate dies and is not mourned over with the due lamentation; when a betrothed damsel calls for help and no one comes to the rescue; when the people commit the sin of sodom and gomorrah; and when brother murders brother. _succah_, fol. , col. . four things cause an eclipse among the luminaries of heaven: the writing of false documents; the bearing false witness; the breeding of small cattle, such as sheep and goats, in the land of israel; and the cutting down of fruit-trees. ibid., fol. , col. . there are four things god repents of having created:--the captivity, the chaldeans, the ishmaelites, and the evil passion in man. the captivity, as it is written (isa. lii. ), "what have i here, saith the lord, that my people are taken away for nought?" etc. the chaldeans, as it is written (isa. xxiii. ), "behold the land of the chaldeans: this people was not." the ishmaelites, as it is written (job xii. ), "the tents of robbers prosper, and they that provoke god are secure, into whose hand god bringeth abundance." the evil passion, as it is written (micah iv. ), "and whom i have caused to be evil." _succah_, fol. , col. . there have been four beautiful women in the world:--sarah, abigail, rahab, and esther. _meggillah_, fol. , col. . tosephoth asks, "why was not eve numbered among these beauties, since even sarah, in comparison with eve, was an ape compared to a man?" the reply is, "only those born of woman are here enumerated." in fol. , col. i, of the same treatise from which the above is quoted, we are informed by ben azai that esther was like the myrtle-tree, neither tall nor short statured, but middle-sized. rabbi yehoshua ben korcha states that esther's complexion was of a yellow or gold color. one cup of wine is good for a woman, two are disgraceful, three demoralizing, and four brutalizing. _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . he who traverses so much as four ells in the land of israel is sure of everlasting life. ibid., fol. iii, col. . to walk even four ells without bowing the head is an offense to heaven; for it is written (isa. vi. ), "the whole earth is full of his glory." _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . there are four who are accounted as dead:--the pauper, the leper, the blind man, and he who has no male children. _nedarin_, fol. , col. . four things mark the characters of men:--he who says what is mine is mine, and what is thine is thine, is, according to some, a moderate man, but, according to others, a child of sodom; he who says what is mine is thine, and what is thine is mine, is an ignorant man; he who says what is mine is thine and what is thy own is also thine, is a pious man; he who says mine and thine are both my own, is a wicked man. _avoth_, chap. , sec. . there are four kinds of men, according to their degrees of passionateness:--he who is easily provoked and as readily pacified, and who loses more than he gains; he whom it is difficult to rouse and as difficult to appease, and who gains more than he loses; he who is not readily provoked, but easily pacified, who is a pious man; he who is easily provoked and with difficulty appeased, who is a wicked man. ibid., chap. , sec. . there are four classes of men who give alms, and they are thus distinguished:--he who is willing to give, but unwilling that others should do so, he has an evil eye toward others; he who wishes others to give, but does not do so himself, he has an evil eye toward himself; he who gives, and induces others to give, he is pious; he who gives not, nor wishes others to give he is wicked. _avoth_, chap , sec. . there are four marks by which one disciple differs from another:--one learns and does not teach, one teaches and does not learn, one learns and teaches, and one neither learns nor teaches. _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . four things, if kept in view and gravely pondered over, deter from sin:--that a man consider whence he cometh, whither he goeth, who the judge will be, and what the future will bring to pass. _derech eretz_, chap. . what is the meaning of that which is written (ps. lxxxvii ), "the lord loveth the gates of zion more than all the dwellings of jacob?" the answer is, the lord loveth the gates that are marked with the halachah more than the synagogues and the schools; and this agrees with what rabbi cheeya bar ami has said, in the name of ulla, that since the destruction of the temple nothing else has remained to god in his world but four ells of the halachah. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . whoso walks even four ells with a proud unbending gait is as though he spurned with his haughty head the feet of the shechinah; for it is written (isa. vi. ), "the whole earth is full of his glory." ibid., fol. , col. . four are in duty bound to return thanks to god:--they that have returned from a voyage at sea (ps. cvii. , , ); those who have traveled in the desert (verses - ); they who have recovered from a serious illness (verses - ); and those that are liberated from prison (verses - ). _berachoth_, fol. , col. . if one does not walk, say four cubits, before falling asleep after a meal, that which he has eaten, being undigestible, causes foulness of breath. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . four have died in consequence of the seduction of the serpent:--benjamin, the son of jacob; amram, the father of moses; jesse, the father of david; and chileab, the son of david. ibid., fol. , col. . these four are reckoned to have died on account of original sin, and not solely because of actual transgression, which, says rashi, they never committed. the traveler who is overtaken with the approach of sabbath-eve before he has completed his journey should hand over his purse to a gentile to carry; and if there be no gentile at hand, let him stow it away on his ass. as soon as the nearest halting-place is reached, those burdens which may be lifted on the sabbath should then be removed, and then the cords should be slackened that the rest may slip off of its own accord. ibid., fol. , col. . here the gemara very graciously appends a direction as to the disposal of the purse, in case the traveler should happen to be on foot and have no gentile attendant. he may take care of it himself, provided he halt at every other step and deposit it on the ground, for at least a distance of four cubits. a master is bound to rehearse a lesson to his pupil four times. _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . alas for the power which prepares a grave for its possessor, for there is not a prophet who hath not in his lifetime witnessed the decadence of four kings; as it is said (isa. i. ), "the vision of isaiah ... in the days of uzziah, jotham, ahaz, and hezekiah, kings of judah" (see also hosea i. ). _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . once rav pappa and rav hunnah partook together of a common meal, and as the latter ate only one morsel the former ate four. after this, when rav hunnah and ravina ate together, the latter devoured eight portions to the other's one, upon which rav hunnah jocularly remarked, "a hundred (rav) pappas to one ravina." _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . no food may be eaten on passover-eve from the time of the offering of the evening sacrifice (in order, i.e. that abstinence may whet the appetite for the matsoth). even the poorest in israel may not break his fast till the hour of reclining; nor is he to partake of less than four glasses of wine, even though he has been reduced so low as to subsist on the porridge doled out by public charity. ibid., fol. , col. . there are four things the doing of which by man brings judgment upon his own head:--if he turn in between a wall and a date-palm; if he turn in between two date-palms; if he drink borrowed water; and if he step across spilt water, such even as his own wife may have thrown away. (all these doings, says rashi, are bound to annoy the evil genii.) ibid., fol. , col. . four precepts did our holy rabbi (yehudah hakadosh) urge upon his children:--not to choose shechentzia as a dwelling-place, for scoffers resided there; not to use the bed of a syrian odalisque; not to shirk the payment of fiscal dues, lest the collector should confiscate all their property; not to face an ox when he came up (ruffled) from the cane-brake, for satan sported betwixt his horns. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . whosoever prieth into the four things in the matter of the chariot in ezekiel's vision--what is above, what is beneath, what is before, or what is behind--it were better for him if he had never been born. _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . the work or matter of the chariot, the rabbinic term for the vision of ezekiel, ranks among the arcana judaica, which are not to be told save to the initiated. four men entered paradise--these are their names:--ben azai, ben zoma, acher, and rabbi akiva. rabbi akiva thus warned his companions: "when you come across pavements of pellucid marble, do not cry out 'water! water!' for it is said (ps. ci. ), 'he that uttereth falsehood shall not dwell in my sight.'" ben azai looked and died; concerning him the scripture says (ps. cxvi. ), "precious in the sight of the lord is the death of his saints." ben zoma looked and went out of his mind; of him the scripture says (prov. xxv. ), "hast thou found honey? eat only so much as is sufficient for thee, lest thou be filled therewith and vomit it." acher cut the plants. only akiva departed in peace. _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . rashi explains this by saying these men went up to heaven; but maimonides much more rationally teaches that the paradise or garden here is merely the retreat of profound philosophic meditation. these five intuitions were;--( .) to know that there is a god; ( .) to ignore every other beside him; ( .) to feel his unity; ( .) to love his person; and ( .) to stand in awe of his majesty (see vad hachaz, chap. , sec. ). deep thought in these matters was spoken of by the rabbis as _promenading in the garden_. four times a year is the world subject to an ordeal of judgment:--at passover, which is decisive of the fruits of the field; at pentecost, which is decisive of the fruits of the garden; at the feast of tabernacles, which is decisive in respect of rain; on new year's day, when all who come into the world pass before the lord like sheep, as it is said (ps. xxxiii. ), "who formed their hearts together; who understandeth all their works." _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . there are four varieties of cedar:--erez, karthom, etz-shemen, and berosh. ibid., fol. , col. . ben kamzar would not teach the art of writing, and yet it is related of him that he could, by taking four pens between his fingers, write off a word of four letters at one stroke. _yoma_, fol. , col. . there are four kinds of quails:--sichli, kibli, pisyoni, and the common quail. the first was of superior quality, and the last inferior. ibid., fol. , col. . a man may obtain forgiveness after the third transgression, but if he repeat the offense a fourth time, he is not pardoned again; for it is said (amos ii. ), "for three transgressions of judah, and for four, i will not turn away the punishment thereof;" and again (job xxxiii. ), "lo! all these things doth god two or three times" (and so inferentially not four times) "with man to bring back his soul from the pit." _yoma_, fol. , col. . for four reasons does their property pass out of the hands of the avaricious:--because they are backward in paying the wages of their hired servants; because they altogether neglect their welfare; because they shift the yoke from themselves and lay the burden upon their neighbors; and because of pride, which is of itself as bad as all the rest put together; whereas of the meek it is written (ps. xxxvii. n), "the meek shall inherit the earth." _succah_, fol. , col. . "and the lord showed me four carpenters" (zech. i, ). who are these four carpenters? rav ghana bar bizna says that rabbi shimon chassida said they were messiah the son of david, messiah the son of joseph, elijah, and the priest of righteousness. ibid., fol. , col. . no synagogue is to be sold except on condition that there be power of re-purchase. these are the words of rabbi meir; but the sages say it may be sold unconditionally, except in these four particular cases: that it be not turned into a bath-house, a tannery, a wash-house, or a laundry. _meggillah_, fol. , col. . rabbi yochanan ben zachai was once asked by his disciples how he had attained such length of days. "never once," he said, "in my life have i acted irreverently within four cubits of a place where prayer is offered; never have i called a person by a wicked name; nor have i ever failed to sanctify the sabbath over a cup of wine. once my aged mother sold her head-dress to buy the consecration wine for me." ibid., fol. , col. . when a sage is approaching, one should rise up before he gets within four ells' distance, and remain standing until he has gone as far past. when a chief magistrate is about to pass, one must rise as soon as he comes in sight, and not resume the seat until he has passed four ells. when a prince passes, one must stand up whenever he appears, and not sit down again until the prince himself is seated; for it is said (exod. xxxiii, ), "all the people rose up, ... and looked after moses until he was gone into the tabernacle." _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . when nero came to the holy land, he tried his fortune by belemnomancy thus:--he shot an arrow eastward, and it fell upon jerusalem; he discharged his shafts towards the four points of the compass, and every time they fell upon jerusalem. after this he met a jewish boy, and said unto him, "repeat to me the text thou hast learned to-day." the boy repeated, "i will lay my vengeance upon edom (i.e., rome) by the hand of my people israel" (ezek. xxv. ). then said nero, "the holy one--blessed be he!--has determined to destroy his temple and then avenge himself on the agent by whom its ruin is wrought." thereupon nero fled and became a jewish proselyte, and rabbi meir is of his race. _gittin_, fol. , col. . they whose banquet is accompanied with four kinds of instruments of music bring five calamities on the world; as it is said (isa. v. - ), "woe unto those that get up early in the morning, that they may run after strong drink; and continue until late at night, till flushed with wine. and the harp and psaltery, tambourine and flute, and wine are at their carousals." _soteh_, fol. , col. . let him carry the purse, and halt every time he accomplishes less than four cubits forward. _shabbath_, fol. , cols, , . rav yitzchak here explains how the good jew, belated on sabbath-eve, may carry his purse himself, and so save his conscience. the traveler is to halt at about every other step, and so measure off the journey in four-cubit stages. though ever since the destruction of the temple the sanhedrin has ceased to exist, the four kinds of capital punishment have not failed to assert themselves. if a man incurs the penalty of death by stoning, he is in the course of providence either punished by a fatal fall from a roof or slain by some beast of prey; if he has exposed himself to the penalty of death by burning, it happens that he is either burned to death in the end or mortally stung by a serpent; if the penalty of the law is that he should be beheaded for his offense, he meets his death either from the government officer or by the hand of an assassin; if the penalty be strangulation, he is sure to be drowned or suffocated. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . when a person is in a state of apprehension and cannot make out the cause of it (the star that presided at his birth and his genii know all about it), what should he do? let him jump from where he is standing four cubits, or else let him repeat, "hear, o israel," etc. (deut. vi. ); or if the place be unfit for the repetition of scripture, let him mutter to himself, "the goat at the butcher's is fatter than me." ibid., fol. , col. . it is written in chron. xxxiii. , "a carved image;" and again it is written in verse , "graven images." rabbi yochanan said, "at first he made the image with one face, but afterwards he made it with four--four, so that the shechinah might see it from every point, and thus be exasperated." ibid., fol. , col. . moses uttered four judgments upon israel, but four prophets revoked them:--( .) first moses said (deut. xxxiii. ), "israel then shall dwell in safety alone;" then came amos and set it aside (amos vii. ), "cease, i beseech thee," etc.; and then it is written (verse ), "this shall not be, saith the lord." ( .) first moses said (deut. xxviii. ), "among these nations thou shalt find no ease;" then came jeremiah and set this saying aside (jer. xxxi. ), "even israel, when i went to cause him to rest." ( .) first moses said (exod. xxxiv. ), "visiting the iniquities of the fathers upon the children;" then came ezekiel and set this aside (ezek. xviii. ), "the soul that sinneth, it shall die." ( .) first moses said (lev. xxvi. ), "and ye shall perish among the heathen;" then came isaiah and reversed this (isa. xxvii. ), "and it shall come to pass in that day that the great trumpet shall be blown, and they shall come which were ready to perish." _maccoth_, fol. , col. . when akavyah ben mahalalel appeared to four halachahs contradicting the judgment of the wise on a certain important point of law, "retract," they said, "and we will promote thee to be president of the tribunal." to which he replied, "i would rather be called a fool all the days of my life than be judged wicked for one hour before him who is omnipresent." _edioth_, chap. , mish. . let thy house be open wide toward the south, the east, the west, and the north, just as job, who made four entrances to his house, in order that the poor might find entrance without trouble from whatever quarter they might come. _avoth d'rav. nathan_, chap. , rabbah once saw a sea-monster on the day it was brought forth, and it was as large as mount tabor. and how large is mount tabor? its neck was three miles long, and where it laid its head a mile and a half. its dung choked up the jordan, till, as rashi says, its waters washed it away. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . shemuel said, "we know remedies for all maladies except three:--that induced by unripe dates on an empty stomach; that induced by wearing a damp linen rope round one's loins; and that induced by falling asleep after meals without having first walked a distance of at least four cubits." _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . the five times repeated "bless the lord, o my soul" (ps. ciii. civ.), were said by david with reference both to god and the soul. as god fills the whole world, so does the soul fill the whole body; as god sees and is not seen, so the soul sees and is not seen; as god nourishes the whole world, so does the soul nourish the whole body; as god is pure, so also is the soul pure; as god dwelleth in secret, so does the soul dwell in secret. therefore let him who possesses these five properties praise him to whom these five attributes belong. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . five things have in them a sixtieth part of five other things:--fire, honey, the sabbath, sleep, and dreams. fire is a sixtieth of hell, honey a sixtieth of manna, the sabbath a sixtieth of the rest in the world to come, sleep the sixtieth of death, and a dream the sixtieth of prophecy. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . there are five weak things that are a source of terror to the strong:--the mosquito is a terror to the lion, the gnat is a terror to the elephant, the ichneumon-fly is a terror to the scorpion, the flycatcher is a terror to the eagle, and the stickleback is a terror to the leviathan. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . these five should be killed even on the sabbath:--the fly of egypt, the wasp of nineveh, the scorpion of hadabia, the serpent of the land of israel, and the mad dog anywhere and everywhere. ibid., fol. , col. . five things did canaan teach his children:--to love one another, to perpetrate robbery, to practice wantonness, to hate their masters, and not to speak the truth. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . five things were in the first temple which were not in the second:--the ark and its cover, with the cherubim; the fire; the shechinah; the holy spirit; and the urim and thummim. _yoma_, fol. , col. . five things are said respecting the mad dog:--its mouth gapes wide, it drops its saliva, its ears hang down, its tail is curled between its legs, and it slinks along the side of the road. rav says that a dog's madness is caused by witches sporting with it. samuel says it is because an evil spirit rests upon it. ibid., fol. , col. . when a man has betrothed one of five women, and does not remember which of the five it is, while each of them claims the right of betrothment, then he is duty bound to give to each a bill of divorcement, and to distribute the dowry due to one among them all. this decision is according to rabbi tarphon, but rabbi akiva holds that he must not only divorce each, but give to each the legal dowry, otherwise he fails in his duty. _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . when a person having robbed one of five does not remember which of the five it was he had robbed, and each claims to have been the victim of the robbery, then he is to part the stolen property (or the value of it) among them all, and go his way. so says rabbi tarphon, but rabbi akiva argues that the defaulter does not in this way fully exonerate himself; he must restore to each and all the full value of the plunder. _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . these things are said concerning garlic:--it nourishes, it glows inwardly, it brightens the complexion, and increases virility. some say that it is a philtre for love, and that it exterminates jealousy. _bava kama_, fol. , col. . five things cause forgetfulness:--partaking of what has been gnawed by a mouse or a cat, eating bullock's heart, habitual use of olives, drinking water that has been washed in, and placing the feet one upon the other while bathing. _horayoth_, fol. , col. . five things restore the memory again:--bread baked upon coals, soft-boiled eggs without salt, habitual use of olive oil, mulled wine, and plenty of salt. ibid. he who does not cheer the bridegroom whose wedding breakfast he has enjoyed transgresses against the five voices (mentioned in jer. xxxiii. ii):--"the voice of joy, the voice of gladness, the voice of the bridegroom, and the voice of the bride, the voice of them that shall say 'praise ye the lord of hosts.'" _berachoth_, fol. , col. . mount sinai had five names:--( .) wilderness of zin, because on it the israelites were commanded to observe the law; ( .) wilderness of kadesh, because on it the israelites were consecrated to receive the law; ( .) wilderness of kedemoth, because precedence was there given to israel over all other nations; ( .) wilderness of paran, because there the israelites were fruitful and multiplied; ( .) wilderness of sinai, because from it enmity came to be cherished to the gentiles. it was denominated horeb according to rabbi abhu, because from it came down destruction to the gentiles. _shabbath_, fol. , cols, , . mar (the master) has said, "from dawn to the appearance of the sun is five miles." how is this proved? it is written (gen. xix. ), "when the dawn arose the angels hurried lot;" and it is added (verse ), "the sun was risen upon the earth when lot entered into zoar." and rabbi chanena said, "i myself have seen that place, and the distance is five miles." _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . he that cooks in milk the ischiadic sinew on an annual festival is to be scourged five times forty stripes save one:--for cooking the sinew, for eating the sinew, for cooking flesh in milk, for eating flesh cooked in milk, and for lighting the fire. _baitza_, fol. , col. . to this very day this sinew is extracted from the hind quarters of all animals before it is allowable for a jew to eat them. this operation, in popular parlance, is termed porging. the mysteries of the law are not to be communicated except to those who possess the faculties of these five in combination:--"the captain of fifty, and the honorable man, and the counselor, and the cunning artificer, and the eloquent orator" (see isa. iii. ). _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . "captain of fifty." this should be read, not captain of fifty, but captain of five, that is, such as knew how to manage the five-fifths of the law (or pentateuch). ibid., fol. , col. . five characteristics were ascribed to the fire upon the altar:--it crouched there like a lion, it shone as the sun, it was perceptible to the touch, it consumed liquids as though they were dry materials, it caused no smoke. _yoma_, fol. , col. . how is it that the word signifying "and i will be glorified," occurs in hag. i. without the letter which is the symbol for five, though it is sounded as if that letter was there? it indicates the absence of five things from the second temple which were to be found in the first, ( .) the ark, i.e., the mercy-seat of the cherubim; ( .) the fire from heaven upon the altar; ( .) the visible presence; ( .) the holy spirit (of prophecy, says rashi); and ( .) the urim and thummim. ibid. how then, it may be asked, if these five tokens of the divine presence and favor which rendered the first temple so glorious were wanting in the second could it be said (hag. ii. ), "the glory of this latter house shall be greater than of the former"? it is a question which it is natural to ask, and it should be ingenuously answered. is it that these were tending to usurp the place of the spiritual, of which they were but the assurance and the symbol, and darken rather than reveal the eternal reality they adumbrated? the israelites relished any flavor they fancied in the manna except the flavor of these five things (mentioned in num. xi. ):--"cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic." _yoma_, fol. , col. . five things happened to our forefathers on the th of tammuz, and five on the th of ab. on the th of tammuz ( .) the tables of the covenant were broken; ( .) the daily sacrifice was done away with; ( .) the city walls were cleft asunder; ( .) apostumes burned the roll of the law; ( .) and set up an idol in the temple. on the th of ab ( .) the decree was uttered that our ancestors should not enter the land of canaan; both the ( .) first and the ( .) second temple were destroyed; ( .) byther was subjugated and ( .) the city was plowed up. _taanith_, fol. , cols, , . the rabbis have taught where it is we learn that if one has five sons by five wives he is bound to redeem each and all of them. it is from what is taught in exod. xxxiv. , where it is said, "all the first born of thy sons shalt thou redeem." _kiddushin_. fol. . col. . if israel had not sinned they would have had no other scriptures than the five-fifths of the law (that is, the pentateuch) and the book of joshua, which last is indispensable, because therein is recorded how the land was distributed among the sons of israel; but the remainder was added, "because in much wisdom is much grief" (eccles. i. ). _nedarim_, fol. , col. . "if a man steal an ox or a sheep and kill it or sell it, five oxen shall be given in restitution for one ox, and four sheep for one sheep" (exod. xxii. ). from this observe the value put upon work. for the loss of an ox, because it involves the loss of labor, the owner is recompensed with five oxen; but for the loss of a sheep, which does no work, he is only recompensed with four. _bava kama_, fol. , col. . "and esau came from the field, and he was faint" (gen. xxv. ). rabbi yochanan said that wicked man committed on that day five transgressions:--he committed rape, committed murder, denied the being of god, denied the resurrection from the dead, and despised the birthright. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . there are five celebrated idolatrous temples, and these are the names of them:--the temple of bel in babylon, the temple of nebo in chursi, the temple of thretha in maphog, the temple of zeripha in askelon, and the temple of nashra in arabia. when rabbi dimmi came from palestine to babylon he said there were others, viz, the temple of yarid in ainbechi, and that of nadbacha in accho. _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . "and they also transgressed my covenant, which i have commanded them; and they also have taken of the accursed thing, and have also stolen, and dissembled also, and have also put it among their own stuff" (josh. vii. ). rav illaa says, in the name of rav yehudah ben mispartha, the fivefold repetition of the particle also shows that achan had trespassed against all the five books of moses. the same rabbi further adds that achan had obliterated the sign of the covenant, for it is said in relation to him, "and they have also transgressed my covenant;" and with reference to circumcision, "he hath broken my covenant." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . he who eats an ant is flogged five times with forty stripes save one. _maccoth_, fol. , col. . rabbi akiva used to say there are five judgments on record each of twelve months' duration:--that of the deluge, that of job, that of the egyptians, that of gog and magog, and that of the wicked in hell. this last is said of those whose demerits outweigh their virtues, or those who have sinned against their bodies. _edioth_, chap. , mish. . five possessions hath the holy one--blessed be he!--purchased for himself in this world:--( .) the law is one possession (prov. viii. ); ( .) heaven and earth is one possession (isa. lxvi. , ps. civ. ); ( .) abraham is one possession (gen. xiv. ); ( .) israel is one possession (exod. xv. ); ( .) the temple is one possession, as it is said (exod. xv. ), "the sanctuary, o lord, thy hands have established." and it is also said (ps. lxxviii. ), "and he brought them to the border of his sanctuary, even to this mountain, which his right hand had purchased." _avoth_, chap. . rabbi akiva says he who marries a woman not suited to him violates five precepts:--( .) thou shalt not avenge; ( .) thou shalt not bear a grudge; ( .) thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart; ( .) thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself; ( .) and that thy brother may live with thee. for if he hates her he wishes she were dead, and thus he diminishes the population. _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . five have no forgiveness of sins:--( .) he who keeps on sinning and repenting alternately; ( .) he who sins in a sinless age; ( .) he who sins on purpose to repent; ( .) he who causes the name of god to be blasphemed. the fifth is not given in the talmud. ibid., chap. . he who has no fringes to his garment transgresses five positive commands (see num. xv. . etc.; deut. xxii. ). _menachoth_, fol. , col. . a learner who, after five years, sees no profit in studying, will never see it. rabbi yossi says, after three years, as it is written (dan. i. , ), "that they should be taught the literature and the language of the chaldeans," so educating them in three years. _chullin_, fol. , col. . any one who doeth any of these things sinneth against himself, and his blood is upon his own head:--he that ( .) eats garlic, onions, or eggs which were peeled the night before; ( .) or drinks water drawn over night; ( .) or sleeps all night in a burying-place; ( .) or pares his nails and throws the cuttings into the public street. _niddah_, fol. , col. . rabbi yossi said:--"never once in all my life have the walls of my house seen the hem of my shirt; and i have planted five cedars (sons are figuratively so termed, see ps. xcii. ) in israel--namely, rabbis ishmael, eliezar, chalafta, artilas, and menachem. never once in my life have i spoken of my wife by any other name than house, and of my ox by any other name than field." _shabbath_, fol. , col. . six things are a disgrace to a disciple of the wise:--to walk abroad perfumed, to walk alone by night, to wear old clouted shoes, to talk with a woman in the street, to sit at table with illiterate men, and to be late at the synagogue. some add to these, walking with a proud step or a haughty gait. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . a soft-boiled egg is better than six ounces of fine flour. ibid., fol. , col. . six things are a certain cure for sickness:--cabbage, beetroot, water distilled from dry moss, honey, the maw and the matrix of an animal, and the edge of the liver. ibid. these six things are good symptoms in an invalid:--sneezing, perspiration, evacuation, seminal emission, sleep, and dreaming. ibid., fol. , col. . six things bear interest in this world and the capital remaineth in the world to come:--hospitality to strangers, visiting the sick, meditation in prayer, early attendance at the school of instruction, the training of sons to the study of the law, and judging charitably of one's neighbors. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . there are six sorts of tears, three good and three bad:--those caused by smoke, or grief, or constipation are bad; and those caused by fragrant spices, laughter, and aromatic herbs are good. ibid., fol. , col. ; fol. , col. . six things are said respecting the illiterate:--no testimony is to be borne to them, none is to be accepted from them; no secret is to be disclosed to them; they are not to be appointed guardians over orphans, nor keepers of the charity-box, and there should be no fellowship with them when on a journey. some say also no public notice is to be given of their lost property. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . the expression here rendered "illiterate" means literally "people of the land," and was, there is reason to believe, originally applied to the primitive inhabitants of canaan, traces of whom may still be found among the fellahin of syria. they appear, like the aboriginal races in many countries of christendom in relation to christianity, to have remained generation after generation obdurately inaccessible to jewish ideas, and so to have given name to the ignorant and untaught generally. this circumstance may account for the harshness of some of the quotations which are appended in reference to them. he who aspires to be a fellow of the learned must not sell fruit, either green or dry, to an illiterate man, nor may he buy fresh fruit of him. he must not be the guest of an ignorant man, nor receive such an one as his guest. _demai_, chap. , mish. . our rabbis teach, let a man sell all that he has and marry the daughter of a learned man. if he cannot find the daughter of a learned man, let him marry the daughter of one of the great men of his day. if he does not find such a one, let him marry the daughter of one of the heads of the congregation, or, failing this, the daughter of a charity collector, or even the daughter of a schoolmaster; but let him not marry the daughter of an illiterate man, for the unlearned are an abomination, as also their wives and their daughters. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . it is said that rabbi (the holy) teaches that it is illegal for an unlearned man to eat animal food, for it is said (lev. xi. ), "this is the law of the beast and the fowl;" therefore he who studies the law may eat animal food, but he who does not study the law may not. rabbi eliezar said, "it is lawful to split open the nostrils of an unlearned man, even on the day of atonement which happens to fall on a sabbath." to which his disciples responded, "rabbi, say rather to slaughter him." he replied, "nay, that would require the repetition of the usual benediction; but in tearing open his nostrils no benedictory formula is needed." rabbi eliezar has also said, "it is unlawful to travel with such a one, for it is said (deut. xxx. ), 'for it is thy life and the length of thy days.' the unlearned does not ensure his own life (since he has no desire to study the law, which would prolong life), how much less then will he regard the life of his neighbor?" rabbi samuel, son of nachman, says on behalf of rabbi yochanan, that it is lawful to split open an unlearned man like a fish. "aye," adds rabbi samuel, "and that from his back." _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . rav yehudah says it is good to eat the pulp of a pumpkin with beetroot as a remedy, also the essence of hemp seed in babylonian broth; but it is not lawful to mention this in the presence of an illiterate man, because he might derive a benefit from the knowledge not meant for him. _nedarim_, fol. , col. . no contribution or heave-offering should be given to an ignorant priest. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . no boor can be pious, nor an ignorant man a saint. _avoth_, chap. , mish. . sleep in the morning, wine at mid-day, the idle talk of inexperienced youth, and attending the conventicles of the ignorant drive a man out of the world. ibid., chap. , mish. . rabbi jonathan says, "where do we learn that no present is to be made to an ignorant priest?" in chron. xxxi. , for there it is said hezekiah "commanded that all the people that dwelt in jerusalem should give a portion to the priests and to the levites, that they might be strong in the law of the lord." he who firmly lays hold of the law has a claim to a portion, otherwise he has none. _chullin_, fol. , col. . the aged, if ignorant, grow weaker in intellect the older they become in years, for it is written (job xii. ), "he removeth away the speech of the trusty, and taketh away the understanding of the aged." but it is not so with them that are old in the study of the law, for the older they grow the more thoughtful they become, and the wiser, as it is said (job xii. ), "with the ancient is wisdom, and in length of days understanding." _kinnin_, chap. . the salutation of the ignorant should be responded to quietly, and with a reluctant nod of the head. _taanith_, fol. , col. . no calamities ever befall the world except such as are brought on by the ignorant. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . rav hunna's widow once appeared before rav nachman as plaintiff in a lawsuit. "what shall i do?" he said. "if i rise before her (to honor her as the widow of a rabbi), the defendant, who is an _amhaaretz_, will feel uneasy; and if i don't rise i shall break the rule which ordains that the wife of an associate is to be treated as an associate." so he said to his servant, "loose a young goose over my head, then i'll get up." rav bar sheravyah had a lawsuit with an _amhaaretz_ before rav pappa, who bade him be seated, and also asked the other to sit down. when the officer of the court raised the _amhaaretz_ with a kick, the magistrate did not request him to be seated again. _shevuoth_, fol. , col. . six things are said respecting demons. in three particulars they are like angels, and in three they resemble men. they have wings like angels; like angels they fly from one end of the world to the other, and they know the future, as angels do, with this difference, that they learn by listening behind the veil what angels have revealed to them within. in three respects they resemble men. they eat and drink like men, they beget and increase like men, and like men they die. _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . the talmud is particularly rich in demonology, and many are the forms which the evil principle assumes in its pages. we have no wish to drag these shapes to the light, and interrogate them as to the part they play in this intricate life. enough now if we mention the circumstance of their existence, and introduce to the reader the story of ashmedai, the king of the demons. the story is worth relating, both for its own sake and its historical significance. in ecclesiastes ii. , we read, "i gat me men singers and women singers, the delights of the sons of men, as musical instruments, and that of all sorts." these last seven words represent only two in the original hebrew, _shiddah-veshiddoth_. these two words in the original hebrew translated by the last seven in this verse, have been a source of great perplexity to the critics, and their exact meaning is matter of debate to this hour. they in the west say they mean severally carriages for lords and carriages for ladies, while we, says the babylonish talmud, interpret them to signify male demons and female demons. whereupon, if this last is the correct rendering, the question arises, for what purpose solomon required them? the answer is to be found in kings vi. , where it is written, "and the house, when it was in building, was built of stone made ready before it was brought thither," etc. for before the operation commenced solomon asked the rabbis, "how shall i accomplish this without using tools of iron?" and they remembering of an insect which had existed since the creation of the world, whose powers were such as the hardest substances could not resist, replied, "there is the shameer, with which moses cut the precious stones of the ephod." solomon asked, "and where, pray, is the shameer to be found?" to which they made answer, "let a male demon and a female come, and do thou coerce them both; mayhap they know and will reveal it to thee." he then conjured into his presence a male and a female demon, and proceeded to torture them, but in vain, for said they, "we know not its whereabouts and cannot tell; perhaps ashmedai, the king of the demons, knows." on being further interrogated as to where he in turn might be found, they made this answer: "in yonder mount is his residence; there he has dug a pit, and, after filling it with water, covered it over with a stone, and sealed with his own seal. daily he ascends to heaven and studies in the school of wisdom there, then he comes down and studies in the school of wisdom here; upon which he goes and examines the seal, then opens the pit, and after quenching his thirst, covers it up again, re-seals it, and takes his departure." solomon thereupon sent benaiah, the son of jehoiada, provided with a magic chain and ring, upon both of which the name of god was engraved. he also provided him with a fleece of wool and sundry skins with wine. then benaiah went and sank a pit below that of ashmedai, into which he drained off the water and plugged the duct between with the fleece. then he set to and dug another hole higher up with a channel leading into the emptied pit of ashmedia, by means of which the pit was filled with the wine he had brought. after leveling the ground so as not to rouse suspicion, he withdrew to a tree close by, so as to watch the result and wait his opportunity. after a while ashmedai came, and examined the seal, when, seeing it all right, he raised the stone, and to his surprise found wine in the pit. for a time he stood muttering and saying, it is written, "wine is a mocker: strong drink is raging, and whosoever is deceived thereby is not wise." and again, "whoredom and wine and new wine take away the heart." therefore at first he was unwilling to drink, but being thirsty, he could not long resist the temptation. he proceeded to drink therefore, when, becoming intoxicated, he lay down to sleep. then benaiah, came forth from his ambush, and stealthily approaching, fastened the chain round the sleeper's neck. ashmedai, when he awoke, began to fret and fume, and would have torn off the chain that bound him, had not benaiah warned him, saying, "the name of thy lord is upon thee." having thus secured him, benaiah proceeded to lead him away to his sovereign master. as they journeyed along they came to a palm-tree, against which ashmedai rubbed himself, until he uprooted it and threw it down. when they drew near to a hut, the poor widow who inhabited it came out and entreated him not to rub himself against it, upon which, as he suddenly bent himself back, he snapt a bone of his body, and said, "this is that which is written (prov. xxv. ), 'and a gentle answer breaketh the bone.'" descrying a blind man straying out of his way, he hailed him and directed him aright. he even did the same service to a man overcome with wine, who was in a similar predicament. at sight of a wedding party that passed rejoicing along, he wept; but he burst into uncontrollable laughter when he heard a man order at a shoemaker's stall a pair of shoes that would last seven years; and when he saw a magician at his work he broke forth into shrieks of scorn. on arriving at the royal city, three days were allowed to pass before he was introduced to solomon. on the first day he said. "why does the king not invite me into his presence?" "he has drunk too much," was the answer, "and the wine has overpowered him." upon which he lifted a brick and placed it upon the top of another. when this was communicated to solomon, he replied "he meant by this, go and make him drunk again." on the day following he asked again, "why does the king not invite me into his presence?" they replied, "he has eaten too much." on this he removed the brick again from the top of the other. when this was reported to the king, he interpreted it to mean, "stint him in his food." after the third day, he was introduced to the king; when measuring off four cubits upon the floor with the stick he held in his hand, he said to solomon, "when thou diest, thou wilt not possess in this world (he referred to the grave) more than four cubits of earth. meanwhile thou has conquered the world, yet thou wert not satisfied until thou hadst overcome me also." to this the king quietly replied, "i want nothing of thee, but i wish to build the temple and have need of the _shameer_." to which ashmedai at once answered, "the shameer is not committed in charge to me, but to the prince of the sea, and he intrusts it to no one except to the great wild cock, and that upon an oath that he return it to him again." whereupon solomon asked, "and what does the wild cock do with the shameer?" to which the demon replied, "he takes it to a barren rocky mountain, and by means of it he cleaves the mountain asunder, into the cleft of which, formed into a valley, he drops the seeds of various plants and trees, and thus the place becomes clothed with verdure and fit for habitation." this is the _shameer_ (lev. xi. ), nagger tura, which the targum renders mountain splitter. they therefore searched for the nest of the wild cock, which they found contained a young brood. this they covered with a glass, that the bird might see its young, but not be able to get at them. when accordingly the bird came and found his nest impenetrably glazed over, he went and fetched the shameer. just as he was about to apply it to the glass in order to cut it, solomon's messenger gave a startling shout, and this so agitated the bird that he dropped the shameer, and solomon's messenger caught it up and made off with it. the cock thereupon went and strangled himself, because he was unable to keep the oath by which he had bound himself to return the shameer. benaiah asked ashmedai why, when he saw the blind man straying, he so promptly interfered to guide him? "because," he replied, "it was proclaimed in heaven that that man was perfectly righteous, and that whosoever did him a good turn would earn a title to a place in the world of the future." "and when thou sawest the man overcome with wine wandering out of his way, why didst thou put him right again?" ashmedai said, "because it was made known in heaven that that man was thoroughly bad, and i have done him a good service that he might not lose all, but receive some good in the world that now is." "well, and why didst thou weep when thou sawest the merry wedding-party pass?" "because," said he, "the bridegroom was fated to die within thirty days and the bride must needs wait thirteen years for her husband's brother, who is now but an infant" (see deut. xxv. - ). "why didst thou laugh so when the man ordered a pair of shoes that would last him seven years?" ashmedai replied, "because the man himself was not sure of living seven days." "and why," asked benaiah, "didst thou jeer when thou sawest the conjuror at his tricks?" "because," said ashmedai, "the man was at that very time sitting on a princely treasure, and he did not, with all his pretension, know that it was under him." having once acquired a power over ashmedai, solomon detained him till the building of the temple was completed. one day after this, when they were alone, it is related that solomon, addressing him, asked him, "what, pray, is your superiority over us, if it be true, as it is written (num. xxiii. ), 'he has the strength of a unicorn,' and the word 'strength,' as tradition alleges, means 'ministering angels,' and the word 'unicorn' means 'devils'?" ashmedai replied, "just take this chain from my neck, and give me thy signet-ring, and i'll soon show thee my superiority." no sooner did solomon comply with this request, than ashmedai, snatching him up, swallowed him; then stretching forth his wings--one touching the heaven and the other the earth--he vomited him out again to a distance of four hundred miles. it is with reference to this time that solomon says (eccl. i. ; ii. ), "what profit hath a man of all his labor which he taketh under the sun? this is my portion of all my labor." what does the word this mean? upon this point rav and samuel are at variance, for the one says it means his staff, the other holds that it means his garment or water-jug; and that with one or other solomon went about from door to door begging; and wherever he came he said (eccl. i. ), "i, the preacher, was king over israel in jerusalem." when in his wanderings he came to the house of the sanhedrin, the rabbis reasoned and said, if he were mad he would not keep repeating the same things over and over again; therefore what does he mean? they therefore inquired of benaiah, "does the king ask thee into his presence?" he replied, "no!" they then sent to see whether the king visited the hareem. and the answer to this was, "yes, he comes." then the rabbis sent word back that they should look at his feet, for the devil's feet are like those of a cock. the reply was, "he comes to us in stockings." upon this information the rabbis escorted solomon back to the palace, and restored to him the chain and the ring, on both of which the name of god was engraven. arrayed with these, solomon advanced straightway into the presence-chamber. ashmedai sat at that moment on the throne, but as soon as he saw solomon enter, he took fright and raising his wings, flew away, shrieking back into invisibility. in spite of this, solomon continued in great fear of him; and this explains that which is written (song of songs, iii. , ), "behold the bed which is solomon's; threescore valiant men are about it, of the valiant of israel; they all hold swords, being expert in war; every man has his sword upon his thigh, because of fear in the night." (see gittin, fol. , cols, , .) ashmedai is the asmodeus of the book of tobit, iii. , vi. , etc, the shameer is mentioned in jer. xvii. i; ezek. iii. ; zech. vii. . the seventy in the former passage and the vulgate passim take it for the diamond. six things are said respecting the children of men, in three of which they are like angels, and in three they are like animals. they have intelligence like angels, they walk erect like angels, and they converse in the holy tongue like angels. they eat and drink like animals, they generate and multiply like animals, and they relieve nature like animals. _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . six months did the shechinah hesitate to depart from the midst of israel in the wilderness, in hopes that they would repent. at last, when they persisted in impenitence, the shechinah said, "may their bones be blown;" as it is written (job xi. ), "the eyes of the wicked shall fail, they shall not escape, and their hopes shall be as the blowing out of the spirit." _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . six names were given to solomon:--solomon, jedidiah, koheleth, son of jakeh, agur, and lemuel. _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . six years old was dinah when she gave birth to asenath, whom she bore unto shechem. _sophrim_, chap. . "and the lord blessed obed-edom and all his household" ( sam. vi. ). in what did the blessing consist? rav yehudah bar zavidah says it consisted in this, that hamoth, his wife, and her eight daughters-in-law gave birth each to six children at a time. (this is proved from chron. xxvi. , .) _berachoth_, fol. , col. . six things were done by hezekiah the king, but the sages praised him for three only:--( .) he dragged the bones of his father ahaz on a hurdle of ropes, for this they commended him; ( .) he broke to pieces the brazen serpent, for this they commended him; ( .) he hid the book of remedies, and for this too they praised him. for three they blamed him:--( .) he stripped the doors of the temple and sent the gold thereof to the king of assyria; ( .) he stopped up the upper aqueduct of gihon; ( .) he intercalated the month nisan. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . the hiding of the book of remedies, harsh and inhuman as it might seem, was dictated by high moral considerations. it seemed right that the transgressor should feel the weight of his sin in the suffering that followed, and that the edge of judgment should not be dulled by a too easy access to anodyne applications. the reason for stopping the aqueduct of gihon is given in chron. xxxii. , . the inhabitants of jerusalem did the very same thing when the crusaders besieged the city, a.d. . rashi tries to explain why this stratagem was not commended; the reason he gives is that hezekiah ought to have trusted god, who had said ( kings xix. ), "i will defend the city." six things are said of the horse:--it is wanton, it delights in the strife of war, it is high-spirited, it despises sleep, it eats much and it voids little. there are some that say it would fain kill its own master. ibid., fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught that there are six sorts of fire:--( .) fire that eats but drinks not, i.e., common fire; ( .) fire that drinks but does not eat, i.e., a fever; ( .) fire that eats and drinks, i.e., elijah, as it is written ( kings xviii. ), "and licked up the water that was in the trench;" ( .) fire that burns up moist things as soon as dry, i.e., the fire on the altar; ( .) fire that counteracts other fire, i.e., like that of gabriel; ( .) fire that consumes fire, for the master has said (sanhed., fol. , col. ), "god stretched out his finger among the angels and consumed them," i.e., by his own essential fire. _yoma_, fol. , col. . for six months david was afflicted with leprosy; for it is said (ps. li. ), "purge me with hyssop, and i shall be clean; wash me, and i shall be whiter than snow." at that time the shechinah departed from him; for it is said (ps. li. ), "restore unto me the joy of thy salvation;" and the sanhedrin kept aloof from him, for it is said (ps. cxix. ), "let those that fear thee turn unto me." that this ailment lasted six months is proved from kings ii. , where it is said, "and the days that david reigned over israel were forty years; seven years he reigned in hebron, and thirty-three years he reigned in jerusalem;" whereas in sam. v. , it is said, "in hebron he reigned over judah seven years and six months." the reason why these six months are omitted in kings is because during that period he was afflicted with leprosy. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . the tables of stone were six ells long, six broad, and three thick. _nedarim_, fol. , col. . it may help the reader to some idea of the strength of moses if we work out arithmetically the size and probable weight of these stone slabs according to the talmud. taking the cubit or ell at its lowest estimate, that is eighteen inches, each slab, being nine feet long, nine feet wide, and four and a half feet thick, would weigh upward of twenty-eight tons, reckoning thirteen cubic feet to the ton,--the right estimate for such stone as is quarried from the sinaitic cliff. the figures are x x / = / = . x . = . = tons, cwt., qrs., lbs. avoirdupois. the rabbis have taught that these six things possess medicinal virtue:--cabbage, lungwort, beetroot, water, and certain parts of the offal of animals, and some also say little fishes. _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . over six the angel of death had no dominion, and these were:--abraham, isaac, and jacob, moses, aaron, and miriam. respecting the first three it is written, "in all" (gen. xxiv. ), "of all" (gen. xxvii. ) "all" (a.v. "enough," gen. xxxiii. ). respecting the last three it is written, "by the mouth of jehovah" (see num. xxxiii. , and deut. xxxiv. ). _bava bathra_, fol. , col. i. according to jewish tradition, there are kinds of death, as is elicited by a kabbalistic rule called gematria, from the word outlets (ps. lxviii. ); the numeric value of the letters of which word is . of these kinds of death, the divine kiss is the easiest. god puts his favorite children to sleep, the sleep of death, by kissing their souls away. it was thus abraham, isaac, and jacob fell asleep, as may be inferred from the word all; that is to say, they had all the honor god could confer upon them. moses and aaron fell asleep by the divine kiss, for it is plainly stated to have been "by the mouth of jehovah." so also miriam passed away, only the scripture does not say lest the scoffer should find fault. we are also informed that quinsy is the hardest death of all. (see _berachoth_, fol. , col. .) "these six of barley gave he me." what does this mean? it cannot surely be understood of six barleycorns, for it could not be the custom of boaz to give a present of six grains of barley. it must, therefore, have been six measures. but was it usual for a woman to carry such a load as six measures would come to? what he intended by the number six was to give her a hint that in process of time six sons would proceed from her, each of which would be blessed with six blessings; and these were david, the messiah, daniel, hananiah, mishael, and azariah. david, as it is written ( sam. xvi. ), ( .) "cunning in playing," ( .) "and a mighty and valiant man," ( .) "a man of war," ( .) "prudent in matters," ( .) "a comely person," ( .) and "the lord is with him." the messiah, for it is written (isa. xi. ), "and the spirit of the lord shall rest upon him," viz, ( .) "the spirit of wisdom and ( .) understanding, ( .) the spirit of counsel and ( .) might, ( .) the spirit of knowledge, and ( .) the fear of the lord." daniel, hananiah, mishael, and azariah, for regarding them it is written (dan. i. ), ( .) "young men in whom was no blemish," ( .) "handsome in looks," ( .) "intelligent in wisdom," ( .) "acquainted with knowledge," ( .) "and understanding science, and such as ( .) had ability to stand in the palace of the king," etc. but what is the meaning of unblemished? rav chama ben chanania says it means that not even the scar of a lancet was upon them. _sanhedrin_, fol. , cols, , . the words "not even the scar of a lancet was upon them," bespeak the prevalence of blood-letting in the east, and the absence of the scar of the lancet on the persons of daniel and his companions is a testimony to their health of body and moral temperance and purity. in taanith (fol. , col. ) mention is made of a certain phlebotomist--a noteworthy exception to the well-known rule (see kiddushin, fol. , col. ) that phlebotomists are to be regarded as morally depraved, and in the same class with goldsmiths, perfumers, hairdressers, etc.,--abba umna by name, who had a special mantle with slits in the sleeves for females, so that he could surgically operate upon them without seeing their naked arms, while he himself was covered over head and shoulders in a peculiar cloak, so that his own face could not by any chance be seen by them. from shabbath, fol. , col. , we learn that a person born under the influence of maadim, i.e., mars, will in one way or another be a shedder of blood, such as a phlebotomist, a butcher, a highwayman, etc., etc. six blasts of the horn were blown on sabbath-eve. the first was to set free the laborers in the fields from their work; those that worked near the city waited for those that worked at a distance and all entered the place together. the second blast was to warn the citizens to suspend their employments and shut up their shops. at the third blast the women were to have ready the various dishes they had prepared for the sabbath and to light the lamps in honor of the day. then three more blasts were blown in succession, and the sabbath commenced. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . he who passes seven nights in succession without dreaming deserves to be called wicked. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . gehinnom has seven names:--sheol (jonah ii. ), avadon (ps. lxxxviii. ), shachath (ps. xvi. ), horrible pit (ps. xl. ), miry clay (ps. xl. ), the shadow of death (ps. cvii. ), the subterranean land. _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . a dog in a strange place does not bark for seven years. ibid., fol. , col. . seven things were formed before the creation of the world:--the law, repentance, paradise, gehenna, the throne of glory, the temple, and the name of the messiah. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . the midrash yalkut (p. ) enumerates the same list almost word for word, and the targum of ben uzziel develops the tradition still further, while the targum yerushalmi fixes the date of the origin of the seven prehistoric wonders at "two thousand years before the creation of the world." seven things are hid from the knowledge of a man:--the day of death, the day of resurrection, the depth of judgment (i.e., the future reward or punishment), what is in the heart of his fellow-man, what his reward will be, when the kingdom of david will be restored, and when the kingdom of persia will fall. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . seven are excommunicated before heaven:--a jew who has no wife, and even one who is married but has no male children; and he that has sons but does not train them up to study the law; he who does not wear phylacteries on his forehead and upon his arm and fringes upon his garment, and has no mezuzah on his doorpost; and he who goes barefooted. ibid., fol. , col. . there are seven skies:--villon, raakia, shechakim, zevul, maaon, maachon, and aravoth. _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . seven days before the day of atonement they removed the high priest from his own residence to the chamber of the president, and appointed another priest as his deputy in case he should meet with such an accident as would incapacitate him from going through the service of the day. rabbi yehudah says they also had to betroth him to another woman lest his own wife should die meanwhile, for it is said, "and he shall make an atonement for himself and for his house,"--his house, that is, his wife. in reference to this precautionary rule it was observed, there might then be no end to the matter (rashi), should this woman die also. _yoma_, fol. , col. . they associated with the high priest the senior elders of the sanhedrin, who read over to him the _agenda_ of the day, and then said to him, "my lord high priest, read thou for thyself; perhaps thou hast forgotten it, or maybe thou hast not learned it at all." on the day before the day of atonement he was taken to the east gate when they caused oxen, rams, and lambs to pass before him, that he might become well-versed and expert in his official duties. during the whole of the seven (preparatory) days neither victuals nor drink were withheld from him, but toward dusk on the eve of the day of atonement they did not allow him to eat much, for much food induces sleep. then the elders of the sanhedrin surrendered him to the elders of the priesthood, and these conducted him to the hall of the house of abtinas, and there they swore him in; and after bidding him good-bye, they went away. in administering the oath they said, "my lord high priest, we are ambassadors of the sanhedrin; thou art our ambassador and the ambassador of the sanhedrin as well. we adjure thee, by him who causes his name to dwell in this house, that thou alter not anything that we have told thee!" then they parted, both they and he weeping. he wept because they suspected he was a sadducee, and they wept because the penalty for wrongly suspecting persons is scourging. if he was a learned man he preached (during the night); if not, learned men preached before him. if he was a ready reader, he read; if not, others read to him. what were the books read over to him? job, ezra, and the chronicles. zechariah the son of kevootal says, "i have often read before him the book of daniel." if he became drowsy, the juniors of the priestly order fillipped their middle fingers before him, and said, "my lord high priest, stand up and cool thy feet upon the pavement." thus they kept him engaged till the time of slaughtering (the sacrifices). _yoma_, fol. , cols, , ; fol. , col. . sacerdos nascitur, non fit,--a priest is born, not made, we may truly say, just altering one word of a well-known proverb. his father was a priest, and so were his forefathers as far back as the time of aaron; his sons and his sons' sons after him will belong to the priestly order, and so the name was far too often only the badge for exclusive and hereditary privilege. this rule, that applies to the priests, holds good also with regard to the levites. (_berachoth_, fol. , col. .) there was a town in the land of israel called gophnith, where there were eighty couples of brother priests who married eighty couples of sister priestesses in one night. _berachoth_ fol. , col. . flay a carcass and take thy fee, but say not it is humiliating because i am a priest, i am a great man. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . philo judæus, de sac. honor, (p. ), says, "the hides of the burnt-offerings proved a rich perquisite of the priesthood." the number of high priests who officiated in succession during the years of the continuance of the first temple was only eighteen, but the number who held office during the years of the second temple amounted to more than three hundred, most of them having died within a year after their entrance upon the office. the reason assigned by the talmud for the long lives of the former and the short lives of the latter is the text given in prov. x. , "the fear of the lord prolongeth days, but the years of the wicked shall be shortened." _yoma_, fol. , col. . before a priest could be admitted into active service in the temple he had to undergo bodily inspection at the hands of the syndicate of the sanhedrin. if they found the least defect in his body, even a mole with hair upon it, he was ordered to dress in black and be dismissed; but if he was perfectly free from blemish, he was arrayed in white, and at once introduced to his brother priests and official duties. ibid., fol. , col. . the daughters of a male proselyte who has married the daughter of a female proselyte are eligible to marry priests. _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . if thou seest an impudent priest, think not evil of him; for it is said (hosea iv. ), "thy people are as they that strive with the priest" (see chap. ii. p. , note c.). _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . so long as there is a diadem on the head of the priest, there is a crown on the head of every man. remove the diadem from the head of the high priest and you take away the crown from the head of all the people. (this is a talmudic comment on ezek. xxi. ; a. ver., .) _gittin_, fol. , col. . a king shaved his head every day, a high priest did the same once a week, and an ordinary priest once a month. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . when a priest performs the service of the temple in a state of defilement, his brother priests are not required to lead him before the tribunal, but the juniors of the priestly order are to drag him out into the hall and brain him with clubs. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . when kings were anointed, the holy oil was laid on the forehead in the form of a coronet, and when, says rabbi mansi bar gadda, priests were anointed, the operation was performed in the shape of the greek letter k. _horayoth_, fol. , col. . a learned man who is of illegitimate birth is preferable to an ignorant priest. ibid., fol. , col. . a priest who makes no confession during service has no part in the priesthood. (he forfeits his emoluments.) _menachoth_, fol. , col. . the bald-headed, the dwarfed, and the blear-eyed are ineligible for the priesthood. _bechoroth_, fol. , col. . rav chisda says, "the portions that fall to the priests are not to be eaten except roasted and that with mustard," because scripture says (num. xviii. ), "by reason of the anointing," i.e., by way of distinction, for only kings (who, of course, are anointed) eat roast meat with mustard. _chullin_, fol. , col. . if a case of mistaken identity should occur between the child of a priestess and the child of her female slave, so that the one cannot be distinguished from the other, they both are to eat of the heave-offering and to receive one share from the threshing-floor. when grown up, each is to set the other free. _gittin_, fol. , col. . from the old clothes of the priests the wicks were made for the lamps in the temple. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . scripture authority is given in proof that the very garments possessed the faculty of making atonement for sin every whit as effectually as animal sacrifices. we are taught that the priest's shirt atones for murder, his drawers atone for whoredom, his mitre for pride, his girdle for evil thoughts, his breastplate for injustice, his ephod for idolatry; his overcoat atones for slander, and the golden plate on his forehead atones for impudence. _zevachim_, fol. , col. . all this and a great deal more on the subject may be found in the selichoth for yom kippur. for seven years was the land of israel strewn with brimstone and salt. _yoma_, fol. , col. . "then shall we raise against him seven shepherds" (micah. v. ). who are these seven shepherds? david in the middle: adam, seth, and methuselah on his right hand; abraham, jacob, and moses on his left. _succah_, fol. , col. . who were the seven prophetesses? the answer is, sarah, miriam, deborah, hannah, abigail, huldah, and esther. _meggillah_, fol. , col. . it is lawful to look into the face of a bride for seven days after her marriage, in order to enhance the affection with which she is regarded by her husband, and there is no halachah (or law) like this. _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . the rabbis are especially careful to caution their daughters to guard against such habits as might lower them in the regard of their husbands, lest they should lose aught of that purifying and elevating power which they exercised as maidens. it is thus, for instance, rav chisda counsels his daughters: "be ye modest before your husbands and do not even eat before them. eat not vegetables or dates in the evening, and touch not strong drink." (_shabbath_, fol. , col. .) once upon a time a demon in the shape of a seven-headed dragon came forth against rav acha and threatened to harm him, but the rabbi threw himself on his knees, and every time he fell down to pray he knocked off one of these heads, and thus eventually killed the dragon. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . on the seventh of the month adar, moses died, and on that day the manna ceased to come down from heaven. ibid., fol. , col. . the seventh of adar is still, and has long been, kept sacred as the day of the death of moses our rabbi--peace be with him!--and that on the authority of t.b. kiddushin (as quoted above), and soteh, fol. , col. ; but josephus (book iv. chap. , sec. ) most distinctly affirms that moses died "on the first day of the month," and the midrash on esther may be quoted in corroboration of his statement. the probability is that the talmud is right on this matter, but it is altogether wrong in connecting with this event the stoppage of the manna (see josh. v. , ). seven years did the nations of the world cultivate their vineyards with no other manure than the blood of israel. rabbi chiya, the son of abin, says that rabbi yehoshua, the son of korcha, said, "an old man, an inhabitant of jerusalem, related to me that nebuzaradan, captain of the guard, killed in this valley myriads (about , , ), and in jerusalem he slaughtered upon one stone myriads ( , ), so that the blood flowed until it reached the blood of zechariah, in order that that might be fulfilled which is said (hosea iv. ), 'and blood toucheth blood.'" _gittin_, fol. , col. . the seventh of adar, on which moses died, was the same day of the same month on which he was born. _soteh_, fol. , col. . a male hyæna after seven years becomes a bat; this after seven years, a vampire; this after other seven years, a nettle; this after seven years more, a thorn; and this again after seven years is turned into a demon. if a man does not devoutly bow during the repetition of the daily prayer which commences, "we reverently acknowledge," his spine after seven years becomes a serpent. _bava kama_, fol. , col. . it is related of benjamin the righteous, who was keeper of the poor-box, that a woman came to him at a period of famine and solicited food. "by the worship of god," he replied, "there is nothing in the box." she then exclaimed, "o rabbi, if thou dost not feed me i and my seven children must needs starve." upon which he relieved her from his own private purse. in course of time he fell ill and was nigh unto death. then the ministering angels interceded with the holy one--blessed be he!--and said, "lord of the universe, thou hast said he that preserveth one single soul of israel alive is as if he had preserved the life of the whole world; and shall benjamin the righteous, who preserved a poor woman and her seven children, die so prematurely?" instantly the death-warrant which had gone forth was torn up, and twenty-two years were added to his life. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . seven prophets have prophesied to the nations of the world, and these were balaam and his father, job, eliphaz the temanite, bildad the shuhite, zophar the naamathite, and elihu the son of barachel the buzite. ibid., fol. . col. . there are seven who are not consumed by the worm in the grave, and these are abraham, isaac, and jacob, moses, aaron, and miriam, and benjamin the son of jacob. ibid., fol. , col. . seven men form an unbroken series from the creation down to our own time. methuselah saw adam, shem saw methuselah, jacob saw shem, amram saw jacob, and ahijah the shilonite saw amram, and ahijah was seen by elijah, who is alive to this day. ibid., fol. , col. . seven years' famine will not affect the artisan. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . seven years of pestilence will not cause a man to die before his time. ibid. "and it came to pass after seven days that the waters of the flood were upon the earth" (gen. vii. ). why this delay of seven days? rav says they were the days of mourning for methuselah; and this teaches us that mourning for the righteous will defer a coming calamity. another explanation is, that the holy one--blessed be he!--altered the course of nature during these seven days, so that the sun arose in the west and set in the east. ibid., fol. , col. . the first step in transgression is evil thought, the second scoffing, the third pride, the fourth outrage, the fifth idleness, the sixth hatred, and the seventh an evil eye. _derech eretz zuta_, chap. . seven things cause affliction:--slander, shedding of blood, perjury, adultery, pride, robbery, and envy. _erchin_, fol. , col. . a ram has but one voice while alive but seven after he is dead. how so? his horns make two trumpets, his hip-bones two pipes, his skin can be extended into a drum, his larger intestines can yield strings for the lyre and the smaller chords for the harp. _kinnim_, chap. , mish. . rav chisda said, the soul of a man mourns over him the first seven days after his decease; for it is said (job xiv. ), "and his soul shall mourn over him." _shabbath_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught that a man should not drink water on wednesdays and saturdays after night-fall, for if he does, his blood, because of risk, will be upon his own head. what risk? that from an evil spirit who on these evenings prowls abroad. but if the man be thirsty, what is he to do? let him repeat over the water the seven voices ascribed to the lord by david in psalm xxix. - , "the voice of the lord is upon the waters," etc. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . seven precepts did rabbi akiva give to his son rabbi yehoshua:--( .) my son, teach not in the highest place of the city; ( .) dwell not in a city where the leading men are disciples of the wise; ( .) enter not suddenly into thine own house, and of course not into thy neighbor's; ( .) do not go about without shoes; ( .) rise early and eat in summer time because of the heat, and in winter time because of the cold; ( .) make thy sabbath as a week-day rather than depend for support on other people; ( .) strive to keep on close friendly terms with the man whom fortune favors (lit. on whom the present hour smiles). rav pappa adds, "this does not refer to buying or selling, but to partnership." ibid. how is it proved that mourning should be kept up for seven days? it is written (amos viii. ), "i will turn your feasts into mourning," and these in many cases lasted seven days. _moed katon_, fol , col. . rav chisda said there are seven kinds of gold:--gold, good gold, the gold of ophir, purified gold, beaten gold, shut-up gold, and gold of parvain. _yoma_ fol. , col. . the shut-up gold ( kings vi. ) was of the purest and rarest quality, so that when it appeared in the market for sale, all shops in the locality were "shut up," for there could be no sale of any other gold before that. all gold-dealers "shut up" their shops in order to be present on so rare an occasion; and hence the name of this kind of gold--"shut-up gold." each day of the feast of tabernacles they walked round the altar once, and said, "o lord, save us, we beseech thee! o lord, prosper us, we beseech thee!" but on the last day they encompassed it seven times. on their departure they said, "beauty belongeth to thee, o altar! beauty belongeth to thee, o altar!" _succah_, fol. , col. . it deserves to be noted here for the information of some of our readers that the words translated above, save now, or save, we beseech thee, are the original of our word hosanna. the th and th verses of psalm cxviii, which begin with this expression, were repeated at the feast of tabernacles; and hence the bundles of palm and willow branches (carried on this occasion), the prayers, and the festival itself, were so named, i.e. hosanna. the tempter is known by seven distinctive epithets:--( ) the holy one--blessed be he!--calls him evil; as it is said, "for the imagination of man's heart is evil." ( .) moses calls him uncircumcised; as it is said (deut. x. ), "circumcise therefore the uncircumcised foreskin of your heart." ( .) david calls him unclean; as it is said (ps. li. ), "create in me a clean heart, o god!" consequently there must be an unclean one. ( .) solomon calls him enemy; as it is said (prov. xxv. , ), "if thine enemy hunger, give him bread to eat; if he be thirsty, give him water to drink; for thus thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his head, and the lord shall reward thee" (i.e., oppose him with the law. the word rendered bread, is metaphorically taken for the law, prov. ix. , so that give him water to drink means also the law, isa. lv. --rashi. and the lord reward thee, read not reward, but cause him to make peace with thee, not to war against thee.) ( .) isaiah calls him stumbling-block; as it is said (isa. lvii. ), "cast ye up, cast ye up, prepare the way, take up the stumbling-block out of the way of my people." ( .) ezekiel calls him stone; as it is said (ezek. xxxvi. ), "i will take away the heart of stone out of your flesh and i will give you a heart of flesh." ( .) joel calls him the hidden one; as it is said (joel ii. ), "i will remove far from you the hidden one," i.e., the tempter who remains hidden in the heart of man; "and i will drive him into a land barren and desolate," i.e., where the children of men do not usually dwell; "with his face toward the former sea," i.e., with his eyes set upon the first temple, which he destroyed, slaying the disciples of the wise that were in it; "and his hinder part toward the latter sea," i.e., with his eyes set on the second temple, which he destroyed, also slaying the disciples of the wise that were in it. _succah_, fol. , col. . once a jewish mother with her seven sons suffered martyrdom at the hands of the emperor. the sons, when ordered by the latter to do homage to the idols of the empire, declined, and justified their disobedience by quoting each a simple text from the sacred scriptures. when the seventh was brought forth, it is related that caesar, for appearance' sake, offered to spare him if only he would stoop and pick up a ring from the ground which had been dropped on purpose. "alas for thee, o caesar!" answered the boy; "if thou art so zealous for thine honor, how much more zealous ought we to be for the honor of the holy one--blessed be he!" on his being led away to the place of execution, the mother craved and obtained leave to give him a farewell kiss. "go, my child," said she, "and say to abraham, thou didst build an altar for the sacrifice of one son, but i have erected altars for seven sons." she then turned away and threw herself down headlong from the roof and expired, when the echo of a voice was heard exclaiming (ps. cxiii. ), "the joyful mother of children" (or, the mother of the children rejoiceth). _gittin_, fol. , col. . the story of this martyrdom is narrated at much greater length in the books of maccabees (book iii. chap. , book iv. chaps. - ). in a latin version the names are given, that of the mother solomona, and her sons respectively maccabeus, aber, machir, judas, achaz, areth, while the hero of our talmudic reference, the seventh and last, is styled jacob. josephus, ant., book xii. chap. , sec. , may also be referred to for further and varying details. the land of israel was not destroyed till the seven courts of judgment had fallen into idolatry, and these are they:--jeroboam, the son of nebat; baasha, the son of ahijah; ahab, the son of omri; jehu, the son of nimshi; pekah, the son of remaliah; menahem, the son of gadi; and hoshea, the son of elah; as it is written (jer. xv. ), "she that hath borne seven languisheth: she hath given up the ghost; her sun is gone down while it is yet day; she hath been ashamed and confounded." _gittin_, fol. , col. . "he stood and measured the earth; he beheld and freed the gentiles (a.v., he drove asunder the nations, hab. iii. ); he beheld that the seven precepts which the children of noah accepted were not observed; he stood up and set their property free for the service of israel." _bava kama_, fol. , col. . this is one of the weightier expositions met with from time to time in the talmud, in which one recognizes a more than ordinarily deep and earnest feeling on the part of the commentator. the interpreter expresses himself as a man instinct with the exclusive hebrew spirit, and as such claims his title to the whole inheritance. it is a claim abstractly defensible, and the just assertion of it is the basis of all rights over others. the only question here is whether the jew alone is invested with the privilege. there can be little doubt that the principle on which he claims enfeoffment in the estate is a sound one, that the earth belongs in no case to the sons of belial, only to the sons of god. seven things distinguish an ill-bred man and seven a wise man:--the wise man ( .) does not talk before his superior in wisdom and years; ( .) he does not interrupt another when speaking; ( .) he is not hasty to make reply; ( .) his questions are to the point, and his answers are according to the halachah; ( .) his subjects of discourse are orderly arranged, the first subject first and the last last; ( .) if he has not heard of a thing, he says, i have not heard it; and ( .) he confesseth the truth. the characteristics of the ill-bred man are just the contrary of these. _avoth_, chap. , mish. . if a man does not work during the six days of the week, he may be obliged to work all the seven. _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . seven have no portion in the world to come:--a notary; a schoolmaster, the best of physicians, a judge who dispenses justice in his own native town, a wizard, a congregational reader (or law-officer), and a butcher. _avoth d rab. nathan_, chap. . seven attributes avail before the throne of glory, and these are:--wisdom, righteousness, judgment, grace, mercy, truth, and peace. ibid., chap. . there are seven points in which a righteous man excels another:--( .) the wife of the one is more comely than the other's; ( .) so are the children of the one as compared with those of the other; ( .) if the two partake of one dish, each enjoys the taste according to his doings; ( .) if the two dye in one vat, by one the article is dyed properly, by the other not; ( , etc.) the one excels the other in wisdom, in understanding, in knowledge, and stature, as it is said (prov. xii. ), "the righteous is more excellent than his neighbor." ibid., chap. . seven patriarchs were covenant-makers:--abraham, isaac, and jacob, moses, aaron, phinehas, and david. _derech eretz zuta_, chap. . seven liquids are comprehended under the generic term drink (lev. xi. ):--dew, water, wine, oil, blood, milk, and honey. _machshirin_, chap. , mish . for tertian fever take seven small grapes from seven different vines; seven threads from seven different pieces of cloth; seven nails from seven different bridges; seven handfuls of ashes from seven different fireplaces; seven bits of pitch from seven ships, one piece from each; seven scrapings of dust from as many separate doorways; seven cummin seeds; seven hairs from the lower jaw of a dog and tie them upon the throat with a papyrus fibre. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . the rabbis teach that the precept relating to the lighting of a candle at the feast of dedication applies to a whole household, but that those who are particular light a candle for each individual member, and those that are extremely particular light up eight candles on the first day, seven on the second, decreasing the number by one each day. this is according to the school of shammai; but the school of hillel say that he should light up one on the first day, two on the second, increasing the number by one each of the eight days of the fast.... what is the origin of the feast of dedication? on the twenty-fifth day of kislev (about december), the eight days of the dedication commence, during which term no funeral oration is to be made, nor public fast to be decreed. when the gentiles (greeks) entered the second temple, it was thought they had defiled all the holy oil they found in it; but when the hasmoneans prevailed and conquered them, they sought and found still one jar of oil stamped with the seal of the high priest, and therefore undefiled. though the oil it contained would only have sufficed for one day, a miracle was performed, so that the oil lasted to the end of the week (during which time more oil was provided and consecrated for the future service of the temple). on the anniversary of this occasion the feast of dedication was instituted. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . the feast of dedication is annually celebrated by all jews everywhere, to commemorate the purifying of the temple and the restoration of its worship after its desecration by antiochus epiphanes, of which an account may be found in maccabees iv. - . it is very probable that some of our christmas festivities are only adaptations of the observances of this jewish feast in symbolism of christian ideas. during the eight days of the festival they light up wax candles or oil lamps, according to the rubric of the school of hillel. previous to the lighting, the following benedictions are pronounced:-- "blessed art thou, o lord, our god! king of the universe, who hath sanctified us with thy commandment, and commanded us to light the light of dedication." "blessed art thou, o lord, our god! king of the universe, who wrought miracles for our fathers in those days and in this season." "blessed art thou, o lord, our god! king of the universe, who hath preserved us alive, sustained us, and brought us to enjoy this season." after the lighting, the following form is repeated:--"these lights we light to praise thee for the miracles, wonders, salvation, and victories which thou didst perform for our fathers in those days and in this season by the hands of thy holy priests. wherefore by command these lights are holy all the eight days of the dedication, neither are we permitted to make any other use of them, but to view them, that we may return thanks to thy name for thy miracles, wonderful works, and salvation." another commemorative formula is repeated six or seven times a day during this festival; viz, during morning and evening prayers and after each meal. rabbi yoshua ben levi has said a man should never utter an indecent word, for the scripture (gen. vii. ) uses eight letters more rather than make use of a word which, without them, would be indecent. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. i. in the passage referred to, the words "that are not clean" are used instead of "unclean"; but see verse ; there another word for not is used, which brings down the excess to five letters. when the doors of the temple were opened the creaking of the hinges was heard at the distance of eight sabbath days' journeys. _yoma_, fol. , col. . it may be proper to remark that the journey is about nine furlongs, or a mile and one-eighth, so that the distance alluded to is nearly ten miles. the eight princes alluded to in micah (v. ) are jesse, saul, samuel, amos, zephaniah, zedekiah, the messiah, and elijah. _succah_, fol. , col. . it is related of rabbi shimon, the son of gamaliel, that at the rejoicing during the festival of the drawing of water on the feast of tabernacles, he threw eight flaming torches, one after the other in quick succession, into the air, and caught them again as they descended without suffering one to touch another. he also (in fulfillment of ps. cii. ) stooped and kissed the stone floor, supporting himself upon his two thumbs only,--a feat which no one else could perform. and this is what is termed stooping properly. ibid., fol. , col. . levi once in the presence of rabbi (the holy) conjured with eight knives. samuel in the presence of shavur the king (of persia, sapor i, - ) performed the same feat with eight cups of wine. abaii in the presence of rava did likewise with eight eggs; some say with four only. ibid. eight prophets, who were priests as well, were descended from rahab the harlot, and these are they:--neraiah, baruch, seraiah, maaseiah, jeremiah, hilkiah, hanameel, and shallum. rabbi yehudah says huldah the prophetess was one of the grandchildren of rahab. _meggillah_, fol. , col. . the last eight verses of the law (torah) were written by joshua. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . there is a touching story in this very same tract, fol. , col. , which is repeated in menachoth, fol. , col. , and noticed by rashi in his commentary, to the effect that moses himself wrote the verses which record his own death at the dictation of the almighty. the account literally rendered is, "the holy one--blessed be he!--spake, and moses wrote in tears." there are eight sects of pharisees, viz, these:--( .) the shoulder pharisee, i.e., he who, as it were, shoulders his good works to be seen of men. ( .) the time-gaining pharisee, he who says, "wait a while; let me first perform this or that good work." ( .) the compounding pharisee, i.e., he who says, "may my few sins be deducted from my many virtues, and thus atoned for" (or the blood-letting pharisee, i.e., he who for fear lest he should look by chance on a woman shuts his eyes and wounds his face). ( .) the pharisee who so bends his back, stooping with his head toward the ground, that he wears the appearance of an inverted mortar. ( .) the pharisee who proudly says, "remains there a virtue which i ought to perform and have not?" ( .) the pharisee who is so out of love for the reward which he hopes to earn by his observances. ( .) the pharisee who is so from fear lest he should expose himself to punishment. ( .) the pharisee who is born so. _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . both talmuds as a rule enumerate only seven sorts of pharisees (t. yerush, berachoth, fol. , soteh, fol. , t. babli, fol. , col. , and elsewhere); but rabbi nathan, as above, adds a new species to the genus. the freehand sketches of pharisees given in the talmud are the reverse of complimentary. in the words of the late e. deutsch, who was a talmudist of no mean repute, "the talmud inveighs even more bitterly and caustically than the new testament against what it calls the plague of pharisaism, 'the dyed ones,' 'who do evil deeds like zimri, and require a goodly reward like phinehas,' 'they who preach beautifully, but do not act beautifully.' parodying their exaggerated logical arrangements, their scrupulous divisions and subdivisions, the talmud distinguishes seven classes of pharisees, one of whom only is worthy of that name. the real and only pharisee is he 'who does the will of his father which is in heaven because he loves him.'" he who neglects to wear phylacteries transgresseth eight commandments. _menachoth_, fol. , col. . the following extract states the occasion when the wearing of phylacteries was prescribed as an equivalent that would be accepted instead of the observance of the law:--"rabbi eliezer said the israelites complained before god one day, 'we are anxious to be occupied day and night in the law, but we have not the necessary leisure.' then the holy one--blessed be he!--said to them, 'perform the commandment of the phylacteries, and i will count it as if you were occupied day and night in the law.'" (_yalhut shimeoni_). phylacteries, fringes, and mezuzah, these three preserve one from sin; as it is said (eccl. iv. ), "a threefold cord is not quickly broken;" as also in ps. xxxiv. , "the angel of the lord encampeth about them that fear him, and delivereth them." ibid., fol. , col. . the harp in the time of the messiah will have eight strings; as it is written (ps. xii. ), "the chief musician upon eight," etc. _eirchin_, fol. , col. . on the ninth day of the month ab (about august) both the first temple and the second were destroyed. _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . in kings xxv. , the seventh of ab is the date given for the first of these events, whereas jeremiah (lii. ) mentions the tenth as the fatal day. josephus (wars of the jews, book vi. chap. , sec. ) coincides with the latter. on the ninth of ab one must abstain from eating and drinking, and anointing one's self, and wearing shoes, and matrimonial intercourse. he may not read the bible, the talmud, the midrash, the halachoth, or the haggadoth, excepting such portions as he is not in the habit of reading, such he may then read. the lamentations, job, and the hard words of jeremiah should engage his study. children should not go to school on this day, because it is said (ps. xix. ), "the statutes of the lord are right, rejoicing the heart." _taanith_, fol. , col. . nowadays, on the date referred to, jews do not wear their tallith and phylacteries at morning prayer; by this act laying aside the outward signs of their covenant with god; but, contrary to custom, they put them on in the evening, when the fast is nearly over. he who does any work on the ninth of ab will never see even a sign of blessing. the sages say, whoso does any work on that day and does not lament over jerusalem will never see her joy; for it is said (isa. lxvi. ), "rejoice ye with jerusalem, and be glad with her; rejoice for joy, all ye that mourn for her." _taanith_, fol. , col. . if there be nine shops all selling the meat of animals which have been legally butchered, and one selling the meat of animals which have not, and if a person who has bought meat does not know at which of these shops he bought it, he is not entitled to the benefit of the doubt; the meat he has purchased is prohibited. _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . a woman prefers one measure of frivolity to nine measures of pharisaic sanctimoniousness. _soteh_, fol. , col. . the talmud has much to say, and does say a great deal, about women. and although what it says tends rather to discountenance than to promote their development, it is not insensible to what they might become under refinement of culture, and occasionally enforces the duty of attending to their higher education. in proof of both positions we appeal to the following quotations:-- in the mishna, from which the above quotation is taken, we are told that ben azai (the son of impudence) says, a man is bound to instruct his daughter in the law, although rabbi eliezer, who always assumes an oracular air, and boasts that the halachah is always according to his decision (_bava metzia_, fol. , col. ), insists, on the other hand, that he who instructs his daughter in the law must be considered as training her into habits of frivolity; and the saying above ascribes to the sex such a power of frivolity as connects itself evidently with the foregone conclusion that they are by nature incapable of being developed into any solidity of worth or character. the gemara, tosephoth, and rashi as well all support rabbi eliezer in laying a veto on female education, for fear lest, with the acquisition of knowledge, women might become cunning, and do things on the sly which ought not to be done by them. literally the saying is:--for from it (i.e., the acquisition of knowledge) she comes to understand cunning, and does things on the quiet. _soteh_, fol. , col. , rashi. another good reason for neglecting female education those who take the talmud as an authority find in these words: women are light-minded, i.e., of shallow natural endowment, on which any serious discipline would be thrown away. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . another argument to the same effect is, that there is no distinct command in the law of moses inculcating the duty; for in deut. xi. it is merely said, "and ye shall teach them to your children," a command which, as it passes refracted through the rabbinic medium, becomes your sons, but not your daughters. ibid., fol. , col. . as the immediately preceding command, so interpreted, cannot be carried out by any one not favored with male children, the well-known talmudic dictum acquires force and point, "blessed is the man whose children are sons, but luckless is he whose children are daughters." _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . a man prefers one measure obtained by his own earning to nine measures collected by the exertion of his neighbor. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . nine have entered alive into paradise, and these are they:--enoch, the son of jared; elijah; the messiah; eliezer, the servant of abraham; hiram, king of tyre; ebed melech, the ethiopian; jabez, the son of rabbi yehuda the prince; bathia, the daughter of pharaoh; and sarah, the daughter of asher. some say also rabbi yoshua, the son of levi. _derech eretz zuta_, chap. . as the last-mentioned personage, rabbi yoshua, entered paradise "not by the door," but some "other way," it may be interesting to not a few to know how he succeeded, and here accordingly we append the story of the feat. as rabbi yoshua's earthly career drew to a close, the angel of death was instructed to wait upon him, and at the same time show all respect for his wishes. the rabbi, remarking the courteous demeanor of his visitant, requested him, before he despatched him, to favor him with a glimpse of the place he was to occupy in paradise above, and meantime commit to him his sword, as a gage that he would grant his petition and not take advantage of him on the journey. this request being granted and the sword delivered up, the rabbi and his attendant took the road, pacing along till they halted together just outside the gates of the celestial city. here the angel assisted the rabbi to climb the wall, and proceeded to point out the place he would occupy some day in the future, when deftly throwing himself over, he left the angel standing outside and holding him fast by the skirt of his garment. when pressed to return, he swore he would not go back, protesting that, as he had never sought to be relieved of the obligation of his oath on earth, he would not be cajoled or coerced into an act of perjury within the precincts of heaven. he declined at first to give up the sword of the angel, and would have stood to his point but for the echo of a voice which peremptorily ordered its immediate restoration. (see _kethuboth_ fol. , col. .) where is it taught that when ten join together in prayer the shechinah is with them? in ps. lxxxii. , where it is said, "god standeth in the congregation of the mighty." _berachoth_, fol. , col. . according to rabbinic law, it takes at least ten men to constitute a legally convened congregation. nearly a thousand pounds were expended every year by the synagogues of the metropolis to hire (minyan) men to make up the congregational number, and thus ensure the due observance of this regulation. when the holy one--blessed be he!--enters the synagogue, and does not find ten men present, his anger is immediately stirred; as it is said (isa. i. ), "wherefore, when i came, was there no man? when i called, there was none to answer?" ibid., fol. , col. . the passion of anger here ascribed to god is by not a few regarded as an attribute wholly alien to the proper nature of the deity. such, however, is evidently not the judgment of the talmudists. nor is this surprising when we see elsewhere how boldly they conceive and how freely they speak of the divine majesty. the rabbis are not in general a shamefaced generation, and are all too prone to deal familiarly with the most sacred realities. the excerpts which follow amply justify this judgment. god is represented as roaring like a lion, etc., etc. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . see chap. iii. god is said to wear phylacteries. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . this is referred to in the morning service for yom kippur, where it is said he showed "the knot of the phylacteries to the meek one" (i.e., moses). he is said to pray; for it is written (isa. lvi. ), "them will i bring to my holy mountain, and make them joyful in the house of my prayer." it is thus he prays: "may it please me that my mercy may overcome my anger, that all my attributes may be invested with compassion, and that i may deal with my children in the attribute of kindness, and that out of regard to them i may pass by judgment." ibid., fol. , col. . he is a respecter of persons; as it is written (num. vi. ), "the lord lift up his countenance upon thee." ibid., fol. , col. . when accused by elijah of having turned israel's heart back again ( kings xviii. ), he confesseth the evil he had done (micah iv. ). ibid., fol. , col. . god, when charged by moses as being the cause of israel's idolatry, confesseth the justice of that accusation by saying (num. xiv. ), "i have pardoned according to thy word." ibid., fol. , col. . he drops two tears into the ocean, and this causes the earth to quake. ibid., fol. , col. . he is represented as a hairdresser; for it is said he plaited eve's hair (and some have actually enumerated the braids as ). _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . in a hagada (see sanhedrin, fol. , col. ), god is conceived as acting the barber to sennacherib, a sort of parody on isaiah vii. . he is said to have created the evil as well as the good passions in man. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . god weeps every day. _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . he dresses himself in a veil and shows moses the jewish liturgy, saying unto him, "when the israelites sin against me, let them copy this example, and i will pardon their sins." _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . god is said to have regretted creating certain things. _succah_, fol. , col, . god is represented as irrigating the land of israel, but leaving the rest of the earth to be watered by an angel. _taanith_, fol. , col. . it is said that he will make a dance for the righteous, and as he places himself in the centre, they will point at him with their fingers, and say (isa. xxv. ), "behold, this is our god; we have waited for him;... we will be glad and rejoice in his salvation." ibid., fol. , col. . god is said to have prevaricated in making peace between abraham and sarah, which is not so surprising; for while one rabbi teaches that prevarication is under certain circumstances allowable, another asserts it absolutely as a duty; for it is written ( sam. xvi. ), "and samuel said, how can i go? if saul hear it, he will kill me. and the lord said, take a heifer with thee, and say, i am come to sacrifice unto the lord." _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . this teaching may be easily matched by parallels from heathen literature, but we have room only for two or three examples:--maximus tyrius says, "there is nothing (essentially) decorous in truth, yea, truth is sometimes hurtful and lying profitable." darius is represented by herodotus (book iii., p. ) as saying, "when telling falsehood is profitable, let it be told." menander says, "a lie is better than an annoying truth." god utters a curse against those who remain single after they are twenty years of age; and those who marry at sixteen please him, and those who do so at fourteen still more. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . elijah binds and god flogs the man who marries an unsuitable wife. ibid., fol. , col. . god acknowledges his weakness in argument, "my children have vanquished me! my children have vanquished me!" he exclaims. "they have defeated me in argument." _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . god's decision was controverted by the academy in heaven, and the matter in debate was finally settled by a rabbi, who had to be summoned from earth to heaven expressly to adjudicate in the case. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . the classical student will recognize in this a parallel to the greek myth in which the olympian divinities refer their debate in the matter of the apple of discord to the judgment of paris. may there not in both fables lie a dim forefeeling of the time when justice shall transfer her seat from the skies, so that whatever her ministers bind on earth may be bound in heaven? god will bear testimony before all the nations of the earth that his people israel have kept the whole of the law. _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . god is occupied for twelve hours every day in study, at work, or at play. ibid., fol. , col. . god does not act without first consulting the assembly above; as it is said (dan. iv. ), "this matter is by the decree of the watchers and the demand of the word of the holy one," etc. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . god himself is described as exacting an atonement for his own miscreations; as, for instance, his diminishing the size of the moon. _shevuoth_, fol. , col. . the general height of the levites was ten ells. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . ten things cause hemorrhoids:--eating cane leaves, the foliage and tendrils of the vine, the palate of cattle, the backbones of fish, half-cooked salt fish, wine lees, etc. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . ten things provoke a desperate relapse in a convalescent:--eating beef, fat meat, broiled meat, fowl, or roasted eggs, shaving, eating cress, taking milk or cheese, or indulging in a bath. some say also eating walnuts, others say eating cucumbers, which are as dangerous to the body as swords. ibid., fol. , col. . ten curses were pronounced against eve:--the words "greatly multiply," "thy sorrow" (alluding to rearing a family), "thy conception," "in sorrow shalt thou bring forth," "thy desire shall be to thy husband," "he shall rule over thee," express six of these. the remainder are:--she should be wrapped up like a mourner (that is, she should not appear in public without having her head covered); she was restricted to one husband, though he might have more wives than one, and was to be kept within doors like a prisoner. _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . ten things were created during the twilight of the first sabbath-eve. these were:--the well that followed israel in the wilderness, the manna, the rainbow, the letters of the alphabet, the stylus, the tables of the law, the grave of moses, the cave in which moses and elijah stood, the opening of the mouth of balaam's ass, the opening of the earth to swallow the wicked (korah and his clique). rav nechemiah said, in his father's name, also fire and the mule. rav yosheyah, in his father's name, added also the ram which abraham offered up instead of isaac, and the shameer. rav yehudah says the tongs also, etc. _psachim_, fol. , col . to the ten things said to have been created on sabbath-eve some add the rod of aaron that budded and bloomed, and others malignant demons and the garments of adam. ibid. rav yehuda said, in the name of rav, ten things were created on the first day:--heaven and earth, chaos and confusion, light and darkness, wind and water, the measure of day and the measure of night. "heaven and earth," for it is written, "in the beginning god made the heavens and the earth." "chaos and confusion," for it is written, "and the earth was chaos and confusion." "light and darkness," for it is written, "and darkness was upon the face of the abyss." "wind and water," for it is written, "the wind of god hovered over the face of the waters." "the measure of day and the measure of night," for it is written, "morning and evening were one day." _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . ten facts witness to the presence of a supernatural power in the temple:--no premature birth was ever caused by the odor of the sacrifices; the carcasses never became putrid; no fly was ever to be seen in the slaughter-houses; the high-priest was never defiled on the day of atonement; no defect was ever found in the wave-sheaf, the two wave-loaves, or the shewbread; however closely crowded the people were, every one had room enough for prostration; no serpent or scorpion ever stung a person in jerusalem; and no one had ever to pass the night without sleeping-accommodation in the city. _yoma_, fol. , col. . tradition teaches that rabbi yossi said:--the shechinah has never descended below, nor did moses and elijah ever ascend on high; for it is said (ps. cxv. ), "the heavens, even the heavens, are the lords; but the earth hath he given to the children of men." true, it is written, he admitted (exod. xix. ), "and the lord came down upon mount sinai;" but that, he remarked, was ten handbreadths above the summit. and true, too, is it written (zech. xiv. ), "and his feet shall stand in that day upon the mount of olives;" but that, too, he added, is ten handbreadths above it. and so, in like manner, moses and elijah halted ten handbreadths from heaven. _succah_, fol. , col. . what entitles a place to rank as a large town? when there are in it ten unemployed men. should there be fewer than that number, it is to be looked upon as a village. _meggillah_, fol. , col. . in places where there are not ten batlanim, men of leisure, that is, men always free to be present at every synagogue service, a minyan (number) has to be hired for the purpose. the notion that ten constitutes a congregation is based on the authority of num. xiv, , "how long shall i bear with this congregation?" as the term "congregation" here refers to the ten spies who brought the evil report, it is concluded forsooth that ten men, and never less, is the orthodox minimum for a congregation. ten lights, said he, could not extinguish one; how shall one extinguish ten? ibid., fol. , col. . these words are said to have been spoken by joseph to his brethren, who, after the death of their father jacob, feared lest joseph should revenge himself upon them (gen. l. ). the midrash and the targums as usual furnish much additional information. rav assi said:--nowadays, if a gentile should betroth a jewess, there is reason for regarding the betrothal as not therefore invalid, for he may be a descendant of the ten tribes, and so one of the seed of israel. _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . rabbi yochanan said:--if, after the death of her husband, a woman should remain unmarried for ten years and then marry again, she will have no children. rav nachman added:--provided she have not thought of marrying all the while; but if she had thought of marrying again, in that case she will have children. rava once said to rav chisda's daughter (who bore children to rava, though she did not marry him until ten years after her first husband's death), "the rabbis have their doubts about you." she replied, "i had always set my heart upon thee." a woman once said to rav yoseph, "i waited ten years before i married again, and then i had children." "daughter," said he, "do not bring the words of the wise into discredit. it is thou, not they, that are mistaken." then the woman confessed that she had been a transgressor. ibid., fol. , col. . the rabbis teach that if a man live with a wife ten years without issue he should divorce her and give her the prescribed marriage portion, as he may not be deemed worthy to be built up by her (that is, to have children by her). ibid., fol. , col. . as a set-off we append here a romantic story paraphrased from the midrash shir hashirim. a certain israelite of sidon, having lived many years with his wife without being blessed with offspring, made up his mind to give her a bill of divorcement. they went accordingly together to rabbi shimon ben yochai, that legal effect might be given to the act of separation. upon presenting themselves before him, the rabbi addressed them in these fatherly accents:--"my children," said he, "your divorce must not take place in pettishness or anger, lest people should surmise something guilty or disgraceful as the motive for the action. let your parting, therefore, be like your meeting, friendly and cheerful. go home, make a feast, and invite your friends to share it with you; and then to-morrow return and i will ratify the divorce you seek for." acting upon this advice, they went home, got ready a feast, invited their friends, and made merry together. "my dear," said the husband at length to his wife, "we have lived for many a long year lovingly together, and now that we are about to be separated, it is not because there is any ill-will between us, but simply because we are not blessed with a family. in proof that my love is unchanged, and that i wish thee all good, i give thee leave to choose whatever thou likest best in the house and carry it away with thee." the wife with true womanly wit promptly replied, "well and good, my dear!" the evening thereafter glided pleasantly by, the wine-cup went round freely and without stint, and all passed off well, till first the guests one by one, and then the master of the house himself, fell asleep, and lay buried in unconsciousness. the lady, who had planned this result, and only waited its _denouement_, immediately summoned her confidential handmaids and had her lord and master gently borne away as he was to the house of her father. on the following morning, as the stupor wore off, he awoke, rubbing his eyes with astonishment. "where am i?" he cried. "be easy, husband dear," responded the wife in his presence. "i have only done as thou allowedst me. dost thou remember permitting me last night, in the hearing of our guests, to take away from our house whatever best pleased me? there was nothing there i cared for so much as thyself; thou art all in all to me, so i brought thee with me here. where i am there shalt thou be; let nothing but death part us." the two thereupon went back to rabbi shimon as appointed, and reported their change of purpose, and that they had made up their minds to remain united. so the rabbi prayed for them to the lord, who couples and setteth the single in families. he then spoke his blessing over the wife, who became thenceforth as a fruitful vine, and honored her husband with children and children's children. a parallel to this, illustrative of wifely devotion, is recorded in the early history of germany. in the year , during the civil war in germany between the guelphs and the ghibellines, it happened that the emperor conrad besieged the guelph count of bavaria in the castle of weinsberg. after a long and obstinate defense the garrison was obliged at length to surrender, when the emperor, annoyed that they had held out so long and defied him, vowed that he would destroy the place with fire and put all to the sword except the women, whom he gallantly promised to let go free and pass out unmolested. the guelph countess, when she heard of this, begged as a further favor that the women might be allowed to bear forth as much of their valuables as they could severally manage to carry. the emperor having pledged his word and honor that he would grant this request, on the morrow at daybreak, as the castle gates opened, he saw to his amazement the women file out one by one, every married woman carrying her husband with her young ones upon her back, and the others each the friend or relation nearest and dearest to her. at sight of this, the emperor was tenderly moved, and could not help according to the action the homage of his admiration. the result was that not only was life and liberty extended to the guelphs, but the place itself was spared and restored in perpetuity to its heroic defenders. the count and his countess were henceforth treated by the emperor with honor and affection, and the town itself was for long after popularly known by the name of weihertreue, i.e., the abode of womanly fidelity. benedictory condolences are recited by ten men, not reckoning the mourners; but nuptial blessings are recited by ten men, including the bridegroom. _kethuboth_, fol. . col. . the mishnic rabbis have ordained that ten cups of wine be drunk in the house by the funeral party; three before supper, to whet the appetite; three during supper, to aid digestion; and four after the meal, at the recitation of the four benedictions. afterward four complimentary cups were added, one in honor of the precentors, one in honor of the municipal authorities, another in remembrance of the temple, and the fourth in the memory of rabbon gamliel. drunkenness so often ensued on these occasions that the number had to be curtailed to the original ten cups. the toast to the memory of rabbon gamliel was to commemorate his endeavors to reduce the extravagant expenses at burials, and the consequent abandonment of the dead by poor relations. he left orders that his own remains should be buried in a linen shroud, and since then, says rav pappa, corpses are buried in canvas shrouds about a zouz in value. ibid., fol. , col. . at the age of ten years a child should begin to study the mishna. ibid., fol. , col. . rabbi the holy, when dying, lifted up his ten fingers toward heaven and said:--"lord of the universe, it is open and well-known unto thee that with these ten fingers i have labored without ceasing in the law, and never sought after any worldly profit with even so much as my little finger; may it therefore please thee that there may be peace in my rest!" a voice from heaven immediately responded (isa. lvii. ), "he shall enter peace: they shall rest in their beds." ibid., fol. , col. . ten measures of wisdom came down to the world; the land of israel received nine and the rest of the world but one only. ten measures of beauty came down to the world; jerusalem monopolized nine and the rest of the world had only one. ten measures of riches came down to the world; rome laid hold of nine and left the rest of the world but one for a portion. ten measures of poverty came down to the world; nine fell to the lot of babylon and one to the rest of the world. ten measures of pride came down to the world; elam appropriated nine and to the rest of the world but one remained over. ten measures of bravery came to the world; persia took nine, leaving but one for the rest of the world. ten measures of vermin came to the world; nine fell to the medes and one to the rest of the world. ten measures of sorcery came down to the world; egypt received nine and one was shared by the rest of the world. ten measures of plagues came into the world; nine measures were alloted to the swine and the rest of the world had the other. ten measures of fornication came into the world; nine of these belong to the arabs and to the rest of the world the other. ten measures of impudence found its way into the world; mishan appropriated nine, leaving one to the rest of the world. ten measures of talk came into the world; women claimed nine, leaving the tenth to the rest of the world. ten measures of early rising came into the world; they of ethiopia received nine and the rest of the world one only. ten measures of sleep came to the world; the servants took nine of them, leaving one measure to the rest of the world. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . ten different sorts of people went up from babylon:--( .) priests, ( .) levites, ( .) israelites, ( .) disqualified cohanim, ( .) freedmen, ( .) illegitimate, ( .) nethinim, ( .) unaffiliated ones, and ( .) foundlings. ibid., fol. , col. . ten characteristics mark the phlebotomist:--he walks sideling along; he is proud; he stoops awhile before seating himself; he has an envious and evil eye; he is a gourmand, but he defecates little at a time; he is suspected of incontinence, robbery, and murder. ibid., fol. , col. . rabbi chanena ben agil asked rabbi cheya ben abba, "why does the word, 'signifying that it may be well with thee' not occur in the first copy of the ten commandments (exod. xx.) as it does in the second?" (deut. v.) he replied, "before thou askest me such a question, first tell me whether the word occurs in deuteronomy or not? for i don't know if it does." the required answer was given by another rabbi, "the omission of the word in the first publication of the ten commandments is due to the foresight of what was to befall the first tables, for if the word good had been in the tables, and broken withal, then goodness would have ceased to bless the sons of israel." _bava kama_, fol. , col. . the tosephoth in bava bathra (fol. , col. ) ingenuously admits that the rabbis were occasionally ignorant of the letter of scripture. the above quotation may be taken as a sample of several in corroboration. the rabbis have taught that when pestilence is abroad no one should walk along the middle of the road, for there the angel of death would be sure to cross him. neither when there is pestilence in a town should a person go to the synagogue alone, because there, provided no children are taught there, and ten men are not met to pray there, the angel of death hides his weapons. the rabbis have also taught that (like the banshee of ireland), the howling of dogs indicates the approach of the angel of death, whereas when they sport it is a sign that elijah the prophet is at hand, unless one of them happen to be a female, for it is her presence among them, and not any super-natural instinct, that is to be understood as the cause of the demonstration. ibid., fol. , col. . ten constitutions were founded by ezra:--the reading of a portion of scripture during the afternoon prayers on the sabbath-day, and during morning prayers on the second and fifth days of the week (a rule that is to this day observed in orthodox places of worship), and this for the reason that three days should not pass by without such an exercise; to hold courts for the due administration of justice on the second and fifth days of the week, when the country people came to hear the public reading of the scriptures; to wash their garments, etc., on the fifth day, and to prepare for the coming sabbath; to eat garlic on the sixth day of the week, as this vegetable has the property of promoting secretions (see exod. xxi. ); that the wife should be up betimes and bake the bread, so as to have some ready in case any one should come begging; that the women should wear a girdle round the waist for decency sake; that they should comb their hair before bathing; that peddlers should hawk their perfumes about the streets in order that women should supply themselves with such things as will attract and please their husbands; and that certain unfortunates (see lev. xv.) should bathe themselves before they came to the public reading of the law. _bava kama_, fol. , col. . ten things are said about jerusalem:--( .) no mortgaged house was eventually alienated from its original owner (which was the case elsewhere in jewry). ( .) jerusalem never had occasion to behead a heifer by way of expiation for an unproved murder (see deut. xxi. - ). ( .) she never could be regarded as a repudiated city (deut. xiii. , etc.). ( .) no appearance of plagues in any house at jerusalem rendered the house unclean, because the words of lev. xiv. , are "your possession," an expression which could not apply to jerusalem, as it had never been portioned among the ten tribes. ( .) projecting cornices and balconies were not to be built in the city. ( .) limekilns were not to be erected there. ( .) no refuse heaps were allowed in any quarter. ( .) no orchards or gardens were permitted, excepting certain flower-gardens, which had been there from the times of the earlier prophets. ( .) no cocks were reared in jerusalem. ( .) no corpse ever remained over night within its walls; the funeral had to take place on the day of the decease. ibid., fol. , col. . in the book of psalms david included those which were composed by ten elders:--adam (ps. cxxxix.); melchizedek (ps. cx.); abraham (ps. lxxxix.); moses (ps. xc.); the others alluded to were by heman, jeduthun, asaph, and the three sons of korah. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . a man once overheard his wife telling her daughter that, though she had ten sons, only one of them could fairly claim her husband as his father. after the father's death it was found that he had bequeathed all his property to one son, but that the testament did not mention his name. the question therefore, arose, which of the ten was intended? so they came one and all to rabbi benaah and asked him to arbitrate between them. "go," said he to them, "and beat at your father's grave, until he rises to tell you to which of you it was that he left the property." all except one did so; and he, because by so doing he showed most respect for his father's memory, was presumed to be the one on whom the father had fixed his affections; he accordingly was supposed to be the one intended, and the others were therefore excluded from the patrimony. the disappointed ones went straight to the government and denounced the rabbi. "here is a man," said they, "who arbitrarily deprives people of their rights, without proof or witnesses." the consequence was that the rabbi was sent to prison, but he gave the authorities such evidence of his shrewdness and sense of justice, that he was soon restored to freedom. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . till ten generations have passed speak thou not contemptuously of the gentiles in the hearing of a proselyte. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . the ten tribes will never be restored, for it is said (deut. xxiii. ), "god cast them into another land, as it is this day." as this day passes away without return, so also they have passed away never more to return. so says rabbi akiva, but rabbi eleazar says, "'as it is this day' implies that, as the day darkens and lightens up again, so the ten tribes now in darkness shall in the future be restored to light." the rabbis have thus taught that the ten tribes will have no portion in the world to come; for it is said (deut. xxix. ), "and the lord rooted them out of their land in anger, and in wrath, and in great indignation." "and he rooted them out of their land," that is, from this world, "and cast them into another land," that is, the world to come. so says rabbi akiva. rabbi shimon ben yehuda says, "if their designs continue as they are at this day, they will not return, but if they repent they will return." rabbi (the holy) says, "they will enter the world to come, for it is said (isa. xxvii. ), 'and it shall come to pass in that day that the great trumpet shall be blown, and they shall come which were ready to perish.'" _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . ten things are detrimental to study:--going under the halter of a camel, and still more passing under its body; walking between two camels or between two women; to be one of two men that a woman passes between; to go where the atmosphere is tainted by a corpse; to pass under a bridge beneath which no water has flowed for forty days; to eat with a ladle that has been used for culinary purposes; to drink water that runs through a cemetery. it is also dangerous to look at the face of a corpse, and some say also to read inscriptions on tombstones. _horayoth_, fol. , col. . ten strong things were created in the world (of which the one that comes after is stronger than that which preceded). a mountain is strong, but iron can hew it in pieces; the fire weakens the iron; the water quenches the fire; the clouds carry off the water; the wind disperses the clouds; the living body resists the wind; fear enervates the body; wine abolishes fear; sleep overcomes wine, and death is stronger than all together; yet it is written (prov. x. ), "and alms delivereth from death" (the original word has two meanings, righteousness and alms). _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . with the utterance of ten words was the world created. _avoth_, chap. , mish. . there were ten generations from adam to noah, to show how great is god's long-suffering, for each of these went on provoking him more and more, till his forbearance relenting, he brought the flood upon them. ibid., mish. . there were ten generations from noah to abraham, to show that god is long-suffering, since all those succeeding generations provoked him, until abraham came, and he received the reward that belonged to all of them. _avoth_, mish. . the greatest sinner is uniformly presumed throughout the talmud to have a certain amount of merit, and therefore a corresponding title to reward (see chap. , no. = ps. xxxvii. - ). much of this last is enjoyed by the wicked themselves in the present world, and the surplus is often transferred to the credit of the righteous in the world to come (see "genesis", page , no. = matt. xiii. ). abraham our father was tested ten times; in every case he stood firm; which shows how great the love of our father abraham was. ibid., mish. . ten miracles were wrought for our forefathers in egypt, and ten at the red sea. ten plagues did the holy one--blessed be he!--inflict on the egyptians in egypt, and ten at the sea. ten times did our ancestors tempt god in the wilderness, as it is said (num. xiv. ), "and have tempted me now these ten times, and have not hearkened to my voice." ibid., mish. , , . ten times did god test our forefathers, and they were not so much as once found to be perfect. _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . ten times the shechinah came down unto the world:--at the garden of eden (gen. iii. ); at the time of the tower (gen. xi. ); at sodom (gen. xviii. ); in egypt (exod. iii. ); at the red sea (ps. xviii. ); on mount sinai (exod. xix. ); into the temple (ezek. xliv. ); in the pillar of cloud (num. xi. ). it will descend in the days of gog and magog, for it is said (zech. xiv. ), "and his feet shall stand in that day upon the mount of olives" (the tenth is omitted in the original). ibid. the shechinah made ten gradual ascents in passing from place to place:--from the cover of the ark to the cherub ( sam. xxii. ); thence to the threshold of the house (ezek. ix. ); thence to the cherubim (ezek. x. ); thence to the roof of the temple (prov. xxi. ); thence to the wall of the court (amos vii. ); thence to the altar (amos ix. ); thence to the city (micah vi. ); thence to the mount (ezek. xi. ); thence to the wilderness (prov. xxi. ); whence the shechinah went up, as it is said (hosea v. ), "i will go and return to my place." _avoth d rab. nathan_, chap. . ten different terms are employed to express the title of prophet:--ambassador, faithful, servant, messenger, seer, watchman, seer of vision, dreamer, prophet, man of god. ibid. ten distinct designations are applied to the holy spirit:--proverb, interpretation, dark, saying, oracle, utterance, decree, burden, prophecy, vision. ibid. ten are designated by the term life or living:--god, the law, israel, the righteous, the garden of eden, the tree of life, the land of israel, jerusalem, benevolence, the sages; and water also is described as life, as it is said (zech. xiv. ), "and it shall be in that day that living water shall go out from jerusalem." ibid. if there are ten beds piled upon one another, and if beneath the lowermost there be any tissue woven of linen and wool (lev. xix. ), it is unlawful to lie down upon them. _tamid_, fol. , col. . alexander of macedon proposed ten queries to the elders of the south:--"which are more remote from each other, the heavens from the earth or the east from the west?" they answered, "the east is more remote from the west, for when the sun is either in the east or in the west, any one can gaze upon him; but when the sun is in the zenith or heaven, none can gaze at him, he is so much nearer." the mishnaic rabbis, on the other hand, say they are equidistant; for it is written (ps. ciii. , ), "as the heavens are from the earth, ... so is the east removed from the west." alexander then asked, "were the heavens created first or was the earth?" "the heavens," they replied, "for it is said, 'in the beginning god created the heavens and the earth.'" he then asked, "was light created first or was darkness?" they replied, "this is an unanswerable question." they should have answered darkness was created first, for it is said, "and the earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep," and after this, "and god said, let there be light, and there was light." _tamid._, fol. , col. . there are ten degrees of holiness, and the land of israel is holy above all other lands. _kelim_, chap. i, mish. . there are ten places which, though gentile habitations are not considered unclean:--( .) arab tents; ( .) a watchman's hut; ( .) the top of a tower; ( .) a fruit-store; ( .) a summer-house; ( .) a gatekeeper's lodge; ( .) an uncovered courtyard; ( .) a bath-house; ( .) an armory; ( .) a military camp. _oholoth_ chap. , mish. . "an ammonite or moabite shall not enter the congregation of the lord, even to the tenth generation," etc. (deut. xxiii. ). one day yehuda, an ammonite prophet, came into the academy and asked, "may i enter the congregation (if i marry a jewess)?" rabban gamliel said unto him, "thou art not at liberty to do so;" but rabbi joshua interposed and maintained, "he is at liberty to do so." then rabban gamliel appealed to scripture, which saith, "an ammonite or moabite shall not enter into the congregation of the lord, even to the tenth generation." to this rabbi joshua retorted and asked, "are then these nations still in their own native places? did not sennacherib, the king of assyria, transplant the nations? as it is said (isa. x. ), 'i have removed the bounds of the people, and have robbed their treasures, and have put down the valor of the inhabitants.'" rabban gamliel replied, "scripture saith (jer. xlix. ), 'afterward i will bring again the captivity of the children of ammon,' and so," he argued, "they must have already returned." rabbi joshua then promptly rejoined, "scripture saith (jer. xxx. ), 'i will bring again the captivity of my people israel and judah,' and these have not returned yet." and on this reasoning the proselyte was permitted to enter the congregation. _yadayim_, chap. , mish. . go and learn from the tariff of donkey-drivers, ten miles for one zouz, eleven for two zouzim. _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . when israel went up to jerusalem to attend the festivals, they had to stand in the temple court closely crowded together, yet when prostrated there was a wide space between each of them (rashi says about four ells), so that they could not hear each other's confession, which might have caused them to blush. they had, however, when prostrated, to extend eleven ells behind the holy of holies. _yoma_, fol. , col. , in the days of joel, the son of pethuel, there was a great dearth, because (as is said in joel i. ) "that which the palmerworm hath left hath the locust eaten," etc. that year the month of adar (about march) passed away and no rain came. when some rain fell, during the following month, the prophet said unto israel, "go ye forth and sow." they replied, "shall he who has but a measure or two of wheat or barley eat and live or sow it and die?" still the prophet urged, "go forth and sow." then they obeyed the prophet, and in eleven days the seed had grown and ripened; and it is with reference to that generation that it is said (ps. cxxvi. ), "they that sow in tears shall reap in joy." _taanith_ fol. , col. . what is a female in her minority? one who is between eleven years and one day, and twelve years and one day. when younger or older than these ages she is to be treated in the usual manner. _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . whoever gives a prutah to a poor man has six blessings bestowed upon him, and he that speaks a kind word to him realizes eleven blessings in himself (see isa. lviii. , ). _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . on the next page of the same tract it is said, "for one prutah given as alms to a poor man one is made partaker of the beatific vision." (see also midrash tillim on ps. xvii. .) the prutah was the smallest coin then current. it is estimated to have been equal to about one-twentieth of an english penny. in some quarters of poland the jews have small thin bits of brass, with the hebrew word prutah impressed upon them, for the uses in charity on the part of those among them that cannot afford to give a kreutzer to a poor man. the poor, when they have collected a number of these, change them into larger coin at the almoner's appointed by the congregation. thus even the poor are enabled to give alms to the poor. (see my "genesis," p. , no. .) rabbi yochanan said eleven sorts of spices were mentioned to moses on sinai. rav hunna asked, "what scripture text proves this?" (exod. xxx. ), "take unto thee sweet spices" (the plural implying two), "stacte, myrrh, and galbanum" (these three thus making up five), "sweet spices" (the repetition doubling the five into ten), "with pure frankincense" (which makes up eleven). _kerithoth_, fol. , col. . "zion said, the lord hath forsaken and forgotten me" (isa. xlix. ). the community of israel once pleaded thus with the holy one--blessed be he!--"even a man who marries a second wife still bears in mind the services of the first, but thou, lord, hast forgotten me." the holy one--blessed be he!--replied, "daughter, i have created twelve constellations in the firmament, and for each constellation i have created thirty armies, and for each army thirty legions, each legion containing thirty divisions, each division thirty cohorts, each cohort having thirty camps, and in each camp hang suspended , myriads of stars, as many thousands of myriads as there are days in the year; all these have i created for thy sake, and yet thou sayest, 'thou hast forsaken and forgotten me!' can a woman forget her sucking-child, that she should not have compassion on the son of her womb? yea, they may forget, yet will i not forget thee." _berachoth_, fol. , col. . no deceased person is forgotten from the heart (of his relatives that survive him) till after twelve months, for it is said (ps. xxxi. ), "i am forgotten as a dead man out of mind; i am like a lost vessel" (which, as rashi explains, is like all lost property, not thought of as lost for twelve months, for not till then is proclamation for it given up). ibid., fol. , col. . rabbi yehudah, rabbi yossi, and rabbi shimon (ben yochai) were sitting together, and yehudah ben gerim (the son, says rashi, of proselyte parents) beside them. in the course of conversation rabbi yehudah remarked, "how beautiful and serviceable are the works of these romans! they have established markets, spanned rivers by bridges, and erected baths." to this remark rabbi yossi kept silent, but rabbi shimon replied, "yea, indeed; but all these they have done to benefit themselves. the markets they have opened to feed licentiousness, they have erected baths for their own pleasure, and the bridges they have raised for collecting tolls." yehudah ben gerim thereupon went direct and informed against them, and the report having reached the emperor's ears, an edict was immediately issued that rabbi yehudah should be promoted, rabbi yossi banished to sepphoris, and rabbi shimon taken and executed. rabbi shimon and his son, however, managed to secret themselves in a college, where they were purveyed to by the rabbi's wife, who brought them daily bread and water. one day mistrust seized the rabbi, and he said to his son, "women are light-minded; the romans may tease her and then she will betray us." so they stole away and hid themselves in a cave. here the lord interposed by a miracle, and created a carob-tree bearing fruit all the year round for their support, and opened a perennial spring for their refreshment. to save their clothes they laid them aside except at prayers, and to protect their naked bodies from exposure they would at other times sit up to their necks in sand, absorbed in study. after they had passed twelve years thus in the cave, elijah was sent to inform them that the emperor was dead, and his decree powerless to touch them. on leaving the cave, they noticed some people plowing and sowing, when one of them exclaimed, "these folk neglect eternal things and trouble themselves with the things that are temporal." as they fixed their eyes upon the place, fire came and burnt it up. then a bath kol was heard exclaiming, "what! are ye come forth to destroy the world i have made? get back to your cave and hide you." thither accordingly they returned, and after they had stopped there twelve months longer, they remonstrated, pleading that even the judgment of the wicked in gehenna lasted no longer than twelve months; upon which a bath kol was again heard from heaven, which said, "come ye forth from your cave." then they arose and obeyed it. _shabbath_, fol. , col . rabbi yehoshua ben levi said that at every utterance which proceeded from the mouth of the holy one--blessed be he!--on mount sinai, israel receded twelve miles, being conducted gently back by the ministering angels; for it is said (ps. lxviii. ), "the angels of hosts kept moving." _shabbath_, fol. , col. . a sadducee once said to rabbi abhu, "ye say that the souls of the righteous are treasured up under the throne of glory; how then had the witch of endor power to bring up the prophet samuel by necromancy?" the rabbi replied, "because that occurred within twelve months after his death; for we are taught that during twelve months after death the body is preserved and the soul soars up and down, but that after twelve months the body is destroyed and the soul goes up never to return." ibid., fol. , col. . clever answers to puzzling questions like the above, are of frequent occurrence in the talmud; and we select here a few out of the many specimens of rabbinical ready wit and repartee. turnus rufus once said to rabbi akiva, "if your god is a friend to the poor, why doesn't he feed them?" to which he promptly replied, "that we by maintaining them may escape the condemnation of gehenna." "on the contrary," said the emperor, "the very fact of your maintaining the poor will condemn you to gehenna. i will tell thee by a parable whereto this is like. it is as if a king of our own flesh and blood should imprison a servant who has offended him, and command that neither food nor drink should be given him, and as if one of his subjects in spite of him should go and supply him with both. when the king hears of it will he not be angry with that man? and ye are called servants, as it is said (lev. xxv. ), 'for unto me the children of israel are servants.'" to this rabbi akiva replied, "and i too will tell thee a parable whereunto the thing is like. it is like a king of our own flesh and blood who, being angry with his son, imprisons him, and orders that neither food nor drink be given him, but one goes and gives him both to eat and drink. when the king hears of it will he not handsomely reward that man? and we are sons, as it is written (deut. xiv. ), 'ye are the sons of the lord your god.'" "true," the emperor replied, "ye are both sons and servants; sons when ye do the will of god; servants when ye do not; and now ye are not doing the will of god." _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . certain philosophers once asked the elders at rome, "if your god has no pleasure in idolatry, why does he not destroy the objects of it?" "and so he would," was the reply, "if only such objects were worshiped as the world does not stand in need of; but you idolaters will worship the sun and moon, the stars and the constellations. should he destroy the world because of the fools there are in it? no! the world goes on as it has done all the same, but they who abuse it will have to answer for their conduct. on your philosophy, when one steals a measure of wheat and sows it in his field it should by rights produce no crop; nevertheless the world goes on as if no wrong had been done, and they who abuse it will one day smart for it." _avoda zarah_, fol. , col. . antoninus caesar asked rabbi (the holy), "why does the sun rise in the east and set in the west?" "thou wouldst have asked," answered the rabbi, "the same question if the order had been reversed." "what i mean," remarked antoninus, "is this, is there any special reason why he sets in the west?" "yes," replied rabbi, "to salute his creator (who is in the east), for it is said (neh. ix. ), 'and the host of heaven worship thee.'" _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . caesar once said to rabbi tanchum, "come, now, let us be one people." "very well," said rabbi tanchum, "only we, being circumcised, cannot possibly become like you; if, however, ye become circumcised we shall be alike in that regard anyhow, and so be as one people." the emperor said, "thou hast reasonably answered, but the roman law is, that he who nonpluses his ruler and puts him to silence shall be cast to the lions." the word was no sooner uttered than the rabbi was thrown into the den, but the lions stood aloof and did not even touch him. a sadducee, who looked on, remarked, "the lions do not devour him because they are not hungry," but, when at the royal command, the sadducee himself was thrown in, he had scarcely reached the lions before they fell upon him and began to tear his flesh and devour him. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . a certain sadducee asked rabbi abhu, "since your god is a priest, as it is written (exod. xxv. ), 'that they bring me an offering,' in what did he bathe himself after he was polluted by the burial (num. xix. , ) of the dead body of moses? it could not be in the water, for it is written (isa. xl. ), 'who has measured the waters in the hollow of his hand?' which therefore are insufficient for him to bathe in." the rabbi replied, "he bathed in fire, as it is written (isa. lxvi. ), 'for behold the lord will come with fire.'" ibid. turnus rufus asked this question also of rabbi akiva, "why is the sabbath distinguished from other days?" rabbi akiva replied, "why art thou distinguished from other men?" the answer was, "because it hath pleased my master thus to honor me." and so retorted akiva, "it hath pleased god to honor his sabbath." "but what i mean," replied the other, "was how dost thou know that it is the sabbath-day?" the reply was, "the river sambatyon proves it; the necromancer proves it; the grave of thy father proves it, for the smoke thereof rises not on the sabbath." ibid., fol. , col. . see bereshith rabba, fol. , with reference to what is here said about turnus rufus and his father's grave. the proof from the necromancer lies in the allegation that his art was unsuccessful if practiced on the sabbath-day. the sambatyon, rashi says, is a pebbly river which rushes along all the days of the week except the sabbath, on which it is perfectly still and quiet. in the machsor for pentecost (d. levi's ed. p. ), it is styled "the incomprehensible river," and a footnote thereto informs us that "this refers to the river said to rest on the sabbath from throwing up stones, etc., which it does not cease to do all the rest of the week." (see sanhedrin, fol. , col. ; yalkut on isaiah, fol. , ; pesikta tanchuma. see also shalsheleth hakabbala and yuchsin.) those israelites and gentiles who have transgressed with their bodies (the former by neglecting to wear phylacteries, and the latter by indulging in sensuous pleasures), shall go down into gehenna, and there be punished for twelve months, after which period their bodies will be destroyed and their soul consumed, and a wind shall scatter their ashes under the soles of the feet of the righteous; as it is said (mal. iv. ), "and ye shall tread down the wicked; for they shall be as ashes under the soles of your feet." but the minim, the informers, and the epicureans, they who deny the law and the resurrection of the dead, they who separate themselves from the manners of the congregation, they who have been a terror in the land of the living, and they who have sinned and have led the multitude astray, as did jeroboam the son of nebat and his companions,--these shall go down into gehenna, and there be judged for generations upon generations, as it is said (isa. lxvi, ), "and they shall go forth and look upon the carcasses of the men that have transgressed against me," etc. gehenna itself shall be consumed but they shall not be burned up in the destruction; as it is said (ps. xlix, ; heb. xv.), "and their figures shall consume hell from being a dwelling." _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . once when israel went up by pilgrimages to one of the three annual feasts at jerusalem (see exod. xxxiv. , ), it so happened that there was no water to drink. nicodemon ben gorion therefore hired of a friendly neighbor twelve huge reservoirs of water promising to have them replenished against a given time, or failing this to forfeit twelve talents of silver. the appointed day came and still the drought continued, and therewith the scarcity of water; upon which the creditor appeared and demanded payment of the forfeit. the answer of nicodemon to the demand was, "there's time yet; the day is not over." the other chuckled to himself, inwardly remarking, "there's no chance now; there's been no rain all the season," and off he went to enjoy his bath. but nicodemon sorrowful at heart, wended his way to the temple. after putting on his prayer scarf, as he prayed, he pleaded, "lord of the universe! thou knowest that i have not entered into this obligation for my own sake, but for thy glory and for the benefit of thy people." while he yet prayed the clouds gathered overhead, the rain fell in torrents, and the reservoirs were filled to overflowing. on going out of the house of prayer he was met by the exacting creditor, who still urged that the money was due to him, as he said, the rain came after sunset. but in answer to prayer the clouds immediately dispersed, and the sun shone out as brightly as ever. _taanith_, fol. . col. . nicodemon ben gorion of the above story is by some considered to be the nicodemus of st. john's gospel, iii. - ; vii. ; xix . would that my husband were here and could listen to me; i should permit him to stay away another twelve years. _kethuboth_, fol. . col. . hereto hangs a tale stranger than fiction, yet founded on fact. rabbi akiva was once a poor shepherd in the employ of calba shevua, one of the richest men in all jerusalem. while engaged in that lowly occupation his master's only daughter fell in love with him, and the two carried on a clandestine courtship for some time together. her father, hearing of it, threatened to disinherit her, to turn her out of doors and disown her altogether, if she did not break off her engagement. how could she connect herself with one who was the base-born son of a proselyte, a reputed descendant of sisera and jael, an ignorant fellow that could neither read nor write, and a man old enough to be her father? rachel--for that was her name--determined to be true to her lover, and to brave the consequences by marrying him and exchanging the mansion of her father for the hovel of her husband. after a short spell of married life she prevailed upon her husband to leave her for a while in order to join a certain college in a distant land, where she felt sure that his talents would be recognized and his genius fostered into development worthy of it. as he sauntered along by himself he began to harbor misgivings in his mind as to the wisdom of the step, and more than once thought of returning. but when musing one day at a resting-place a waterfall arrested his attention, and he remarked how the water, by its continual dropping, was wearing away the solid rock. all at once, with the tact for which he was afterward so noted, he applied the lesson it yielded to himself. "so may the law," he reasoned, "work its way into my hard and stony heart;" and he felt encouraged and pursued his journey. under the tuition of rabbi eliezer, the son of hyrcanus, and rabbi yehoshua, the son of chananiah, his native ability soon began to appear, his name became known to fame, and he rose step by step until he ranked as a professor in the very college which he had entered as a poor student. after some twelve years of hard study and diligent service in the law he returned to jerusalem, accompanied by a large number of disciples. on nearing the dwelling of his devoted wife he caught the sound of voices in eager conversation. he paused awhile and listened at the door, and overheard a gossiping neighbor blaming rachel for her _mésalliance_, and twitting her with marrying a man who could run away and leave her as a widow for a dozen of years or more on the crazy pretext of going to college. he listened in eager curiosity, wondering what the reply would be. to his surprise, he heard his self-sacrificing wife exclaim, "would that my husband were here and could listen to me; i should permit, nay, urge him to stay other twelve years, if it would benefit him." strange to say akiva taking the hint from his wife, turned away and left jerusalem without ever seeing her. he went abroad again for a time, and then returned for good; this time, so the story says, with twice twelve thousand disciples. well-nigh all jerusalem turned out to do him honor, every one striving to be foremost to welcome him. calba shevua, who for many a long year had repented of his hasty resolution, which cost him at once his daughter and his happiness, went to akiva to ask his opinion about annulling this vow. akiva replied by making himself known as his quondam servant and rejected son-in-law. as we may suppose, the two were at once reconciled, and calba shevua looked upon himself as favored of heaven above all the fathers in israel. the rabbis say that at first they used to communicate the divine name of twelve letters to every one. but when the antinomians began to abound, the knowledge of this name was imparted only to the more discreet of the priestly order, and they repeated it hastily while the other priests pronounced the benediction of the people. (what the name was, says rashi, is not known.) rabbi tarphon, the story goes on to say, once listened to the high priest, and overheard him hurriedly pronouncing this name of twelve letters while the other priests were blessing the people. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . twelve hours there are in the day:--the first three, the holy one--blessed be he!--employs in studying the law; the next three he sits and judges the whole world; the third three he spends in feeding all the world; during the last three hours he sports with the leviathan; as it is said (ps. civ. ), "this leviathan thou hast created to play with it." _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . rabbi yochanan bar chanena said:--the day consists of twelve hours. during the first hour adam's dust was collected from all parts of the world; during the second it was made into a lump; during the third his limbs were formed; during the fourth his body was animated; during the fifth he stood upon his legs; during the sixth he gave names to the animals; during the seventh he associated with eve; during the eighth cain and a twin sister were born (abel and his twin sister were born after the fall, says the tosephoth); during the ninth adam was ordered not to eat of the forbidden tree; during the tenth he fell, during the eleventh he was judged; and during the twelfth he was ejected from paradise; as it is said (ps. xlix. , a.v. ), "man (adam) abode not one night in his dignity." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . rabbi akiva used to say:--of five judgments, some have lasted twelve months, others will do so;--those of the deluge, of job, of the egyptians, of gog and magog, and of the wicked in gehenna. _edioth_, chap. , mish. . plagues come upon those that are proud, as was the case with uzziah ( chron. xxvi. ), "but when he was strong (proud), his heart was lifted up to destruction." when the leprosy rose up in his forehead, the temple was cleft asunder twelve miles either way. _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . this hyperbole is evidently a mere fiction joined on to a truth for the purpose of frightening the proud into humility. the end sanctifieth the means, as we well know from other instances recorded in the talmud. those who mourn for deceased relatives are prohibited from entering a tavern for thirty days, but those who mourn for either father or mother must not do so for twelve months. _semachoth_, chap. . a creature that has no bones in his body does not live more than twelve months. _chullin_, fol. , col. . the alexandrians asked rabbi joshua twelve questions; three related to matters of wisdom, three to matters of legend, three were frivolous, and three were of a worldly nature--viz, how to grow wise, how to become rich, and how to ensure a family of boys. _niddah_, fol. , col. . there was once a man named joseph, who was renowned for honoring the sabbath-day. he had a rich neighbor, a gentile, whose property a certain fortune-teller had said would eventually revert to joseph the sabbatarian. to frustrate this prediction the gentile disposed of his property, and with the proceeds of the sale he purchased a rare and costly jewel which he fixed to his turban. on crossing a bridge a gust of wind blew his turban into the river and a fish swallowed it. this fish being caught, was brought on a friday to market, and, as luck would have it, it was bought by joseph in honor of the coming sabbath. when the fish was cut up the jewel was found, and this joseph sold for thirteen purses of gold denarii. when his neighbor met him, he acknowledged that he who despised the sabbath the lord of the sabbath would be sure to punish. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . this story cannot fail to remind those who are conversant with herodotus or schiller of the legend of king polycrates, which dates back five or six centuries before the present era. polycrates, the king of samos, was one of the most fortunate of men, and everything he took in hand was fabled to prosper. this unbroken series of successes caused disquietude to his friends, who saw in the circumstance foreboding of some dire disaster; till amasis, king of egypt, one of the number advised him to spurn the favor of fortune by throwing away what he valued dearest. the most valuable thing he possessed was an emerald signet-ring, and this accordingly he resolved to sacrifice. so, manning a galley, he rowed out to the sea, and threw the ring away into the waste of the waters. some five or six days after this, a fisherman came to the palace and made the king a present of a very fine fish that he had caught. this the servants proceeded to open, when, to their surprise, they came upon a ring, which on examination proved to be the very ring which had been cast away by the king their master. (see herodotus, book iii.) among the many legends that have clustered round the memory of solomon, there is one which reads very much like an adaptation of this classic story. the version the talmud gives of this story is quoted in another part of this miscellany (chap. vi. no. , note), but in emek hammelech, fol. , col. , we have the legend in another form, with much amplitude and variety of detail, of which we can give here only an outline. when the building of the temple was finished, the king of the demons begged solomon to set him free from his service, and promised in return to teach him a secret he would be sure to value. having cajoled solomon out of possession of his signet-ring, he first flung the ring into the sea, where it was swallowed by a fish, and then taking up solomon himself, he cast him into a foreign land some four hundred miles away, where for three weary long years he wandered up and down like a vagrant, begging his bread from door to door. in the course of his rambles he came to mash kemim, and was so fortunate as to be appointed head cook at the palace of the king of ammon (ana hanun, see kings xii. ; lxx.). while employed in this office, naama, the king's daughter (see kings xiv. , , and chron. xii. ), fell in love with him, and, determining to marry him, eloped with him for refuge to a distant land. one day as naama was preparing a fish for dinner, she found in it a ring, and this turned cut to be the very ring which the king of the demons had flung into the sea, and the loss of which had bewitched the king out of his power and dominion. in the recovery of the ring the king both recovered himself and the throne of his father david. the occurrence of a fish and a ring on the arms of the city of glasgow memorializes a legend in which we find the same singular combination of circumstances. a certain queen of the district one day gave her paramour a golden ring which the king her husband had committed to her charge as a keepsake. by some means or other the king got to know of the whereabouts of the ring, and cleverly contriving to secure possession of it, threw it into the sea. he then went straight to the queen and demanded to know where it was and what she had done with it. the queen in her distress repaired to st. kentigern, and both made full confession of her guilt and her anxiety about the recovery of the ring, that she might regain the lost favor of her husband. the saint set off at once to the clyde, and there caught a salmon and the identical ring in the mouth of it. this he handed over to the queen, who returned it to her lord with such expressions of penitence that the restoration of it became the bond and pledge between them of a higher and holier wedlock. there were thirteen horn-shaped collecting-boxes, and thirteen tables, and thirteen devotional bowings in the temple service. those who belonged to the houses of rabbi gamliel and of rabbi chananiah, the president of the priests, bowed fourteen times. this extra act of bowing was directed to the quarter of the wood store, in consequence of a tradition they inherited from their ancestors that the ark of the covenant was hidden in that locality. the origin of the tradition was this:--a priest, being once engaged near the wood store, and observing that part of the plaster differed from the rest, went to tell his companions, but died before he had time to relate his discovery. thus it became known for certain that the ark was hidden there. _shekalim_ chap. , hal, . it is more than probable that the chananiah, mentioned above, is the person alluded to in the acts, chap, xxiii. , as "the high priest ananias." for the tradition about the ark. see also macc. ii. , . there were thirteen horn-shaped collecting-boxes in the temple, and upon them were inscribed new shekels, old shekels, turtle-dove offerings, young-pigeon offerings, fire-wood, contributions for galbanus, gold for the mercy-seat; and six boxes were inscribed for voluntary contributions. new shekels were for the current year, old shekels were for the past one. _yoma_, fol. , col, . once on account of long-continued drought rabbi eliezer proclaimed thirteen public fasts, but no rain came. at the termination of the last fast, just as the congregation was leaving the synagogue, he cried aloud, "have you then prepared graves for yourselves?" upon this all the people burst into bitter cries, and rain came down directly. _taanith_, fol. , col. . a boy at thirteen years of age is bound to observe the usual fasts in full, i.e., throughout the whole day. a girl is bound to do so when only twelve. rashi gives this as the reason:--a boy is supposed to be weaker than a girl on account of the enervating effect of much study. _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . a poor man once came to rava and begged for a meal. "on what dost thou usually dine?" asked rava. "on stuffed fowl and old wine," was the reply. "what!" said rava, "art thou not concerned about being so burdensome to the community?" he replied, "i eat nothing belonging to them, only what the lord provides; as we are taught (ps. cxlv. ), 'the eyes of all wait upon thee, and thou givest them their meat in his season.' it is not said in their season, for so we learn that god provides for each individual in his season of need." while they were thus talking, in came rava's sister, who had not been to see him for thirteen years, and she brought him as a present a stuffed fowl and some old wine also. rava marveled at the coincidence, and turning to his poor visitor said, "i beg thy pardon, friend; rise, i pray thee, and eat." ibid., fol. , col. . so great is circumcision that thirteen covenants were made concerning it. tosafoth says that covenant is written thirteen times in the chapter of circumcision. _nedarim_, fol. , col. . rabbi (the holy) says sufferings are to be borne with resignation. he himself bore them submissively for thirteen years; for six he suffered from lithiasis, and for seven years from stomatitis (or, as some say, six years from the former and seven from the latter). his groans were heard three miles off. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught thirteen things respecting breakfast (morning-morsel):--it counteracts the effects of heat, cold or draught; it protects from malignant demons; it makes wise the simple by keeping the mind in a healthy condition; it enables a man to come off clear from a judicial inquiry; it qualifies him both to learn and to teach the law; it makes him eagerly listened to, to have a retentive memory, etc. ibid. fol. , col. . the land of israel is in the future to be divided among thirteen tribes, and not, as at first, among twelve. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . rabbi abhu once complimented rav saphra before the minim by singling him out in their hearing as a man distinguished by his learning, and this led them to exempt him from tribute for thirteen years. it so happened that these minim once posed saphra about that which is written in amos iii. , "you only have i known of all the families of the earth; therefore i will punish you for all your iniquities." "ye say you are god's friends, but when one has a friend does he pour out his wrath upon him?" to this rav saphra make no reply. they then put a rope round his neck and tormented him. when he was in this sorry plight, rabbi abhu came up and inquired why they tormented him thus. to this they made answer, "didst thou not tell us that he was a very learned man, and he does not even know how to explain a text of scripture?" "yes, i did so say," replied rabbi abhu; "he is an adept in the talmud only, but not in the scriptures." "thou knowest the scriptures;" they replied, "and why ought he not to know them as well?" "i have daily intercourse with you," said the rabbi, "and therefore i am obliged to study the scriptures, but he, having no intercourse with you, has no need to trouble himself, and does not at all care about them." _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . in order to understand aright the grounds on which rabbi abhu would fain excuse rav saphra for not caring at all about the scriptures, certain passages from both talmuds should be read, which, in the usual metaphorical style of the rabbis, set forth the respective merits of scripture and tradition. the three times three in sophrim (chap. ), in which the scripture is compared to water, the mishna to wine, and the gemara to mulled wine, and that in which the scripture is likened to salt, the mishna to pepper, and the gemara to spice, and so on, are too well known to need more than passing mention; but far less familiar and much more explicit is the exposition of zech. viii. , as given in t.b. chaggigah, fol. , col. , where, commenting on the scripture text, "neither, was there any peace to him that went out or came in," rav expressly says, "he who leaves a matter of halachah for a matter of scripture shall never more have peace;" to which shemuel adds, "aye, and he also who leaves the talmud for the mishna;" rabbi yochanan chiming in with "even from talmud to talmud;" as if to say, "and he who turns from the babli to the yerushalmi, even he shall have no peace." if we refer to the mishna (chap. , hal. ) of berachoth in the last-named talmud, we read there that rabbi tarphon, bent, while on a journey, on reading the shema according to the school of shammai, ran the risk of falling into the hands of certain banditti whom he had not noticed near him. "it would have served you right," remarked one, "because you did not follow the rule of hillel." in the gemara to this passage rabbi yochanan says, "the words of the scribes are more highly valued than the words of the law, for, as rabbi yuda remarks, 'if rabbi tarphon had not read the shema at all he would only have broken a positive command,' but since he transgressed the rule of hillel he was guilty of death, for it is written, 'he who breaks down a hedge (the rabbinic hedge to the law, of course), a serpent shall bite him'" (eccles. x. ). then rabbi chanina, the son of rabbi ana, in the name of rabbi tanchum, the son of rabbi cheyah, says, "the words of the elders are more important than the words of the prophets." a prophet and an elder, whom do they resemble? they are like two ambassadors sent by a king to a province. about the one he sends word saying, "if he does not present credentials with my signature and seal, trust him not;" whereas the other is accredited without any such token; for in regard to the prophet it is written (deut. xiii. ), "he giveth thee a sign or token;" while in reference to the elders it is written (deut. xvii. ), "according to the decision which they may say unto thee shalt thou do; thou shalt not depart from the sentence which they may tell thee, to the right or to the left." rashi's comment on this text is worth notice: "even when they tell thee that right is left and left is right." in a word, a wise man (i.e., a rabbi) is better than a prophet. (_bava bathra_ fol. , col. .) oved, the galilean, has expounded that there are thirteen _vavs_ (i.e., the letter _vav_ occurs thirteen times) in connection with wine. _vav_ in syriac means woe. _sanhedrin_ fol. , col. . the rabbis have a curious haggada respecting the origin of the culture of the vine. once while noah was hard at work breaking up the fallow ground for a vineyard, satan drew near and inquired what he was doing. on ascertaining that the patriarch was about to cultivate the grape, which he valued both for its fruit and its juice, he at once volunteered to assist him at his task, and began to manure the soil with the blood of a lamb, a lion, a pig, and a monkey. "now," said he, when his work was done, "of those who taste the juice of the grape, some will become meek and gentle as the lamb, some bold and fearless as the lion, some foul and beastly as the pig, and others frolicsome and lively as the monkey." this quaint story may be found more fully detailed in the midrash tanchuma (see noah) and the yalkut on genesis. the mohammedan legend is somewhat similar. it relates how satan on the like occasion used the blood of a peacock, of an ape, of a lion, and of a pig, and it deduces from the abuse of the vine the curse that fell on the children of ham, and ascribes the color of the purple grape to the dark hue which thenceforth tinctured all the fruit of their land as well as their own complexions. at thirteen years of age, a boy becomes bound to observe the ( ) precepts of the law. _avoth_, chap. . rabbi ishmael says the law is to be expounded according to thirteen logical rules. _chullin_, fol. , col. . the thirteen rules of rabbi ishmael above referred to are not to be found together in any part of the talmud, but they are collected for repetition in the liturgy, and are as follows:-- . inference is valid from minor to major. . from similar phraseology. . from the gist or main point of one text to that of other passages. . of general and particular. . of particular and general. . from a general, or a particular and a general, the ruling both of the former and the latter is to be according to the middle term, i.e., the one which is particularized. . from a general text that requires a particular instance, and _vice versà_. . when a particular rule is laid down for something which has already been included in a general law, the rule is to apply to all. . when a general rule has an exception, the exception mitigates and does not aggravate the rule. . when a general rule has an exception not according therewith, the exception both mitigates and aggravates. . when an exception to a general rule is made to substantiate extraneous matter, that matter cannot be classed under the said general rule, unless the scripture expressly says so. . the ruling is to be according to the context, or to the general drift of the argument. . when two texts are contradictory, a third is to be sought that reconciles them. rabbi akiva was forty years of age when he began to study, and after thirteen years of study he began publicly to teach. _avoth d'rab. nathan._ thirteen treasurers and seven directors were appointed to serve in the temple. (more there might be, never less.) _tamid_, fol. , col. . thirteen points of law regulate the decisions that require to be made relative to the carcass of a clean bird. _taharoth_, chap. i, mish. . a man must partake of fourteen meals in the booth during the feast of tabernacles. _succah_, fol. , col. . traditional chronology records that the israelites killed the paschal lamb on the fourteenth day of nisan, the month on which they came out of egypt. they came out on the fifteenth; that day was a friday. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . the fifteen steps were according to the number of the songs of degrees in the psalms. it is related that whosoever has not seen the joy at the annual ceremony of the water-drawing, has not seen rejoicing in his life. at the conclusion of the first part of the feast of tabernacles, the priests and levites descended into the women's ante-court, where they made great preparations (such as erecting temporary double galleries, the uppermost for women, and those under for men). there were golden candelabra there, each having four golden bowls on the top, four ladders reaching to them, and four of the young priests with cruses of oil ready to supply them, each cruse holding one hundred and twenty logs of oil. the lamp-wicks were made of the worn-out drawers and girdles of the priests. there was not a court in all jerusalem that was not lit up by the illumination of the "water-drawing." holy men, and men of dignity, with flaming torches in their hands, danced before the people, rehearsing songs and singing praises. the levites, with harps, lutes, cymbals, trumpets, and innumerable musical instruments, were stationed on the fifteen steps which led from the ante-court of israel to the women's court; the levites stood upon the steps and played and sang. two priests stood at the upper gate which led from the ante-court for israel to that for the women, each provided with a trumpet, and as soon as the cock crew they blew one simple blast, then a compound or fragmentary one, and then a modulated or shouting blast. this was the preconcerted signal for the drawing of the water. as soon as they reached the tenth step, they blew again three blasts as before. when they came to the ante-court for women, they blew another three blasts, and after that they continued blowing till they came to the east gate. when they arrived at the east gate, they turned their faces westward (i.e., toward the temple), and said, "our fathers, who were in this place, turned their backs toward the temple of the lord, and their faces toward the east, for they worshiped the sun in the east; but we turn our eyes to god!" rabbi yehudah says, "these words were repeated, echoing, 'we are for god, and unto god are our eyes directed!'" _succah_, fol. , col. , . rabbon shimon ben gamliel has said there were no such gala-days for israel as the fifteenth of ab and the day of atonement, when the young maidens of jerusalem used to resort to the vineyard all robed in white garments, that were required to be borrowed, lest those should feel humiliated who had none of their own. there they danced gleefully, calling to the lookers-on and saying, "young men, have a care; the choice you now make may have consequences." _taanith_, fol. , col. . rabbi elazar the great said, "from the fifteenth of ab the influence of the sun declines, and from that day they leave off cutting wood for the altar fire, because it could not be properly dried (and green wood might harbor vermin, which would make it unfit for use)." _taanith_, fol. , col. . he who eats turnips to beef, and sleeps out in the open air during the night of the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the months of summer (that is, when the moon is full), will most likely bring on an ague fever. _gittin_, fol. , col. . a lad should, at the age of fifteen, begin to apply himself to the gemara. _avoth_, chap. . "so i bought her to me for fifteen" (hosea iii. ), that is, on the fifteenth day of nisan, when israel was redeemed from the bondage of egypt. "silver;" this refers to the righteous. "an homer and a half-homer;" these equal forty-five measures, and are the forty-five righteous men for whose sake the world is preserved. i don't know whether there are thirty here (that is, in babylon), and fifteen in the land of israel, or _vice versà_; as it is said (zech. xi. ), "i took the thirty pieces of silver and cast them to the potter in the house of the lord." it stands to reason that there are thirty in the land of israel, and, therefore, fifteen here. abaii says that the greater part are to be found under the gable end of the synagogue. rav yehudah says the reference is to the thirty righteous men always found among the nations of the world for whose sake they are preserved (but see no. _infra_). ulla says it refers to the thirty precepts received by the nations of the world, of which, however, they keep three only; i.e. they do not enter into formal marriage-contracts with men; they do not expose for sale the bodies of such animals as have died from natural causes; and they have regard for the law. _chullin_, fol. , col. . rabbi cheyah bar abba says, "i once visited a house-holder at ludkia, and they placed before him a golden table so loaded with silver plate, basins, cups, bottles and glasses, besides all sorts of dishes, delicacies, and spices, that it took sixteen men to carry it. when they set the table in its place they said (ps. xxiv. ), 'the earth is the lord's and the fullness thereof,' and upon removing it, they said (ps. cxv. ), 'the heaven, even the heavens, are the lord's, but the earth hath he given to the children of men.' i said, 'son, how hast thou come to deserve all this?' 'i was,' replied he, 'a butcher by trade, and i always set apart for the sabbath the best of the cattle.' 'how happy art thou,' i remarked (adds rabbi cheyah), 'to have merited such a reward, and blessed be god who has thus rewarded thee.'" _shabbath_, fol. , col. . rash lakish said, "i have seen the flow of milk and honey at tzipori; it was sixteen miles by sixteen miles." _meggillah_, fol. , col. . rashi explains the above as follows:--the goats fed upon figs from which honey distilled, and this mingled with the milk which dropped from the goats as they walked along. on the spot arose a lake which covered an area of sixteen miles square. (see also kethuboth, fol. iii, col. .) a cedar tree once fell down in our place, the trunk of which was so wide that sixteen wagons were drawn abreast upon it. _bechoroth_, fol. , col. . who can estimate the loss the world sustains in its ignorance of the trees of the talmud? what a sapling in comparison with this giant cedar of lebanon must the far-famed mammoth tree have been which was lately cut down in california, and was the largest known to the present generation! rabbi yochanan plaintively records, "i remember the time when a young man and a young woman sixteen or seventeen years of age could walk together in the streets and no harm came of it." _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . on the deposition of rabbon gamliel, rabbi eleazar ben azariah was chosen as his successor to the presidential chair of the academy. on being told of his elevation, he consulted with his wife as to whether or not he should accept the appointment. "what if they should depose thee also?" asked his wife. he replied, "use the precious bowl while thou hast it, even if it be broken the next." but she rejoined, "thou art only eighteen years old, and how canst thou at such an age expect folks to venerate thee?" by a miracle eighteen of his locks turned suddenly gray, so that he could say, "i am as one of seventy." _berachoth_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught that shimon happikoli had arranged the eighteen benedictions before rabbon gamliel at javneh. rabbon gamliel appealed to the sages, "is there not a man who knows how to compose an imprecation against the sadducees?" then samuel the little stood up and extemporized it. ibid., fol. , col. . the "imprecation against the sadducees" stands twelfth among the collects of the shemoneh esreh. it is popularly known as "velama-leshinim" from its opening words, and is given thus in modern ashkenazi liturgies:--"oh, let the slanderers have no hope, all the wicked be annihilated speedily, and all the tyrants be cut off, hurled down and reduced speedily; humble thou them quickly in our days. blessed art thou, o lord, who destroyest enemies and humblest tyrants." there has been much misconception with regard to this collect against heretics. there is every reason to believe it was composed without any reference whatever to the christians. one point of interest, however, in connection with it is worth relating here. some have sought to identify the author of it, samuel the little, with the apostle paul, grounded the conclusion on his original hebrew name, saul. they take paulus as equal to _pusillus_, which means "very little" or "the less," and answers to the word _hakaton_, a term of similar import. samuel, however, died a good jew (see semachoth, chap. ), and rabbon gamliel hazaken and rabbi eleazar ben azariah pronounced a funeral oration at his burial. "his key and his diary were placed on his coffin, because he had no son to succeed him." (see also sanhedrin, fol. ii, col. .) eighteen denunciations did isaiah make against the people of israel, and he recovered not his equanimity until he was able to add, "the child shall behave himself proudly against the ancient, and the base against the honorable" (isa. iii. ). _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have related that there was once a family in jerusalem the members of which died off regularly at eighteen years of age. rabbi yochanan ben zacchai shrewdly guessed that they were descendants of eli, regarding whom it is said ( sam. ii. ), "and all the increase of thine house shall die in the flower of their age;" and he accordingly advised them to devote themselves to the study of the law, as the certain and only means of neutralizing the curse. they acted upon the advice of the rabbi; their lives were in consequence prolonged; and they thenceforth went by the name of their spiritual father. _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . eighteen handbreadths was the height of the golden candlestick. _menachoth_, fol. , col. . if a man remain unmarried after the age of twenty, his life is a constant transgression. the holy one--blessed be he!--waits until that period to see if one enters the matrimonial state, and curses his bones if he remain single. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . a woman marrying under twenty years of age will bear till she is sixty; if she marries at twenty she will bear until she is forty; if she marries at forty she will not have any family. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . at twenty pursue the study of the law. _avoth_, chap. . rabbi yehudah says the early pietists used to suffer some twenty days before death from diarrhoea, the effect of which was to purge and purify them for the world to come; for it is said, "as the fining pot for silver, and the furnace for gold, so is a man to his praise" (prov. xxvii. ). _semachoth_, chap. , mish. . it may not be out of place to append two or three parallel passages here by way of illustration:--"bodily suffering purges away sin" (_berachoth_, fol. , col. ). "he who suffers will not see hell" (_eiruvin_, fol. , col. ). "to die of diarrhoea is an augury for good, for most of the righteous die of that ailment" (_kethuboth_, fol. , col. , and elsewhere). the bathing season at (the hot baths of) dimsis lasted twenty-one days. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . a fowl hatches in twenty-one days, and the almond tree ripens its fruit in twenty-one days. _bechoroth_, fol. , col. . rabbi levi says the realization of a good dream may be hopefully expected for twenty-two years; for it is written (gen. xxxvii. ), "these are the generations of jacob, joseph being seventeen years old when he had the dreams." and it is written also (gen. xli. ), "and joseph was thirty years old when he stood before pharaoh," etc. from seventeen to thirty are thirteen, to which add the seven years of plenty and the two years of famine, which make the sum total of twenty-two. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . in the pages which precede and follow the above quotation there is much that is interesting on the subject of dreams and their interpretation, and one is strongly tempted to append selections, but we refrain in order to make room for a prayer which occurs in the morning service for the various festivals, and is given in the preceding context:--"sovereign of the universe! i am thine, and my dreams are thine. i have dreamed a dream, but know not what it portendeth. may it be acceptable in thy presence, o lord my god, and the god of my fathers, that all my dreams concerning myself and concerning all israel may be for my good. whether i have dreamt concerning myself, or whether i have dreamt concerning others, or whether others have dreamt concerning me, if they be good, strengthen and fortify them, that they may be accomplished in me, as were the dreams of the righteous joseph; and if they require cure, heal them as thou didst hezekiah, king of judah, from his sickness; as miriam the prophetess from her leprosy, and naaman from his leprosy; as the bitter waters of marah by the hands of our legislator moses, and those of jericho by the hands of elisha. and as thou wast pleased to turn the curse of balaam, the son of beor, to a blessing, be pleased to convert all my dreams concerning me and all israel to a good end. oh, guard me; let me be acceptable to thee, and grant me life. amen." (the translation of this prayer is borrowed from the jewish liturgy.) rabbi levi said, "come and see how unlike the character of the holy one--blessed be he!--is to that of those who inherit the flesh and blood of humanity. god blessed israel with twenty-two benedictions and cursed them with eight curses (lev. xxvi. - , xv. ). but moses, our rabbi, blessed them with eight benedictions and cursed them with twenty-two imprecations" (see deut. xxviii. - , xv. ). _bava bathra_, fol. , col. i. once as they were journeying to chesib (in palestine), some of rabbi akiva's disciples were overtaken by a band of robbers, who demanded to know where they were going to. "we are going to acco," was the reply; but on arriving at chesib, they went no farther. the robbers then asked them who they were? "disciples of rabbi akiva," they replied. upon hearing this the robbers exclaimed, "blessed surely is rabbi akiva and his disciples too, for no man can ever do them any harm." once as rabbi menasi was traveling to thurtha (in babylonia), some thieves surprised him on the road and asked him where he was bound for. "for pumbeditha," was the reply; but upon reaching thurtha, he stayed and went no farther. the highwaymen, thus balked, retorted, "thou art the disciple of yehuda the deceiver!" "oh, you know my master, do you?" said the rabbi. "then in the name of god be every one of you anathematized." for twenty-two years thereafter they carried on their nefarious trade, but all their attempts at violence ended only in disappointment. then all save one of them came to the rabbi and craved his pardon, which was immediately granted. the one who did not come to confess his guilt and obtain absolution was a weaver, and he was eventually devoured by a lion. hence the proverbs, "if a weaver does not humble himself, he shortens his life;" and, "come and see the difference there is between the thieves of babylon and the banditti of the land of israel." _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . rabbi eliezer ben hyrcanus was twenty-two years of age when, contrary to the wishes of his father, he went to rabbon yochanan ben zaccai purposing to devote himself to the study of the law. by the time he arrived at rabbon yochanan's he had been without food four-and-twenty hours, and yet, though repeatedly asked whether he had had anything to eat, refused to confess he was hungry. his father having come to know where he was, went one day to the place on purpose to disinherit him before the assembled rabbis. it so happened that rabbon yochanan was at that time lecturing before some of the great men of jerusalem, and when he saw the father enter, he pressed rabbi eliezer to deliver an exposition. so racy and cogent were his observations that rabbon yochanan rose and styled him his own rabbi, and thanked him in the name of the rest for the instruction he had afforded them. then the father of rabbi eliezer said, "rabbis, i came here for the purpose of disinheriting my son, but now i declare him sole heir of all i have, to the exclusion of his brothers." _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . the father of eliezer acts more magnanimously by his son than does the father of st. francis. like the rabbi, as mr. ruskin relates in his "mornings in florence," st. francis, one of whose three great virtues was obedience, "begins his spiritual life by quarreling with his father. he 'commercially invests' some of his father's goods in charity. his father objects to that investment, on which st. francis runs away, taking what he can find about the house along with him. his father follows to claim his property, but finds it is all gone already, and that st. francis has made friends with the bishop of assisi. his father flies into an indecent passion, and declares he will disinherit him; on which st. francis, then and there, takes all his clothes off, throws them frantically in his father's face, and says he has nothing more to do with clothes or father." not the same strict scrutiny is required in money matters as in cases of capital punishment; for it is said (lev. xxiv. ), "ye shall have one manner of law." what distinction is there made between them? with regard to money matters three judges are deemed sufficient, while in cases of capital offense twenty-three are required, etc. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . rabbi yehoshua ben levi said, "in twenty-four cases doth the tribunal excommunicate for the honor of a rabbi, and all are explained in our mishna." rabbi elazer interposed and asked, "where are they?" the reply was, "go and seek, and thou shalt find." he went accordingly and sought, but found only three--the case of the man who lightly esteems the washing of hands; of him who whispers evil behind the bier of a disciple of the wise; and of him who behaves haughtily toward the most high. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . there are three degrees of excommunication, i.e., separation, exclusion, and execration. that mentioned in the above extract is of the lowest degree, and lasts never less than thirty days. the second degree of excommunication is a prolongation of the first by thirty days more. the third or highest degree lasts for an indefinite time. see moed katon, fol. , col. ; shevuoth, fol. , col. ; and consult index ii. appended. a certain matron once said to rabbi yehuda ben elaei, "thy face is like that of one who breeds pigs and lends money on usury." he replied, "these offices are forbidden me by the rules of my religion, but between my residence and the academy there are twenty-four latrinæ; these i regularly visit as i need." _berachoth_, fol. , col. . the rabbi meant to say that paying attention to the regular action of his excretory organs was the secret of his healthy looks, and to imply that a disordered stomach is the root of most diseases,--a physiological opinion well worthy of regard by us moderns. rav birim says that the venerable rav benaah once went to all the interpreters of dreams in jerusalem, twenty-four in number. every one of them gave a different interpretation, and each was fulfilled; which substantiates the saying that it is the interpretation and not the dream that comes true. ibid., fol. , col. . twenty-four fasts were observed by the men of the great synagogue, in order that the writers of the books, phylacteries, and mezuzahs might not grow rich, lest in becoming rich they might be tempted not to write any more. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . when solomon was desirous of conveying the ark into the temple, the doors shut themselves of their own accord against him. he recited twenty-four psalms, yet they opened not. in vain he cried, "lift up your heads, o ye gates" (ps. xxiv. ). but when he prayed, "o lord god, turn not thy face away from thine anointed; remember the mercies of david, thy servant" ( chron. vi. ), then the gates flew open at once. then the enemies of david turned black in the face, for all knew by this that god had pardoned david's transgression with bathseheba. _moed katon_, fol. , col. . in the midrash rabbah (devarim, chap. ) the same story is told, with this additional circumstance among others, that a sacred respect was paid to the gates when the temple was sacked at the time of the captivity. when the glorious vessels and furniture of the temple were being carried away into babylon, the gates, which were so zealous for the glory of god, were buried on the spot (see lam. ii. ), there to await the restoration of israel. this romantic episode is alluded to in the closing service for the day of atonement. there are twenty-four species of unclean birds, but the clean birds are innumerable. _chullin_, fol. , col. . in twenty-four places priests are called levites, and this is one of them (ezek. xliv. ), "but the priests, the levites, the sons of zadok." _tamid_, fol. , col. . there are twenty-four extremities of members in the human body which do not suffer defilement in the case of diseased flesh (see lev. xiii. , ). the tip-ends of the fingers and toes, the edges of the ears, the tip of the nose, etc. _negaim_, chap. , mish. . twenty-five children is the highest number there should be in a class for elementary instruction. there should be an assistant appointed, if there be forty in number; and if fifty, there should be two competent teachers. rava says, "if there be two teachers in a place, one teaching the children more than the other, the one that teaches less is not to be dismissed, because if so, the other is liable to lapse into negligence also." rav deimi of nehardaa, on the other hand, thinks the dismissal of the former will make the latter all the more eager to teach more, both out of fear lest he also be dismissed, and out of gratitude that he has been preferred to the other. mar says, "the emulation of the scribes (or teachers) increaseth wisdom." rava also says, "when there are two teachers, one teaching much but superficially, and one teaching thoroughly but not so much, the former is to be preferred, for the children will, in the long run, improve most by learning much." rav deimi of nehardaa, however, thinks the latter is to be preferred, for a mistake or an error once learned is difficult to unlearn; as it is written in kings xi. , "for six months did joab remain there with all israel, until he cut off every male in edom." when david asked joab why he killed only the males and not the females, he replied, "because it is written in deut. xxv. , 'thou shalt blot out the male portion of amalek.'" "but," said david, "we read 'the remembrance of amalek.'" to this joab replied, "my teacher taught me to read zachar and not zeichar," i.e., male, and not remembrance. the teacher of joab was sent for; and being found guilty of having taught his pupil in a superficial manner, he was condemned to be beheaded. the poor teacher pleaded in vain for his life, for the king's judgment was based on scripture (jer. xlviii. ), "cursed be he that doeth the work of the lord deceitfully, and cursed be he that keepeth back his sword from blood." _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . the romans faithfully observed their compact with israel for twenty-six years. after that time they began to oppress them. _avoda zarah_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught that a small salt fish will cause death if partaken of after seven, seventeen, or twenty-seven days; some say after twenty-three days. this is said with reference to half-cooked fish, but when properly cooked there is no harm in it. neither does any harm result from eating half-cooked fish, if strong drink be taken after it. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . on the twenty-eighth day of adar there came good news to the jews. the roman government had passed a decree ordaining that they should neither study the law, nor circumcise their children, nor observe the sabbath-days. yehudah ben shamua and his associates went to consult a certain matron, whom all the magnates of rome were in the habit of visiting. she advised them to come at night and raise a loud outcry against the decree they complained of. they did so, and cried, "o heavens! are we not your brethren? are we not the children of one mother?" (alluding to rebekah, the mother of jacob and esau.) "wherein are we worse than all other nations and tongues, that you should oppress us with such harsh decrees?" thereupon the decrees were revoked; to commemorate which the jews established a festival. _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . the renewal of the moon comes round in not less than twenty-nine days and a half and forty minutes. ibid., fol. , col. . rav mari reports that rabbi yochanan had said, "he who indulges in the practice of eating lentils once in thirty days keeps away quinsy, but they are not good to be eaten regularly because by them the breath is corrupted." he used also to say that mustard eaten once in thirty days drives away sickness, but if taken every day the action of the heart is apt to be affected. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . he who eats unripe dates and does not wash his hands will for thirty day be in constant fear, without knowing why, of something untoward happening. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught that the lighter kind of excommunication is not to last less than thirty days, and censure not less than seven. the latter is inferred from what is said in num. xii. , "if her father had but spit in her face, should she not be ashamed seven days?" _moed katon_, fol. , col. . if we meet a friend during any of the thirty days of his mourning for a deceased relative, we must condole with him but not salute him; but after that time he may be saluted but not condoled with. if a man (because he has no family) re-marries within thirty days of the death of his wife, he should not be condoled with at home (lest it might hurt the feelings of his new partner); but if met with out of doors, he should be addressed in an undertone of voice, accompanied with a slight inclination of the head. ibid., fol. , col. . during the thirty days of mourning for deceased friends or relatives, the bereaved should not trim their hair; but if they have lost their parents, they are not to attend to such matters until their friends force them to do so. ibid., fol. , col. . "and haman told them of the glory of his riches and the multitude of his children" (esth. v. ). and how many children were there? rav said thirty; ten had died, ten were hanged, and ten went about begging from door to door. the rabbis say, "those that went about begging from door to door were seventy; for it is written ( sam. ii. ), 'they that were full have hired themselves for bread.'" _meggillah_, fol. , col. . when rabbi chanena bar pappa was about to die, the angel of death was told to go and render him some friendly service. he accordingly went and made himself known to him. the rabbi requested him to leave him for thirty days, until he had repeated what he had been learning; for it is said, "blessed is he who comes here with his studies in his hand." he accordingly left, and at the expiration of thirty days returned to him. the rabbi then asked to be shown his place in paradise, and the angel of death consented to show him while life was still in him. then said the rabbi, "lend me thy sword, lest thou surprise me on the road and cheat me of my expectation." to this the angel of death said, "dost thou mean to serve me as thy friend rabbi yoshua did?" and he declined to intrust the sword to the rabbi. _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . if a man says to a woman, "thou art betrothed to me after thirty days," and in the interim another comes and betroths her, she is the second suitor's. _kiddushin_, fol. , col . if one finds a scroll, he may peruse it once in thirty days, but he must not teach out of it, nor may another join him in reading it; if he does not know how to read, he must unroll it. if a garment be found, it should be shaken and spread out once in thirty days, for its own sake (to preserve it), but not for display. silver and copper articles should be used to take care of them, but not for the sake of ornament. gold and glass vessels he should not meddle with--till the coming of elijah. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . rabbi zira so inured his body (to endurance) that the fire of gehenna had no power over it. every thirty days he experimented on himself, ascending a fiery furnace, and finally sitting down in the midst of it without being affected by the fire. one day, however, as the rabbis fixed their eyes upon him, his hips became singed, and from that day onward he was noted in jewry as the little man with the singed hips. ibid., fol. , col. . an arab once said to rabbah bar channah, "come and i will show thee the place where korah and his accomplices were swallowed up." "there," says the rabbi, "i observed smoke coming out from two cracks in the ground. into one of these he inserted some wool tied on to the end of his spear, and when he drew it out again it was scorched. then he bade me listen. i did so, and as i listened heard them groan out, 'moses and his law are true, but we are liars.' the arab then told me that they come round to this place once in every thirty days, being stirred about in the hell-surge like meat in the boiling caldron." _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . rabbi yochanan, in expounding isa. liv. , said, "the holy one--blessed be he!--will bring precious stones and pearls, each measuring thirty cubits by thirty, and polishing them down to twenty cubits by ten, will place them in the gates of jerusalem." a certain disciple contemptuously observed, "no one has ever yet seen a precious stone as large as a small bird's egg, and is it likely that such immense ones as these have any existence?" he happened one day after this to go forth on a voyage, and there in the sea he saw the angels quarrying precious stones and pearls like those his rabbi had told him of, and upon inquiry he learned that they were intended for the gates of jerusalem. on his return he went straight to rabbi yochanan and told him what he had seen and heard. "raca!" said the latter, "hadst thou not seen them thou wouldst have kept on deriding the words of the wise!" then fixing his gaze intently upon him, he with the glance of his eye reduced to a heap of bones the carcass of his body. ibid., fol. , col. . he who lends unconditionally a sum of money to his neighbor is not entitled to demand it back within thirty days thereafter. _maccoth_, fol. , col. . if a man has lost a relative, he is forbidden to engage in business until thirty days after the death. in the case of the decease of a father or a mother, he is not to resume work until his friends rebuke him and urge him to return. _semachoth_, chap. . it is unlawful for one to enter a banqueting-house for thirty days after the death of a relative; but he must refrain from so doing for twelve months after the demise of either father or mother, unless on the behest of some higher requirement of piety. ibid. but i know not whether there are thirty righteous men here and fifteen in the land of israel, or _vice versâ_. _chullin_, fol. , col. . thirty days in a year are equivalent to a whole year. _niddah_, fol. , col. . "moses, thou didst say unto me, 'what is thy name?' and now thou dost say, 'neither hast thou delivered thy people at all.' now shalt thou see what i will do to pharaoh (exod. v. , vi. ), but not what i am about to do to the thirty-one kings." _sanhedrin_, fol. iii, col. . when rav deimi arrived at babylon, he reported that the romans had fought thirty-two battles with the greeks without once conquering them, until they allied themselves with israel, on the stipulation that where rome appointed the commanding officers the jews should appoint the governors, and _vice versâ_. _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . manasseh did penance thirty-three years. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . balaam was thirty-three years of age when phineas, the robber, slew him. ibid., fol. , col. . for thirty-four years the kingdom of persia lasted contemporaneously with the temple. _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . abaii has said, "there are never fewer than thirty-six righteous men in every generation who receive the presence of the shechinah; for it is said (isa. xxx. ), 'blessed are all those who wait upon him.'" the numerical value (by gematria) of him, is thirty-six. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . the sons of esau, of ishmael, and of keturah went on purpose to dispute the burial (of jacob); but when they saw that joseph had placed his crown upon the coffin, they did the same with theirs. there were thirty-six crowns in all, tradition says. "and they mourned with a great and very sore lamentation." even the very horses and asses joined in it, we are told. on arriving at the cave of machpelah, esau once more protested, and said, "adam and eve, abraham and sarah, isaac and rebekah, are all buried here. jacob disposed of his share when he buried leah in it, and the remaining one belongs to me." "but thou didst sell thy share with thy birthright," remonstrated the sons of jacob. "nay," rejoined esau, "that did not include my share in the burial-place." "indeed it did," they argued, "for our father, just before he died, said (gen. l. ), 'in my grave which i have bought for myself.'" "where are the title-deeds?" demanded esau. "in egypt," was the answer. and immediately the swift-footed naphthali started for the records. ("so light of foot was he," says the book of jasher, "that he could go upon the ears of corn without crushing them.") hushim, the son of dan, being deaf, asked what was the cause of the commotion. on being told what it was, he snatched up a club and smote esau so hard that his eyes dropped out and fell upon the feet of jacob; at which jacob opened his eyes and grimly smiled. this is that which is written (ps. lviii. ), "the righteous shall rejoice when he sees vengeance; he shall wash his feet in the blood of the wicked." then rebekah's prophecy came to pass (gen. xxvii. ), "why shall i be deprived also of you both in one day?" for although they did not both die on the same day, they were both buried on the same day. _soteh_, fol. , col. . this story slightly varied, is repeated in the book of jasher and in the targum of ben uzziel. the principal works of the hand are forty save one:--to sow, to plow, to reap, to bind in sheaves, to thrash, to winnow, to sift corn, to grind, to bolt meal, to knead, to bake, to shear, to wash wool, to comb wool, to dye it, to spin, to warp, to shoot two threads, to weave two threads, to cut and tie two threads, to tie, to untie, to sew two stitches, to tear two threads with intent to sew, to hunt game, to slay, to skin, to salt a hide, to singe, to tan, to cut up a skin, to write two letters, to scratch out two letters with intent to write, to build, to pull down, to put out a fire, to light a fire, to smite with a hammer, to convey from one reshuth [a private property in opposition to a public] to another. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . king yanai had a single tree on the royal mound, whence once a month they collected forty seahs (about fifteen bushels) of young pigeons of three different breeds. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . forty years before the destruction of the temple the sanhedrin were exiled, and they sat in the halls of commerce. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . until one is forty eating is more advantageous than drinking. after that age the rule is reversed. ibid., fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught that during the forty years in which simeon the just officiated in the temple the lot always fell on the right (see lev. xvi. - ). after that time it sometimes fell on the right and sometimes on the left. the crimson band also, which in his time had always turned white, after that period sometimes turned white, and at others it did not change color at all. _yoma_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught:--forty years before the destruction of the temple the lot did not fall on the right, and the crimson band did not turn white; the light in the west did not burn, and the gates of the temple opened of themselves, so that rabbi yochanan ben zacchai rebuked them, and said, "o temple! temple! why art thou dismayed? i know thy end will be that thou shalt be destroyed, for zachariah the son of iddo has already predicted respecting thee (zech. xi. i), 'open thy doors, o lebanon, that the fire may devour thy cedars.'" ibid., fol. , col. . during the forty years that israel were in the wilderness there was not a midnight in which the north wind did not blow. _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . rabbi zadok fasted forty years that jerusalem might not be destroyed, and so emaciated was he, that when he ate anything it might be seen going down his throat. _gittin_, fol. , col. . forty days before the formation of a child a bath kol proclaims, "the daughter of so-and-so shall marry the son of so-and-so; the premises of so-and-so shall be the property of so-and-so." _soteh_, fol. , col. . rav hunna and rav chasda were so angry with one another that they did not meet for forty years. after that rav chasda fasted forty days for having annoyed rav hunna, and rav hunna forty days for having suspected rav chasda. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . a female who marries at forty will never have any children. he who eats black cummin the weight of a denarius will have his heart torn out; so also will he who eats forty eggs or forty nuts, or a quarter of honey. _tract calah._ he that cooks in milk the nerve nashe on a yearly festival, and then eats it, receives five times forty stripes save one, etc. _baitza_, fol. , col. . he who passes forty consecutive days without suffering some affliction has received his good reward in his lifetime (_cf._ luke xvi. ). _erachin_, fol. , col. . if a bath contain forty measures of water and some mud, people may, according to rabbi elazar, immerse themselves in the water of it, but not in the mud; while rabbi yehoshua says they may do so in both. _mikvaoth_, chap. ii. . rav yehudah said in the name of rav:--the divine name, which consists of forty-two letters, is revealed only to him who is prudent and meek, who has reached the meridian of life, is not prone to wrath, not given to drink, and not revengeful. he that knows that name, and acts circumspectly in regard to it, and retains it sacredly, is beloved in heaven and esteemed on earth; he inspires men with reverence, and is heir both to the world that now is and that which is to come. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . a man should always devote himself to the study of the law and to the practice of good deeds, even if he does not do so for their own sake, as self-satisfied performance may follow in due course. thus, in recompense for the forty-two sacrifices he offered, balak was accounted worthy to become the ancestor of ruth. rav yossi bar hunna has said, ruth was the daughter of eglon, the grandson of balak, king of moab. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . these are the forty-five righteous men for whose sake the world is preserved. _chullin_, fol. , col. . rabbi meir had a disciple named sumchus, who in every case assigned forty-eight reasons why one thing should be called clean and why another should be called unclean, though scripture declared the contrary. (a striking illustration of rabbinical ingenuity!) _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . forty-eight prophets and seven prophetesses prophesied unto israel, and they have neither diminished nor added to that which is written in the law, except the reading of the book of esther. _megillah_, fol. , col. . the rabbis teach that in future (in the days of the messiah) all scripture will be abolished except the book of esther, also all festivals except the feast of purim. (see _menorath hamaor_, fol. , col. .) by forty-eight things the law is acquired. these are study, attention, careful conversation, mental discernment, solicitude, reverential fear, meekness, geniality of soul, purity, attention to the wise, mutual discussion, debating, sedateness, learning in the scripture and the mishna, not dabbling in commerce, self-denial, moderation in sleep, aversion to gossip, etc., etc. _avoth_, chap. . when god gave the law to moses, he assigned forty-nine reasons in every case for pronouncing one thing unclean and as many for pronouncing other things clean. _sophrim_, chap. , mish. . he that has fifty zouzim, and trades therewith, may not glean what is left in the corner of the field (lev. xix. ). he that takes it, and has no right to it, will come to want before the day of his departure. and if one who is entitled to it leaves it to others more needy, before he dies he will not only be able to support himself, but be a stay to others. _peah_, chap. , mish. . fifty measures of understanding were created in the world, and all except one were given to moses; as it is said (ps. viii. ), "thou hast made him a little lower than the angels." _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col, . poverty in a house is harder to bear than fifty plagues. _bava bathra_, fol , col. . the above saying is based on job xix. , compared with exod. viii. . for fifty-two years no man traveled through the land of judea. _yoma_. fol. , col. . black cummin is one of the sixty deadly drugs. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . ulla and rav chasda were once traveling together, when they came up to the gate of the house of rav chena bar chenelai. at sight of it rav chasda stooped and sighed. "why sighest thou?" asked ulla, "seeing, as rav says, sighing breaks the body in halves; for it is said (ezek. xxi. ), 'sigh, therefore, o son of man, with the breaking of thy loins;' and rabbi yochanan says a sigh breaks up the whole constitution; for it is said (ezek. xxi. ), 'and it shall be when they say unto thee, wherefore sighest thou? that thou shalt answer, for the tidings because it cometh, and the whole heart shall melt,'" etc. to this rav chasda replied, "how can i help sighing over this house, where sixty bakers used to be employed during the day, and sixty during the night, to make bread for the poor and needy; and rav chena had his hand always at his purse, for he thought the slightest hesitation might cause a poor but respectable man to blush; and besides he kept four doors open, one to each quarter of the heavens, so that all might enter and be satisfied? over and above this, in time of famine he scattered wheat and barley abroad, so that they who were ashamed to gather by day might do so by night; but now this house has fallen into ruin, and ought i not to sigh?" ibid., fol. , col. . egypt is a sixtieth of ethiopia, ethiopia a sixtieth of the world, the world is a sixtieth part of the garden of eden, the garden itself is but a sixtieth of eden, and eden a sixtieth of gehenna. hence the world in proportion to gehenna is but as the lid to a caldron. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . they led forth metatron and struck him sixty bastinadoes with a cudgel of fire. _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . in the context of the foregoing quotation occurs an anecdote of rabbi elisha ben abuyah which is too racy to let pass, and too characteristic to need note or comment. one day elisha ben abuyah was privileged to pry into paradise, where he saw the recording angel metatron on a seat registering the merits of the holy of israel. struck with astonishment at the sight, he exclaimed, "is it not laid down that there is no sitting in heaven, no shortsightedness or fatigue?" then metatron, thus discovered, was ordered out and flogged with sixty lashes from a fiery scourge. smarting with pain, the angel asked and obtained leave to cancel the merits of the prying rabbi. one day--it chanced to be on yom kippur and sabbath--as elisha was riding along by the wall where the holy of holies once stood, he heard a bath kol proclaiming, "return, ye backsliding children, but acher abide thou in thy sin" (acher was the rabbi's nickname). a faithful disciple of his hearing this, and bent on reclaiming and reforming him, invited him to go and hear the lads of a school close by repeat their lessons. the rabbi went, and from that to another and another, until he had gone the round of a dozen seminaries, in the last of which he called up a lad to repeat a verse who had an impediment in his speech. the verse happened to be ps. l. , "but unto the wicked, god saith, why dost thou declare my law?" acher fancied the boy said, and to elisha (his own name), instead of and to rasha, that is, the wicked. this roused the rabbi into such fury of passion, that he sprang to his feet, exclaiming, "if i only had a knife at hand i would cut this boy into a dozen pieces, and send a piece to each school i have visited!" a woman of sixty runs after music like a girl of six. _moed katon_, fol. , col. . rabba, who only studied the law, lived forty years; abaii, who both studied the law and exercised benevolence, lived sixty. _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . the manna which came down upon israel was sixty ells deep. _yoma_, fol. , col. . it is not right for a man to sleep in the daytime any longer than a horse sleeps. and how long is the sleep of a horse? sixty respirations. _succah_, fol. , col. . abaii says, "when i left rabbah, i was not at all hungry; but when i arrived at meree, they served up before me sixty dishes, with as many sorts of viands, and i ate half of each, but as for hotch-potch, which the last dish contained, i ate up all of it, and would fain have eaten up the dish too." abaii said, "this illustrates the proverb, current among the people, 'the poor man is hungry, and does not know when he has eaten enough; or, there is always room for a tit-bit.'" _meggillah_, fol. , col. . there are sixty kinds of wine; the best of all is the red aromatic wine, and bad white wine is the worst. _gittin_, fol. , col. . samson's shoulders were sixty ells broad. _soteh_, fol. , col. . ebal and gerizim were sixty miles from jordan. ibid., fol. , col. . one who makes a good breakfast can outstrip sixty runners in a race (who have not). _bava kama_, fol. , col. . a (hungry) person who looks on while another eats, experiences sixty unpleasant sensations in his teeth. ibid. his wife made him daily sixty sorts of dainties, and these restored him again. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . rabbi blazar, the son of rabbi shimon, once vindictively caused a man to be put to death, merely because he had spoken of him as vinegar the son of wine, a round-about way of reproaching him that he was the bad son of a good father, though it turned out afterward that the condemned man deserved death for a crime that he was not known to be guilty of at the time of his execution; yet the mind of the rabbi was ill at ease, and he voluntarily did penance by subjecting himself in a peculiar fashion to great bodily suffering. sixty woolen cloths were regularly spread under him every night, and these were found soaked in the morning with his profuse perspiration. the result of this was greater and greater bodily prostration, which his wife strove, as related above, day after day to repair, detaining him from college, lest the debates there should prove too much for his weakened frame. when his wife found that he persisted in courting these sufferings, and that her tender care, as well as her own patrimony, were being lavished on him in vain, she tired of her assiduity, and left him to his fate. and now, waited on by some sailors, who believed they owed to him deliverance from a watery grave, he was free to do as he liked. one day, being ministered to by them after a night's perspiration of the kind referred to, he went straight to college, and there decided sixty doubtful cases against the unanimous dissent of the assembly. providential circumstances, which happened afterward, both proved that he was right in his judgment and that his wife was wrong in suffering her fondness for him to stand in the way of the performance of his public duties. elijah frequently attended the rabbi's seat of instruction, and once, on the first of a month, he came in later than usual. rabbi asked what had kept him so late. elijah answered, "i have to wake up abraham, isaac, and jacob one after the other, to wash the hands of each, and to wait until each has said his prayers and retired to rest again." "but," said rabbi, "why do they not all get up at the same time?" the answer was, "because if they prayed all at once, their united prayers would hurry on the coming of the messiah before the time appointed." then said rabbi, "are there any such praying people among us?" elijah mentioned rabbi cheyah and his sons. then rabbi announced a fast, and the rabbi cheyah and his sons came to celebrate it. in the course of repeating the shemoneh esreh [a prayer consisting of eighteen collects, which is repeated three times each day] they were about to say, "thou restoreth life to the dead" when the world was convulsed, and the question was asked in heaven, "who told them the secret?" so elijah was bastinadoed sixty strokes with a cudgel of fire. then he came down like a fiery bear, and dashing in among the people, scattered the congregation. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . when love was strong, we could lie, as it were, on the edge of a sword; but now, when love is diminished, a bed sixty ells wide is not broad enough for us. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . the pig bears in sixty days. _bechoroth_, fol. , col. . sixty iron mines are suspended in the sting of a gnat. _chullin_, fol. , col. . an egg once dropped out of the nest of a bird called bar-yuchnei, which deluged sixty cities and swept away three hundred cedars. the question therefore arose, "does the bird generally throw out its eggs?" rav ashi replied, "no; that was a rotten one." _bechoroth_, fol. , col. . everybody knows why a bride enters the nuptial chamber, but against him who sullies his lips by talking about it, the decree for good, though of seventy years' standing, shall be reversed into a decree for evil. rav chasda says, "whosoever disgraces his mouth (by evil communication), gehenna shall be deepened for him; for it is said in prov. xxii. , 'a deep pit for the mouth of strange words (immoral talk).'" rav nachman bar yitzchak says, "the same punishment will be inflicted on him who listens to it and is silent; for it is said (prov. xxii. ), 'and he that is abhorred of the lord shall fall therein.'" _shabbath_, fol. , col. . (jer. xxiii. ), "like a hammer that breaketh the rock in pieces," so is every utterance which proceedeth from the mouth of god, divided though it be into seventy languages. ibid., fol. , col. . rabbi eliezer asked, "for whose benefit were those seventy bullocks intended?" see num. xxix. - . for the seventy nations into which the gentile world is divided; and rashi plainly asserts that the seventy bullocks were intended to atone for them, that rain might descend all over the world, for on the feast of tabernacles judgment is given respecting rain, etc. woe to the gentile nations for their loss, and they know not what they have lost! for as long as the temple existed, the altar made atonement for them; but now, who is to atone for them? _succah_, fol. , col. . choni, the maagol, once saw in his travels an old man planting a carob-tree, and he asked him when he thought the tree would bear fruit. "after seventy years," was the reply. "what!" said choni, "dost thou expect to live seventy years and eat the fruit of thy labor?" "i did not find the world desolate when i entered it," said the old man; "and as my fathers planted for me before i was born, so i plant for those that will come after me." _taanith_, fol. , col. . mordecai was one of those who sat in the hall of the temple, and he knew seventy languages. _megillah_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught:--during a prosperous year in israel, a place that is sown with a single measure of seed produces five myriad cors of grain. in the tilled districts of zoan, one measure of seed produces seventy cors; for we are told that rabbi meir said he himself had witnessed in the vale of bethshean an instance of one measure of seed producing seventy cors. and there is no better land anywhere than the land of egypt; for it is said, "as the garden of the lord, like the land of egypt." and there is no better land in ail egypt than zoan, where several kings have resided; for it is written (isa. xxx. ), "his princes were in zoan." in all israel there was no more unsuitable soil than hebron, for it was a burying-place, and yet hebron was seven times more prolific than zoan; for it is written (num. xiii. ), "now hebron was built seven years before zoan in egypt." for it is said (gen. x. ), "and the sons of ham, cush, mizraim (that is, egypt), phut, and canaan" (that is, israel). it must, therefore, mean that it was seven times more prolific (the verb meaning both to build and to produce) than zoan. this is only in the unsuitable soil of the land of israel, hebron, but in the suitable soil (the increase) is five hundred times. all this applies to a year of average return, but in one of special prosperity, it is written (gen. xxvi. ), "then isaac sowed in that land, and received in the same year an hundredfold, and the lord blessed him." (the word years, is conveniently overlooked in working out the argument.) _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . the astrologers in egypt said to pharaoh, "what! shall a slave whose master bought him for twenty pieces of silver rule over us?" pharaoh replied, "but i find him endowed with kingly qualities." "if that is the case," they answered, "he must know seventy languages." then came the angel gabriel, and taught him seventy languages. _soteh_, fol. , col. . when the leviathan makes the deep boil, the sea does not recover its calm for seventy years; for it is said (job xli. ), "one would think the deep is to be hoary," and we cannot take the word "hoary" to imply a term of less than seventy years. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . abba chalepha keruya once remarked to rav cheyah bar abba, "the sum total of jacob's family thou findest reckoned at seventy, whereas the numbers added up make only sixty-nine. how is that?" rav cheyah made answer that the particle in verse , implies that dinah must have been one of twin-sisters. "but," objected the other, "the same particle occurs also in connection with benjamin, to say nothing of other instances." "alas!" said rav cheyah, "i am possessed of a secret worth knowing, and thou art trying to worm it out of me." then interposed rav chama bar chanena, "the number may be made up by reckoning jochebed in, for of her it is said (num. xxvi. ) 'that her mother bare her to levi in egypt;' her birth took place in egypt, though she was conceived on the journey." _bava bathra_, fol. , cols, , . rav yehudah says in the name of shemuel:--there is yet another festival in rome, which is observed only once in seventy years, and this is the manner of its celebration. they take an able-bodied man, without physical defect, and cause him to ride upon the back of a lame one. they dress up the former in the garments of adam (such as god made for him in paradise), and cover his face with the skin of the face of rabbi ishmael, the high priest, and adorn his neck with a precious stone. they illuminate the streets, and then lead the two men through the city, a herald proclaiming before them, "the account of our lord was false; it is the brother of our lord that is the deceiver! he that sees this festival sees it, and he that does not see it now will never see it. what advantage to the deceiver is his deception, and to the crafty his craftiness?" the proclamation finishes up thus--"woe to this one when the other shall rise again!" _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . the targum yarushalmi informs us that the lord god wrought for adam and his wife robes of honor from the cast-off skin of the serpent. we learn elsewhere that nimrod came into possession of adam's coat through ham, who stole it from noah while in the ark. the glib tongue of tradition also tells how esau slew nimrod and appropriated the garment, and wore it for luck when hunting; but that on the day when he went to seek venison at the request of his dying parent, in his hurry he forgot the embroidered robe of adam, and had bad luck in consequence. then jacob borrowed the left-off garment, and kept it for himself. the mask alluded to is accounted for thus:--the daughter of a roman emperor took a fancy to have the skin of rabbi ishmael's face, and it accordingly, when he was dead, was taken off, and so embalmed as to retain its features, expression, and complexion, and the jews say that it is still preserved among the relics at rome. the able-bodied man in this prophetic mystery-play represents esau, and the limping man is intended for jacob. rome (or esau) is uppermost in that ceremonial, but the time is coming when jacob will rise and invest himself in the blessings he so craftily obtained the reversion of. rabbi yochanan said:--none were elected to sit in the high council of the sanhedrin except men of stature, of wisdom, of imposing appearance, and of mature age; men who knew witchcraft and seventy languages, in order that the high council of the sanhedrin should have no need of an interpreter. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . yehudah and chiskiyah, the sons of rabbi cheyah, once sat down to a meal before rabbi (the holy) without speaking a word. "give the boys some wine," said rabbi, "that they may have boldness to speak." when they had partaken of the wine, they said, "the son of david will not come until the two patriarchal houses of israel are no more," that is, the head of the captivity in babylon and the prince in the land of israel; for it is written (isa. viii. ), "and he shall be for a sanctuary, and for a stone of stumbling and a rock of offense to both the houses of israel." "why, children," said rabbi (who was patriarch of tiberias), "you are thrusting thorns into my eyes." rabbi cheyah said, "do not be offended at them. wine is given with seventy, and so is a secret (the numerical value of each of these words is seventy); when wine enters the secret oozes out." ibid., fol. , col. . a certain star appears once in seventy years and deceives the sailors (who guide their vessels by the position of the heavenly bodies; and this star appears sometimes in the north and sometimes in the south.--_rashi_.) _horayoth_, fol. , col. . as eating olive berries causes one to forget things that he has known for seventy years, so olive oil brings back to the memory things which happened seventy years before. ibid., fol. , col. , the outside of the shell of the purple mollusk resembles the sea in color; its bodily conformation is like that of a fish; it rises once in seventy years; its blood is used to dye wool purple, and therefore this color is dear. _menachoth_, fol. , col. . the bearing-time of the flat-headed otter lasts seventy years; a parallel may be found in the carob-tree, from the planting to the ripening of the pods of which is seventy years. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . the sanhedrin consisted of seventy-one members. it is recorded that rabbi yossi said, "seldom was there contention in israel, but the judicial court of seventy-one sat in the lishkath-hagazith, i.e., paved hall, and two (ordinary) courts of justice consisting of twenty-three, one of which sat at the entrance of the temple-mount, and the other at the entrance of the ante-court; and also (provincial) courts of justice, also comprising twenty-three members, which held their sessions in all the cities of israel. when an israelite had a question to propose, he asked it first of the court in his own city. if they understood the case, they settled the matter; but if not, they applied to the court of the next city. if the neighboring justices could not decide, they went together and laid the case in debate before the court which held its session at the entrance of the temple-mount. if these courts, in turn, failed to solve the problem, they appealed to the court that sat in the entrance of the ante-court, where a discussion was entered into upon the moot points of the case; if no decision could be arrived at, they all referred to the (supreme) court of seventy-one, where the matter was finally decided by the majority of votes." as the disciples of shammai and hillel multiplied who had not studied the law thoroughly, contentions increased in israel to such an extent that the law lost its unity and became as two. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . the sanhedrin sat in a semicircle, in order that they might see one another; and two notaries stood before them, the one on the right and the other on the left, to record the pros and cons in the various processes. rabbi yehudah says there were three such notaries, one for the pros, one for the cons, and one to record both the pros and the cons. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . the witnesses (in capital cases) were questioned on seven points, as follows:--in what shemitah (or septennial cycle) did it occur? in which year (of the cycle)? in what month? upon what day? at what hour? in what place? ... the more one questioned the more he was commended. (see deut. xiii. ; a.v., ver. .) ibid., fol. , col. . in connection with the foregoing subject, let us string together some of the gems of forensic wisdom to be met with in the talmud. a score or so of bona fide quotations, respecting judges, criminals and criminal punishment, and witnesses, will serve to illustrate this part of our subject. judges. the judge, says the scripture, who for but one hour administers justice according to true equity, is a partner, as it were, with god in his work of creation. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . despicable is the judge who judges for reward; yet his judgment is law, and must, as such, be respected. _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . the judge who accepts a bribe, however perfectly righteous otherwise, will not leave this world with sane mind. ibid., fol. , col. . a judge will establish the land if, like a king, he want nothing; but he will ruin it if, like a priest, he receive gifts from the threshing-floor. ibid. once when shemuel was crossing a river in a ferryboat, a man lent a sustaining hand to prevent him from falling. "what," said the rabbi, "have i done for thee, that thou art so attentive with thy services?" the man replied, "i have a lawsuit before thee." "in that case," said shemuel, "thy attention has disqualified me from judging in thy lawsuit." ameimar was once sitting in judgment, when a man stepped forward and removed some feathers that were clinging to his hair. upon this the judge asked, "what service have i done thee?" the man replied, "i have a case to bring up before thee, my lord." the rabbi replied, "thou hast disqualified me from being judge in the matter." mar ukva once noticed a man politely step up and cover some saliva which lay on the ground before him. "what have i done for thee?" said the rabbi. "i have a case to bring before thee," said the man. "thou hast bribed me with thy kind attention," said the rabbi; "i cannot be thy judge." rabbi ishmael, son of rabbi yossi, had a gardener who regularly brought him a basket of grapes every friday. bringing it once on a thursday, the rabbi asked him the reason why he had come a day earlier. "my lord," said the gardener, "having a lawsuit to come off before thee to-day, i thought by so doing i might save myself the journey to-morrow." upon this the rabbi both refused to take the basket of grapes, though they were really his own, and declined to act as judge in the process. he, however, appointed two rabbis to judge the case in his stead, and while they were investigating the evidence in the litigation he kept pacing up and down, and saying to himself, if the gardener were sharp he might say so-and-so in his own behalf. he was at one time on the point of speaking in defense of his gardener, when he checked himself and said, "the receivers of bribes may well look to their souls. if i feel partial who have not even taken a bribe of what was my own, how perverted must the disposition of those become who receive bribes at the hands of others!" _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . the judge who takes a bribe only provokes wrath, instead of allaying it; for is it not said (prov. xxi. ), "a reward in the bosom bringeth strong wrath"? _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . let judges know with whom and before whom they judge, and who it is that will one day exact account of their judgments; for it is said (ps. lxxxii. ), "god standeth in the assembly of god, and judgeth with the judges." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . a judge who does not judge justly causeth the shechinah to depart from israel; for it is said (ps. xii. ), "for the oppression of the poor, the sighing of the needy, now will i depart, saith the lord." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . the judge should ever regard himself as if he had a sword laid upon his thigh, and gehenna were yawning near him; as it is said (solomon's song, iii. , ), "behold the bed of solomon (the judgment-seat of god), threescore valiant men are about it, of the valiant of israel. they all hold swords, being expert in war (with injustice). every one has his sword upon his thigh, for fear of the night" (the confusion that would follow). _yevamoth_, fol. , col. ; _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . seven have, in the popular regard, no portion in the world to come: a notary, a schoolmaster, the best of doctors, a judge in his native place, a conjuror, a congregational reader, and a butcher. _avoth d' rabbi nathan_, chap. . witnesses. an ignoramus is ineligible for a witness. the following are ineligible as witnesses of the appearance of the new moon:--dice-players, usurers, pigeon-fliers, sellers of the produce of the year of release, and slaves. this is the general rule; in any case in which women are inadmissible as witnesses, they also are inadmissible here. _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . two disciples of the wise happened to be shipwrecked with rabbi yossi ben simaii, and the rabbi allowed their widows to re-marry on the testimony of women. even the testimony of a hundred women is only equal to the evidence of one man (and that only in a case like the foregoing; it is inadmissible in any other matter). _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . "whosoever is not instructed in scripture, in the mishna, and in good manners," says rabbi yochanan, "is not qualified to act as a witness." "he who eats in the street," say the rabbis, "is like a dog;" and some add that such a one is ineligible as a witness, and rav iddi bar avin says the halachah is as "some say." _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . even when a witness is paid, his testimony is not thereby invalidated. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . testimony that is invalidated in part is invalidated entirely. _bava kama_, fol, , col. . let witnesses know with whom and before whom they bear testimony, and who will one day call them to account; for it is said (deut. xix. ), "both the men between whom the controversy is shall stand before the lord." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . those that eat another thing (i.e., not pork, but those who receive charity from a gentile.--rashi and tosefoth) are disqualified from being witnesses. when is this the case? when done publicly; but if in secret, not so. ibid., fol. , col. . he who swears falsely in a capital case is unreliable as a witness in any other suit at law; but if he has perjured himself in a civil case only, his evidence may be relied upon in cases where life and death are concerned. ibid., fol. , col. . he who disavows a loan is fit to be a witness; but he who disowns a deposit in trust is unfit. _shevuoth_, fol. , col. . shimon ben shetach says, "fully examine the witnesses; be careful with thy words, lest from them they learn to lie." _avoth_, chap. . criminals and criminal punishments. four kinds of capital punishment were decreed by the court of justice:--stoning, burning, beheading, and strangling; or as rabbi shimon arranges them--burning, stoning, strangling, and beheading. as soon as the sentence of death is pronounced, the criminal is led out to be stoned, the stoning-place being at a distance from the court of justice; for it is said (lev. xxiv. ), "bring forth him that hath cursed without the camp." then one official stands at the door of the court of justice with a flag in his hand, and another is stationed on horseback at such a distance as to be able to see the former. if, meanwhile, one comes and declares before the court, "i have something further to urge in defense of the prisoner," the man at the door waves his flag, and the mounted official rides forward and stops the procession. even if the criminal himself says, "i have yet something to plead in my defense," he is to be brought back, even four or five times over, provided there is something of importance in his deposition. if the evidence is exculpatory, he is discharged; if not, he is led out to be stoned. as he proceeds to the place of execution, a public crier goes before him and proclaims, "so-and-so, the son of so-and-so, goes out to be stoned because he has committed such-and-such a crime, and so-and-so and so-and-so are the witnesses. let him who knows of anything that pleads in his defense come forward and state it." when about ten yards from the stoning-place, the condemned is called upon to confess his guilt. (all about to be executed were urged to confess, as by making confession every criminal made good a portion in the world to come; for so we find it in the case of achan, when joshua said unto him (josh. vii. ), "my son, give, i pray thee, glory to the lord god of israel, and make confession unto him," etc. "and achan answered joshua and said, indeed i have sinned." but where are we taught that his confession was his atonement? where it is said (ibid., v. ), "and joshua said, why hast thou troubled us? the lord shall trouble thee this day;" as if to say, "this day thou shalt be troubled, but in the world to come thou shalt not be troubled.") about four yards from the stoning-place they stripped off the criminal's clothes, covering a male in front, but a female both before and behind. these are the words of rabbi yehudah; but the sages say a man was stoned naked, but not a female. the stoning-place was twice the height of a man, and this the criminal ascended. one of the witnesses then pushed him from behind, and he tumbled down upon his chest. he was then turned over upon his back: if he was killed, the execution was complete; but if not quite dead, the second witness took a heavy stone and cast it upon his chest; and if this did not prove effectual, then the stoning was completed by all present joining in the act; as it is said (deut. xvii. ), "the hands of the witnesses shall be first upon him to put him to death, and afterward the hands of all the people." "criminals who were stoned dead were afterward hanged." these are the words of rabbi eliezer; but the sages say none were hanged but the blasphemer and the idolater. "they hanged a man with his face toward the people, but a woman with her face toward the gallows." these are the words of rabbi eliezer; but the sages say a man is hanged, but no woman is hanged.... how then did they hang the man? a post was firmly fixed into the ground, from which an arm of wood projected, and they tied the hands of the corpse together and so suspended it. rabbi yossi says, "the beam simply leaned against a wall, and so they hung up the body as butchers do an ox or a sheep, and it was soon afterward taken down again, for if it remained over night a prohibition of the law would have been thereby transgressed." for it is said (deut. xxi. ), "his body shall not remain all night upon the tree, but thou shalt in any wise bury him that day; for he that is hanged is accursed of god," etc. that is to say, people would ask why this one was hanged; and as the reply would needs be, "because he blasphemed god," this would lead to the use of god's name under circumstances in which it would be blasphemed. the sentence of burning was carried out thus:--they fixed the criminal up to his knees in manure, and a hard cloth wrapped in a softer material was passed round his neck. one of the witnesses, taking hold of this, pulled it one way, and another the other, until the criminal was forced to open his mouth; then a wick of lead was lighted and thrust into his mouth, the molten lead running down into his bowels and burning them. rabbi yehudah asks, "if the criminal should die in their hands, how would that fulfill the commandment respecting burning?" but they forcibly open his mouth with a pair of tongues and the lighted wire (the molten lead) is thrust into his mouth, so that it goes down into his bowels and burns his inside. the sentence of beheading was executed thus:--they sometimes cut off the criminal's head with a sword, as is done among the romans. but rabbi yehudah says this was degrading, and in some cases they placed the culprit's head upon the block and struck it off with an ax. some one remarked to him that such a death is more degrading still. the sentence of strangling was carried out thus:--they fixed the criminal up to his knees in manure, and having twined a hard cloth within a soft one round his neck, one witness pulled one way and the other pulled in an opposite direction till life was extinct. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. ; fol. , col. ; fol. , cols. , . the above, which has been translated almost literally from the talmud, may serve to remove many misconceptions now current as to the modes of capital punishment that obtained in jewry. in further illustration of this topic, we will append some of the legal decisions that are recorded in the talmud, authenticating each by reference to folio and column. examples might be multiplied by the score, but a sufficient number will be quoted to give a fair idea of rabbinic jurisprudence. if one who intends to kill a beast (accidentally) kill a man; or if, purposing to kill a gentile, he slay an israelite; or if he destroy a foetus in mistake for an embryo, he shall be free; i.e., not guilty. ibid., fol. , col. . he who has been flogged and exposes himself again to the same punishment is to be shut up in a narrow cell, in which he can only stand upright, and be fed with barley till he burst. ibid., fol. , col. . if one commits murder, and there is not sufficient legal evidence, he is to be shut up in a narrow cell and fed with "the bread of adversity and the water of affliction" (isa. xxx. ). they give him this diet till his bowels shrink, and then he is fed with barley till (as it swells in his bowels) his intestines burst. ibid. a woman who is doomed, being _enceinte_, to suffer the extreme penalty of the law, is first beaten, about the womb, lest a mishap occur at the execution. _erachin_, fol. , col. . if a woman who has vowed the vow of a nazarite drink wine or defile herself by contact with a dead body (see num. vi. - ), she is to undergo the punishment of forty stripes. _nazir_, fol. , col. . the rabbis teach that when the woman has to be flogged, the man has only to bring a sacrifice; and that if she is not to be flogged, the man is not required to bring a sacrifice. (this is in reference to lev. xix. , .) _kerithoth_, fol. , col. . rav yehudah says, "he that eats a certain aquatic insect, the swallowing of which while drinking would involve no penalty whatever--tosefoth, receives forty stripes save one (the penalty for transgressing the negative precepts), for it belongs to the class of 'creeping things that do creep upon the earth' (lev. xi. )." rav yehudah once gave a practical exemplification of this ruling of his. abaii says, "he that eats a particular animalcule found in stagnant water, receives four times forty stripes save one. for eating an ant this penalty is five times repeated, and for eating a wasp it is inflicted six times." _maccoth_, fol. , col. . when one is ordered to construct a booth, or to prepare a palm-branch for the feast of tabernacles, or to make fringes, and does not do so, he is to be flogged till his soul comes out of him. _chullin_, fol. , col. . once on a time, as the rabbis relate, the wicked government sent two officers to the wise men of israel, saying, "teach us your law." this being put into their hands, three times over they perused it; and when about to leave they returned it, remarking, "we have carefully studied your law, and find it equitable save in one particular. you say: when the ox of an israelite gores to death the ox of an alien, its owner is not liable to make compensation; but if the ox of an alien gore to death the ox of an israelite, its owner must make full amends for the loss of the animal; whether it be the first or second time that the ox has so killed another (in which case an israelite would have to pay to another israelite only half the value of the loss), or the third time (when he would be fined to the full extent of his neighbor's loss). either 'neighbor' (in exod. xxi. , for such the word signifies in the original hebrew, though the authorized version has another) is taken strictly as referring to an israelite only, and then an alien should be exempted as well; or if the word 'neighbor' is to be taken in its widest sense, why should not an israelite be bound to pay when his ox gores to death the ox of an alien?" "this legal point," was the answer, "we do not tell the government." as rashi says in reference to the preceding halacha, "an alien forfeits the right to his own property in favor of the jews." _bava kama_, fol. , col. . ptolemy, the king (of egypt), assembled seventy-two elders of israel and lodged them in seventy-two separate chambers, but did not tell them why he did so. then he visited each one in turn and said, "write out for me the law of moses your rabbi." the holy one--blessed be he!--went and counseled the minds of every one of them, so that they all agreed, and wrote, "god created in the beginning," etc. _megillah_, fol. , col. . the talmudic story of the origin of the septuagint agrees in the main with the account of aristeas and josephus, but philo gives the different version. many of the christian fathers believed it to be the work of inspiration. abraham was as tall as seventy-four people; what he ate and drank was enough to satisfy seventy-four ordinary men, and his strength was proportionate. _sophrim_, chap. , . the venerable hillel had eighty disciples, thirty of whom were worthy that the shechinah should rest upon them, as it rested upon moses our rabbi; and thirty of them were worthy that the sun should stand still (for them), as it did for joshua the son of nun; and twenty of them stood midway in worth. the greatest of all of them was jonathan ben uzziel, and the least of all was rabbi yochanan ben zacchai. it is said of rabbi yochanan ben zacchai that he did not leave unstudied the bible, the mishna, the gemara, the constitutions, the legends, the minutiae of the law, the niceties of the scribes, the arguments _à fortìori_ and from similar premises, the theory of the change of the moon, the gematria, the parable of the unripe grapes and the foxes, the language of demons, of palm-trees, and of ministering angels. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . a male criminal is to be hanged with his face toward the people, but a female with her face toward the gibbet. so says rabbi eliezer; but the sages say the man only is hanged, not the woman. rabbi eliezer retorted, "did not simeon the son of shetach hang women in askelon?" to this they replied, "he indeed caused eighty women to be hanged, though two criminals are not to be condemned in one day." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . we may here repeat the story of the execution of the eighty women here alluded to, as that is told by rashi on the preceding page of the talmud. once a publican, an israelite but a sinner, and a great and good man of the same place, having died on the same day, were about to be buried. while the citizens were engaged with the funeral of the latter, the relations of the other crossed their path, bearing the corpse to the sepulchre. of a sudden a troop of enemies came upon the scene and caused them all to take to flight, one faithful disciple alone remaining by the bier of his rabbi. after a while the citizens returned to inter the remains they had so unceremoniously left, but by some mistake they took the wrong bier and buried the publican with honor, in spite of the remonstrance of the disciple, while the relatives of the publican buried the rabbi ignominiously. the poor disciple felt inconsolably distressed, and was anxious to know for what sin the great man had been buried with contempt, and for what merit the wicked man had been buried with such honor. his rabbi then appeared to him in a dream, and said, "comfort thou thy heart, and come i will show thee the honor i hold in paradise, and i will also show thee that man in gehenna, the hinge of the door of which even now creaks in his ears. (which were formed into sockets for the gates of hell to turn in.) but because once on a time i listened to contemptuous talk about the rabbis and did not check it, i have suffered an ignoble burial, while the publican enjoyed the honor that was intended for me because he once distributed gratuitously among the poor of the city a banquet he had prepared for the governor, but of which the governor did not come to partake." the disciple having asked the rabbi how long this publican was to be thus severely treated, he replied, "until the death of simeon the son of shetach, who is to take the publican's place in gehenna." "why so?" "because, though he knows there are several jewish witches in askelon, he idly suffers them to ply their infernal trade and does not take any steps to extirpate them." on the morrow the disciple reported this speech to simeon the son of shetach, who at once proceeded to take action against the obnoxious witches. he engaged eighty stalwart young men, and choosing a rainy day, supplied each with an extra garment folded up and stowed away in an earthern vessel. thus provided, they were each at a given signal to snatch up one of the eighty witches and carry her away, a task they would find of easy execution, as, except in contact with the earth, these creatures were powerless. then simeon the son of shetach, leaving his men in ambush, entered the rendezvous of the witches, who, accosting him, asked, "who art thou?" he replied, "i am a wizard, and am come to experiment in magic." "what trick have you to show?" they said. he answered, "even though the day is wet, i can produce eighty young men all in dry clothes." they smiled incredulously and said, "let us see!" he went to the door, and at the signal the young men took the dry clothes out of the jars and put them on, then starting from their ambush, they rushed into the witches' den, and each seizing one, lifted her up and carried her off as directed. thus overpowered, they were brought before the court, convicted of malpractices and led forth to execution. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . (exod. xxiii. ), "and i will take away sickness from the midst of thee." it is taught that sickness (machlah) means the bile. but why is it termed machlah? because eighty-three diseases are in it. machlah by gematria equals eighty-three; and all may be avoided by an early breakfast of bread and salt and a bottle of water. _bava kama_, fol. , col. . if in a book of the law the writing is obliterated all but eighty-five letters--as, for instance, in num. x. , , "and it came to pass when the ark set forward," etc.,--it may be rescued on the sabbath from a fire, but not otherwise. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . elijah said to rabbi judah the brother of rav salla the pious, "the world will not last less than eighty-five jubilees, and in the last jubilee the son of david will come." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col . there was not a single individual in israel who had not ninety lybian donkeys laden with the gold and silver of egypt. _bechoroth_, fol. , col. . ( sam. xix. ), "can thy servant taste what i eat or what i drink?" from this we learn that in the aged the sense of taste is destroyed.... rav says, "barzillai the gileadite reports falsely, for the cook at the house of rabbi (the holy) was ninety-two years old, and yet could judge by taste of what was cooking in the pot." _shabbath_, fol. , col. . rava said, "life, children, and competency do not depend on one's merit, but on luck; for instance, rabbah and rav chasda were both righteous rabbis; the one prayed for rain and it came, and the other did so likewise with the like result; yet rav chasda lived ninety-two years and rabbah only forty. rav chasda, moreover, had sixty weddings in his family during his lifetime, whereas rabbah had sixty serious illnesses in his during the short period of his life. at the house of the former even the dogs refused to eat bread made of the finest wheat flour, whereas the family of the latter were content to eat rough bread of barley and could not always obtain it." rava also added, "for these three things i prayed to heaven, two of which were and one was not granted unto me. i prayed for the wisdom of rav hunna and for the riches of rav chasda, and both these were granted unto me; but the humility and meekness of rabbah, the son of rav hunna, for which i also prayed, was not granted." _moed katon_, fol. , col. . the judges who issued decrees at jerusalem received for salary ninety-nine manahs from the contributions of the chamber. _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . ninety-nine die from an evil eye for one who dies in the usual manner. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught us who they are that are to be accounted rich. "every one," says rabbi meir, "who enjoys his riches." but rabbi tarphon says, "every one who has a hundred vineyards and a hundred fields, with a hundred slaves to labor in them." rabbi akiva pronounces him well off who has a wife that is becoming in all her ways. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . a light for one is a light for a hundred. ibid., fol. , col. . when a gentile lights a candle or a lamp on the sabbath-eve for his own use, an israelite is permitted to avail himself of its light, as a light for one is a light for a hundred; but it is unlawful for an israelite to order a gentile to kindle a light for his use. a hundred rav papas and not one (like) ravina! a hundred zouzim employed in commerce will allow the merchant meat and wine at his table daily, but a hundred zouzim employed in farming will allow their owner only salt and vegetables. _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . a hundred women are equal to only one witness (compare deut. xvii. and xix. ). ibid., fol. , col. . if song should cease, a hundred geese or a hundred measures of wheat might be offered for one zouz, and even then the buyer would refuse paying such a sum for them. _soteh_, fol. , col. . rav says, "the ear that often listens to song shall be rooted out." music, according to the idea here, raises the price of provisions. do away with music and provisions will be so abundant that a goose would be considered dear at a penny. theatres and music-halls are abominations to orthodox jews, and the talmud considers the voice of a woman to be immoral. when rabbi zira returned to the land of israel he fasted a hundred times in order that he might forget the babylonian talmud. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . this passage, as also that on another page, will appear surprising to many a reader, as we confess it does to ourselves. we must, however, give the talmud great credit for recording such passages, and also the custodians of the talmud for not having expunged them from its pages. "ye shall hear the small as well as the great" (deut. i. ). resh lakish said, "a lawsuit about a prutah (the smallest coin there is) should be esteemed of as much account as a suit of a hundred manahs." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . rav yitzchak asks, "why was obadiah accounted worthy to be a prophet?" because, he answers, he concealed a hundred prophets in a cave; as it is said ( kings xviii. ), "when jezebel cut off the prophets of the lord, obadiah took a hundred prophets and hid them by fifty in a cave." why by fifties? rabbi eliezer explains, "he copied the plan from jacob, who said, 'if esau come to one company and smite it, then the other company which is left may escape.'" rabbi abuhu says, "it was because the caves would not hold any more." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . "and it came to pass after these things that god did test abraham" (gen. xxii. ). after what things? rabbi yochanan, in the name of rabbi yossi ben zimra, replies, "after the words of satan, who said, 'lord of the universe! thou didst bestow a son upon that old man when he was a hundred years of age, and yet he spared not a single dove from the festival to sacrifice to thee.' god replied, 'did he not make this festival for the sake of his son? and yet i know he would not refuse to sacrifice that son at my command.' to prove this, god did put abraham to the test, saying unto him, 'take now thy son;' just as an earthly king might say to a veteran warrior who had conquered in many a hard-fought battle, 'fight, i pray thee, this severest battle of all, lest it should be said that thy previous encounters were mere haphazard skirmishes.' thus did the holy one--blessed be he!--address abraham, 'i have tried thee in various ways, and not in vain either; stand this test also, for fear it should be insinuated that the former trials were trivial and therefore easily overcome. take thy son.' abraham replied, 'i have two sons.' 'take thine only son.' abraham answered, 'each is the only son of his mother.' 'take him whom thou lovest.' 'i love both of them,' said abraham. 'take isaac.' thus abraham's mind was gradually prepared for this trial. while on the way to carry out this divine command satan met him, and (parodying job iv. - ) said, 'why ought grievous trials to be inflicted upon thee? behold thou hast instructed many, and thou hast strengthened the weak hands. thy words have supported him that was falling, and now this sore burden is laid upon thee.' abraham answered (anticipating ps. xxvi. ), 'i will walk in my integrity.' then said satan (see job iv. ), 'is not the fear (of god) thy folly? remember, i pray thee, who ever perished being innocent?' then finding that he could not persuade him, he said (perverting job iv. ), 'now a word came to me by stealth. i overheard it behind the veil (in the holy of holies above). a lamb will be the sacrifice, and not isaac.' abraham said, 'it is the just desert of a liar not to be believed even when he speaks the truth.'" _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . it is better to have ten inches to stand upon than a hundred yards to fall. _avoth d' rab. nathan_, chap. . when israel went up to jerusalem to worship their father who is in heaven, they sat so close together that no one could insert a finger between them, yet when they had to kneel and to prostrate themselves there was room enough for them all to do so. the greatest wonder of all was that even when a hundred prostrated themselves at the same time there was no need for the governor of the synagogue to request one to make room for another. ibid., chap. . a man is bound to repeat a hundred blessings every day. _menachoth_, fol. , col. . this duty, as rashi tells us, is based upon deut. x. , altering the word what into a hundred, by the addition of a letter. this is what the so-called pagan goethe, intent on self-culture as the first if not the final duty of man, makes serlo in his "meister" lay down as a rule which one should observe daily. "one," he says, "ought every day to hear a little song, read a good poem, see a fine picture, and, if possible, speak a few reasonable words." the contrast between this advice and that of the talmud here and elsewhere is suggestive of reflections. he who possesses one manah may buy, in addition to his bread, a litra of vegetables; the owner of ten manahs may add to his bread a litra of fish; he that has fifty manahs may add a litra of meat; while the possessor of a hundred may have pottage every day. _chullin_, fol. , col. . ben hey-hey said to hillel, "what does this mean that is written in mal. iii. , 'then shall ye return, and discern between the righteous and the wicked, between him that serveth god and him that serveth him not'? does the righteous here mean him that serveth god, and the wicked him that serveth him not? why this repetition?" to this hillel replied, "the expressions, 'he that serveth god, and he that serveth him not,' are both to be understood as denoting 'perfectly righteous,' but he who repeats his lesson a hundred times is not to be compared with one who repeats it a hundred and one times." then said ben hey-hey, "what! because he has repeated what he has learned only one time less than the other, is he to be considered as 'one who serveth him not'?" "yes!" was the reply; "go and learn a lesson from the published tariff of the donkey-drivers--ten miles for one zouz, eleven for two." _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . hillel was great and good and clever, but his exposition of scripture, as we see from the above, is not always to be depended upon. if, indeed, he was the teacher of jesus, as some suppose him to have been, then jesus must, even from a rabbinical stand-point, be regarded as greater than hillel the great, for he never handled the scriptures with such irreverence. one hundred and three chapters (or psalms) were uttered by david, and he did not pronounce the word hallelujah until he came to contemplate the downfall of the wicked; as it is written (ps. civ. ), "let the sinners be consumed out of the earth, and let the wicked be no more. bless the lord, o my soul, hallelujah!" instead of one hundred and three we ought to say a hundred and four, but we infer from this that "blessed is the man," etc., and "why do the heathen rage?" etc., are but one psalm. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . one of the most charming women that we find figuring in the talmud was the wife of rabbi meir, beruriah by name; and as we meet with her in the immediate context of the above quotation, it may be well to introduce her here to the attention of the reader. the context speaks of a set of ignorant fellows (probably greeks) who sorely vexed the soul of rabbi meir, her husband, and he ardently prayed god to take them away. then beruriah reasoned with her husband thus:--"is it, pray, because it is written (ps. civ. ), 'let the sinners be consumed'? it is not written 'sinners,' but 'sins.' besides, a little farther on in the text it is said, 'and the wicked will be no more;' that is to say, 'let sins cease, and the wicked will cease too.' pray, therefore, on their behalf that they may be led to repentance, and these wicked will be no more." this he therefore did, and they repented and ceased to vex him. of this excellent and humane woman it may well be said, "she openeth her mouth with wisdom, and in her tongue is the law of kindness" (prov. xxxi. ). her end was tragic. she was entrapped by a disciple of her husband, and out of shame she committed suicide. see particulars by rashi in avodah zarah, fol. , col. . the hasmoneans ruled over israel during the time of the second temple a hundred and three years; and for a hundred and three the government was in the hands of the family of herod. _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . rabbi yochanan the son of zacchai lived a hundred and twenty years; forty he devoted to commerce, forty to study, and forty to teaching. _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . one hundred and twenty elders, and among them several prophets, bore a part in composing the eighteen blessings (the shemonah esreh). _meggillah_, fol. , col. . a similar tradition was current among the early christians, with reference to the composition of the creed. its different sentences were ascribed to different apostles. however fitly this tradition may represent the community of faith with which the prophets on the one hand and the apostles on the other were inspired, it is not recommended by the critic as a proceeding calculated to ensure unity in a work of art. rabbi shemuel says advantage may be taken of the mistakes of a gentile. he once bought a gold plate as a copper one of a gentile for four zouzim, and then cheated him out of one zouz into the bargain. rav cahana purchased a hundred and twenty vessels of wine from a gentile for a hundred zouzim, and swindled him in the payment out of one of the hundred, and that while the gentile assured him that he confidently trusted to his honesty. rava once went shares with a gentile and bought a tree, which was cut up into logs. this done, he bade his servant go to pick him out the largest logs, but to be sure to take no more than the proper number, because the gentile knew how many there were. as rav ashi was walking abroad one day he saw some grapes growing in a roadside vineyard, and sent his servant to see whom they belonged to. "if they belong to a gentile," he said, "bring some here to me; but if they belong to an israelite, do not meddle with them." the owner, who happened to be in the vineyard, overheard the rabbi's order and called out, "what! is it lawful to rob a gentile?" "oh, no," said the rabbi evasively; "a gentile might sell, but an israelite would not." _bava kama_, fol. , col. . this is given simply as a sample of the teaching of the talmud on the subject both by precept and example. there is no intention to cast a slight on general jewish integrity, or suggest distrust in regard to their ethical creed. rabbon gamliel, rabbi eliezer ben azaryah, rabbi yehoshua, and rabbi akiva once went on a journey to rome, and at puteoli they already heard the noisy din of the city, though at a distance of a hundred and twenty miles. at the sound all shed tears except akiva, who began to laugh. "why laughest thou?" they asked. "why do you cry?" he retorted. they answered, "these romans, who worship idols of wood and stone and offer incense to stars and planets, abide in peace and quietness, while our temple, which was the footstool of our god, is consumed by fire; how can we help weeping?" "that is just the very reason," said he, "why i rejoice; for if such be the lot of those who transgress his laws, what shall the lot of those be who observe and do them?" _maccoth_, fol. , col. . when adam observed that his sin was the cause of the decree which made death universal he fasted one hundred and thirty years, abstained all that space from intercourse with his wife, and wore girdles of fig-leaves round his loins. all these years he lived under divine displeasure, and begat devils, demons, and spectres; as it is said (gen. v. ), "and adam lived a hundred and thirty years, and begat in his own likeness, after his image," which implies that, until the close of those years, his offspring were not after his own image. _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . there is a tradition that there was once a disciple in yabneh who gave a hundred and fifty reasons to prove a reptile to be clean (which the scripture regards as unclean.--compare lev. xi. ). ibid., fol , col . the ablutionary tank made by solomon was as large as a hundred and fifty lavatories. ibid., fol. , col. . a hundred and eighty years before the destruction of the temple, the empire of idolatry (rome) began the conquest of israel. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . the empire of rome was, some think, so designated, because it strove with all its might to drag down the worship of god to the worship of man, and resolve the cause of god into the cause of the empire. during the time of the second temple persia domineered over israel for thirty-four years and the greeks held sway a hundred and eighty. _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . foolish saints, crafty villains, sanctimonious women, and self-afflicting pharisees are the destroyers of the world. what is it to be a foolish saint? to see a woman drowning in the river and refrain from trying to save her because of the look of the thing. who is to be regarded as a crafty villain? rabbi yochanan says, "he who prejudices the magistrates by prepossessing them in favor of his cause before his opponent has had time to make his appearance." rabbi abhu says, "he who gives a denarius to a poor man to make up for him the sum total of two hundred zouzim; for it is enacted that he who possesses two hundred zouzim is not entitled to receive any gleanings, neither what is forgotten in the field, nor what is left in the corner of it (see lev. xxiii. ), nor poor relief either. but if he is only one short of the two hundred zouzim, and a thousand people give anything to him, he is still entitled to the poor man's perquisites." _soteh_, fol. , col. . the cup of david in the world to come will contain two hundred and twenty-one logs; as it is said (ps. xxiii. ), "my cup runneth over," the numerical value of the hebrew word, "runneth over," being two hundred and twenty-one. _yoma_, fol. , col. . in the world to come the holy one will make a grand banquet for the righteous from the flesh of the leviathan. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . (see the morning service for the middle days of the feast of tabernacles.) god will make a banquet for the righteous on the day when he shows his mercy to the posterity of isaac. after the meal the cup of blessing will be handed to abraham, in order that he may pronounce the blessing, but he will plead excuse because he begat ishmael. then isaac will be told to take the cup and speak the benediction of grace, but he also will plead his unworthiness because he begat esau. next jacob also will refuse because he married two sisters. then moses, on the ground that he was unworthy to enter the land of promise, or even to be buried in it; and finally joshua will plead unworthiness because he had no son. david will then be called upon to take the cup and bless, and he will respond, "yea, i will bless, for i am worthy to bless, as it is said (ps. cxvi. ), 'i will take the cup of salvation, and call upon the name of the lord.'" p'sachim, fol. , col. . this cup, as we are told above, will contain two hundred and twenty-one logs (which the rabbis tell us, is the twenty-fourth part of a seah, therefore this cup will hold rather more than one-third of a hogshead of wine). beruriah once found a certain disciple who studied in silence. as soon as she saw him she spurned him and said, "is it not thus written ( sam. xxiii. ), 'ordered in all and sure'? if ordered with all the two hundred and forty-eight members of thy body, it will be sure; if not, it will not be sure." it is recorded that rabbi eliezer had a disciple who also studied in silence, but that after three years he forgot all that he had learned. _eiruvin_, fol. , col. , and fol. , col. . in continuation of the above we read that shemuel said to rav yehudah, "shrewd fellow, open thy mouth when thou readest, etc., so that thy reading may remain and thy life may be lengthened; as it is written in prov. iv. , 'for they are life unto those that find them;' read not, 'that find them,' but read, 'that bring them forth by the mouth,' i.e., that read them aloud." it was and is still a common custom in the east to study aloud. as an anathema enters all the two hundred and forty-eight members of the body, so does it issue from them all. of the entering-in of the anathema it is written (josh. vi. ), "and the city shall be accursed;" by gematria amounting to two hundred and forty-eight. of the coming-out of the anathema it is written (hab. iii. ), "in wrath remember mercy;" a transposition of the letters of the word for accursed, also amounting by gematria to two hundred and forty-eight. rabbi joseph says, "hang an anathema on the tail of a dog and he will still go on doing mischief." _moed katon_, fol. , col. . the human body has two hundred and forty-eight members:--thirty in the foot--that is, six in each toe--ten in the ankle, two in the thigh, five in the knee, one in the hip, three in the hip-ball, eleven ribs, thirty in the hand--that is, six in each finger--two in the fore-arm, two in the elbow, one in the upper arm, four in the shoulder. thus we have one hundred and one on each side; to this add eighteen vertebrae in the spine, nine in the head, eight in the neck, six in the chest, and five in the loins. _oholoth_, chap. i, mish. . see also eiruvin, fol. , col. , and the musaph for the second day of pentecost. in the musaph for the new year there is a prayer that runs thus, "oh, deign to hear the voice of those who glorify thee with all their members, according to the number of the two hundred and forty-eight affirmative precepts. in this month they blow thirty sounds, according to the thirty members of the soles of their feet; the additional offerings of the day are ten, according to the ten in their ankles; they approach the altar twice, according to their two legs; five are called to the law, according to the five joints in their knees; they observe the appointed time to sound the cornet on the first day of the month, according to the one in their thigh; they sound the horn thrice, according to the three in their hips; lo! with the additional offering of the new moon they are eleven, according to their eleven ribs; they pour out the supplication with nine blessings, according to the muscles in their arms, and which contain thirty verses, according to the thirty in the palms of their hands; they daily repeat the prayer of eighteen blessings, according to the eighteen vertebrae in the spine; at the offering of the continual sacrifice they sound nine times, according to the nine muscles in their head," etc., etc. it is related of rabbi ishmael's disciples that they dissected a low woman who had been condemned by the government to be burned, and upon examination they found that her body contained two hundred and fifty-two members. _bechoroth_, fol. , col. . the regular period of gestation is either two hundred and seventy-one, two hundred and seventy-two, or two hundred and seventy-three days. _niddah_, fol. , col. . revere the memory of chananiah ben chiskiyah, for had it not been for him the book of ezekiel would have been suppressed, because of the contradictions it offers to the words of the law. by the help of three hundred bottles of oil, which were brought up into an upper chamber, he prolonged his lucubrations, till he succeeded in reconciling all the discrepancies. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . it is related of johanan, the son of narbai, that he used to eat three hundred calves, and to drink three hundred bottles of wine, and to consume forty measures of young pigeons by way of dessert. (rashi says this was because he had to train many priests in his house.) _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . the keys of the treasury of korah were so many that it required three hundred white mules to carry them. these, with the locks, were said to be made of white leather. ibid., fol. , col. . the midrash repeats the same story, and adds, "his wealth was his ruin." "he is as rich as korah" is now a jewish proverb. rav chiya, the son of adda, was tutor to the children of resh lakish, and once absented himself from his duties for three days. on his return he was questioned as to the reason of his conduct, and he gave the following reply: "my father bequeathed to me a vine, trained on high trellis-work as a bower, from which i gathered the first day three hundred bunches, each of which yielded a gerav of wine (a gerav is a measure containing as much as egg-shells would contain). on the second day i again gathered three hundred bunches of smaller size, two only producing one gerav (one bunch yielding the quantity of wine egg-shells would contain). the third day i also gathered three hundred bunches, but only three bunches to the gerav, and have yet left more than half of the grapes free for any one to gather them." thereupon resh lakish observed to him, "if thou hadst not been so negligent (losing time in the instruction of my children), it would have yielded still more." _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . there were three hundred species of male demons in sichin, but what the female demon herself was like is known to no one. _gittin_, fol. , col. . "now, when job's three friends heard of all this evil that was come upon him, they came each from his own place; eliphaz the temanite, bildah the shuhite, and zophar the naamathite: for they had made an appointment together to come and mourn with him, and to comfort him" (job ii. ). what is meant when it is said, "they had made an appointment together"? rab. yehudah says in the name of rav, "this is to teach that they all came in by one gate." but there is a tradition that each lived three hundred miles away from the other. how then came they to know of job's sad condition? some say they had wreaths, others say trees (each representing an absent friend), and when any friend was in distress the one representing him straightway began to wither. rava said, "hence the proverb, 'either a friend as the friends of job, or death.'" _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . rashi tenders this explanation, that job and his friends had each wreaths with their names engraved on them, and if affliction befell any one his name upon the wreath would change color. rabbi yochanan says that rabbi meir knew three hundred fables about foxes, but we have only three of them, viz, "the fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge" (ezek. xviii. ); "just balances and just weights" (lev. xix. ); "the righteous is delivered out of trouble, and the wicked cometh in his stead" (prov. xi. ). _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. , and fol. , col. . quite apropos to this we glean the following from rashi:--a fox once induced a wolf to enter a jewish dwelling to help the inmates to get ready the sabbath meal. no sooner did he enter than the whole household set upon him, and so belabored him with cudgels that he was obliged to flee for his life. for this trick the wolf was indignant at the fox, and sought to kill him, but he pacified him with the remark, "they would not have beaten thee if thy father had not on a former occasion belied confidence, and eaten up the choicest pieces that were set aside for the meal." "what!" rejoined the wolf, "the fathers have eaten sour grapes, and shall the children's teeth be set on edge?" "well," interrupted the fox, "come with me now and i will show thee a place where thou mayest eat and be satisfied." he thereupon took him to a well, across the top of which rested a transverse axle with a rope coiled round it, to each extremity of which a bucket was attached. the fox, entering the bucket, which happened to be at the top, soon descended by his own weight to the bottom of the well, and thereby raised the other bucket to the top. on the wolf inquiring at the fox why he had gone down there, he replied, because he knew there was meat and cheese to eat and be satisfied, in proof of which he pointed to a cheese, which happened to be the reflection of the moon on the water. upon which the wolf inquired, "and how am i to get down beside you?" the fox replied, "by getting into the bucket at the top." he did as directed, and as he descended the bucket with the fox rose to the top. the wolf in this plight again appealed to the fox. "but how am i to get out?" the reply was, "the righteous is delivered out of trouble, and the wicked cometh in his stead;" and is it not written, "just balances just weights?" when rabbi eliezer, on his deathbed, taught rabbi akiva three hundred particulars to be observed in regard to the white spot covered with hair which was the sign of leprosy, the former lifted up his arms and placed them on his chest and exclaimed, "woe is me, because of these my two arms, these two scrolls of the law, that are about to depart from this world; for if all the seas were ink, and all the reeds were quills, and all the men were scribes, they could not record all i have learned and all i have taught, and how much i have heard at the lips of sages in the schools. and what is more, i also taught three hundred laws based on the text, 'a witch shall not live.'" _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . this truly oriental exaggeration, which rabbi eliezer ben azariah so complacently applies to himself, was spoken also of rabbi yochanan before him (bereshith rabba); an acrostic poem in the morning service for pentecost adopts the same hyperbole almost word for word, and turns it to very pious account. it is interesting to note how contemporary sacred literature abounds in similar hyperbolic expressions. in john xxi it is said, "there are also many other things which jesus did, the which, if they should be written every one, i suppose that even the world itself could not contain the books that should be written." cicero, too, speaks of a glory of such a weight that even heaven itself is scarcely able to contain it; and livy, on one occasion, describes the power of rome as with difficulty restrained within the limits of the world. here it may not be out of place if we introduce a few of the many passages in the talmud that treat of enchantment and witchcraft, as well as magic, charms, and omens. the list of quotations might be extended to a hundred, but we must confine ourselves to a score or so. the daughters of israel burn incense for (purposes of) sorcery. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . ben azai (son of impudence), says, "... he who seats himself and then feels ... (which must not be explained), the effects of witchcraft, even when practiced in spain, will come upon him. what is the remedy when one forgets and first sits down and then feels?.... when he rises let him say, 'not these and not of these; not the witchcraft of sorcerers and not the sorcery of witches.'" _berachoth_, fol. , col. . the daughters of israel in later generations lapsed into the practice of witchcraft. _eiruvin_ fol. , col. . ameimar says, "the superior of the witches told me that when a person meets any of them he should mutter thus, 'may a potsherd of boiling dung be stuffed into your mouths, you ugly witches! may the hair with which you perform your sorcery be torn from your heads, so that ye become bald. may the wind scatter the crumbs wherewith ye do your divinations. may your spices be scattered and may the wind blow away the saffron you hold in your hands for the practicing of sorcery.'" _p'sachim_, fol. , cols, , . yohanna, the daughter of ratibi, was a widow, who bewitched women in their confinement. see rashi on _soteh_, fol. , col. . rabbi shimon ben gamliel, in the name of rabbi yehoshua, says, "since the destruction of the temple a day has not passed without a curse; the dew does not come down with a blessing, and the fruits have lost their proper taste." rabbi yossi adds, "also the lusciousness of the fruit is gone." rabbi shimon ben elazar says, "with the decay of purity the taste and aroma (of the fruit) has disappeared, and with the tithes and richness of the corn." the sages say, "lewdness and witchcraft ruin everything." _soteh_, fol. , col. . a certain magician used to strip the dead of their shrouds. once when he came to the tomb of rav tovi bar mathna he was seized and held fast by the beard, but abaii having interceded on behalf of his friend, the grip was let go and he was set at liberty. next year he came again on the same errand, and again he was seized by the beard. this time abaii's intercession was of no avail, and he was not liberated until they brought a pair of scissors and cut off his beard. _bava bathra_, fol. , col. none were allowed to sit in the sanhedrin unless they had a knowledge of magic. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . rabbi shimon said, "an enchanter is one who passeth the exudation of seven different sorts of male creatures over the eye." the sages say he is one who practices and palms off optical illusions. rabbi akiva says, "he is one who calculates times and hours, and says to-day is good to start on a journey, to-morrow will be a lucky day for selling, the year before the sabbatical year is generally good for growing wheat, the pulling up of pease will preserve them from being spoiled." according to the rabbis, "an enchanter is he who augurs ill when his bread drops from his mouth, or if he drops the stick that supports him from his hand, or if his son calls after him, or a crow caws in his hearing, or a deer crosses his path, or he sees a serpent at his right hand or a fox on his left, or if he says to the tax-gatherer, 'do not begin with me the first in the morning'; or, 'it is the first of the month'; or, 'it is the exit of the sabbath,' i.e., the commencement of a new week." ibid., fol. , col. . "by the term witch," the rabbis say, "we are to understand either male or female." "if so," it is asked, "why the term 'witch,' in exod. xxii. , in the hebrew verse , is in the feminine gender?" "because," it is answered, "most women are witches." ibid., fol. , col. . if the proud (in israel) were to cease, the magicians would also cease; as it is written (isa. i. ), "i will purge away thy dross and take away all thy tin." ibid., fol. , col. . among those who have no portion in the world to come is he who reads the books of the strangers, foreign books, books of outsiders. see also sanhedrin, fol. , col. . now rav yoseph says, "it is unlawful to read the book of the son of sirach, ... because it is written therein (ecclesiasticus xlii. , etc., as quoted, or rather misquoted, in the talmud), 'a daughter is a false treasure to her father: because of anxiety for her he cannot sleep at night; when she is young, for fear she should be seduced; in her virginity lest she play the harlot; in her marriageable age, lest she should not get married; and when married, lest she should be childless; and when grown old, lest she practice witchcraft.'" _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . he who multiplieth wives multiplieth witchcraft. _avoth_, chap. . most donkey-drivers are wicked, but most sailors are pious. the best physicians are destined for hell, the most upright butcher is a partner of amalek. bastards are mostly cunning, and servants mostly handsome. those who are well-descended are bashful, and children mostly resemble their mother's brother. rabbi shimon ben yochai bids us "kill the best of gentiles" (modern editions qualify this by adding, in time of war), "and smash the head of the best of serpents." "the best among women," he says, "is a witch." blessed is he who does the will of god! _sophrim_, chap. , hal. . on the sabbath one may carry a grasshopper's egg as a charm against earache, the tooth of a living fox to promote sleep, the tooth of a dead fox to prevent sleep, and the nail of one crucified (as a remedy) for inflammation or swelling. for cutaneous disorders he is to repeat baz baziah, mass massiah, cass cassiah, sharlaii, and amarlaii (names of angels), etc.... as the mules do not increase and multiply, so may the skin disease not increase and spread upon the body of n., the son of the woman n., etc. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . "for night-blindness, let a man take a hair-rope and bind one end of it to his own leg and the other to a dog's, then let children clatter a potsherd after him, and call out, 'old man! dog! fool! cock!' let him now collect seven pieces of meat from seven (different) houses; let him set them on the cross-bar of the threshold, then let him eat them on the town middens; and after that let him undo the hair-rope, then let him say thus: 'blindness of so-and-so, son of mrs. so-and-so, leave so-and-so, son of mrs. so-and-so, and be brushed into the pupil of the eye of the dog.'" (quoted from "the fragment," by rev. w.h. lowe of cambridge.) _gittin_, fol. , col. . according to the rabbis, a man should not drink water by night, for thus he exposes himself to the power of shavriri, the demon of blindness. what then should he do if he is thirsty? if there be another man with him, let him rouse him up and say, "i am thirsty;" but if he be alone, let him tap upon the lid of the jug (to make the demon fancy there's some one with him), and addressing himself by his own name and the name of his mother, let him say, "thy mother has bid thee beware of shavriri, vriri, riri, iri, ri," in a white cup. rashi says by this incantation the demon gradually contracts and vanishes as the sounds of the word shavriri decrease. _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . a python is a familiar spirit who speaks from his armpits; a wizard is one who speaks with the mouth. as the rabbis have taught, a familiar spirit is one who speaks from his joints and his wrists; a wizard is one who, putting a certain bone into his mouth, causes it to speak. _sanhedrin_, fol. , cols, , . he who says to a raven "croak," and to a hen raven, "droop thy tail and turn it this way as a lucky sign," is an imitator of the ways of the amorites (lev. xviii. ). _shabbath_, fol. , col. . women going out on the sabbath-day are allowed, as the rabbis teach, to carry with them a certain stone believed to counteract abortion. abaii interrupts his exposition of this halachah in order to enumerate certain antidotes to chronic fever which, he says, he had learned from his mother. take a new zouz and then procure its weight in sea-salt; hang this round the neck, suspended by a papyrus fibre, so that it may rest just in the hollow in front. if this does not answer, go where two or more roads meet and watch for the first big ant that is going home loaded; lay hold of it and place it in a brass tube; stop up the end of the tube with lead, putting as many seals upon it as possible; then shake it, saying the while, "my load be upon thee, and thine upon me." to this rav acha, the son of rav hunna, objected to rav ashi, and asked, "might not the ant have been already laden with another man's fever?" "true," observed the other; "nevertheless let him say, 'my load be upon thee as well as thine own.'" if this be not effective, then take a new earthenware pot, and going to the nearest stream, say, "stream, stream, lend me a pot full of water for one who is on a visit to me." wave it seven times round thy head and then throw the water back again, saying, "stream, stream, take back thy borrowed water for my guest came and went the same day." rav hunna then adds a prescription for a tertian fever, and rabbi yochanan gives the following as effective against a burning fever:--take an iron knife, and having fastened a papyrus fibre to the nearest bramble, cut off a piece and say, "and the angel of the lord appeared to him in a flame of fire," etc., as in exod. iii. . on the morrow cut off another piece and say, "the lord saw that he (the fever) turned aside;" then upon the third day say, "draw not hither," and stooping down, pray, "bush, bush! the holy one--blessed be he!--caused his shechinah to lodge upon thee, not because thou art the loftiest, for thou art the lowest of all trees; and as when thou didst see the fire of hananiah, mishael, and azariah, thou didst flee therefrom, so see the fire (fever) of this sufferer and flee from it." _shabbath_, fol. , col. , etc. rabba once created a man (out of dust) and sent him to rabbi zira, who having addressed the figure and received no answer, said, "thou art (made) by witchcraft; return to thy native dust." rav chaneanah and rav oshayah sat together every sabbath-eve studying the book yetzirah (i.e., the book of creation), until they were able to create for themselves a calf (as large as a) three-year old, and they did eat thereof. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col, . yannai once turned in to a certain inn, and asked for water to drink, when they gave him (shethitha, i.e., water mixed with flour). he noticed that the lips of the woman who brought it moved (and so suspecting that something was wrong), he poured out a little of it and it became scorpions. he then said, "i have drunk of thine, now thou shalt drink of mine." the woman drank and was transformed into an ass, which he mounted and rode to the market-place. one of her companions having come up, broke the spell, and the ass he had ridden was on the spot transformed back again into a woman. in reference to the above, rashi naïvely remarks that "we are not to suppose that yannai was a rabbi, for he was not held in esteem, because he practiced witchcraft." but rashi is mistaken; see sophrim, chap. , hal. . _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . ten measures of witchcraft came into the world; egypt received nine measures, and the rest of the world one. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . the rabbis say that on the sabbath serpents and scorpions may be tamed by charming; that a metal ring, such as may be carried on the sabbath, may be applied as a remedy to a sore eye; but that demons may not be consulted on that day about lost property. rabbi yossi has said, "this ought not to be done even on week-days." rav hunna says, "the halachah does not enjoin as rabbi yossi says, and even he prohibits it only because of the risk there is in consulting demons. for instance, rav yitzchak bar yoseph was once desperately delivered from the attacks of a vicious demon by a cedar-tree opening of its own accord and enclosing him in its trunk." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . rabbi yochanan ben zachai acquired a knowledge of the language of angels and demons for purposes of incantation. _bava bathira_, fol. , col. . "neither shall ye use enchantments" ... (lev. xix. ). such, for instance, as those practiced with cats, fowls, and fishes. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . rav ketina happened once, in his travels, to hear the noise of an earthquake just as he came opposite to the abode of one who was wont to conjure with human bones. happening to mutter aloud to himself as he passed, "does the conjurer really know what that noise is?" a voice answered, "ketina, ketina, why shouldn't i know? when the holy one--blessed be he!--thinks of his children who dwell in sorrowful circumstances among the nations of the earth, he lets fall two tears into the great sea, and his voice is heard from one end of the world to the other, and that is the rumbling noise we hear." upon which rav ketina protested, "the conjurer is a liar, his words are not true; they might have been true, had there been two rumbling noises." the fact was, two such noises were heard, but rav ketina would not acknowledge it, lest, by so doing, he should increase the popularity of the conjurer. rav ketina is of the opinion that the rumbling noise is caused by god clapping his hands together, as it is said (ezek. xxi, ; a.v., ver. ), "i will also smite my hands together, and i will cause my fury to rest." _berachoth_, fol. , col. . rabbi elazar ben azariah proclaimed this anathema with the blast of three hundred trumpets:--"whoever shall take drink from the hand of a bride, no matter whether she be the daughter of a disciple of the wise or the daughter of an amhaaretz, it is all one as if he drunk it from the hand of a harlot." again, it is said, "he who receives a cup from the hands of a bride and drinks it therefrom, has no portion whatever in the world to come." _tract calah._ there was a place for collecting the ashes in the middle of the altar, and there were at times in it nearly as much as three hundred cors (equal to about bushels) of ashes. on rava remarking that this must be an exaggeration, rav ammi said the law, the prophets, and the sages are wont to use hyperbolical language. thus the law speaks of "cities great and walled up to heaven" (deut. i. ); the prophets speak of "the earth rent with the sound of them" ( kings i. ); the sages speak as above and also as follows. there was a golden vine at the entrance of the temple, trailing on crystals, on which devotees who could used to suspend offerings of fruit and grape clusters. "it happened once," said rabbi elazer ben rabbi zadoc, "that three hundred priests were counted off to clear the vine of the offerings." _chullin_, fol. , col. . three hundred priests were told off to draw the veil (of the temple) aside; for it is taught that rabbi shimon ben gamliel declared in the name of rabbi shimon the sagan (or high priest's substitute), that the thickness of the veil was a handbreadth. it was woven of seventy-two cords, and each cord consisted of twenty-four strands. it was forty cubits long and twenty wide. eighty-two myriads of damsels worked at it, and two such veils were made every year. when it became soiled, it took three hundred priests to immerse and cleanse it. _chullin._ when moses was about to enter paradise he turned to joshua and said, "if any doubtful matters remain, ask me now and i will explain them." to this joshua replied, "have i ever left thy side for an hour and gone away to any other? hast thou not thyself written concerning me (exod. xxxiii. ), 'his servant joshua, the son of nun, a young man, departed not out of the tabernacle?'" as a punishment for this pert reply, which must have distressed and confounded his master, joshua's power of brain was immediately weakened, so that he forgot three hundred halachahs, and seven hundred doubts sprang up to perplex him. all israel then rose up to murder him, but the holy one--blessed be he!--said unto him, "to teach thee the halachahs and their explanation is impossible, but go and trouble them with work; as it is said (josh. i. ), 'now after the death of moses, the servant of the lord, it came to pass that the lord spake unto joshua,'" etc. _temurah_, fol. , col. . in the future god will assign to each righteous man three hundred and ten worlds as an inheritance; for it is said (prov. viii. ), "that i may cause those that love me to inherit substance, and i will fill their treasures." by gematria equals three hundred and ten. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. , and _okitzin_, chap. , mish. . an old woman once complained before rav nachman that the head of the captivity and certain rabbis with him were enjoying themselves in her booth, which they had surreptitiously taken possession of and would not surrender, but rav nachman gave no heed to her remonstrance. then she raised her voice and cried aloud, "a woman whose father had three hundred and eighteen slaves is now pleading before you, and you paying no heed to her!" upon which rav nachman turned to his associates and said, "she is a bawling woman, but she has no right to claim the booth, only the value of its timber." _succah_, fol. , col. . elijah the tishbite once said to rav yehudah, the brother of rav salla the holy, "you ask why the messiah does not come, even though it is just now the day of atonement." "and what," asked the rabbi, "does the holy one--blessed be he!--say to that?" "he says, 'sin lieth at the door'" (gen. iv. ). "and what has satan to say?" "he has no permission to accuse any one on the day of atonement." "how do we know this?" ramma bar chamma replied, "satan by gematria equals three hundred and sixty-four, therefore on that number of days only has he permission to accuse; but on the day of atonement (i.e., the th day) he cannot accuse." _yoma_, fol. , col. . rav yitzchak said, "what is the meaning of that which is written (ps. cxl. ), 'grant not, o lord, the desires of the wicked; further not his wicked device, lest they exalt themselves. selah?'" it is the prayer of jacob to the lord of the universe that he would not grant to esau, "the wicked, the desires of his heart." "further not his wicked device," this refers to germamia of edom (i.e., rome), for if they (the romans) were suffered to go forward they would destroy the whole world! rav chama bar chanena said, "there are three hundred crowned heads in germamia of edom, and there are three hundred and sixty-five dukes in babylon. these encounter each other daily, and one of them commits murder, and they strive to set up a king." _meggillah_, fol. , col. . in the great city (of rome) there were three hundred and sixty-five streets, and in each street there were three hundred and sixty-five palaces, and in every one of these there were three hundred and sixty-five steps, each of which palaces contained sufficient store to maintain the whole world. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . there are three hundred and sixty-five negative precepts. there were three hundred and ninety-four courts of law in jerusalem, and as many synagogues; also the same number of high schools, colleges, and academies, and as many offices for public notaries. _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . rav hunna had four hundred casks of wine which had turned into vinegar. on hearing of his misfortune, rav yehudah, the brother of rav salla the holy, or, as some say, rav adda bar ahavah, came and visited him, accompanied by the rabbis. "let the master," said they, "examine himself carefully." "what!" said he, "do you suppose me to have been guilty of wrong-doing?" "shall we then," said they, "suspect the holy one--blessed be he!--of executing judgment without justice?" "well," said rav hunna, "if you have heard anything against me, don't conceal it." "it has been reported to us," said they, "that the master has withheld the gardener's share of the prunings." "what else, pray, did he leave me?" retorted rav hunna; "he has stolen all the produce of my vineyard." they replied, "there is a saying that whoever steals from a thief smells of theft." "then," said he, "i hereby promise to give him his share." thereupon, according to some, the vinegar turned to wine again; and, according to others, the price of vinegar rose to the price of wine. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . rav adda bar ahavah once saw a gentile woman in the market-place wearing a red head-dress, and supposing that she was a daughter of israel, he impatiently tore it off her head. for this outrage he was fined a fine of four hundred zouzim. he asked the woman what her name was, and she replied, "my name is mathan." "methun, methun," he wittily rejoined, "is worth four hundred zouzim." ibid., fol. , col. . methun means patience and mathan two hundred. the point lies either in the application of the term methun, which means patience, as if to say, had he been so patient as to have first ascertained what the woman was, he would have saved his four hundred zouzim; or in the identity of the sound mathan, i.e., two hundred, which doubled, equals four hundred. this has long since passed into a proverb, and expresses the value of patience. from the foregoing extract it would seem that it was not the fashion among jewish females to wear head-dresses of a red color, as it was presumed to indicate a certain lightness on the part of the wearer; so rav adda in his pious zeal thought he was doing a good work in tearing it off from the head of the supposed jewess. "patience, patience is worth four hundred zouzim." custom among the jews had then, as now, the force of religion. the talmud says, "a man should never deviate from a settled custom. moses ascended on high and did not eat bread (for there it is not the custom); angels came down to earth and did eat bread (for here it is the custom so to do)." bava metzia, fol. , col. . in the olden time it was not the fashion for a jew to wear black shoes (taanith, fol. , col. ). even now, in poland, a pious jew, or a chasid, would on no account wear polished boots or a short coat, or neglect to wear a girdle. he would at once lose caste and be subjected to persecution, direct or indirect, were he to depart from a custom. custom is law, is an oft-quoted jewish proverb, one among the most familiar of their household words, as "custom is a tyrant," is among ours. another saying we have is, "custom is the plague of wise men, but is the idol of fools." the following anecdotes are related by way of practically illustrating ps. ii. , "rejoice with trembling." mar, the son of ravina, made a grand marriage-feast for his son, and when the rabbis were at the height of their merriment on the occasion, he brought in a very costly cup, worth four hundred zouzim, and broke it before them, and this occasioned them sorrow and trembling. rav ashi made a grand marriage-feast for his son, and when he noticed the rabbis in high jubilation, he brought in a costly cup of white glass and broke it before them, and this made them sorrowful. the rabbis challenged rav hamnunah on the wedding of his son ravina, saying, "give us a song, sir," and he sung, "woe be to us, for we must die! woe be to us, for we must die!" "and what shall we sing?" they asked in chorus by way of response. he replied, "sing ye, 'alas! where is the law we have studied? where the good works we have done? that they may protect us from the punishment of hell!'" rabbi yochanan, in the name of rabbi shimon ben yochai, says, "it is unlawful for a man to fill his mouth with laughter in this world, for it is said in ps. cxxvi., 'then (but not now) will our mouth be filled with laughter,'" etc. it is related of resh lakish that he never once laughed again all the rest of his life from the time that he heard this from rabbi yochanan, his teacher. _berachoth_, fol. , col. , and fol. , col. . a man once laid a wager with another that he would put hillel out of temper. if he succeeded he was to receive, but if he failed he was to forfeit, four hundred zouzim. it was close upon sabbath-eve, and hillel was washing himself, when the man passed by his door, shouting, "where is hillel? where is hillel?" hillel wrapped his mantle round him and sallied forth to see what the man wanted. "i want to ask thee a question," was the reply. "ask on, my son," said hillel. whereupon the man said, "i want to know why the babylonians have such round heads?" "a very important question, my son," said hillel; "the reason is because their midwives are not clever." the man went away, but after an hour he returned, calling out as before, "where is hillel? where is hillel?" hillel again threw on his mantle and went out, meekly asking, "what now, my son?" "i want to know," said he, "why the people of tadmor are weak-eyed?" hillel replied, "this is an important question, my son, and the reason is this, they live in a sandy country." away went the man, but in another hour's time he returned as before, crying out, "where is hillel? where is hillel?" out came hillel again, as gentle as ever, blandly requesting to know what more he wanted. "i have a question to ask," said the man. "ask on, my son," said hillel. "well, why have the africans such broad feet?" said he. "because they live in a marshy land," said hillel. "i have many more questions to ask," said the man, "but i am afraid that i shall only try thy patience and make thee angry." hillel, drawing his mantle around him, sat down and bade the man ask all the questions he wished. "art thou hillel," said he, "whom they call a prince in israel?" "yes," was the reply. "well," said the other, "i pray there may not be many more in israel like thee!" "why," said hillel, "how is that?" "because," said the man, "i have betted four hundred zouzim that i could put thee out of temper, and i have lost them all through thee." "be warned for the future," said hillel; "better it is that thou shouldst lose four hundred zouzim, and four hundred more after them, than it should be said of hillel he lost his temper!" _shabbath_, fol. , col. . rabbi perida had a pupil to whom he had to rehearse a lesson four hundred times before the latter comprehended it. one day the rabbi was hurriedly called away to perform some charitable act, but before he went he repeated the lesson in hand the usual four hundred times, but this time his pupil failed to learn it. "what is the reason, my son," said he to his dull pupil, "that this time my repetitions have been thrown away?" "because, master," naively replied the youth, "my mind was so pre-occupied with the summons you received to discharge another duty." "well, then," said the rabbi to his pupil, "let us begin again." and he repeated the lesson a second four hundred times. _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . between azel and azel ( chron. viii. and ix. ), there are four hundred camel-loads of critical researches due to the presence of manifold contradictions. _psachim_. fol. , col. . egypt has an area of four hundred square miles. ibid., fol. , col. . the targum of the pentateuch was executed by onkelos the proselyte at the dictation of rabbi eliezer and rabbi yehoshua, and the targum of the prophets was executed by jonathan ben uzziel at the dictation of haggai, zachariah, and malachi (!), at which time the land of israel was convulsed over an area of four hundred square miles. _meggillah_, fol. , col. . mar ukva was in the habit of sending on the day of atonement four hundred zouzim to a poor neighbor of his. once he sent the money by his own son, who returned bringing it back with him, remarking, "there is no need to bestow charity upon a man who, as i myself have seen, is able to indulge himself in expensive old wine." "well," said his father, "since he is so dainty in his taste, he must have seen better days. i will therefore double the amount for the future." and this accordingly he at once remitted to him. _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . "and joseph took an oath of the children of israel, ... ye shall carry up my bones from hence" (gen. l. ). rabbi chanena said, "there is a reason for this oath. as joseph knew that he was perfectly righteous, why then, if the dead are to rise in other countries as well as in the land of israel, did he trouble his brethren to carry his bones four hundred miles?" the reply is, "he feared lest, if buried in egypt, he might have to worm his way through subterranean passages from his grave into the land of israel." ibid., fol. , col. . to this day among the polish jews the dead are provided for their long subterranean journey with little wooden forks, with which, at the sound of the great trumpet, they are to dig and burrow their way from where they happen to be buried till they arrive in palestine. to avoid this inconvenience there are some among them who, on the approach of old age, migrate to the holy land, that their bones may rest there against the morning of the resurrection. rav cahana was once selling ladies' baskets when he was exposed to the trial of a sinful temptation. he pleaded with his tempter to let him off and he promised to return, but instead of doing so he went up to the roof of the house and threw himself down headlong. before he reached the ground, however, elijah came and caught him, and reproached him, as he caught him up, with having brought him a distance of four hundred miles to save him from an act of willful self-destruction. the rabbi told him that it was his poverty which had given to the temptation the power of seduction. thereupon elijah gave him a vessel full of gold denarii and departed. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . "pashur, the son of immer the priest" (jer. xx. ) had four hundred servants, and every one of them rose to the rank of the priesthood. one consequence was that an insolent priest hardly ever appeared in israel but his genealogy could be traced to this base-born, low-bred ancestry. rabbi elazar said, "if thou seest an impudent priest, do not think evil of him, for it is said (hos, iv. ), 'thy people are as they that strive with the priest.'" ibid., fol. , col. . david had four hundred young men, handsome in appearance and with their hair cut close upon their foreheads, but with long flowing curls behind, who used to ride in chariots of gold at the head of the army. these were men of power (men of the fist, in the original), the mighty men of the house of david, who went about to strike terror into the world. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . four hundred boys and as many girls were once kidnapped and torn from their relations. when they learned the purpose of their capture, they all exclaimed, "better drown ourselves in the sea; then shall we have an inheritance in the world to come." the eldest then explained to them the text (ps. lxviii. ), "the lord said, i will bring again from bashan; i will bring again from the depths of the sea." "from bashan," i.e., from the teeth of the lion; "from the depths of the sea," i.e., those that drown themselves in the sea. when the girls heard this explanation they at once jumped all together into the sea, and the boys with alacrity followed their example. it is with reference to these that scripture says (ps. xliv. ), "for thy sake we are killed all the day long; we are counted as sheep for the slaughter." _gittin_, fol. , col. . there were four hundred synagogues in the city of byther, in each there were four hundred elementary teachers, and each had four hundred pupils. when the enemy entered the city they pierced him with their pointers; but when at last the enemy overpowered them, he wrapped them in their books and then set fire to them; and this is what is written (lam. iii. ), "mine eye affecteth my heart because of all the daughters of my city." ibid., fol. , col . the total population of byther must have been something enormous when the children in it amounted to , , ! the elementary teachers alone came to , . once when the hasmonean kings were engaged in civil war it happened that hyrcanus was outside jerusalem and aristobulus within. every day the besieged let down a box containing gold denarii, and received in return lambs for the daily sacrifices. there chanced to be an old man in the city who was familiar with the wisdom of the greeks, and he hinted to the besiegers in the greek language that so long as the temple services were kept up the city could not be taken. the next day accordingly, when the money had been let down, they sent back a pig in return. when about half-way up the animal pushed with its feet against the stones of the wall, and thereupon an earthquake was felt throughout the land of israel to the extent of four hundred miles. at that time it was the saying arose, "cursed be he that rears swine, and he who shall teach his son the wisdom of the greeks." (see matt. viii. .) _soteh_, fol. , col. . if one strikes his neighbor with his fist, he must pay him one sela; if he slaps his face, he is to pay two hundred zouzim; but for a back-handed slap the assailant is to pay four hundred zouzim. if he pulls the ear of another, or plucks his hair, or spits upon him, or pulls off his mantle, or tears a woman's head-dress off in the street, in each of these cases he is fined four hundred zouzim. _bava kama_, fol. , col. . there was once a dispute between rabbi eliezer and the mishnic sages as to whether a baking-oven, constructed from certain materials and of a particular shape, was clean or unclean. the former decided that it was clean, but the latter were of a contrary opinion. having replied to all the objections the sages had brought against his decision, and finding that they still refused to acquiesce, the rabbi turned to them and said, "if the halacha (the law) is according to my decision, let this carob-tree attest." whereupon the carob-tree rooted itself up and transplanted itself to a distance of one hundred, some say four hundred, yards from the spot. but the sages demurred and said, "we cannot admit the evidence of a carob-tree." "well, then," said rabbi eliezer, "let this running brook be a proof;" and the brook at once reversed its natural course and flowed back. the sages refused to admit this proof also. "then let the walls of the college bear witness that the law is according to my decision;" upon which the walls began to bend, and were about to fall, when rabbi joshuah interposed and rebuked them, saying, "if the disciples of the sages wrangle with each other in the halacha, what is that to you? be ye quiet!" therefore, out of respect to rabbi joshuah, they did not fall, and out of respect to rabbi eliezer they did not resume their former upright position, but remained toppling, which they continue to do to this day. then said rabbi eliezer to the sages, "let heaven itself testify that the halacha is according to my judgment." and a bath kol or voice from heaven was heard, saying, "what have ye to do with rabbi eliezer? for the halacha is on every point according to his decision!" rabbi joshuah then stood up and proved from scripture that even a voice from heaven was not to be regarded, "for thou, o god, didst long ago write down in the law which thou gavest on sinai (exod. xxiii. ), 'thou shalt follow the multitude.'" (see context.) we have it on the testimony of elijah the prophet, given to rabbi nathan, on an oath, that it was with reference to this dispute about the oven god himself confessed and said, "my children have vanquished me! my children have vanquished me!" _bava metzia_ fol. , col. . in the sequel to the above we are told that all the legal documents of rabbi eliezer containing his decisions respecting things "clean" were publicly burned with fire, and he himself excommunicated. in consequence of this the whole world was smitten with blight, a third in the olives, a third in the barley, and a third in the wheat; and the rabbi himself, though excommunicated, continued to be held in the highest regard in israel. the rabbis said to rabbi hamnuna, "rav ami has written or copied four hundred copies of the law." he replied to them, "perhaps only (deut. xxxiii. ) 'moses commanded us a law.'" (he meant he did not imagine that any one man could possibly write out four hundred complete copies of the pentateuch.) _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . rabbi chanena said, "if four hundred years after the destruction of the temple one offers thee a field worth a thousand denarii for one denarius, don't buy it." _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . we know by tradition that the treatise "avodah zarah," which our father abraham possessed, contained four hundred chapters, but the treatise as we now have it contains only five. _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . the camp of sennacherib was four hundred miles in length. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . "curse ye meroz," etc. (judges v. ). barak excommunicated meroz at the blast of four hundred trumpets (lit. horns or cornets). _shevuoth_, fol. , col. . what is the meaning where it is written (ps. x. ), "the fear of the lord prolongeth days, but the years of the wicked shall be shortened;" "the fear of the lord prolongeth days" alludes to the four hundred and ten years the first temple stood, during which period the succession of high priests numbered only eighteen. but "the years of the wicked shall be shortened" is illustrated by the fact that during the four hundred and twenty years that the second temple stood the succession of high priests numbered more than three hundred. if we deduct the forty years during which shimon the righteous held office, and the eighty of rabbi yochanan, and the ten of rabbi ishmael ben rabbi, it is evident that not one of the remaining high priests lived to hold office for a whole year. _yoma_, fol. , col. . "the souls which they had gotten in haran" (gen. xii. ). from this time to the giving of the law was four hundred and forty-eight years. _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . a young girl and ten of her maid-servants were once kidnapped, when a certain gentile bought them and brought them to his house. one day he gave a pitcher to the child and bade her fetch him water, but one of her servants took the pitcher from her, intending to go instead. the master, observing this, asked the maid why she did so. the servant replied, "by the life of thy head, my lord, i am one of no less than five hundred servants of this child's mother." the master was so touched that he granted them all their freedom. _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . cæsar once said to rabbi yoshua ben chananja, "this god of yours is compared to a lion, as it is written (amos iii. ), 'the lion hath roared, who will not fear?' wherein consists his excellency? a horseman kills a lion." the rabbi replied, "he is not compared to an ordinary lion, but to a lion of the forest ilaei." "show me that lion at once," said the emperor. "but thou canst not behold him," said the rabbi. still the emperor insisted on seeing the lion; so the rabbi prayed to god to help him in his perplexity. his prayer was heard; the lion came forth from his lair and roared, upon which, though it was four hundred miles away, all the walls of rome trembled and fell to the ground. approaching three hundred miles nearer, he roared again, and this time the teeth of the people dropped out of their mouths and the emperor fell from his throne quaking. "alas! rabbi, pray to thy god that he order the lion back to his abode in the forest." _chullin_, fol. , col. . all this is as nothing compared to the voice of judah, which made all egypt quake and tremble, and pharaoh fall from his throne headlong, etc., etc. see jasher, chap. , verses , . the distance from the earth to the firmament is five hundred years' journey, and so it is from each successive firmament to the next, throughout the series of the seven heavens. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . "now, as i beheld the living creatures, behold, one wheel upon the earth by the living creatures" (ezek. i. ). rabbi elazar says it was an angel who stood upon the earth, and his head reached to the living creatures. it is recorded in a mishna that his name is sandalphon, who towers above his fellow-angels to a height of five hundred years' journey; he stands behind the chariot and binds crowns on the head of his creator. _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . in the liturgy for the feast of tabernacles it is said that sandalphon gathers in his hands the prayers of israel, and, forming a wreath of them, he adjures it to ascend as an orb for the head of the supreme king of kings. the mount of the temple was five hundred yards square. _middoth_, chap. . one scripture text ( chron. xxi. ) says, "so david gave to ornan for the place six hundred shekels of gold by weight." and another scripture ( sam. xxiv. ) says, "so david bought the threshing-floor and the oxen for fifty shekels of silver." how is this? david took from each tribe fifty shekels, and they made together the total six hundred, i.e., he took silver to the value of fifty shekels of gold. _zevachim_, fol. , col. . rabbi samlai explains that six hundred and thirteen commandments were communicated to moses; three hundred and sixty-five negative, according to the number of days in the year, and two hundred and forty-eight positive, according to the number of members in the human body. rav hamnunah asked what was the scripture proof for this. the reply was (deut. xxxiii. ), "moses commanded us a law" (torah), which by gematria answers to six hundred and eleven. "i am," and "thou shalt have no other," which we heard from the almighty himself, together make up six hundred and thirteen. _maccoth_, fol. , col. . david, we are told, reduced these commandments here reckoned at six hundred and thirteen, to eleven, and isaiah still further to six, and then afterward to two. "thus saith the eternal, observe justice and act righteously, for my salvation is near." finally came habakkuk, and he reduced the number to one all-comprehensive precept (chap. ii. ), "the just shall live by faith." (see _maccoth_, fol. , col. .) the precept concerning fringes is as weighty as all the other precepts put together; for it is written, says rashi (num. xv. ), "and remember all the commandments of the lord." now the numerical value of the word "fringes" is six hundred, and this with eight threads and five knots makes six hundred and thirteen. _shevuoth_, fol. , col. . "for behold, the lord, the lord of hosts, doth take away from jerusalem and from judah the stay and the staff, the whole stay of bread and the whole stay of water, the mighty man and the man of war, the judge and the prophet," etc. (isa. iii. , ). by "the stay" is meant men mighty in the scriptures, and by "the staff" men learned in the mishna; such, for instance, as rabbi yehudah ben tima and his associates. rav pappa and the rabbis differed as to the mishna; the former said there were six hundred orders of the mishna, and the latter that there were seven hundred orders. "the whole stay of bread" means men distinguished in the talmud; for it is said, "come, eat of my bread, and drink of the wine which i have mingled" (prov. ix. ). and "the whole stay of water" means men skillful in the haggadoth, who draw out the heart of man like water by means of a pretty story or legend, etc. _chaggigah_, fol. , col. . there are seven hundred species of fish, eight hundred of locusts, twenty-four of birds that are unclean, while the species of birds that are clean cannot be numbered. _chullin_, fol. , col. . "the same was adino the eznite," etc. ( sam. xxiii. ). this mighty man when studying the law was as pliant as a worm; but when engaged in war he was as firm and unyielding as a tree; and when he discharged an arrow he killed eight hundred men at one shot. _moed katon_, fol. , col. . "ye shall soon utterly perish from off the land" (deut. iv. ). the term soon uttered by the lord of the universe means eight hundred and fifty-two years. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . there are nine hundred and three sorts of deaths in the world; for the expression occurs (ps. lxviii. ), "issues of death." the numerical value of "issues" is nine hundred and three. the hardest of all deaths is by quinsy, and the easiest is the divine kiss (of which moses, aaron, and miriam died). quinsy is like the forcible extraction of prickly thorns from wool, or like a thick rope drawn through a small aperture; the kiss referred to is like the extracting of a hair from milk. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . when moses went up on high, the ministering angels asked, "what has one born of a woman to do among us?" "he has come to receive the law," was the divine answer. "what!" they remonstrated again, "that cherished treasure which has lain with thee for nine hundred and seventy-four generations before the world was created, art thou about to bestow it upon flesh and blood? what is mortal man that thou art mindful of him, and the son of earth that thou thus visitest him? o lord! our lord! is not thy name already sufficiently exalted in the earth? confer thy glory upon the heavens" (ps. viii. , ). the holy one--blessed be he!--then called upon moses to refute the objection of the envious angels. "i fear," pleaded he, "lest they consume me with the fiery breath of their mouth." thereupon, by way of protection, he was bid approach and lay hold of the throne of god; as it is said (job xxvi. ), "he lays hold of the face of his throne and spreads his cloud over him." thus encouraged, moses went over the decalogue, and demanded of the angels whether they had suffered an egyptian bondage and dwelt among idolatrous nations, so as to require the first commandment; or were they so hardworked as to need a day of rest, etc., etc. then the angels at once confessed that they were wrong in seeking to withhold the law from israel, and they then repeated the words, "o lord, how excellent is thy name in all the earth!" (ps. viii. ), omitting the words, "confer thy glory upon the heavens." and not only so, but they positively befriended moses, and each of them revealed to him some useful secret; as it is said (ps. lxviii. ), "thou hast ascended on high, thou hast captured spoil, thou hast received gifts; because they have contemptuously called thee man." _shabbath_, fol. , col. . nine hundred and seventy-four generations before the world was created the law was written and deposited in the bosom of the holy one--blessed be he!--and sang praises with the ministering angels. _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . if one is sick and at the point of death, he is expected to confess, for all confess who are about to suffer the last penalty of the law. when a man goes to the market place, let him consider himself as handed over to the custody of the officers of judgment. if he has a headache, let him deem himself fastened with a chain by the neck. if confined to his bed, let him regard himself as mounting the steps to be judged; for when this happens to him, he is saved from death only if he have competent advocates, and these advocates are repentance and good works. and if nine hundred and ninety-nine plead against him, and only one for him, he is saved; as it is said (job xxxiii. ), "if there be an interceding angel, one among a thousand to declare for man his uprightness, then he is gracious unto him and saith, deliver him from going down to the pit." _shabbath_, fol. , col. . rav hunna says, "a quarrel is like a breach in the bank of a river; when it is once made it grows wider and wider." a certain man used to go about and say, "blessed is he who submits to a reproach and is silent, for a hundred evils depart from him." shemuel said to rav yehuda, "it is written in scripture (prov. xvii. ), 'the beginning of strife is as when one letteth out water.'" strife is the beginning of a hundred lawsuits. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . when solomon married the daughter of pharaoh, she introduced to him a thousand different kinds of musical instruments, and taught him the chants to the various idols. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . when buneis, the son of buneis, called on rabbi (the holy), the latter exclaimed, "make way for one worth a hundred manahs!" presently another visitor came, and rabbi said, "make way for one worth two hundred manahs." upon which rabbi ishmael, the son of rabbi yossi, remonstrated, saying, "rabbi, the father of the first-comer, owns a thousand ships at sea and a thousand towns ashore!" "well," replied rabbi, "when thou seest his father, tell him to send his son better clad next time." rabbi paid great respect to those that were rich, and so did rabbi akiva. _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . rabbi elazer ben charsom inherited from his father a thousand towns and a thousand ships, and yet he went about with a leather sack of flour at his back, roaming from town to town and from province to province in order to study the law. this great rabbi never once set eye on his immense patrimony, for he was engaged in the study of the law all day and all night long. and so strange was he to his own servants, that they, on one occasion, not knowing who he was, pressed him against his will to do a day's work as a menial; and though he pleaded with them as a suppliant to be left alone to pursue his studies in the law, they refused, and swore, saying, "by the life of rabbi elazer ben charsom, our master, we will not let thee go till thy task is completed." he then let himself be enforced rather than make himself known to them. _yoma_, fol. , col. . the wife of potiphar coaxed joseph with loving words, but in vain. she then threatened to immure him in prison, but he replied (anticipating ps. cxlvi. ), "the lord looseth the prisoners." then she said, "i will bow thee down with distress; i will blind thine eyes." he only answered (_ibid._, ver. ), "the lord openeth the eyes of the blind and raiseth them that are bowed down." she then tried to bribe him with a thousand talents of silver if he would comply with her request, but in vain. ibid. a midrash tells us that potiphar's wife not only falsely accused joseph herself, but that she also suborned several of her female friends to do likewise. the book of jasher, which embodies the talmudic story quoted above, tells us that an infant in the cradle spoke up and testified to joseph's innocence, and that while joseph was in prison his inamorata daily visited him. more on this topic may be found in the koran, chap. xii. the amours of joseph and zulieka, as told by the glib tongue of tradition, fitly find their consummation in marriage, and certain moslems affect to see in all this an allegorical type of divine love, an allegory which some other divines find in the song of solomon. the thickness of the earth is a thousand paces or ells. _succah_, fol. , col. . the crust of the earth as far as the abyss is a thousand ells, and the abyss under the earth is fifteen thousand. there is an upper and a lower abyss mentioned in taanith, fol. , col. . riddia, the angel who has the command of the waters, and resides between the two abysses, says to the upper, "disperse thy waters," and to the lower, "let thy waters flow up." many may ask after thy peace, but tell thy secret only to one of a thousand. _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught that if the value of stolen property is a thousand, and the thief is only worth, say, five hundred, he is to be sold into slavery twice. but if the reverse, he is not to be sold at all. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . the behemoth upon a thousand hills (ps. l. ), god created them male and female, but had they been allowed to propagate they would have destroyed the whole world. what did he do? he castrated the male and spayed the female, and then preserved them that they might serve for the righteous at the messianic banquet; as it is said (job xl. ), "his strength is in his loins (i.e., the male), and his force in the navel of his belly" (i.e., the female). _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . this provision for the coming messianic banquet is considered of sufficient importance to be mentioned year after year in the service for the day of atonement and also at the feast of tabernacles. the remark of d. levi, that the feast here referred to is to be understood allegorically, involves rather sweeping consequences, as it is open to any one to annihilate many other expectations on the same principle. the holy one--blessed be he!--will add to jerusalem gardens extending to a thousand times their numerical value, which equals one hundred and sixty-nine, etc. ibid., fol. , col. . "moreover manasseh shed innocent blood very much" ( kings xxi. ). here (in babylon) it is interpreted to mean that he murdered isaiah, but in the west (i.e., in palestine) they say that he made an image of the weight of a thousand men, which was the number he massacred every day (as rashi says, by the heaviness of its weight). _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . see josephus, antiq., book x. chap, iii., sec. , for corroborative evidence. tradition says that manasseh caused isaiah to be sawn asunder with a wooden saw. (see also yevamoth, fol. , col. ; sanhedrin, fol. , col. .) nowhere in the talmud do we find the name of the great image here referred to. what if we christen it the "juggernaut of the talmud"? may the tradition not be a prelusion or a reflex of that man-crushing monster? anyhow, scholars are aware of a community of no inconsiderable extent between the conceptions and legends of the hindoos and the rabbis. one notable contrast, however, between this juggernaut and that of the hindoos is, that whereas in both cases the innocent suffered for the guilty, in the former that sacrifices were exacted to propitiate satan, while in the latter they were freely offered in supposed propitiation of the gods. the food consumed by og, king of bashan, consisted of a thousand oxen and as many of all sorts of other beasts, and his drink consisted of a thousand measures, etc. _sophrim_, chap. , mish. . solomon made ten candelabra for the temple; for each he set aside a thousand talents of gold, which he refined in a crucible until they were reduced to the weight of one talent. _menachoth_, fol. , col. . there was an organ in the temple which produced a thousand kinds of melody. _eirchin_, fol. col. . the magrepha, with its ten pipes and its ten-times-ten various notes (eirchin, fol. , col. , and fol. , col. ), which was said to have been used in the temple service, must have been an instrument far superior to any organ in use at the time elsewhere. if from a town numbering fifteen hundred footmen, such, for example, as the village of accho, nine people be borne forth dead in the course of three successive days, it is a sure sign of the presence of the plague; but if this happen in one day or in four, then it is not the plague. _taanith_, fol. , col. . seventeen hundred of the arguments and minute rules of the scribes were forgotten during the days of mourning for moses. othniel, the son of kenaz, by his shrewd arguing restored them all as if they had never lapsed from the memory. _temurah_, fol. , col. . there was a great court at jerusalem called beth yaazek, where all witnesses (who could testify to the time of the appearance of the new moon) used to assemble, and where they were examined by the authorities. grand feasts were prepared for them as an inducement to them to come (and give in their testimony). formerly they did not move from the place they happened to be in when overtaken by the sabbath, but rabbon gamliel the elder ordained that they might in that case move two thousand cubits either way. _rosh hashanah_, fol. , col. . he that is abroad (on the sabbath) and does not know the limit of the sabbath day's journey may walk two thousand moderate paces, and that is a sabbath day's journey. _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . rabbon gamliel had a hollow tube, through which, when he looked, he could distinguish a distance of two thousand cubits, whether by land or sea. by the same tube he could ascertain the depth of a valley or the height of a palm tree. ibid., fol. , col. . he who observes carefully the precepts respecting fringes will, as a reward, have two thousand eight hundred slaves to wait upon him; for it is said (zech. viii. ), "thus saith the lord of hosts; in those days it shall come to pass that ten men shall take hold out of all languages of the nations, even shall take hold of the skirt of him that is a jew, saying, we will go with you, for we have heard that god is with you." _shabbath_, fol. , col. . rashi's explanation of this matter is very simple. the merit of the fringes lies in their being duly attached to "the four quarters" or skirts of the garments (deut. xxii. ). there are seventy nations in the whole world, and ten of each nation will take hold of each corner of the garment, which gives x x = . rabbi b'chai, commenting on num. xv. , , repeats the same story almost word for word. this passage (zech. viii. ) has lately been construed by some into a prophecy of the recent berlin congress, and the ten men mentioned are found in the representatives of the contracting parties, i.e., england, france, germany, turkey, russia, austria, italy, greece, roumania, and servia. rav hamnunah said, "what is it that is written ( kings iv. ), 'and he spoke three thousand proverbs, and his songs were a thousand and five'?" it is intended to teach that solomon uttered three thousand proverbs upon each and every word of the law, and for every word of the scribes he assigned a thousand and five reasons. _eiruvin_, fol. , col. . when rabbi eliezer was sick he was visited by rabbi akiva and his party.... "wherefore have ye come?" he asked. "to learn the law," was the reply. "and why did you not come sooner?" "because we had no leisure," said they. "i shall be much surprised," said he, "if you die a natural death." then turning to rabbi akiva he said, "thy death shall be the worst of all." then folding his arms upon his breast, he exclaimed: "woe unto my two arms! for they are like two scrolls of the law rolled up, so that their contents are hidden. had they waited upon me, they might have added much to their knowledge of the law, but now that knowledge will perish with me. i have in my time learned much and taught much, and yet i have no more diminished the knowledge of my rabbis by what i have derived from them than the waters of the sea are reduced by a dog lapping them. over and above this i expounded three hundred," some allege he said three thousand, "halachahs with reference to the growing of egyptian cucumbers, and yet no one except akiva ben yoseph has ever proposed a single question to me respecting them. he and i were walking along the road one day when he asked me to instruct him regarding the cultivation of egyptian cucumbers. i made but one remark, when the entire field became full of them. then at his request i made a remark about cutting them, when lo! they all collected themselves together in one spot." thus rabbi eliezer kept on talking, when all of a sudden he fell back and expired. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . the last words of this eminent rabbi derive a tragic interest from the fact that he died while under sentence of excommunication. three thousand halachoth were forgotten at the time of mourning for moses, and among them the halachah respecting an animal intended for a sin-offering the owner of which died before sacrificing it. _temurah_, fol. , col. . all the prophets were rich men. this we infer from the account of moses, samuel, amos, and jonah. of moses, as it is written (num. xvi. ), "i have not taken one ass from them." of samuel, as it is written ( sam. xii. ), "behold, here i am; witness against me before the lord, and before his anointed, whose ox have i taken? or whose ass have i taken?" of amos, as it is written (amos vii. ), "i was an herdsman and a gatherer of sycamore fruit," i.e., i am proprietor of my herds and own sycamores in the valley. of jonah, as it is written (jonah i. ), "so he paid the fare thereof and went down into it." rabbi yochanan says he hired the whole ship. rabbi rumanus says the hire of the ship amounted to four thousand golden denarii. _nedarim_, fol. , col. . four thousand two hundred and thirty-one years after the creation of the world, if any one offers thee for one single denarius a field worth a thousand denarii, do not buy it. _avodah zarah_, fol. , col. . rashi gives this as the reason of the prohibition: for then the restoration of the jews to their own land will take place, so that the denarius paid for a field in a foreign land would be money thrown away. four thousand two hundred and ninety-one years after the creation of the world the wars of the dragons and the wars of gog and magog will cease, and the rest of the time will be the days of the messiah; and the holy one--blessed be he!--will not renew his world till after seven thousand years.... rabbi jonathan said, "may the bones of those who compute the latter days (when the messiah shall appear) be blown; for some say, 'because the time (of messiah) has come and himself has not, therefore he will never come!' but wait thou for him, as it is said (hab. ii. ), 'though he tarry, wait for him.' perhaps you will say, 'we wait, but he does not wait;' learn rather to say (isa. xxx. ), 'and therefore will the lord wait, that he may be gracious unto you; and therefore will he be exalted, that he may have mercy upon you.'" _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . it is related of rabbi tarphon (probably the tryphon of polemic fame) that he was very rich, but gave nothing to the poor. once rabbi akiva met him and said, "rabbi, dost thou wish me to purchase for thee a town or two?" "i do," said he, and at once gave him four thousand gold denarii. rabbi akiva took this sum and distributed it among the poor. some time after rabbi tarphon met rabbi akiva and said, "where are the towns thou purchasedst for me?" the latter seized hold of him by the arm and led him to the beth hamedrash, where, taking-up a psalter, they read together till they came to this verse, "he hath dispersed, he hath given to the poor, his righteousness endureth forever" (ps. cxii. ). here rabbi akiva paused and said, "this is the place i purchased for thee," and rabbi tarphon saluted him with a kiss. _tract. callah._ the pentateuch contains five thousand eight hundred and eighty-eight verses. the psalms have eight verses more than, and the chronicles eight verses short of, that number. _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . the number of verses in the pentateuch is usually stated at , the mnemonic sign of which is a word in isaiah xxx. , the letters of which stand for . the verse reads, "moreover, the light of the moon shall be as the light of the sun." the masorites tell us that the number of verses in the psalms is , and in the two books of chronicles . the world is to last six thousand years. two thousand of these are termed the period of disorder, two thousand belong to the dispensation of the law, and two thousand are the days of the messiah; but because of our iniquities a large fraction of the latter term is already passed and gone without the messiah giving any sign of his appearing. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . as the land of canaan had one year of release in seven, so has the world one millennium of release in seven thousand years; for it is said (isa. ii. ), "and the lord alone will be exalted in that day;" and again (ps. xcii. ), "a psalm or song for the sabbath day," which means a long sabbatic period; and again (ps. xc. ), "for a thousand years in thy sight are but as the day of yesterday." ibid. tradition records that the ladder (mentioned gen. xxviii. ) was eight thousand miles wide, for it is written, "and behold the angels of god ascending and descending upon it." angels ascending, being in the plural, cannot be fewer than two at a time, and so likewise must those descending, so that when they passed they were four abreast at least. in daniel x. it is said of the angel, "his body was like tarshish," and there is a story that tarshish extended two thousand miles. _chullin_, fol. , col. . the tithes from the herds of elazer ben azaryah amounted to twelve thousand calves annually. _shabbath_, fol. , col. . it is said that rabbi akiva had twelve thousand pairs of disciples dispersed about between gabbath and antipatris, and all of them died within a short period because they paid no honor to one another. the land was then desolate until rabbi akiva came among our rabbis of the south and taught the law to rabbis meir, yehudah, yossi, shimon, and elazer ben shamua, who re-established its authority. _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . after a lapse of twelve years, he returned accompanied by twelve thousand disciples, etc. ravah bar nachmaini was impeached for depriving the revenue of the poll-tax on twelve thousand jews, by detaining them annually at his academy for one month in the spring, and for another month in the autumn; for great multitudes from various parts of the country were wont, at the two seasons of the passover and the feast of tabernacles, to come to hear him preach, so that when the king's officers came to collect the taxes they found none of them at home. a royal messenger was accordingly despatched to apprehend him, but he failed to find him, for the rabbi fled to pumbeditha, and from thence to akra, to agmi, sichin, zeripha, ein d'maya, and back again to pumbeditha. arrived at this place, both the royal messenger and the fugitive rabbi happened to put up at the same inn. two cups were placed before the former on a table, when, strange to say, after he had drunk and the table was removed, his face was forcibly turned round to his back. (this was done by evil spirits because he drank even numbers--against which we are earnestly warned in _p'sachim_, fol. , col. .) the inn-keeper, fearing the consequences of such a misfortune happening to so high an official at his inn, sought advice of the lurking rabbi, when the latter suggested that the table be placed again before him with one cup only on it, and thus the even number would become odd, and his face would return to its natural position. they did so, and it was as the rabbi had said. the official then remarked to his host, "i know the man i want is here," and he hastened and found him. "if i knew for certain," he said to the rabbi, "that thy escape would cost my life only, i would let thee go, but i fear bodily torture, and therefore i must secure thee." and thereupon he locked him up. upon this the rabbi prayed, till the prison walls miraculously giving way he made his escape to agma, where he seated himself at the root of a tree and gave himself up to meditation. while thus engaged he all at once heard a discussion in the academy of heaven on the subject of the hair mentioned in lev. xiii. . the holy one--blessed be he!--declared the case to be "clean," but the whole academy were of a different opinion, and declared the case to be "unclean." the question then arose, "who shall decide?" "ravah bar nachmaini shall decide," was the unanimous reply, "for he said, 'i am one in matters of leprosy; i am one in questions about tents; and there is none to equal me.'" then the angel of death was sent for to bring him up, but he was unable to approach him, because the rabbi's lips never ceased repeating the law of the lord. the angel of death thereupon assumed the appearance of a troop of cavalry, and the rabbi, apprehensive of being seized and carried off, exclaimed, "i would rather die through that one (meaning the angel of death) than be delivered into the hands of the government!" at that very instant he was asked to decide the question in dispute, and just as the verdict "clean" issued from his lips his soul departed from his body, and a voice was heard from heaven proclaiming, "blessed art thou, ravah bar nachmaini, for thy body is clean. 'clean' was the word on thy lips when thy spirit departed." then a scroll fell down from heaven into pumbeditha announcing that ravah bar nachmaini was admitted into the academy of heaven. apprised of this, abaii, in company with many other rabbis, went in search of the body to inter it, but not knowing the spot where he lay, they went to agma, where they noticed a great number of birds hovering in the air, and concluded that the shadow of their wings shielded the body of the departed. there, accordingly, they found and buried him; and after mourning three days and three nights over his grave, they arose to depart, when another scroll descended threatening them with excommunication if they did so. they therefore continued mourning for seven days and seven nights, when, at the end of these, a third scroll descended and bade them go home in peace. on the day of the death of this rabbi there arose, it is said, such a mighty tempest in the air that an arab merchant and the camel on which he was riding were blown bodily over from one side of the river pappa to the other. "what meaneth such a storm as this?" cried the merchant, as he lay on the ground. a voice from heaven answered, "ravah bar nachmaini is dead." then he prayed and fled, "lord of the universe, the whole world is thine, and ravah bar nachmaini is thine! thou art ravah's and ravah is thine; but wherefore wilt thou destroy the world?" on this the storm immediately abated, and there was a perfect calm. _bava metzia_, fol. , col. . the above seems to be a rabbinical satire on the talmud itself although the orthodox jews believe that every word in it is historically true. well, perhaps it is so; and we outsiders are ignorant, and without the means of judging. now we know what god does during the day, but how does he occupy himself in the night-time? we may say he does the same as at day-time; or that during the night he rides on a swift cherub over eighteen thousand worlds; as it is said (ps. lxviii. ), "the chariots of god are twenty thousand," less two thousand shinan; read not shinan but she-einan, i.e., two thousand less than twenty thousand, therefore eighteen thousand. _avodah zarah_, fol. . col. . prince contrukos asked rabbon yochanan ben zacchai how, when the detailed enumeration of the levites amounted to twenty-two thousand three hundred (the gershonites, ; the kohathites, ; the merarites, , making in all , ), the sum total given is only twenty-two thousand, omitting the three hundred. "was moses, your rabbi," he asked, "a cheat or a bad calculator?" he answered, "they were first-borns, and therefore could not be substitutes for the first-born of israel." _bechoroth_, fol. , col. . "and the inhabitants of jerusalem did him honor at his death" ( chron. xxxii. ). this is hezekiah, king of judah, at whose funeral thirty-six thousand people attended bare-shouldered, ... and upon his bier was laid a roll of the law, and it was said, "this man has fulfilled what is written in this book." _bava kama_, fol. , col. . sennacherib the wicked invaded jewry with forty-five thousand princes in golden coronets, and they had with them their wives and odalisques; also eighty thousand mighty men clad in mail and sixty thousand swordsmen ran before him, and the rest were cavalry. with a similar army they came against abraham, and a like force is to come up with gog and magog. a tradition teaches that the extent of his camp was four hundred parsaes or leagues, the extent of the horses' necks were forty parsaes. the total muster of his army was two hundred and sixty myriads of thousands, less one. abaii asked, "less one myriad, or one thousand, or one hundred? or more literally less one?" _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . in the immediate context of the above extract we have the following legend concerning sennacherib:--as rabbi abhu has said, "were it not for this scripture text it would be impossible to repeat what is written (isa. vii. ), 'in the same day shall the lord shave with a razor that is hired, by them beyond the river, by the king of assyria, the head and the hair of the feet; and it shall also consume the beard.'" the story is this:--the holy one--blessed be he!--once disguised himself as an elderly man and came to sennacherib, and said, "when thou comest to the kings of the east and of the west, to force their sons into thine army, what wilt thou say unto them?" he replied, "on that very account i am in fear. what shall i do?" god answered him, "go and disguise thyself." "how can i disguise myself?" said he. god replied, "go and fetch me a pair of scissors and i will cut thy hair." sennacherib asked, "whence shall i fetch them?" "go to yonder house and bring them." he went accordingly and observed a pair, but there he met the ministering angels disguised as men, grinding date-stones. he asked them for the scissors, but they said "grind thou first a measure of date-stones, and then thou shalt have the scissors." he did as he was told, and so obtained the scissors. it was dark before he returned, and god said unto him, "go and fetch some fire." this also he did, but while blowing the embers his beard was singed. upon which god came and shaved his head and his beard, and said, "this is it which is written (isa. vii. ), 'it shall also consume the beard.'" rav pappa says this is the proverb current among the people, "singe the face of a syrian, and, if it pleases him, also set his beard in fire, and thou wilt not be able to laugh enough." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. , and fol. , col. . "he hath cut off in his fierce anger all the horn of israel," etc. (lam. ii. ). these are the eighty thousand war-horns or battering-rams that entered the city of byther, in which he massacred so many men, women, and children, that their blood ran like a river and flowed into the mediterranean sea, which was a mile away from the place. _gittin_, fol. , col. . that mule had a label attached to his neck on which it was stated that its breeding cost a hundred thousand zouzim. _bechoroth_, fol. , col. . rabbi yossi said, "i have seen sepphoris (cyprus) in the days of its prosperity, and there were in it a hundred and eighty thousand marts for sauces." _bava bathra_, fol. , col. . rav assi said three hundred thousand swordsmen went up to the royal mount and there slaughtered the people for three days and three nights, and yet while on the one side of the mount they were mourning, on the other they were merry; those on the one side did not know the affairs of those on the other. _gittin_, fol. , col. . a certain disciple prayed before rabbi chanina, and said, "o god! who art great, mighty, formidable, magnificent, strong, terrible, valiant, powerful, real and honored!" he waited until he had finished, and then said to him, "hast thou ended all the praises of thy god? need we enumerate so many? as for us, even the three terms of praise which we usually repeat, we should not dare to utter had not moses, our master, pronounced them in the law (deut. x. ), and had not the men of the great synagogue ordained them for prayer; and yet thou hast repeated so many and still seemest inclined to go on. it is as if one were to compliment a king because of his silver, who is master of a thousand thousands of gold denarii. wouldst thou think that becoming?" _berachoth_, fol. , col. . rabbi yossi ben kisma relates, "i once met a man in my travels and we saluted one another. in reply to a question of his i said, 'i am from a great city of sages and scribes.' upon this he offered me a thousand thousand golden denarii, and precious stones and pearls, if i would agree to go and dwell in his native place. but i replied, saying, 'if thou wert to give me all the gold and silver, all the precious stones and pearls in the world, i would not reside anywhere else than in the place where the law is studied.'" _avoth_, chap. . thousands on thousands in israel were named after aaron; for had it not been for aaron these thousands of thousands would not have been born. aaron went about making peace between quarreling couples, and those who were born after the reconciliation were regularly named after him. _avoth d'rab. nathan_, chap. . it is related by the rabbis that rabbon yochanan ben zacchai was once riding out of jerusalem accompanied by his disciples, when he saw a young woman picking barley out of the dung on the road. on his asking her name, she told him that she was the daughter of nikodemon ben gorion. "what has become of thy father's riches?" said he, "and what has become of thy dowry?" "dost thou not remember," said she, "that charity is the salt of riches?" (her father had not been noted for this virtue.) "dost thou not remember signing my marriage contract?" said the woman. "yes," said the rabbi, "i well remember it. it stipulated for a million gold denarii from thy father, besides the allowance from thy husband," etc. _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . abba benjamin says, "if our eye were permitted to see the malignant sprites that beset us, we could not rest on account of them." abaii has said, "they out-number us, they surround us as the earthed-up soil on our garden-beds." rav hunna says, "every one has a thousand at his left side and ten thousand at his right" (ps. xci. ). rava adds, "the crowding at the schools is caused by their pushing in; they cause the weariness which the rabbis experience in their knees, and even tear their clothes by hustling against them. if one would discover traces of their presence, let him sift some ashes upon the floor at his bedside, and next morning he will see, as it were, the footmarks of fowls on the surface. but if one would see the demons themselves, he must burn to ashes the after-birth of a first-born black kitten, the offspring of a first-born black cat, and then put a little of the ashes into his eyes, and he will not fail to see them," etc., etc. _berachoth_, fol. , col. . in each camp there are suspended three hundred and sixty-five myriads of stars, etc. agrippa, being anxious to ascertain the number of the male population of israel, instructed the priest to take accurate note of the paschal lambs. on taking account of the kidneys, it was found that there were sixty myriad couples (which indicated) double the number of those that came up out of egypt, not reckoning those that were ceremonially unclean and those that were out traveling. there was not a paschal lamb in which less than ten had a share, so that the number represented over six hundred myriads of men. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . "it is unlawful to enumerate israel even with a view to a meritorious deed" (_yoma_, fol. , col. ). from rashi's comment on the former text it seems that the priest merely held up the duplicate kidneys, upon which the king's agent regularly laid aside a pea or a pebble into a small heap, which were afterwards counted up. see also josephus, book vi. chap. ix. sec. . it might not be amiss to remind the reader in passing that if one were to reckon one hundred per minute for ten hours a day, it would take no less than sixteen days six hours forty minutes to count a million; and that it would take twenty men, reckoning at the same rate, to sum up the total number stated in the text in one day, so as to ascertain that there were , , sacrifices at the passover under notice, representing no less than , , celebrants. at the time when israel in their eagerness first said, "we will do," and then, "we will hear" (exod. xxix. ), there came sixty myriads of ministering angels to crown each israelite with two crowns, one for "we will do" and one for "we will hear." but when after this israel sinned, there came down a hundred and twenty myriads of destroying angels and took the crowns away from them, as it is said (exod. xxxiii. ), "and the children of israel stripped themselves of their ornaments by mount horeb." resh lakish says, "the holy one--blessed be he!--will, in the future, return them to us; for it is said (isa. xxxv. ), 'the ransomed of the lord shall return and come to zion with songs and everlasting joy upon their heads,' i.e., the joy they had in days of yore, upon their heads." _shabbath_, fol. , col. . let no one venture out alone at night-time on wednesdays and saturdays, for agrath, the daughter of machloth, roams about accompanied by eighteen myriads of evil genii, each one of which has power to destroy. _p'sachim_, fol. , col. . it is related of rabbi elazar ben charsom that his mother made him a shirt which cost two myriads of manahs, but his fellow-priests would not allow him to wear it, because he appeared in it as though he were naked. _yoma_, fol. , col. . he who has not seen the double gallery of the synagogue in alexandria of egypt, has not seen the glory of israel.... there were seventy-one seats arranged in it according to the number of the seventy-one members of the greater sanhedrin, each seat of no less value than twenty-one myriads of golden talents. a wooden pulpit was in the centre, upon which stood the reader holding a sudarium (a kind of flag) in his hand, which he waved when the vast congregation were required to say amen at the end of any benediction, which, of course, it was impossible for all to hear in so stupendous a synagogue. the congregation did not sit promiscuously, but in guilds; goldsmiths apart, silversmiths apart, blacksmiths, coppersmiths, embroiderers, weavers, etc., all apart from each other. when a poor craftsman came in, he took his seat among the people of his guild, who maintained him till he found employment. abaii says all this immense population was massacred by alexander of macedon. why were they thus punished? because they transgressed the scripture, which says (deut. xvii. ), "ye shall henceforth return no more that way." _succah_, fol. , col. . the rabbis teach that during a prosperous year in the land of israel, a place sown with a measure of seed produces five myriad cors (a cor being equal to thirty measures). _kethuboth_, fol. , col. . rav ulla was once asked, "to what extent is one bound to honor his father and mother?" to which he replied, "see what a gentile of askelon once did, dammah ben nethina by name. the sages one day required goods to the value of sixty myriads, for which they were ready to pay the price, but the key of the store-room happened to be under the pillow of his father, who was fast asleep, and dammah would not disturb him." rabbi eliezer was once asked the same question, and he gave the same answer, adding an interesting fact to the illustration: "the sages were seeking after precious stones for the high priest's breastplate, to the value of some sixty or eighty myriads of golden denarii, but the key of the jewel-chest happened to be under the pillow of his father, who was asleep at the time, and he would not wake him. in the following year, however, the holy one--blessed be he!--rewarded him with the birth of a red heifer among his herds, for which the sages readily paid him such a sum as compensated him fully for the loss he sustained in honoring his parent." _kiddushin_, fol. , col. . "the lord hath swallowed up all the habitations of jacob" (lam. ii. ). ravin came to babylon and said in the name of rabbi yochanan, "these are the sixty myriads of cities which king yannai (jannnæus) possessed on the royal mount. the population of each equalled the number that went up out of egypt, except that of three cities in which that number was doubled. and these three cities were caphar bish (literally, the village of evil), so called because there was no hospice for the reception of strangers therein; caphar shichlaiim (village of water-cresses), so called because it was chiefly on that herb that the people subsisted; caphar dichraya (the village of male children), so called, says rabbi yochanan, because its women first gave birth to boys, and afterward to girls, and then left off bearing." ulla said, "i have seen that place, and am sure that it could not hold sixty myriads of sticks." a sadducee upon this said to rabbi chanina, "ye do not speak the truth." the response was, "it is written (jer. iii. ), 'the inheritance of a deer,' as the skin of a deer, unoccupied by the body of the animal, shrinks, so also the land of israel, unoccupied by its rightful owners, became contracted." _gittin_, fol. , col. . rabbi yoshua, the son of korcha, relates: "an aged inhabitant of jerusalem once told me that in this valley two hundred and eleven thousand myriads were massacred by nebuzaradan, captain of the guard, and in jerusalem itself he slaughtered upon one stone ninety-four myriads, so that the blood flowed till it touched the blood of zachariah, that it might be fulfilled which is said (hos. ii. ), 'and blood toucheth blood.' when he saw the blood of zachariah, and noticed that it was boiling and agitated, he asked, 'what is this?' and he was told that it was the spilled blood of the sacrifices. then he ordered blood from the sacrifices to be brought and compared it with the blood of the murdered prophet, when, finding the one unlike the other, he said, 'if ye tell me the truth, well and good; if not, i will comb your flesh with iron currycombs!' upon this they confessed, 'he was a prophet, and because he rebuked us on matters of religion, we arose and killed him, and it is now some years since his blood has been in the restless condition in which thou seest it.' 'well,' said he, 'i will pacify him.' he then brought the greater and lesser sanhedrin and slaughtered them, but the blood of the prophet did not rest. he next slaughtered young men and maidens, but the blood continued restless as before. he finally brought school-children and slaughtered them, but the blood being still unpacified, he exclaimed, 'zachariah! zachariah! i have for thy sake killed the best among them; will it please thee if i kill them all?' as he said this the blood of the prophet stood still and quiescent. he then reasoned within himself thus, 'if the blood of one individual has brought about so great a punishment, how much greater will my punishment be for the slaughter of so many!' in short, he repented, fled from his house, and became a jewish proselyte." _gittin_, fol. , col. . the same story is repeated in _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. , with some variations; notably this, among others, that it was because the prophet prophesied the destruction of jerusalem that they put him to death. (gen, xxvii. ), "the voice is the voice of jacob, but the hands are the hands of esau." the first-named "voice" alludes to the voice of lamentation caused by hadrian, who had at alexandria in egypt massacred twice the number of jews that had come forth under moses. the "voice of jacob" refers to a similar lamentation occasioned by vespasian, who put to death in the city of byther four hundred myriads, or, as some say, four thousand myriads. "the hands are the hands of esau," that is, the empire which destroyed our house, burned our temple, and banished us from our country. or the "voice of jacob" means that there is no effectual prayer that is not offered up by the progeny of jacob; and "the hands are the hands of esau," that there is no victorious battle which is not fought by the descendants of esau. ibid. tamar and zimri both committed fornication. the former (actuated by a good motive, see gen. xxxviii. ) became the ancestress of kings and prophets. the latter brought about the destruction of myriads in israel. rav nachman bar yitzchak says, "to do evil from a good motive is better than observing the law from a bad one" (e.g., tamar and zimri, lot and his daughters). _nazir_, fol. , col. . the rabbis have taught that the text, "and when it rested, he said, return, o lord, to the myriads and thousands of israel" (num. x. ), intimates that the shechinah does not rest upon less than two myriads and two thousands (two being the minimum plurality). suppose one of the twenty-two thousand neglect the duty of procreation, is he not the cause of the shechinah's departure from israel? _yevamoth_, fol. , col. . "and place over them to be rulers of thousands, and rulers of hundreds, and rulers of fifties, and rulers of tens" (exod. xviii. ). the rulers of thousands were six hundred in number, the rulers of hundreds six thousand, of fifties twelve thousand, and rulers of tens six myriads. the total number of rulers in israel, therefore, was seven myriad eight thousand six hundred. _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . once upon a time the people of egypt appeared before alexander of macedon to complain of israel. "it is said (exod. xii. ), they argued, 'the lord gave the people favor in the sight of the egyptians, so that they lent unto them,' etc.;" and they prayed, "give us now back the gold and the silver that ye took from us." givia ben pesisa said to the wise men (of israel), "give me permission to plead against them before alexander. if they overcome me, say, 'you have overcome a plebeian only,' but if i overcome them, say, 'the law of moses our master has triumphed over you.'" they accordingly gave him leave, and he went and argued thus, "whence do ye produce your proof?" "from the law," said they. then said he, "i will bring no other evidence but from the law. it is said (exod. xii. ), 'the sojourning of the children of israel, who dwelt in egypt, was four hundred and thirty years.' pay us now the usufruct of the labor of the sixty myriads whom ye enslaved in egypt for four hundred and thirty years." alexander gave the egyptians three days' grace to prepare a reply, but they never put in an appearance. in fact, they fled away and left both their fields and vineyards. ibid., fol. , col. . "and jethro said, blessed be the lord, who hath delivered you" (exod. xviii. ). a tradition says, in the name of rabbi papyes, "shame upon moses and upon the sixty myriads (of israel), because they had not said, 'blessed be the lord,' till jethro came and set the example." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . "and let him dip his foot in oil" (deut. xxxiii. ), the rabbis say, refers to the portion of asher, which produces oil like a well. once on a time, they relate, the laodiceans sent an agent to jerusalem with instructions to purchase a hundred myriads' worth of oil. he proceeded first to tyre, and thence to gush-halab, where he met with the oil merchant earthing up his olive trees, and asked him whether he could supply a hundred myriads' worth of oil. "stop till i have finished my work," was the reply. the other, when he saw the business-like way in which he set to work, could not help incredulously exclaiming, "what! hast thou really a hundred myriads' worth of oil to sell? surely the jews have meant to make game of me." however he went to the house with the oil merchant, where a female slave brought hot water for him to wash his hands and feet, and a golden bowl of oil to dip them in afterward, thus fulfilling deut. xxxiii. to the very letter. after they had eaten together, the merchant measured out to him the hundred myriads' worth of oil, and then asked whether he would purchase more from him. "yes," said the agent, "but i have no more money here with me." "never mind," said the merchant; "buy it and i will go with thee to thy home for the money." then he measured out eighteen myriads' worth more. it is said that he hired every horse, mule, camel, and ass he could find in all israel to carry the oil, and that on nearing his city the people turned out to meet him and compliment him for the service he had done them. "don't praise me," said the agent, "but this, my companion, to whom i owe eighteen myriads." this, says the narrator, illustrates what is said (prov. xiii. ), "there is that maketh himself (appear to be) rich, yet hath nothing; there is that maketh himself poor, yet hath great riches." _menachoth_, fol. , col. . the midrashim "precious in the sight of the lord is the aggadah, as explained in the midrashim" introductory note the midrashim are ancient rabbinical expositions of holy writ. the term midrash (of which midrashim is the plural form) occurs twice in the hebrew bible ( chron. xiii. , and xxiv. ); and in both passages it is represented in the anglican version by the word "story," while the more correct translation, "commentary," is relegated to the margin. "legendary exposition" best expresses the full meaning of the word midrash. the midrashim, for the most part, originated in a praiseworthy desire to familiarize the people with holy writ, which had, in consequence of changes in the vernacular, become to them, in the course of time, almost a dead letter. these midrashim have little or nothing to do with the halachoth or legal decisions of the talmud, except in aim, which is that of illustration and explanation. they are not literal interpretations, but figurative and allegorical, and as such enigmatic. they are, however, to be received as utterances of the sages, and some even regard them of as binding obligation as the law of moses itself. the following are fairly representative extracts. the midrashim the name of abraham always precedes those of isaac and jacob except in one place (lev. xxvi. ), where it is said, "and i will remember my covenant with jacob, and also my covenant with isaac, and also my covenant with abraham will i remember;" and thus we learn that all were of equal importance. _midrash rabbah_, gen. chap. . in the selichoth for the day of atonement the above reversal of the usual order of the names of abraham, isaac, and jacob is thus referred to: "the first covenant thou didst exalt, and the order of the contracting parties to it thou hast reversed." abraham deserved to have been created before adam, but the holy one--blessed be he!--said, "should he pervert things as i make them, then there will be no one to rectify them; so behold i will create adam first, and if he should make things crooked, then abraham following him will make them straight again." ibid., chap. . abram was called abraham, and isaac was also called abraham; as it is written (gen. xxv. ), "isaac, abraham's son, abraham." ibid., chap. . "and he lay down in that place" (gen. xxviii. ). rabbi yuda said, "there he lay down, but he did not lie down during all the fourteen years he was hid in the house of eber." rabbi nehemiah said, "there he lay down, but he did not lie down all the twenty years in which he stood in the house of laban." ibid., chap. . vayash kihu, "and kissed him" (gen. xxxiii. ), rabbi yanai asks, "why is this word (in the original hebrew) so pointed?" "it is to teach that esau did not come to kiss him, but to bite him; only the neck of jacob our father became as hard as marble, and this blunted the teeth of the wicked one." "and what is taught by the expression 'and they wept'?" "the one wept for his neck and the other for his teeth." _midrash rabbah_, chap. . rabbi shimon ben yochai in sifri deliberately controverts this interpretation, and aben ezra says it is an "exposition fit only for children." esau said, "i will not kill my brother jacob with bow and arrow, but with my mouth i will suck his blood," as it is said (gen. xxxiii. ), "and esau ran to meet him, and embraced him, and kissed him, and they wept." read not "and he kissed him," but read, "and he bit him." the neck of jacob, however, became as hard as ivory, and it is respecting him that scripture says (cant. vii. ), "thy neck is as a tower of ivory,"--so that the teeth of esau became blunted; and when he saw that his desire could not be gratified, he began to be angry, and gnashed his teeth, as it is said (ps. cxii. ), "the wicked shall see it and be grieved; he shall gnash with his teeth." _pirke d'rab. eliezer_, chap. . see also the previous quotation from the midrash rabbah. the targum of jonathan and also the yerushalmi record the same fantastic tradition. in the latter it is given thus, "and esau ran to meet him, and hugged him, and fell upon his neck and kissed him. esau wept for the crushing of his teeth, and jacob wept for the tenderness of his neck." abraham made a covenant with the people of the land, and when the angels presented themselves to him, he thought they were mere wayfarers, and he ran to meet them, purposing to make a banquet for them. this banquet he told sarah to get prepared, just as she was kneading cakes. for this reason he did not offer them the cakes which she had made, but "ran to fetch a calf, tender and good." the calf in trepidation ran away from him and hid itself in the cave of machpelah, into which he followed it. here he found adam and eve fast asleep, with lamps burning over their couches, and the place pervaded with a sweet-smelling odor. hence the fancy he took to the cave of machpelah for a "possession of a burying-place." ibid. shechem, the son of hamor, assembled girls together playing on tambourines outside the tent of dinah, and when she "went out to see them," he carried her off, ... and she bare him osenath. the sons of jacob wished to kill her, lest the people of the land should begin to talk scandal of the house of their father. jacob, however, engraved the holy name on a metal plate, suspended it upon her neck, and sent her away. all this being observed before the holy one--blessed be he!--the angel michael was sent down, who led her to egypt, into the house of potipherah; for osenath was worthy to become the wife of joseph. _pirke d'rab. eliezer_, chap. . in yalkut yehoshua , osenath is styled a proselyte; and indeed it might seem likely enough that joseph induced her to worship the true god. the targum of jonathan agrees with the version of the midrash above, while another tradition makes joseph marry zuleika, the virgin widow of potiphar, and says that she was the same woman that is called osenath (_koran_, note to p. ). when joseph's brethren recognized him, and were about to kill him, an angel came down and dispersed them to the four corners of the house. then judah screamed with such a loud voice that all the walls of egypt were leveled with the dust, all the beasts were smitten to the ground, and joseph and pharaoh, their teeth having fallen out, were cast down from their thrones; while all the men that stood before joseph had their heads twisted round with their faces toward their backs, and so they remained till the day of their death; as it is said (job iv. ), "the roaring of the lion (judah), and the voice of the fierce lion," etc. _vayegash_, chap. . the tradition of a legend in our possession says that judah killed esau. when? when isaac died, jacob and (the chiefs of) the twelve clans went to bury him; as it is written (gen. xxxv. ), "and his sons esau and jacob buried him." in the midrash it is, "and esau and jacob and his sons buried him," which fits the legend better. arrived at the cave, they entered it, and they stood and wept. the (heads of the) tribes, out of respect to jacob, left the cave, that jacob might not be put to shame in their presence. judah re-entered it, and finding esau risen up as if about to murder jacob, he instantly went behind him and killed him. but why did he not kill him from the front? because the physiognomy of esau was exactly like that of jacob, and it was out of respect to the latter that he slew esau from behind. _midrash shochar tov_, chap. . tradition varies respecting the tragic end of esau. the book of jasher (chap. , v. ) and the targum of jonathan (in vayechi) both say that cushim the son of dan slew esau at the burial, not of isaac, but of jacob, because he sought to hinder the funeral obsequies, disputing the title to the sepulchre. "oh, that i had wings like a dove! for then i would fly away, and be at rest" (ps. lv. ). this is spoken of abraham. but why like a dove? rabbi azariah, in the name of rabbi yudan, says, "because all birds when tired rest on a rock or on a tree, but a dove, when tired of flying, draws in one wing to rest it, and continues her flight with the other." _bereshith rabbah_, chap. . the holy one--blessed be he!--said unto abraham, "what should i tell thee? and with what shall i bless thee? shall i tell thee to be perfectly righteous, or that thy wife sarah be righteous before me? that ye both are already. or shall i say that thy children shall be righteous? they are so already. but i will bless thee so that all thy children which shall in future ages come forth from thee shall be just like thee." whence do we learn this? from gen xv. : "and he said unto him, so (like thee) shall thy seed be." _bamidbar rabbah_, chap. . "every man ... by his own standard" (num. ii. ). the several princes of israel selected the colors for their banners from the color of the stones that were upon the breastplate of aaron. from them other princes have learned to adorn their standards with different distinguishing colors. reuben had his flag red, and leaves of mandrakes upon it. issachar had his flag blue, and the sun and moon upon it. naphtali had on his flag an olive tree, for this reason that (gen. xlix. ) "out of asher his bread shall be fat." ibid., chap. . "and abraham rose up early and saddled his ass" (gen. xxii. ). this is the ass on which moses also rode when he came into egypt; for it is said (exod. iv. ), "and moses took his wife and his sons, and set them upon an ass." this is the ass on which the son of david also shall ride; as it is said (zech, ix. ), "poor, and riding upon an ass." _pirke d'rab. eliezer_, chap. . in the morning service for yom kippur, there is an allusion to the scripture passage with which our quotation opens. it is said that abraham in "his great joy perverted the usual order," which a footnote explains thus--"in the greatness of his joy, that he had thus an opportunity of showing his obedience to god, he set aside the usual order of things, which was that the servant should saddle the ass, and saddled the ass himself, as mentioned gen. xxii. ." the animal referred to in the above remarks is spoken of in sanhedrin, fol. , col. , as being of a hundred colors. when joseph saw the signs of judah's anger, he began to tremble, and said (to himself), "woe is me, for he may kill me!" and what were these signs? tears of blood rolling down from judah's right eye, and the hair that grew on his chest rising and penetrating through the five garments that he wore. joseph then kicked the marble seat on which he was sitting, so that it was instantly shattered into fragments. upon this judah observed, "he is a mighty man, like one of us." _yalkut vayegash._ abraham married three wives--sarah, a daughter of shem; keturah, a daughter of japheth; and hagar, a daughter of ham. _yalkut, job_, chap. . rashi supposes that keturah was one and the same with hagar--so the midrash, the targum yerushalmi, and that of jonathan. the latter says, "keturah, she is hagar, who had been bound to him from the beginning," but aben ezra and most of the commentators contend that keturah and hagar are two distinct persons, and the use of the plural concubines, in verse , bears them out in this assertion. the holy one--blessed be he!--daily proclaims a new law in the heavenly court, and even all these were known to abraham. ibid., chap. . a gentile once asked rabbi yoshua ben kapara, "is it true that ye say your god sees the future?" "yes," was the reply. "then how is it that it is written (gen. vi. ), 'and it grieved him at his heart'?" "hast thou," replied the rabbi, "ever had a boy born to thee?" "yes," said the gentile; "and i rejoiced and made others rejoice with me." "didst thou not know that he would eventually die?" asked the rabbi. "yes," answered the other; "but at the time of joy is joy, and at the time of mourning, mourning." "so it is before the holy one--blessed be he!--seven days he mourned before the deluge destroyed the world." _bereshith rabbah_, chap. . all the strength of the soul's mourning is from the third to the thirtieth day, during which time she sits on the grave, still thinking her beloved might yet return (to the body whence she departed). when she notices that the color of the face is changed, she leaves and goes away; and this is what is written (job. xiv. ), "but his flesh upon him shall have pain, and his soul shall mourn over him." then the mouth and the belly quarrel with one another, the former saying to the latter, "all i have robbed and taken by violence i deposited in thee;" and the latter, having burst three days after its burial, saying to the former, "there is all thou hast robbed and taken by violence! as it is written (eccles. xii. ), 'the pitcher is broken at the fountain.'" ibid., chap. . job said, "even the devil shall not dissuade me from comforting those that mourn; for i would tell him that i am not better than my creator, who comforts israel; as it is said (isa. li. ), 'i, even i, am he that comforteth you.'" _psikta nachmu._ once rabbi shimon ben yehozedek addressed rabbi sh'muel ben nachman and said, "i hear that thou art a baal aggadah; canst thou therefore tell me whence the light was created?" "we learn," he replied in a whisper, "that god wrapped himself with light as with a garment, and he has caused the splendor thereof to shine from one end of the world to the other." the other said, "why whisperest thou, i wonder, since scripture says so plainly (ps. civ. ) 'who covereth himself with light as with a garment'?" the reply was, "i heard it in a whisper, and in a whisper i have told it to thee." _bereshith rabbah_, chap. . "as the tents of kedar" (cant. i. ). as the tents of the ishmaelites are ugly without and comely within, so also the disciples of the wise, though apparently wanting in beauty, are nevertheless full of scripture, and of the mishnah and of the talmud, of the halacha and of the aggadoth. _shemoth rabbah_, chap. . "write thou these words" (exod. xxxiv. ). that applies to the law, the prophets, and the hagiographa, which were given in writing, but not to the halachoth, the midrashim, the aggadoth, and the talmud, which were given by the mouth. ibid., chap. . rabbi samlai said to rabbi yonathan, "instruct me in the aggada." the latter replied, "we have a tradition from our forefathers not to instruct either a babylonian or a daromean in the aggada, for though they are deficient in knowledge they are haughty in spirit." _tal. yerushalmi p'sachim_, v. fol. , col. . he who transcribes the aggada has no portion in the world to come; he who expounds it is excommunicated; and he who listens to the exposition of it shall receive no reward. _tal. yerushalmi p'sachim, shabbath_, xvi. fol. , col. . "day unto day uttereth speech" (ps. xix. , , ); this means the law, the prophets, and the hagiographa. "and night unto night showeth knowledge;" this is the mishnaioth. "there is no speech or language where their voice is not heard;" these are the halachoth. "their line is gone out through all the earth;" these are the aggadoth, by which his great name is sanctified. _t. debei aliahu_, chap. . rabbi yeremiah, the son of elazar, said, "when the holy one--blessed be he!--created adam, he created him an androgyne, for it is written (gen. v. ), 'male and female created he them.'" rabbi sh'muel bar nachman said, "when the holy one--blessed be he!--created adam, he created him with two faces; then he sawed him asunder, and split him (in two), making one back to the one-half, and another to the other." _midrash rabbah_, chap. . "and it repented the lord that he had made man (adam) on the earth, and it grieved him at his heart" (gen. vi. ). rabbi berachiah says that when god was about to create adam, he foresaw that both righteous people and wicked people would come forth from him. he reasoned therefore with himself thus: "if i create him, then will the wicked proceed from him; but if i do not create him, how then shall the righteous come forth?" what then did god do? he separated the ways of the wicked from before him, and assuming the attribute of mercy, so he created him. this explains what is written (ps. i. ), "for the lord knoweth the way of the righteous, but the way of the wicked shall be lost." the way of the wicked was lost before him, but assuming to himself the attribute of mercy, he created him. rabbi chanina says, "it was not so! but when god was about to create adam, he consulted the ministering angels and said unto them (gen. i. ), 'shall we make man in our image after our likeness?' they replied, 'for what good wilt thou create him?' he responded, 'that the righteous may rise out of him.' this explains what is written, 'for the lord knoweth the way of the righteous, but the way of the wicked shall be lost.' god informed them only about the righteous, but he said nothing about the wicked, otherwise the ministering angels would not have given their consent that man should be created." _bereshith rabbah_, chap. . rabbi hoshaiah said, "when god created adam the ministering angels mistook him for a divine being, and were about to say, 'holy! holy! holy!' before him. but god caused a deep sleep to fall upon adam, so that all knew he was only a man. this explains what is written (isa. ii. ), 'cease ye from man, whose breath is in his nostrils; for wherein is he to be accounted of'?" ibid. rabbi yochanan saith, "adam and eve seemed as if they were about twenty years old when they were created." ibid., chap. . rav acha said when god was about to create adam he consulted the ministering angels, and asked them, saying, "shall we make man?" they enquired, "of what good will this man be?" he replied, "his wisdom will be greater than yours." one day, therefore, he brought together the cattle, the beasts, and the birds, and asked them the name of them severally, but they knew not. he then caused them to pass before adam, and asked him, "what is the name of this and the other?" then adam replied, "this is an ox, this is an ass," and so on. "and thou, why is thy name adam?" (i.e. in hebrew, man). "i ought to be called adam," was his reply, "for i was created from adamah" (the ground). "and what is my name?" "it is meet thou shouldst be called lord, for thou art lord over all thy creatures." rav acha says, "'i am the lord, that is my name' (isa. xlii. ). 'that is my name which adam called me.'" _bereshith rabbah_, chap. . rabba eliezer says adam was skilled in all manner of crafts. what proof is there of this? it is said (isa. xliv. ), "and the artisans, they are of adam." ibid., chap. . "and the lord said, i will destroy man" (gen. vi. ). rabbi levi, in the name of rabbi yochanan, says that even millstones were destroyed. rabbi yuda, in the name of rabbi yochanan, declares even the very dust of adam was destroyed. rabbi yuda, in the name of rabbi shimon, insists that even the (resurrection) bone of the spine, from which god will one day cause man to sprout forth again, was destroyed. ibid., chap. . concerning the bone, the _os coccygis_, there is an interesting story in midrash kohelet (fol. , ), which may be appropriately inserted here. hadrian (whose bones may they be ground, and his name blotted out) once asked rabbi joshua ben chanania, "from what shall the human frame be reconstructed when it rises again?" "from luz in the backbone," was the answer. "prove this to me," said hadrian. then the rabbi took luz, a small bone of the spine, and immersed it in water, but it was not softened; he put it into the fire, but it was not consumed; he put it into a mill, but it could not be pounded; he placed it upon an anvil and struck it with a hammer, but the anvil split and the hammer was broken. (see also zohar in "genesis," , etc. etc.) "a window shalt thou make to the ark" (gen. vi. ). rabbi amma says, "it was a real window." rabbi levi, on the other hand, maintained that it was a precious stone, and that during the twelve months noah was in the ark he had no need of the light of the sun by day nor of the moon by night because of that stone, which he had kept suspended, and he knew that it was day when it was dim, and night when it sparkled. _bereshith rabbah_, chap. . the transparency, ascribed to the ark, has given rise to various conjectures. the idea of rabbi levi, that it was a precious stone, has the sanction of the targum of jonathan; which volunteers the additional information that the gem was found in the river pison. noah was deficient in faith, for he did not enter the ark till the water was up to his ankles. ibid., chap. . "and he sent forth a raven" (gen. viii. ). the raven remonstrated, remarking, "from all the cattle, beasts, and fowls thou sendest none but me." "what need has the world for thee?" retorted noah; "thou art good neither for food nor for sacrifice." rabbi eliezer says god ordered noah to receive the raven, as the world would one day be in need of him. "when?" asked noah. "when the waters are dried up from off the earth, there will in a time to come arise a certain righteous man who shall dry up the world, and then i shall want it." this explains what is written ( kings xvii. ), "and the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morning." ibid., chap. . at the time god said to the serpent, "upon thy belly thou shalt go" (gen. iii. ), the ministering angels descended and lopped off his hands and his feet. then his voice was heard from one end of the world to the other. _bereshith midrash rabbah_, chap. . when god said to the serpent, "and upon thy belly thou shalt go" (gen. iii. ), the serpent replied, "lord of the universe! if this be thy will, then i shall be as a fish of the sea without feet." but when god said to him, "and dust shalt thou eat," he replied, "if fish eat dust, then i also will eat it." then god seized hold of the serpent and tore his tongue in two, and said, "o thou wicked one! thou hast commenced (to sin) with thy evil tongue; thus i will proclaim it to all that come into the world that it was thy tongue that caused thee all this." _letters of rabbi akiva._ "and noah only remained" (gen. vii. ), except og, king of bashan, who sat on a beam of the ladders (which projected from the ark), and swore to noah and his sons that he would be their slave forever. noah made a hole in the ark through which he handed to og his daily food. thus he also remained, as it is said (deut. iii. ), "for only og, king of bashan, remained." _pirke d'rab. eliezer_, chap. . "unto adam and his wife did the lord god make coats of skins" (gen. iii. ), viz, to cover their nakedness; but with what? with fringes and phylacteries, "coats of skins," viz, the leathern straps of the phylacteries; "and they sewed fig-leaves" (gen. iii. ), viz, fringes; "and made themselves aprons," this means the proclaiming of the shema, "hear, o israel," etc. _yalkut chadash._ the aprons, which some (as rashi, for instance) take to denote furs, the targum of jonathan says were made "from the skin of the serpent." the wardrobe of adam afterward came into the possession of esau and jacob (see targ. yon. in toledoth, and p. , no. , _ante_). all the presents which our father jacob gave to esau will one day be returned by the nations of the world to the messiah, and the proof of this is (ps. lxxii. ), "the kings of tarshish and the isles shall return presents." it is not written here, "they shall bring," but they shall restore or return. _midrash rabbah vayishlach_, chap. . a philosopher once posed rabbi eliezer with the question, "does not the prophet say (mal. i. ), 'they shall build, but i will throw down'? and do not buildings still exist?" to which the rabbi answered, "the prophet does not speak of buildings, but of the schemes of designers. ye all think to contrive and build up devices, to destroy and make an end of us, but he bringeth your counsels to nought. he throweth them down, so that your devices against us have no effect." "by thy life," said the philosopher, "it is even so; we meet annually for the purpose of compassing your ruin, but a certain old man comes and upsets all your projects" (namely, elijah). _yalkut malachi._ when israel came out of egypt, samael rose to accuse them, and thus he spoke: "lord of the universe! these have till now worshiped idols, and art thou going to divide the sea for such as they?" what did the holy one--blessed be he!--then do? job, one of pharaoh's high counselors, of whom it is written (job i. ), "that man was perfect and upright," he took and delivered to samael, saying, as he did so, "behold, he is in thy hand; do with him as thou pleasest." god thought to divert his evil designs by keeping him thus occupied with job, that israel meanwhile might cross the sea without any hindrance, after which he would return and rescue job from his tender mercies. god then said to moses, "behold i have delivered job to satan; make haste. speak unto the children of israel that they go forward" (exod. xiv. ). _midrash rabbah shemoth_, chap. . no man ever received a mite (in charity) from job, and needed to receive such a second time (because of the good-luck it brought along with it). ibid. a superstitious belief prevails to some extent in poland, among the christian population as well as the jews, that coins obtained in certain circumstances bring luck apart altogether from any virtue they may be supposed to convey from the giver. a penny obtained, for instance, the first thing in the morning, by stumbling on it in the street, by the sale of an article in the market, or by gift of charity, is considered to bode luck, and cherished as a pledge of good fortune by being slightly spat upon several times on receipt, and then carefully stowed away, for a longer or shorter period, in some safe sanctum. job was the luckiest man that ever lived; his very goats even were so lucky as to kill the wolves that came to devour them; and a beggar, as we see, who received a mite from his hands, never needed afterward to beg an alms from him again. (see "genesis according to the talmud," p. , no. .) "and saul said unto the kenites, go, depart, etc.; for ye showed kindness to all the children of israel" ( sam. xv. ). and did they show kindness to all the children of israel? no; but what is written is to teach that he who receives a disciple of the wise as a guest into his house, and gives him to eat and to drink, is as if he had shown kindness to all the children of israel. _midrash sh'muel_, chap. . rabbi levi says, "when solomon introduced the ark into the temple, all the woodwork thereof freshened with sap and began to yield fruit, as it is said (ps. xcii. ), 'those that be planted in the house of the lord shall flourish in the courts of our god.' and thus it continued to bear fruit, which abundantly supplied the juveniles of the priestly caste till the time of manasseh; but he, by introducing an image into the temple, caused the shechinah to depart and the fruit to wither; as it is said (nah. i. ), 'and the flower of lebanon languisheth.'" _midrash tillin terumah._ the land of israel is situated in the centre of the world, and jerusalem in the centre of the land of israel, and the temple in the centre of jerusalem, and the holy of holies in the centre of the temple, and the foundation-stone on which the world was grounded, is situated in front of the ark. _midrash tillin terumah, kedoshim._ in ezek. v. we read, "i have set jerusalem in the midst of the nations and countries that are round about her." on the literal interpretation of these words it was asserted that jerusalem was the very centre of the world, or, as jerome quaintly called it, "the navel of the earth." in the talmud we find a beautiful metaphor in illustration of this view. it is in the last six lines of the ninth chapter of derech eretz zuta, which read thus: "issi ben yochanan, in the name of shemuel hakaton, says, 'the world is like the eyeball of man; the white is the ocean which surrounds the world, the black is the world itself, the pupil is jerusalem, and the image in the pupil is the temple. may it be built in our own days, and in the days of all israel! amen!'" the memory of this conceit is kept alive to this day among the greek christians, who still show the sacred stone in the church of the holy sepulchre at jerusalem. this notion is not confined to jewry. classic readers will at once call to mind the appellation omphalos or navel applied to the temple at delphi (pindar, pyth., iv. , vi. ; eurip. ion., ; Æsch. choeph., ; eum. , ; strabo, etc.). two sparks issued from between the two cherubim and destroyed the serpents and scorpions and burned the thorns in the wilderness. the smoke thereof, rising and spreading, perfumed the world, so that the nations said (cant. iii. ), "who is this that cometh out of the wilderness like pillars of smoke, perfumed," etc. _ibid., vayakhel._ better to lodge in the wilderness of the land of israel than dwell in the palaces outside of it. _midrash rabbah_, chap. . "and give thee a pleasant land" (a coveted land) (jer. iii. ). why is it called a coveted land? because the temple was in it. another reason why it was so called is, because the fathers of the world have coveted it. rabbi shimon ben levi says, "because they (who are buried) there will be the first to be raised in the days of the messiah." _shemoth rabbah_, chap. . "when the lord thy god shall enlarge thy border, as he hath promised thee" (deut. xii. ). rabbi yitzchak said, "this scroll no man knows how long and how broad it is, but when unrolled it speaks for itself, and shows how large it is. it is so with the land of israel, which, for the most part, consists of hills and mountains; but when the holy one--blessed be he!--shall level it, as it is said (isa. xl. ), 'every valley shall be raised and every mountain and hill shall be made low, and the crooked shall be made straight, and the rough places smooth,' then shall that land speak, as it were, for herself, and its extent stand revealed." _devarim rabbah_, chap. . blessed are they who dwell in the land of israel, for they have no sin, no iniquity, either in their lives or in their deaths. _midrash shochar tov on ps. lxxxv._ "better is a dry morsel and quietness therewith" (prov. xvii. ). this, saith rabbi, means the land of israel, for even if a man have nothing but bread and salt to eat, yet if he dwells in the land of israel he is sure that he is a son of the world to come. "than a house full of sacrifices with strife." this means the outside of the land, which is full of robbery and violence. rabbi y---- says, "he who walks but an hour in the land of israel, and then dies within it may feel assured that he is a son of the world to come; for it is written (deut. xxxii. ), 'and his earth shall atone for his people.'" _midrash mishle._ see also the talmud, kethuboth, fol. , col. . dr. benisch renders "and make expiation for his ground and his people." the targums of jonathan and the yerushalmi have, "he will make atonement for his land and for his people;" and onkelos puts it thus, "he will show mercy unto his land and his people." our rendering, however, is in accordance with the sense given to it in the talmud. there are jews who travel about the world with bags of earth from the holy land, which they sell in small quantities for high prices to such as can afford it, and believe in its virtue as a protection against the worms of the grave. jerusalem is the light of the world; as it is said, "and the gentiles shall come to thy light" (isa. lx. ). and the light of jerusalem is the holy one--blessed be he!--as it is written, but "the lord shall be unto thee an everlasting light" (isa. ix. ). _bereshith rabbah_, chap. . ten portions of wisdom, ten portions of the law, and ten portions of hypocrisy are in the world; nine portions of each are in the land of israel and one outside of it. _midrash rabbah esther._ "and it shall come to pass that from one new moon to another, and from one sabbath to another, shall all flesh come to worship before me, saith the lord" (isa. lxvi. ). but how is it possible that all flesh shall come every new moon and sabbath to jerusalem? rabbi levi saith, "in the future jerusalem will be as the land of israel, and the land of israel will be as the whole world." but how will they come from the end of the world every new moon and sabbath? "the clouds will come and carry them and bring them to jerusalem, where they will perform their morning prayer, and will carry them back to their several homes; and this is the meaning of the prophet's saying (isa. ix. ), 'who are these that fly as a cloud (in the morning), and as the doves to their windows (in the evening)?'" _pesikta._ "he stood and measured the earth" (hab. iii. ). rabbi shimon ben yochai expounded "he stood and measured" thus: "the holy one--blessed be he!--measured all the nations, and he found none worthy to receive the law except the generation in the wilderness. he measured all the mountains, and he found none on which to give the law except mount sinai. he measured all cities, and found none in which to build the temple except jerusalem. he measured all lands, and found none worthy to be given unto israel except the one now called the land of israel. this it is that is written, 'he stood up and measured the earth.'" _vayekra rabbah_, chap. . "i went down to the bottoms of the mountains" (jonah ii. ). from this we learn that jerusalem is situated on seven hills. the world's "foundation-stone" sank to "the depths" under the temple of the lord, and upon this the sons of korah stand and pray. (they) pointed this out to jonah. the fish said unto him, "jonah, behold thou art standing under the temple of the lord; therefore pray, and thou shalt be answered." _pirke d'rab. eliezer_, chap. . "and there went out fire from the lord" (lev. x. ). abba yossi saith, "two threads of fire came out from the holy of holies, and these were disparted into four: two entered the nostrils of the one (i.e., nadab), and two entered the nostrils of the other (i.e., abihu), and thus consumed them. their souls were burned, but not their garments; for it is said, 'so they went near, and carried them in their coats'" (ver. ). _torath cohanim_, sec. _shemini_. rabbi jacob teaches that he who has no wife abideth without good, without help, without joy, without blessing or atonement, to which rabbi yehoshua ben levi adds, (yea) also without peace or life. rabbi cheya says that he is not a perfect man, for it is said, "and blessed them and called their name man" (gen. v. ), where both are spoken of together as one man. _midrash rabbah bereshith_, chap. . "my beloved is like a roe" ( cant. ii. ). as a roe leaps and skips from bush to bush, from covert to covert, from hedge to hedge, so likewise does the holy one--blessed be he!--pass from synagogue to synagogue, and from academy to academy, that he may bless israel. _pesikta._ (cant. v. ), "i came into my garden," the synagogues and academies; "my sister, my spouse," the congregation of israel; "i have gathered my myrrh with my spice," the bible (that is); "i have eaten my honeycomb with my honey" (this means) the halachoth, midrashoth, and aggadoth; "i have drank my wine with my milk," this alludes to the good works which are reserved for the sages of israel. after that, "eat, o friends! drink, yea, drink freely, o beloved!" _yalkut eliezer_, fol. , col. . when solomon brought the ark into the temple and said, "lift up your heads, o ye gates! and the king of glory shall come in," the gates were ready to fall upon him and crush his head, and they would have done so if he had not said at once, "the lord of hosts, he is the king of glory" (ps. xxiv. , ). the holy one--blessed be he!--then said to the gates, "since ye have thus honored me, by your lives! when i destroy my temple, no man shall have dominion over you!" this was to inform us that while all the vessels of the temple were carried into captivity, the gates of the temple were stored away on the very spot where they were erected; for it is said (lam. ii. ), "her gates are sunk into the ground." _midrash rabbah devarim_, chap. . we are reminded of this tradition in the conclusion service for yom kippur, where we repeat, "speedily thou shalt open the hidden gates to those who hold fast thy law." the allusion is to "the gates of the temple," which "are supposed to be sunk in the ground." rabbi akiva once met on a journey a remarkably ugly man toiling along under a great load of wood. rabbi akiva said unto him, "i adjure thee to tell me whether thou art a man or a demon." "rabbi," said he, "i was once a man, and it is now some time since i left the world. day after day i have to carry a load like this, under which i am obliged to bow down, and submit three times a day to be burned." then rabbi akiva asked him, "what was the reason of this punishment?" and the reply was, "i committed an immorality on the day of atonement." the rabbi asked him if he knew of anything by which he might obtain for him a remission of his punishment. "i do," was the answer. "when a son whom i have left behind me is called up to the (public) reading of the law, and shall say, 'blessed be the blessed lord,' i shall be drawn out of hell and taken into paradise." the rabbi noted down the name of the man and his dwelling-place, whither he afterward went and made inquiries about him. the people of the place only replied, "the name of the wicked shall rot" (prov. x. ). notwithstanding this, the rabbi insisted, and said, "bring his son to me." when they brought him, he taught the lad to repeat the blessing, which he did on the ensuing sabbath at the public reading of the law; upon which his father was immediately removed from hell to paradise. on the self-same night the father repaired direct to rabbi akiva, and gratefully expressed his hope that the rabbi's mind might be as much at rest as his own was. _midrash assereth hadibroht._ there are three things which a man does not wish for: grass to grow up among his grain-crops; to have a daughter among his children; or that his wine should turn to vinegar. yet all these three are ordained to be, for the world stands in need of them. therefore it is said, "o lord, my god, thou art very great!... he causeth the grass to grow for the cattle" (ps. civ. , ) _midrash tanchuma._ there are four cardinal points in the world, etc. the north point god created but left unfinished; for, said he, "whoever claims to be god, let him come and finish this corner which i have left, and thus all will know that he is god." this unfinished corner is the dwelling-place of the harmful demons, ghosts, devils, and storms. _pirke d'rab. eliezer_, chap. . a min once asked rabbi akiva, "who created this world?" "the holy one--blessed be he!"--was the reply. "give me positive proof of this," begged the other. "come to-morrow," answered the rabbi. on coming the next day, the rabbi asked, "what are you dressed in?" "in a garment," was the reply. "who made it?" asked the rabbi. "a weaver," said the other. "i don't believe thee," said the rabbi; "give me a positive proof of this." "i need not demonstrate this," said the min; "it stands to reason that a weaver made it." "and so thou mayest know that god created the world," observed the rabbi. when the min had departed, the rabbi's disciples asked him, "what is proof positive?" he said, "my children, as a house implies a builder, and a garment a weaver, and a door a carpenter, so likewise the existence of the world implies that the holy one--blessed be he!--created it." _midrash terumah._ when the holy one--blessed be he!--created the world, it was a level expanse free from mountains; but when cain slew abel his brother, whose blood was trodden down on the earth, he cursed the ground, and immediately hills and mountains sprang into existence. _midrash vayosha._ "the lord your god hath multiplied you, and behold ye are this day as the stars of heaven for multitude" (deut. i. ). why did he bless them with stars? as there are degrees above degrees among these stars, so likewise are there degrees above degrees among israel. again, as these stars are without limit, without number, and of great power from one end of the world to the other, so likewise is israel. (cf. cor. xv. .) _midrash rabbah devarim._ "flee, my beloved" (a.v. "make haste," cant. viii. ). when israel eat and drink, and bless and praise the holy one--blessed be he!--he hearkeneth to their voice and is reconciled; but when the gentiles eat and drink and blaspheme and provoke the holy one--blessed be he!--he has a mind to destroy his world, until the law enters and pleads in defense, "lord of the universe! before thou regardest those that blaspheme, look and behold thy people israel, who bless, and praise, and extol thy great name, with the law, and with songs and with praises!" and the holy spirit shouts "flee, my beloved! flee from the gentiles, and hold fast to israel!" _midrash rabbah shir-hashirim._ rabbon gamaliel called on chilpa, the son of caroyna, when the latter asked the rabbi to pray on his behalf; and he prayed, "the lord grant thee according to thine own heart" (ps. xx. ). rabbi h----, son of rabbi isaac, said, "it was not so; he prayed thus, 'the lord fulfill all thy petitions'; for a man often thinks in his heart to steal or commit some other transgression, and therefore 'the lord grant thee according to thine own heart,' is a prayer not to be offered on behalf of every man." but the answer was, "his heart was perfect before his creator, and therefore he did so pray on his behalf." _midrash shochar tov_, . thou wilt find that whithersoever the righteous go a blessing goes with them. isaac went down to gerar, and a blessing followed him. "then isaac sowed," etc. (gen. xxvi. ). jacob went down to laban (gen. xxx. ), and laban said, "i have learned by experience that the lord hath blessed me for thy sake." joseph went down to potiphar, and "the lord blessed the egyptian's house for joseph's sake" (gen. xxxix. ). thus also thou wilt find it was with the ark which came down to the house of obed-edom, etc. ( sam. vi. ). our forefathers came into the land and a blessing followed at their heels, as it is said (deut. vi. ), "and houses full of good things," etc. _yalkut ekev._ "and the lord put a word in balaam's mouth" (num. xxiii. ). an angel took up his seat in balaam's throat, so that when he wished to bless, the angel permitted him, but when he desired to curse, the angel tickled his throat and stopped him. "word" in this place means simply an angel; as it is said (ps. cvii. ), "he sent his word and healed them." rabbi yochanan says, "there was an iron nail in his throat which permitted him when he wished to bless, but rasped his throat and prevented him when about to curse." "word" in this place means only an iron nail; for it is said (num. xxxi. ), "every thing (or word, for the original has both meanings) that may abide the fire." ibid. rabbi avin said four kinds of excellency were created in the world: ( .) man's excellency over the animal kingdom; ( .) the eagle's excellency over the feathered tribes; ( .) the excellency of the ox over domestic cattle; and ( .) the lion's excellency over the wild beasts. all were fixed under the chariot of god; as it is said (ezek. i. ), "as for the likeness of their faces, they four had the face of a man, the face of a lion, the face of an ox, and the face of an eagle." and why all this? in order that they should not exalt themselves, but know that there is a kingdom of heaven over them; and on this account it is said (eccles. v. ), "he that is higher than the highest regardeth, and there be higher than they." this is the meaning of exod. xv. : "he hath triumphed gloriously." _midrash shemoth_, chap. . no man in israel despised himself more than david when the precepts of the lord were concerned, and this is what he said before god (ps. cxxxi. , ), "'lord, my heart was not haughty' when samuel anointed me king. 'nor were mine eyes lofty' when i slew goliath. 'neither did i exercise myself in matters too great and wonderful for me' when i brought up the ark. 'have i not behaved myself, and hushed my soul, as a babe that is weaned of his mother?' as a child which is not ashamed to uncover himself before his mother, so have i likened myself before thee, in not being ashamed to depreciate myself before thee for thy glory," etc. (see sam. vi. , .) _bamidbar_, chap. . "i sleep, but my heart waketh" (cant. v. ). the synagogue of israel says "i sleep" with regard to the end of days, "but my heart waketh" with regard to the redemption; "i sleep" with regard to redemption, but the heart of the holy one--blessed be he!--waketh to redeem me. _midrash shir hashirim._ rabbi ishmael saith all the five fingers of the right hand of the holy one of israel--blessed be he!--are severally the efficient causes of redemptions. ( .) with his little finger he pointed out to noah how to construct the ark; as it is said (gen. vi. ), "and thus thou shalt make it." ( .) with the finger next to the little one he smote the egyptians; as it is said (exod. viii. ), "this is the finger of god." ( .) with the third finger from the little one he wrote the tables; as it is said (exod. xxxi. ), "tables of stone written by the finger of god." ( .) with the fourth finger, that which is next the thumb, the holy one--blessed be he!--pointed out to moses how much the israelites should give as a ransom for their souls; as it is said (exod. xxx. ), "this shall they give." ( .) with the thumb and the whole hand the holy one--blessed be he!--will in the future destroy the children of esau, for they oppress the children of israel, as also the children of ishmael, for they are their enemies; as it is said (micah v. ), "thine hand shall be uplifted upon thy adversaries, and all thy enemies shall be cut off." _pirke d'rab. eliezer_, chap. . "for mine own sake, for mine own sake, will i do it" (isa. xlviii. ). why this repetition? the holy one--blessed be he!--said, "as i redeemed you when you were in egypt for my name's sake"--(ps. cvi. ), "he saved them for his name's sake,"--"so in like manner will i do it from edom for my own name's sake. again, as i redeemed you in this world, so likewise will i redeem you in the world to come;" for thus he saith (eccles. i. ), "the thing that hath been is that which shall be" (isa. li. ); "the redeemed of the lord shall return;" not the redeemed of elijah, nor the redeemed of the messiah, but "the redeemed of the lord." _midrash shochar tov tehillim_, . "her children are gone into captivity before the enemy" (lam. i. ). rabbi isaac saith, "come and see how greatly beloved are the children!" the sanhedrin were exiled, but the shechinah was not exiled with them. the temple guards were exiled, but the shechinah was not exiled with them. but with the children the shechinah also was exiled. this is that which is written (lam. i. , ), "her children are gone, ... and from the daughter of zion all her beauty (i.e., the shechinah) is departed." _midrash rabbah eicha._ "how doth the city sit solitary!" (lam. i. ). three have, in prophesying, made use of this word "how"--moses, isaiah, and jeremiah. moses said (deut. i. ), "how can i myself bear your cumbrance!" isaiah said (isa. i. ), "how is the faithful city become an harlot!" jeremiah said (lam. i. ), "how doth the city sit solitary!" rabbi levi saith, "the thing is like to a matron who has three friends; one saw her in her prosperity, another saw her in her dissipation, and the third saw her in her pollution. so moses saw israel in their glory and prosperity, and he said, 'how can i myself bear your cumbrance!' isaiah saw them in their dissipation, and he said, 'how is the faithful city,' etc.; and jeremiah saw them in their pollution, and he said, 'how doth the city sit solitary!'" _midrash rabbah eicha._ hezekiah saith the judgment in gehenna is six months' heat and six months' cold. _midrash reheh._ gehenna has sixteen mouths, four toward each cardinal point. the gentiles say, "hell is for israel, but paradise is for us." the israelites say, "ours is paradise." _midrash aggadath bereshith._ rabbi yochanan ben zachai says, that coming once upon a man who was gathering wood, he addressed him, but at first he made no reply. afterward, however, he came up and said, "rabbi, i'm not a living man, but a dead one." "if thou art a dead man," said i, "what is this wood for?" he replied, "when i was alive upon earth, i and an associate of mine committed a certain sin in my shop, and when we were taken thence, we were sentenced to the punishment of mutual burning; so i gather wood to burn him, and he does the same to burn me." i then asked him, "how long are you to be punished thus?" he replied, "when i came here my wife was _enceinte_, and i know she gave birth to a boy. may i beg thee, therefore, to see that the child is instructed by a teacher, for as soon as he is able to repeat, 'bless ye the blessed lord!' i shall be brought up hence and be free from this punishment in hell." _tanu d'by eliyahu._ rabbi berachia saith, "in order that the minim, apostates, and wicked israelites might not escape hell on account of their circumcision, the holy one--blessed be he!--sends an angel to undo the effects of it, and they straightway descend to their doom. when gehenna sees this, she opens her mouth and licks them." this is the purport of (isa. v. ), "and she opened her mouth to those without law" (i.e., to those without the sign of the covenant). _midrash rabbath shemoth_, chap. . "god hath also set the one over against the other" (eccles. vii. ), i.e., the righteous and the wicked, in order that the one should atone for the other. god created the poor and the rich, in order that the one should be maintained by the other. he created paradise and gehenna, in order that those in the one should deliver those in the other. and what is the distance between them? rabbi chanina saith the width of the wall (between paradise and gehenna) is a handbreadth. _yalkut koheleth._ "those passing through the valley of weeping make it a well; also blessings shall cover the teacher" (ps. lxxxiv. , a.v.). "the valley of weeping" is gehenna. "make it a well," for their tears are like a well or spring. "also blessings shall cover the teacher." rabbi yochanan saith, "the praises of god that ascend from gehenna are more than those that ascend from paradise, for each one that is a step higher than his neighbor praises god, and says, 'happy am i that i am a step higher than the one below me.' 'also blessings shall cover the teacher,' for they will acknowledge and say, 'ye have taught well, and ye have instructed well, but we have not obeyed.'" _yalkut tehillim_, . those of the house of eliyahu have taught that gehenna is above the sky, but some say it is behind the mountains of darkness. _tanu d'by eliyahu._ gehenna was created before paradise; the former on the second day and the latter on the third. _yalkut_. in t.b. p'sachim, fol. , col. , it is said that the reason of the omission of the words, "and god saw that it was good," in respect to the second day of the creative week, was because hell-fire was then created; but see the context. when adam saw (through the spirit) that his posterity would be condemned to gehenna, he disobeyed the precept to procreate. but when he perceived that after twenty-six generations the israelites would accept the law, he bestirred himself in compliance; as it is said (gen. iv. ), _adam vero cognovit uxorem suam hevam_. _yalkut_. "and the souls they had gotten in haran" (gen. xii. ). these are they who had been made proselytes. whoever attracts a gentile and proselytizes him is as much as if he had created him. abraham did so to men and sarah to women. _bereshith midrash rabbah._ "sing and rejoice" (zech. ii. ). the holy one--blessed be he!--will in the future bring all the proselytes that were proselytized in this world, and judge all the nations of the world in their presence. he will say to them, "why have ye left me and served idols, which are nothing?" they will reply and say, "had we applied at thy door, thou wouldst not have received us." then will he say to them, "let the proselytes that were made from among you come forward and testify against you." _p'sikta._ these are the pious female proselytes--hagar, osenath, zipporah, shiphrah, puah, the daughter of pharaoh (bathia), rahab, ruth, and jael. _yalkut yehoshua_, . "the lord keepeth the proselytes" (ps. cxlvi. ). "i esteem it a great compliment on the part of the proselyte to leave his family and his father's house and come to me. therefore i on my part will command respecting him (deut. x. ), 'love ye therefore the proselyted.'" _midrash shochar tov_, . "i am a god near at hand" (jer. xxiii. ). "i am he who drew jethro near, and did not keep him at a distance"; therefore thou also when a man comes to be proselytized in the name of heaven, draw him near, do not repulse him or keep him at a distance. from this thou art to learn that while one repulses with the left hand he is to draw with the right, and not as elisha did. (he repulsed gehazi with both hands.) _yalkut jeremiah._ showers of rain are greater than the giving of the law, for the giving of the law was a gladsome event to israel only, but rain is a cause of joy to the wide world, including cattle, beasts, and fowls. _midrash shochar tov_, . david was a shepherd of israel, and the shepherd of david was the holy one--blessed be he!--as it is said (ps. xxiii. ), "the lord is my shepherd." _midrash rabbah_, chap. . rav pinchas says, "david in the psalms calls five times upon the holy one--blessed be he!--to arise. ( .) 'arise, o lord; save me, o my god!' (ps. iii. ). ( .) 'arise, o lord, in thine anger!' (ps. vii. ). ( .) 'arise, o lord, let not man prevail!' (ps. ix. ). ( .) 'arise, o lord; o god, lift up thine hand: forget not the humble!' (ps. x. ). ( .) 'arise, o lord; disappoint him!' but the holy one--blessed be he!--said unto david, 'my son, though thou call upon me many a time to arise, i will not arise. but when do i arise? when thou seest the poor oppressed and the needy sighing, then will i arise.'" this explains what is written (ps. xii. ), "for the oppression of the poor, for the sighing of the needy, now will i arise, saith the lord." _bamidbar rabbah_, chap. . "and solomon's wisdom excelled" ( kings iv. ). thou findest that when solomon desired to build the temple he sent to pharaoh necho a request to send him artisans on hire. pharaoh assembled his astrologers, who pointed out to him such artisans as were destined to die in the course of that year, and these he despatched to solomon; but he, through the holy ghost, seeing the fate that impended, provided each of them with a shroud and sent them back to pharaoh with the message, "hast thou no shrouds in which to bury thine own dead? behold here i have provided them with them!" "for he was wiser than all men" ( kings iv. ); "than all men," even than the first man, adam. _yalkut eliezer_, fol. , col. , n. . "ye are my witnesses, saith the lord, that i am god" (isa. xliii. ). rabbi shimon ben yochai expounds these words thus, "if ye are my witnesses, then i am god; but if ye are not my witnesses, then i am not god." _yalkut jethro_, n. . "let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter" (eccles. xii. ). thou shalt ever hear the law, even when thou dost not understand it. "fear god," and give thy heart to him. "and keep his commandments," for on account of the law the whole world was created, that the world should study it. _koheleth, as given in tse-enah ure-enah._ the kabbala "the words of the wise and their dark sayings" (prov. i. ). introductory note the hebrew word kabbal means "to receive," and its derivative, kabbalah, signifies, "a thing received," viz, "tradition," which, together with the written law, moses received on mount sinai, and we are told in the talmud, rosh hashanah, fol. , col. , i.e., "the words of the kabbalah are just the same as the words of the law." in another part of this work we have seen that the rabbis declare the kabbalah to be above the law. the kabbalah is divided into two parts, viz, the symbolical and the real. the symbolical kabbalah this teaches the secret of mystic sense of scripture, and the thirteen rules by which the observance of the law is, not logically, but kabbalistically expounded; viz, the rules of "gematria," of "notricon," of "temurah," etc. to give some idea of this kind of exposition, we will explain each of these three rules in a manner which, though in the style of the rabbis, will easily be understood by the gentile reader. . "gematria." this rule depends on the numerical value of each letter in the alphabet. the application of this rule in the solution of a disputed point is often such as to show quite as much absurdity as ingenuity. to make the subject still more clear, let us assume that a standard numerical value is attached to each letter in the english alphabet. _a_ has the value of , _b_ , _c_ , _d_ , _e_ , _f_ , _g_ , _h_ , _i_ , _j_ , _k_ , _l_ , _m_ , _n_ , _o_ , _p_ , _q_ , _r_ , _s_ , _t_ , _u_ , _v_ , _w_ , _x_ , _y_ , , _z_ , . and let us now assume a point in dispute in order to illustrate how it is solved by gematria. suppose that the subject of discussion is the comparative superiority of the hebrew and english languages, and hugo and baruch are the disputants. the former, being a hebrew, holds that the hebrew is superior to the english, "because," says he, "the numerical value of the letters that form the word _hebrew_ is ; whereas the numerical value of _english_ is only ." the latter, being an englishman, holds, of course, exactly the contrary opinion, and argues as follows: "all the learned world must admit that the english is a living language, but not so the hebrew; and as it is written (eccles. ix. ) that 'a living dog is better than a dead lion,' i therefore maintain that the english is superior to the hebrew." the dispute was referred to an oxford authority for decision, and a certain learned doctor decided it by-- . "notricon." this consists in forming a decisive sentence composed of words whose initial letters are in a given word; for instance, _hebrew_:--"_h_ugo's _e_xcels _b_aruch's _r_easoning _e_very _w_ay." _english_:--"_e_nglish _n_o _g_ood _l_anguage, _i_s _s_carcely _h_armonious;" but _hebrew_:--"_h_oly, _e_legant, _b_rilliant, _r_esonant, _e_liciting _w_onder!" this is a fair specimen of how to get at the secret sense of a word by the rule of "notricon," and now we will proceed to explain-- . "temurah." this means permutation, or a change of the letters of the alphabet after a regularly adopted system. we know only five such permuted alphabets, but there may be more. the technical names of these five alphabets are: "atbash," "atbach," "albam," "aiakbechar," and "tashrak." we will try to explain the first permuted alphabet only, as a mere specimen, for the general reader is not quite prepared to comprehend the rest, and a hint for the scholar is sufficient. here let the reader observe that as the letters of the english alphabet are more numerous and differently designated and arranged than those of the hebrew, the "atbash" of the hebrew must necessarily become "azby" in english. if now we write on one line and in regular order the first half of the alphabet, and the other half on the second line, but in reversed order, thus:-- a b c d e f g h i j k l m z y x w v u t s r q p o n we get thirteen couples of letters which exchange one with the other, viz, _a_ and _z_, _b_ and _y_, _c_ and _x_, etc. these letters, when exchanged, give rise to a permuted alphabet, and this permuted alphabet takes its technical name from the first two couples of letters, _a_ and _z_, _b_ and _y_, or "azby." now if we wish to write, "meddle not with them that are given to change," you have to change the letters of the couples and the following will be the result: "nvwwov mlg drgs gsvn gszg ziv trem gl xszmtv." this is a specimen of the mysterious temurah, and the "azby" is the key to it. the other four permuted alphabets are of a similar nature and character, and are so highly esteemed among the sages and bards of israel, that they often use them in their literary and poetical compositions. the machzorim, or the jewish liturgies for the festivals, are full of compositions where the first letters of the sentences follow the order of either the "atbash" or "tashrak." the latter is simply a reversed order of the alphabet. the real kabbalah the "real kabbalah" consists of theoretical and practical mysteries. . the theoretical mysteries treat about the ten spheres, the four worlds, the essence and various names of god and of angels, also of the celestial hierarchy and its influences and effects on this lower world, of the mysteries of creation, of the mystical chariot described by the prophet ezekiel, of the different orders and offices of angels and demons, also of a great many other deep subjects, too deep for comprehension. . the practical kabbalah is a branch of the theoretical, and treats of the practical use of the mysterious names of god and of angels. by uttering properly the shem-ham-mephorash, i.e., the ineffable name of jehovah, or the names or certain angels, or by the mere repetition of certain scripture texts, miracles and wonders were and still are performed in the jewish world. the kabbala know thou that the precepts of the law form a compact with the holy one--blessed be he!--and with israel, as it is often explained in the zohar. it is written (exod. iii. ), "this is my name, and this is my memorial." "my name," in the hebrew characters, together with "yeho," amounts numerically to ; "vah," together with "my memorial," amounts to . here we have the number in the holy one--blessed be he! the soul is a portion of god from above, and this is mystically intimated by the degrees of "breath, spirit, soul," the initial and final letters of which amount to , while the middle letters of these amount to the number of "lord, almighty, god." the soul of moses our rabbi--peace be on him!--embraced all the souls of israel; as it is said, moses was equivalent to all israel. "moses our rabbi" amounts to ; and "lord god of israel" also amounts to . _kitzur sh'lu_, p. , col. . now let us illustrate the subject of "fear and love." fear proceedeth from love and love proceedeth from fear. and this you may demonstrate by writing their letters one over the other, and then dividing them by horizontal and perpendicular lines, thus love perfecteth fear, and fear perfecteth love. this is to teach thee that both are united together. ibid., p. , col. . the holy one--blessed be he!--often brings affliction on the righteous though they have not sinned, in order that they may learn to keep aloof from the allurements of the world and eschew temptation to sin. from this it is plain that afflictions are good for man, and therefore our rabbis, of blessed memory, have said, "as men bless with joy and a sincere heart for a benefit received, so likewise ought they joyfully to bless god when he afflicts them, as, though the special blessing be hidden from the children of men, such affliction is surely intended for good.... or most souls being at present in a state of transmigration, god requites a man now for what his soul merited in a bypast time in another body, by having broken some of the precepts." _kitzur sh'lu_, p. , col. . thus we have the rule: no one is perfect unless he has thoroughly observed all the precepts. if this be so, who is he and where is he that has observed all the precepts? for even the lord of the prophets, moses our rabbi--peace be on him!--had not observed them all; for there are four obstacles which hinder one from observing all: ( .) there is the case of complete prevention, such as the law of the priesthood, the precepts of which only priests can observe, and yet these precepts are included in the . besides, there are among the number precepts appertaining to the levites which concern neither priests nor israelites, and also others which are binding on israelites with which priests and levites have nothing whatever to do. ( .) then there are impossible cases, as, for instance, when one cannot observe the precept which enforces circumcision, because he has not a son to circumcise. ( and .) there are also conditional and exceptional cases, as in the case of precepts having reference to the temple and to the land of israel. ibid., p. , col. . therefore every israelite is bound to observe only such of the precepts as are possible to him; and such as he has not observed in consequence of hindrances arising from unpreventable causes will be reckoned to him as if actually performed. ibid. the yalkut shimeoni, in true rabbinical style, amplifies still farther the license conceded in the above quotations. rabbi eliezer says that the israelites bewailed thus before god, exclaiming, "we would fain be occupied night and day in the law, but we have not the necessary leisure." then the holy one--blessed be he!--said, "perform the commandment of the phylacteries, and i will account it as if you were occupied night and day in the study of the law." anyhow, all the precepts are being observed by all israel taken together, viz, the priests observe their part, the levites theirs, and the israelites theirs; thus the whole keep all. for the holy one--blessed be he!--has written a law for his faithful servants, the nation of israel, and as a nation they keep the whole law. it is as once when a king wrote to his subjects thus, "behold, i command you to prepare for war against the enemy; raise the walls higher, collect arms, and store up victuals;" and those that were builders looked after the walls, the armorers after the weapons, the farmers after the stores of food, etc., etc. each, according to his ability, did all that was required of him, and all unitedly fulfilled the king's command. _kitzur sh'lu_, p. , col. . he who neglects to observe any of the precepts, such as were possible for him to observe, is doomed to undergo transmigration (once or more than once) till he has actually observed all he had neglected to do in a former state of being. ibid. the sages of truth (the kabbalists) remark that adam contains the initial letters of adam, david, and messiah; for after adam sinned his soul passed into david, and the latter having also sinned, it passed into the messiah. the full text is, "they shall serve the lord their god, and david their king, whom i will raise up to them" (jer. xxx. ); and it is written, "my servant david shall be their king forever" (ezek. xxxvii. ); and thus "they shall seek the lord their god, and david their king" (hosea iii. ). _nishmath chaim_, fol. , col. . know thou that cain's essential soul passed into jethro, but his spirit into korah, and his animal soul into the egyptian. this is what scripture saith, "cain shall be avenged sevenfold" (gen. iv. ), i.e., the initial letters of the hebrew word rendered "shall be avenged," form the initials of jethro, korah, and egyptian.... samson the hero was possessed by the soul of japhet, and job by that of terah. _yalkut reubeni_, nos. , , . cain had robbed the twin sister of abel, and therefore his soul passed into jethro. moses was possessed by the soul of abel, and therefore jethro gave his daughter to moses. _yalkut chadash_, fol. , col. . if a man be niggardly either in a financial or a spiritual regard, giving nothing of his money to the poor or not imparting of his knowledge to the ignorant, he shall be punished by transmigration into a woman.... know thou that sarah, hannah, the shunammite ( kings iv. ), and the widow of zarepta were each in turn possessed by the soul of eve.... the soul of rahab transmigrated into heber the kenite, and afterward into hannah; and this is the mystery of her words, "i am a woman of a sorrowful spirit" ( sam. i. ), for there still lingered in her soul a sorrowful sense of inherited defilement.... eli possessed the soul of jael, the wife of heber the kenite.... sometimes the souls of pious jews pass by metempsychosis into gentiles, in order that they may plead on behalf of israel and treat them kindly. for this reason have our rabbis of blessed memory said, "the pious of the nations of the world have a portion in the world to come." _yalkut reubeni_, nos. , , , . we have it by tradition that when moses our rabbi--peace be unto him!--said in the law, "o god, the god of the spirits of all flesh" (num. xvi. ), he meant mystically to intimate that metempsychosis takes place in all flesh, in beasts, reptiles, and fowls. "of all flesh" is, as it were, "in all flesh." _avodath hakodesh_, fol. , col. . it is also needful that thou shouldst know that the kabbalists believe in metempsychosis from the body of one species into the body of another species. thou hast already been informed of the mystery of clean and unclean animals; and some of the later sages of the kabbalah say that the soul of an unclean person will transmigrate into an unclean animal, or into abominable creeping things or reptiles. for one form of uncleanness the soul will be invested with the body of a gentile, who will (eventually) become a proselyte; for another, the soul will pass into the body of a mule; for others, it transmigrates into an ass, a woman of ashdod, a bat, a rabbit or a hare, a she-mule or a camel. ishmael transmigrated first into the she-ass of balaam, and subsequently into the ass of rabbi pinchas ben yair. _nishmath chaim_, chap. , no. . the last paragraph may be illustrated by the well-known story of the ass of r. pinchas, which persistently objected to feed on untithed provender. this is also said of the ass of rabbi chanina ben dossa. see avoth d'rab. nathan, chap. . sometimes the soul of a righteous man may be found in the body of a clean animal or fowl. _caphtor upherach_, fol. , col. . it sometimes happens that one sacrifices an animal with a human soul in it. and this is the mystic meaning of (ps. xxxvi. ), "o lord, thou preservest man and beast." it is for this reason that we are commanded to have our slaughtering-knife without defect, for who knows if there be not a transmigrated soul in the animal? ... therefore the slaughter must needs be delicately done and the mode critically examined, on account of that which is written (lev. xix. ), "thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." _nishmath chaim_, chap. , no. . at each of the three meals of the sabbath one should eat fish, for into them the souls of the righteous are transmigrated. and in relation to them it is written (num. xi. ), "all the fish of the sea shall be gathered together for them." _yalkut chadash_, fol. , col. , no. . the soul of a slanderer is transmigrated into a silent stone. _emeh hamelech_, fol. , col. . rabbi isaac luria was once passing the great academy of rabbi yochanan in tiberias, where he showed his disciples a stone in the wall, remarking, "in this stone there is a transmigrated soul, and it cries that i should pray on its behalf. and this is the mystic meaning of (hab. ii. ), 'the stone shall cry out of the wall.'" ibid., fol. , col. . the murderer is transmigrated into water. the mystical sign of this is indicated in (deut. xii. ), "ye shall pour it upon the earth as water;" and the meaning is, he is continually rolling on and on without any rest. therefore let no man drink (direct) from a running tap or spout, but from the hollow of his hands, lest a soul pass into him, and that the soul of a wicked sinner. ibid., fol. , cols. , . one who sins with a married woman is, after undergoing the penalty of wandering about as a fugitive and vagabond, transmigrated, together with his accomplice, into the millstone of a water-mill, according to the mystery of (job xxxi. ), "let my wife grind unto another." _emeh hamelech_, fol. , cols. , . a butcher who kills an animal with a defective knife will die of the plague, and his soul will pass into a dog, whom he thus deprives of what belongs to him; for it is said (exod. xxii. ), "ye shall cast it to the dogs." _kitzur sh'lh_, fol. , col. . an animal slaughtered with an improper knife is considered as if it had been "torn of beasts in the field," and the flesh of it, according to the law, belongs to the dogs. a careless butcher, selling the meat as food for man, deprives the dog of his due. the sages of truth have written, "he who does not wash his hands before eating, as the rabbis of blessed memory have ordained, will be transmigrated into a cataract, where he will have no rest, even as a murderer, who is also transmigrated into water." ibid., fol. , col. . after washing his hands before a meal, he is to stretch out his fingers and turn the palms of his hands upward, as if in the act of receiving something from a friend, and then repeat (ps. cxxxiv. ), "lift ye up your holy hands, and bless ye the lord!" ibid. the following are the usual blessings, "blessed art thou, o lord, our god! king of the universe! who has sanctified us with his commandments, and has commanded us to wash the hands!" "blessed art thou, o lord, our god! king of the universe! who bringeth forth bread from the earth!" by means of combining the letters of the ineffable names, as recorded in "book of creation," rava once created a man and sent him to rav zera. the man being unable to reply when spoken to, the rabbi said to him, "thou art a creation of the company (initiated in the mysteries of necromancy); return to thy dust." _sanhedrin_, fol. , col. . in the jerusalem talmud, sanhedrin, chap. , we read that, by the means above mentioned, a rabbi created pumpkins, melons, and real deer and roes. there is a living creature in heaven which by day has "truth" upon its forehead, by which the angels know it is day; but in the evening it has "faith" on its forehead, whereby the angels know that night is near. each time the living creature says, "bless ye the blessed lord," all the hosts above respond, "blessed be the blessed lord forever." _kitzur sh'lh_, fol. . col. . truth and faith are the essentials of religion, which are thirteen in number:-- . god exists, and there is no period to his existence. the philosophers call it absolute existence, but the majority of kabbalists term it "endless," which, by gematria, is "light"; and again, by gematria, is "lord of the universe." he is the cause of causes and the causing of causings, and from or by his existence all beings, spiritual and material, derive their existence. . he is one, and there is no unity like his, etc. . he has no bodily likeness, and is not corporeal. . he is first of everything, absolute beginning; as it is said, "i am the first and i am the last" (isa. xliv ), and there is no beginning to his beginning. . none but himself is to be worshiped and prayed to. . the gift of prophecy he has given to men esteemed and glorified by him. . none arose like unto moses, etc. . a law of truth he gave; this is the law from heaven, "in the beginning" unto "in the sight of all israel." also its comment received orally is likewise "a law (given) unto moses from sinai." . god will not change or alter his law forever. he will never change the law of moses our rabbi--peace be unto him! the law will suffer no addition or diminution (but it will abide even), as the prophet malachi sealed it with the seal of the prophets in ending his words (mal. iv. ), "remember ye the law of moses my servant, which i commanded unto him in horeb for all israel." formerly the law was in a garment of light, but in consequence of sin, the law became materialized in a garment of skin, in the same proportion as man became materialized in a body of flesh. in the future, after the redemption, however, the law will have the garment of light restored, and the messiah will preach the law in terrible mysteries, such as no ear has ever heard, and it will appear to us as a new law. but the law will not be altered, or made new, as the nations of the world say. jer. xxxi. - . . he observeth and knoweth all our secrets, etc. . there are rewards and punishments in the future, etc. . he will send at the end of days our messiah from the seed of david to redeem his people israel from among the nations, and restore to them the kingdom. . there will be a revival of the dead, etc. _kitzur sh'th_, fol. , col. . let a man believe that whatever occurs to him is from the blessed one! for instance, when a wicked man meets him and abuses him, and puts him to shame, let him receive it with love, and say, "the lord told him to curse, and he is the messenger of god on account of my sin." ibid., fol. , col. . in every deed or transaction a man performs by his own free will, be it a matter of precept or of option, let the name of god be ready in his mouth. if, for instance, he erects a building, or buys a vessel, or makes a new garment, let him say with his mouth and utter with his lips, "this thing i do, for (the honor of) the union of the shechinah with the holy one--blessed be he!" ibid. bismillahi arrahmani arraheemi, "in the name of god, most merciful and compassionate," is the motto of every work undertaken by a mohammedan. a man should always desire that his neighbor may profit by him, and let him not strive to profit by his neighbor. let his words be pleasant with the children of men if they shame him, and let him not shame them in return. if they deceive him, let him not deceive them in return, and let him take the yoke of the public upon his shoulders, and not impose it heavily on them in return. ibid. if--which god forbid!--thy neighbor has done thee an evil, pardon him at once; for thou shouldst love him as thyself. if one hand is accidentally hurt by the other, should the wounded hand revenge its injury on the other? and, as urged before, thou shouldst rather say in thine heart, "it is from the lord that it came to thee; it came as a messenger from the holy one--blessed be he!--as a punishment for some sin." _kitzur sh'lh_, fol. . col. . a sage who was very sorrowful was once comforted thus: "if thy sorrow relates to this world, may god decrease it; but if it relates to the world to come, may god increase it and add sorrow to sorrow." (see cor. vii. .) ibid., fol. , col. . a man should not wade through water or traverse any dangerous place in company with an apostate, or even a wicked jew, lest he be overtaken (in the same ruin) with him. (comp. eph. v. , ; rev. xviii. .) ibid., fol. , col. . the influence of the son is relatively greater and more blessed than that of the father, for the merits of the father do not profit the son except in matters relating to this world (as by bequeathing him worldly inheritance); whereas the merits of the son do more than benefit the father in this world; they benefit him also in the world to come (by saying "kadish"), which is enough to deliver his soul from purgatory. ibid., fol. , col. . a common proverb says, "one father willingly maintains ten sons, but ten sons are not willing to support one father." ibid., fol. , col. . the proper use of money is that thou learn the art of dealing honestly, so that thy no be no and thy yes, yes; and as far as possible be benevolent with the money. "and the liberal by liberal things shall stand" (isa. xxxii. ). ibid. the sage says, "the eye of a needle is not narrow enough for two friends, but the world in not wide enough for two enemies." ibid., fol. , col. . "create in me a clean heart, o god, and renew a right spirit within me" (ps. li. ). know thou that the heart is the source of life, and is placed in the centre of the body as the holy of holies, as stated in the book zohar, is the central part of the world. therefore one must have his heart cleansed from evil and all evil thoughts, otherwise he introduces an idol into the innermost part of the temple, which ought to be a dwelling-place for the shechinah. (see cor. iii, , , and vi. .) _kitzur sh'lh_, fol. , col. . he who gazes even on the little finger of a woman is as if he looked on her to lust after her. he should not give ear to a woman's voice, for the voice of a woman is lewdness. this sin is much discussed in the zohar; it causes the husband to come to poverty, and deprives him and her sons of all respect. ibid., fol. , col. . the sages of the kabbalah were not singular in this view. the talmud yerush, callah, fol. , col. , says, "he that looks upon a woman's heel is guilty of an act of lewdness." eating meat after cheese or cheese after meat is a very serious sin; and it is stated in the zohar, section mishpatim, that upon him who is without scruple in this regard, an evil spirit will rest for forty days, his soul will be from the spirit which has no holiness. ibid., fol. , col. . the sages of the kabbalah have written that it becomes him who has in him the fear of heaven to have a vessel of water near his bed, in order that (on waking in the morning) he may not need to walk four ells without washing his hands, for he who walks four ells without washing his hands has forfeited his life as a divine punishment. ibid., fol. , col. . when a man is dressing, he should first put on the right shoe and leave it unfastened till he has put on and fastened the left; then he should fasten the right, as it is explained in the shulchan aruch. ibid., fol. , col. . the following are some of the many laws relating to the shemonah-esreh, or the eighteen blessings which form the most devotional part of daily worship, and which are repeated three times on (ordinary) week-days, and four times on sabbaths, new moons, and on appointed feasts:-- before commencing the shemonah-esreh one should step back three paces, in order to be able to advance three steps. the reason of this is that moses our rabbi--peace be on him!--advanced before his prayer into the three divisions, "darkness, clouds, and thick darkness" (deut. iv. ). and this is also the reason why after finishing the shemonah-esreh three steps backward are to be made, returning through these three parts or divisions. this prayer is to be performed standing, and the feet so joined together that they should seem as it were one foot only, in order to be like the angels, of whom it is written (ezek. i. ), "and their feet were (so in the original) a straight foot," that is to say, their feet appeared as one foot. this attitude is a sign that the power of locomotion is gone; he cannot pursue and attain any other object than god. the gentiles place their hands together, intending to signify thereby that their hands are as it were bound; but we, by placing our feet together, intend to signify that they are as it were entirely bound, which is indicative of greater humility; for with the hands bound one could still run away in search of his own pleasure, which he cannot do when the feet are bound. _kitzur sh'lh_, fol. , col. , and fol. , col. . it is lawful for him who rides upon an animal to pray the eighteen benedictions, and when he comes to the point when he should retrace three steps, he is to back the animal he is mounted on three steps. and so also it is lawful to pray the eighteen blessings when sitting and traveling in a wagon. ibid., fol. , col. . it is necessary to pay attention to the feet when the worshiper repeats "holy! holy! holy!" and he is to lift up his eyes toward heaven. at the instant the kiddushah is repeated he needs only lift up his heels, and thereby his body from the earth toward heaven.... according to tanchuma it is necessary to lift up the feet from the earth altogether, after the example of the angels, of whom it is written (isa. vi. ), "and with two he did fly." it is from this text that the sages have ordained that a man should fly up (as it were) when he repeats "holy! holy! holy!" and let the chooser choose, i.e. it is optional either to lift up the heels only or to jump. ibid. any one who visits a synagogue may notice the observance of this practice. in the synagogues of the chassidim, jumping is preferred to lifting up the heels. it is written (ps. cii. ), "he will regard the prayer of the destitute," and it is not written, "he will hear." what else can the term "regard" mean than that there is a distinction between the prayer of an individual and the prayer of a community? for when a community prays, their prayer enters before the holy one--blessed be he!--and he is not particular to regard and criticise their works and their intentions and thoughts, but receives their prayers immediately. but when an individual prays, the holy one--blessed be he!--regards and scrutinizes his heart, whether it be devout and whether he be a righteous man. therefore, one should always pray with the community, and this is why the text (ps. cvii. ) ends with the words, "and not despise their prayer." although there are some of the community whose prayers, on account of their evil deeds, deserve to be despised, he, nevertheless, does not despise their prayer. _kitzur sh'lk_, fol. , col. . a man should study less on friday, that he may occupy himself with the preparation for the sabbath. and accordingly we find in the gemara that some of the great and esteemed sages occupied themselves on that day in preparing what was needed for the sabbath. therefore, though one may have many servants to wait upon him, it is a great merit personally to prepare for the wants of the sabbath in order thus to honor it; and let him not think it derogatory to his own honor to honor the sabbath thus, for it is his honor to honor the sabbath. it is written of h'a'ree of blessed memory, that he was in the habit of sweeping away the cobwebs in his house (in honor of the sabbath), and it is well known to the initiated what a wonderful mystery it is to abolish the unclean spirits from the house, "and this is enough for him that understands." ibid., fol. , col. . one should trim his finger-nails every friday, never on thursday, otherwise the nails will commence growing on the following sabbath. he should pare the nails of the left hand first, beginning at the fourth finger and ending with the thumb; and then he should pare the nails of the right hand, beginning with the thumb and ending with the fourth finger; he should not vary the following order: th, d, th, d, st of the left hand; then the st, d, th, d, th of the right hand. never pare two (contiguous) fingers one after the other, for it is dangerous, and it also impairs the memory. the reason and mystery about the order for paring the nails are well known to the expert. _kitzur sh'lh._ in the zohar it is explained that the benefit of immersion on friday amounts to the restoration of the soul to her proper place, for he who is bodily unclean has no soul. ibid., fol. , col. . before entering the plunging-bath, he is to repeat (gen. i. ), "and god called the dry land earth, and the gathering together of the waters called he seas." when he stands in the water he is to repeat seven times (ps. li. ), "create in me a clean heart, o god, and renew a right spirit within me," for the initials of "create in me a clean heart," form the word "to dip," i.e., to immerse. for it is through immersion that the unclean spirits and the "other side," are separated from him, and he becomes a new creature by examining and confessing his (evil) deeds, and forsaking them, and by engaging himself in repentance, and immersing himself, and meditating on elevating subjects, and especially so if he has immersed himself fourteen times. ibid., fol. , col. . when standing in the water he is to stoop four times, so that the water may reach his neck, answering to the four modes of legal execution. after that he is to repeat the form of confession, and while the water reaches up to his throat he is to repeat these three texts--micah vii. - , jer. x. , and ps. cxviii. , and then say, "as i cleanse my body here below, which is formed of clay, so may the ministering angels cleanse my soul, spirit, and ghost above in the river dinor; and as i sanctify my body here below, so may the angels of the most high, the ministering angels, sanctify my spirit, soul, and ghost in the river dinor above! in the name of jehovah, he is the god and in the name of adonai, the rock of all ages. blessed be the name of the glory of his kingdom forevermore!" _kitzur sh'lh_, fol. , col. . according to the kabbalah, the thoroughgoing orthodox jew has his hands full on erev shabbath, i.e., friday. we cannot here go over the entire proceeding prescribed, but we will briefly touch upon its salient features in the order as we find them. after having prepared himself for immersion, as above described, he is to turn his face and bow first toward the west and then toward the east, repeating a certain formula, and then dip himself under the water. this over, he is to turn again east and west and repeat a different formula, and while meditating on certain given letters of certain mystical divine names and other known words, and their respective numerical values, he is to dip a second time under the water. then turning and bowing again west and east, repeating the while a different formula, he proceeds to meditate on different letters of the divine names, and dips for the third and last time. as dipping fourteen times is the exception and not the rule, no farther directions are given about the matter, except a few additional formulae and meditations. when he comes out of the water he is to step backward in the same respectful manner as when he leaves the synagogue, and is to repeat isa. iv. , , and rabbi akiva's commentary on the text ezek. xxxvi. . when he begins dressing he is to repeat isa. liv. , and when he subsequently washes his face and hands and feet in warm water, to which is attached a great mystery, he is to say, "behold, here i am, washing myself in honor of sabbath the queen;" and add also isa. iv. , and also, "i have washed my feet; how shall i defile them?" (cant. v. .) happy is he who is able to provide himself with a complete suit of apparel down to the girdle, the shoes, and the hat for wearing on the sabbath, different from those worn on week-days. then he is to repeat the book of solomon's song, and if unable to repeat the whole, he is, at all events, to repeat these four verses, the initials of the first word in each of which taken together form the word jacob, cant. i. , ii. , ii. , v. . after this he is to repeat certain portions of the mishnah, and something of the zohar or some other kabbalistic work. this over, the devout israelite goes to the synagogue to meet his god as the bridegroom, and to receive the sabbath as the bride. the service is well worthy of rehearsal, but we must refer for details to the liturgy. the israelite returns home from the synagogue accompanied by two angels, one good and the other evil; and according to the condition of the domestic arrangements when he re-enters, he is blessed by the good angel or cursed by the evil one. the israelite is solemnly warned not to quarrel with his wife on sabbath-eve, for the devils are very busy then to stir up more strife, as is illustrated by the story of rabbi meir. having repeated the usual hymn appointed for the sabbath-eve, and pronounced the form of blessing over the cup of wine, he and his family commence their supper, which is carefully prepared of the very choicest viands, flesh and fish included. hymns and a certain form of blessing after the meal complete the family duties of the day, and all retire to rest. the head of the family, if he be a pious israelite, and especially a disciple of the wise, has a particular duty to perform--a duty which is based on scripture and on the following text (exod. xxxi. ), "wherefore the children of israel shall keep the sabbath." (_kitzur sh'lh_, fol. , col. .) of the laws relating to the sabbath we can here only enumerate a few; we shall, however, take them in order as detailed in the book before us. jewish women, maid-servants and girls are warned not to order a gentile woman on the sabbath to do this or that, but they may instruct her on a work-day what she is to do on the sabbath. geese, fowl, cats, dogs, etc., are not to be handled on the sabbath. neither are pocket-handkerchiefs, spectacles, etc., to be carried on the sabbath in an unwalled town or village. radishes are not to be salted in quantities, but each piece is to be dipped separately in salt and eaten. after dinner the israelite is to take a siesta, for each letter forms the initial of a word, and the words thus formed are "sleep on the sabbath is a delight." (see isa. lviii. .) before he dozes off he is to repeat the last verse of the th and the whole of the st psalm. the salutation should not be, as on working-days, "good morning," but "good sabbath;" for respecting this it is said (exod. xx. ), "remember the sabbath-day to keep it holy." he is not to rise on the sabbath as early as on the other days of the week, and this is based on scripture. he is to be very careful with the fur garments that he may be wearing, lest he should pluck a hair therefrom, and for the same reason he is not to scratch his head or touch his beard on the sabbath. he is not to wash his hands with salt or soap on the sabbath, nor may he play at ball; he is not to knock with a rapper on a door, or ring the house-bell; nor, if he has married a widow, is he to co-habit with her on that day. _kitzur sh'lh_, fols. - . at the close of the sabbath he is to pronounce over a cup of wine what is technically termed the "separation," for the departure of the sabbath, as given in the prayer-book. he is then to fold up his tallith or veil and sing "hamavdil," the first verse of which runs thus:-- "may he who maketh a distinction between the holy (sabbath) and the profane (days of the week) pardon our sins and multiply our children and our money as the sand and as the stars in the night!" should he forget to fold his veil (tallith), he is to shake it thoroughly the next morning, in order to get rid of the evil spirits that have harbored there during the night, and the reason is known to the lords of the kabbalah. ibid., fol. , col. . it is customary then to repeat a number of hymns and songs and legends wherein elijah the prophet is mentioned, because he it is that is to come and bring the tidings of redemption, for it is thus stated in tosephta, that on the exit of the sabbath elijah of blessed memory sits under the "tree of life" and records in writing the merits of those that keep the sabbath. those that are particular repeat, and the very pious write, "elijah the prophet, elijah the prophet, elijah the prophet," a hundred and thirty times, for "elijah the prophet," by gematria equals , to which add , the number of the letters, and the total is . ibid. the word elijah is written a hundred and thirty times in tabular form, with the letters transposed. this can be understood better by forming a kabbalistic table of the same word in english. elijah ehlija ejahli eijahl elhija elahij eljahi elhaji eljiah ealijh eahlij eajhli eaijhl ealhij ehalij ehlaij ehijla ehjial ehialj ehjail and so on. the last day of the month is called, "the little day of atonement," and it is fit and proper to do penance on that day. on the first day of the month it is a pious act to prepare an extra dish for dinner in honor of the day. god has given the first of the month (as a festival) more for women than for men, because the three annual festivals are according to the three patriarchs, abraham, isaac, and jacob, and because the twelve months are according to the twelve tribes; and as the tribes sinned in the matter of the golden calf, and the women were unwilling to give up their golden earrings for that idolatrous purpose, therefore they deserved that god should give them as their reward the first days of the twelve months, according to the number of the tribes. _kitzur sh'lh_, fol. , col. . it is a very pious act to bless the moon at the close of the sabbath, when one is dressed in his best attire and perfumed. if the blessing is to be performed on the evening of an ordinary week-day the best dress is to be worn. according to the kabbalists the blessings upon the moon are not to be said till seven full days after her birth, but, according to later authorities, this may be done after three days. the reason for not performing this monthly service under a roof, but in the open air, is because it is considered as a reception of the presence of the shechinah, and it would not be respectful so to do anywhere but in the open air. it depends very much upon circumstances when and where the new moon is to be consecrated, and also upon one's own predisposition, for authorities differ. we will close these remarks with the conclusion of the kitzur sh'lu on the subject, which, at p. , col. , runs thus:-- "when about to sanctify the new moon, one should straighten his feet (as at the shemonah-esreh) and give one glance at the moon before he begins to repeat the ritual blessing, and having commenced it he should not look at her at all. thus should he begin--'in the united name of the holy and blessed one and his shechinah, through that hidden and concealed one! and in the name of all israel!' then he is to proceed with the 'form of prayer for the new moon;' word for word, without haste, but with solemn deliberation, and when he repeats-- "'blessed is thy former, blessed is thy maker, blessed is thy possessor, blessed is thy creator.' "he is to meditate on the initials of the four divine epithets which form 'jacob,' for the moon, which is called 'the lesser light,' is his emblem or symbol, and he is also called 'little' (see amos vii. ). this he is to repeat three times. he is to skip three times while repeating thrice the following sentence, and after repeating three times forward and backward: thus (forward)--'fear and dread shall fall upon them by the greatness of thine arm; they shall be as still as a stone;' thus (backward)--'still as a stone may they be; by the greatness of thine arm may fear and dread fall on them;' he then is to say to his neighbor three times, 'peace be unto you,' and the neighbor is to respond three times, 'unto you be peace.' then he is to say three times (very loudly), 'david, the king of israel, liveth and existeth!' and finally, he is to say three times-- "'may a good omen and good luck be upon us and upon all israel! amen.'" rabbinical ana it was said of rabbi tarphon, that though a very wealthy man, he was not charitable according to his means. one time rabbi akiba said to him. "shall i invest some money for thee in real estate, in a manner which will be very profitable?" rabbi tarphon answered in the affirmative, and brought to rabbi akiba four thousand denars in gold, to be so applied. rabbi akiba immediately distributed the same among the poor. some time after this rabbi tarphon met rabbi akiba, and asked him where the real estate which he had bought for him was situated. akiba led his friend to the college, and showed him a little boy, who recited for them the th psalm. when he reached the ninth verse, "he distributeth, he giveth to the needy, his righteousness endureth forever." "there," said akiba, "thy property is with david, the king of israel, who said, 'he distributeth, he giveth to the needy.'" "and wherefore hast thou done this?" asked tarphon. "knowest thou not," answered rabbi akiba, "how nakdimon, the son of guryon, was punished because he gave not according to his means?" "well," returned the other, "why didst thou not tell me this; could i not have distributed my means without thy aid?" "nay," said akiba, "it is a greater virtue to cause another to give than to give one's self." rabbi jochanan, the son of lakkai, was once riding outside of jerusalem, and his pupils had followed him. they saw a poor woman collecting the grain which dropped from the mouths and troughs of some feeding cattle, belonging to arabs. when she saw the rabbi, she addressed him in these brief words, "o rabbi, assist me." he replied, "my daughter, whose daughter art thou?" "i am the daughter of nakdimon, the son of guryon," she answered. "why, what has become of thy father's money?" asked the rabbi; "the amount which thou didst receive as a dowry on thy wedding day?" "ah," she replied, "is there not a saying in jerusalem, 'the salt was wanting to the money?'" "and thy husband's money," continued the rabbi; "what of that?" "that followed the other," she answered; "i have lost them both." the rabbi turned to his scholars and said:-- "i remember, when i signed her marriage contract, her father gave her as a dowry one million golden denars, and her husband was wealthy in addition thereto." the rabbi sympathized with the woman, helped her, and wept for her. "happy are ye, oh sons of israel," he said; "as long as ye perform the will of god naught can conquer ye; but if ye fail to fulfill his wishes, even the cattle are superior to ye." nachum, whatever occurred to him, was in the habit of saying, "this too is for the best." in his old age he became blind; both of his hands and both of his legs were amputated, and the trunk of his body was covered with a sore inflammation. his scholars said to him, "if thou art a righteous man, why art thou so sorely afflicted?" "all this," he answered, "i brought upon myself. once i was traveling to the house of my father-in-law, and i had with me thirty asses laden with provisions and all manner of precious articles. a man by the wayside called to me, 'o rabbi, assist me.' i told him to wait until i unloaded my asses. when that time arrived and i had removed their burdens from my beasts, i found to my sorrow that the poor man had fallen and expired. i threw myself upon his body and wept bitterly. 'let these eyes, which had no pity on thee, be blind,' i said; 'these hands that delayed to assist thee, let them be cut off, and also these feet, which did not run to aid thee,' and yet i was not satisfied until i prayed that my whole body might be stricken with a sore inflammation. rabbi akiba said to me, 'woe to me that i find thee in this state! but i replied, 'happy to thee that thou meetest me in this state, for through this i hope that my iniquity may be forgiven, and all my righteous deeds still remain recorded to gain me a reward of life eternal in the future world.'" * * * * * rabbi janay upon seeing a man bestowing alms in a public place, said, "thou hadst better not have given at all, than to have bestowed alms so openly and put the poor man to shame." "one should rather be thrown into a fiery furnace than be the means of bringing another to public shame." rabbi juda said, "no one should sit down to his own meals, until seeing that all the animals dependent upon his care are provided for." rabbi jochanan said that it is as pleasing in god's sight if we are kind and hospitable to strangers, as if we rise up early to study his law; because the former is in fact putting his law into practice. he also said, "he who is active in kindness toward his fellows is forgiven his sins." both this rabbi and abba say it is better to lend to the poor than to give to them, for it prevents them from feeling ashamed of their poverty, and is really a more charitable manner of aiding them. the rabbis have always taught that kindness is more than the mere almsgiving of charity, for it includes pleasant words with the more substantial help. * * * * * rabbi hunnah said, "he who is proud in heart is as sinful as the idolater." rabbi abira said, "he who is proud shall be humbled." heskaiah said, "the prayers of a proud-hearted man are never heard." rabbi ashi said, "he who hardens his heart with pride, softens his brains with the same." rabbi joshua said "meekness is better than sacrifice"; for is it not written, "the sacrifices of god are a broken heart--a broken contrite spirit, thou, oh lord, will not despise?" the son of rabbi hunnah said, "he who possesses a knowledge of god's law, without the fear of him, is as one who has been intrusted with the inner keys of a treasury, but from whom the outer ones are withheld." rabbi alexander said, "he who possesses worldly wisdom and fears not the lord, is as one who designs building a house and completes only the door, for as david wrote in psalm th, 'the beginning of wisdom is the fear of the lord.'" when rabbi jochanan was ill, his pupils visited him and asked him for a blessing. with his dying voice the rabbi said, "i pray that you may fear god as you fear man." "what!" exclaimed his pupils, "should we not fear god more than man?" "i should be well content," answered the sage, "if your actions proved that you feared him as much. when you do wrong you first make sure that no human eyes see you; show the same fear of god, who sees everywhere, and everything, at all times." abba says we can show our fear of god in our intercourse with one another. "speak pleasantly and kindly to everyone"; he says, "trying to pacify anger, seeking peace, and pursuing it with your brethren and with all the world, and by this means you will gain that 'favor and good understanding in the sight of god and man,' which solomon so highly prized." rabbi jochanan had heard rabbi simon, son of jochay, illustrate by a parable that passage of isaiah which reads as follows: "i, the lord, love uprightness; but hate robbery (converted) into burnt-offering." a king having imported certain goods upon which he laid a duty, bade his officers, as they passed the custom-house, to stop and pay the usual tariff. greatly astonished, his attendants addressed him thus: "sire! all that is collected belongs to your majesty; why then give what must be eventually paid into thy treasury?" "because," answered the monarch, "i wish travelers to learn from the action i now order you to perform, how abhorrent dishonesty is in my eyes." rabbi eleazer said: "he who is guided by righteousness and justice in all his doings, may justly be asserted to have copied god in his unbounded beneficence. for of him (blessed be his name) we read, 'he loveth righteousness and justice'; that is, 'the earth is filled with the loving kindness of god.'" might we think that to follow such a course is an easy task? no! the virtue of beneficence can be gained only by great efforts. will it be difficult, however, for him that has the fear of god constantly before his eyes to acquire this attribute? no; he will easily attain it, whose every act is done in the fear of the lord. "a crown of grace is the hoary head; on the way of righteousness can it be found." so taught solomon in his proverbs. hence various rabbis, who had attained an advanced age, were questioned by their pupils as to the probable cause that had secured them that mark of divine favor. rabbi nechumah answered that, in regard to himself, god had taken cognizance of three principles by which he had endeavored to guide his conduct. first, he had never striven to exalt his own standing by lowering that of his neighbor. this was agreeable to the example set by rabbi hunna, for the latter, while bearing on his shoulders a heavy spade, was met by rabbi choana ben chanilai, who, considering the burden derogatory to the dignity of so great a man, insisted upon relieving him of the implement and carrying it himself. but rabbi hunna refused, saying, "were this your habitual calling i might permit it, but i certainly shall not permit another to perform an office which, if done by myself, may be looked upon by some as menial." secondly, he had never gone to his night's rest with a heart harboring ill-will against his fellow-man, conformably with the practice of mar zutra, who, before sleeping, offered this prayer: "o lord! forgive all those who have done me injury." thirdly, he was not penurious, following the example of the righteous job, of whom the sages relate that he declined to receive the change due him after making a purchase. another rabbi bearing also the name of nechumah, replied to rabbi akiba, that he believed himself to have been blessed with long life because, in his official capacity, he had invariably set his face against accepting presents, mindful of what solomon wrote, "he that hateth gifts will live." another of his merits he conceived to be that of never resenting an offense; mindful of the words of rabba, "he who is indulgent toward others' faults, will be mercifully dealt with by the supreme judge." rabbi zera said that the merit of having reached an extreme age was in his case due, under providence, to his conduct through life. he governed his household with mildness and forbearance. he refrained from advancing an opinion before his superiors in wisdom. he avoided rehearsing the word of god in places not entirely free from uncleanliness. he wore the phylacteries all day, that he might be reminded of his religious duties. he did not make the college where sacred knowledge is taught, a place of convenience, as, for instance, to sleep there, either occasionally or habitually. he never rejoiced over the downfall of a fellow-mortal, nor would he designate another by a name objectionable to the party personally, or to the family of which he was a member. * * * * * "three friends," said the rabbis, "has man. god, his father, and his mother. he who honors his parents honors god." rabbi judah said, "known and revealed are the ways of man. a mother coaxes a child with kind words and gentle ways, gaining honor and affection; therefore, the bible says, 'honor thy father,' before 'honor thy mother.' but in regard to fearing, as the father is the preceptor of the child, teaching it the law, the bible says, 'every man shall fear his mother,' before the word 'father.'" rabbi ulah was once asked, "how extended should be this honor due to parents?" he replied:-- "listen, and i will tell ye how thoroughly it was observed by a heathen, damah, the son of nethina. he was a diamond merchant, and the sages desired to purchase from him a jewel for the ephod of the high priest. when they reached his house, they found that the key of the safe in which the diamond was kept was in the possession of damah's father, who was sleeping. the son absolutely refused to wake his father, to obtain the key, even when the sages in their impatience offered him a much larger sum for the jewel than he had demanded. and further, when his father awoke, and he delivered the diamond to the purchasers, and they offered him the larger sum which they had named, he took from it his first price, returning the balance to them, with the words, 'i will not profit by the honor of my father.'" * * * * * man cannot always judge of man, and in the respect paid to parents by their children, earthly eyes cannot always see the truth. for instance, a child may feed his parents on dainties, and yet deserve the punishment of a disrespectful son; while another may send his father to labor, and yet deserve reward. how may this be? a certain man placed dainty food before his father, and bade him eat thereof. when the father had finished his meal, he said:-- "my son, thou hast prepared for me a most delicious meal. wherefrom didst thou obtain these delicacies?" and the son replied, insultingly:-- "eat as the dogs do, old man, without asking questions." that son inherited the punishment of disrespect. a certain man, a miller, had a father living with him, at the time when all people not working for themselves were obliged to labor a certain number of days for the government. when it came near the time when this service would be required of the old man, his son said to him, "go thou and labor for me in the mill, and i will go and work for the government." he said this because they who labored for the government were beaten if their work proved unsatisfactory, and he thought "it is better for me to run the chance of being beaten than to allow my father to risk it." therefore, he deserved the reward of the son who "honors his father." rabbi chiyah asserted that god preferred honor shown to parents, to that displayed toward himself. "it is written," said he, "'honor the lord from thy wealth.' how? through charity, good deeds, putting the mezuzah upon thy doorposts, making a tabernacle for thyself during succoth, etc.; all this if thou art able. if thou art poor the omission is not counted a sin or a neglect. but it is written, 'honor thy father and thy mother,' and the duty is demanded alike of rich and poor; aye, even shouldst thou be obliged to beg for them from door to door." rabbi abahu said, "abini, my son, hath obeyed this precept even as it should be observed." abini had five children, but he would not allow any of them to open the door for their grandfather, or attend to his wants when he himself was at home. even as he desired them in their lives to honor him, so he paid respect to his father. upon one occasion his father asked him for a glass of water. while he was procuring it the old man fell asleep, and abini, re-entering the room, stood by his father's side with the glass in his hand until the latter awoke. "what is fear?" and "what is honor?" ask the rabbis. fear thy mother, and thy father by sitting not in their seats and standing not in their places; by paying strict attention to their words and interrupting not their speech. be doubly careful not to criticise or judge their arguments or controversies. honor thy father and thy mother, by attending to their wants; giving them to eat and to drink; put their raiment upon them, and tie their shoes if they are not able to perform these services for themselves. rabbi eleazer was asked how far honor toward parents should be extended, and he replied: "cast all thy wealth into the sea; but trouble not thy father and thy mother." simon, the son of jochai, said: "as the reward to those who honor their parents is great, so is the punishment equally great for those who neglect the precept." * * * * * rabbi jochanan said, "it is best to study by night, when all is quiet; as it is written, 'shout forth praises in the night.'" reshbi lakish said, "study by day and by night; as it is written, 'thou shalt meditate therein day and night.'" rabbi chonan, of zepora said, "the study of the law may be compared to a huge heap of dust that is to be cleared away. the foolish man says, 'it is impossible that i should be able to remove this immense heap, i will not attempt it;' but the wise man says, 'i will remove a little to-day, some more to-morrow, and more the day after, and thus in time i shall have removed it all.' "it is the same with studying the law. the indolent pupil says, 'it is impossible for me to study the bible. just think of it, fifty chapters in genesis; sixty-six in isaiah, one hundred and fifty psalms, etc. i cannot do it;' but the industrious student says, 'i will study six chapters every day, and so in time i shall acquire the whole.'" in proverbs : , we find this sentence: "wisdom is too high for a fool." "rabbi jochanan illustrates this verse with an apple depending from the ceiling. the foolish man says, 'i cannot reach the fruit, it is too high;' but the wise man says, 'it may be readily obtained by placing one step upon another until thy arm is brought within reach of it.' the foolish man says, 'only a wise man can study the entire law,' but the wise man replies, 'it is not incumbent upon thee to acquire the whole.'" rabbi levi illustrates this by a parable. a man once hired two servants to fill a basket with water. one of them said, "why should i continue this useless labor? i put the water in one side and it immediately leaks out of the other; what profit is it?" the other workman, who was wise, replied, "we have the profit of the reward which we receive for our labor." it is the same in studying the law. one man says, "what does it profit me to study the law when i must ever continue it or else forget what i have learned." but the other man replies, "god will reward us for the will which we display even though we do forget." rabbi ze-irah has said that even a single letter in the law which we might deem of no importance, if wanting, would neutralize the whole law. in deuteronomy : , we read, "neither shall he take to himself many wives, that his heart may turn away." solomon transgressed this precept, and it is said by rabbi simon that the angels took note of his ill-doing and addressed the deity: "sovereign of the world, solomon has made thy law even as a law liable to change and diminution. three precepts he has disregarded, namely, 'he shall not acquire for himself many horses'; 'neither shall he take to himself many wives'; 'nor shall he acquire to himself too much silver and gold.'" then the lord replied, "solomon will perish from the earth; aye, and a hundred solomons after him, and yet the smallest letter of the law shall not be dispensed with." * * * * * the rabbis have often applied in a figurative sense, various passages of holy writ, among others the opening verse of the th chapter of isaiah. "ho, every one of ye that thirsteth, come ye to the water, and he, too, that hath no money; come ye, buy and eat; yea, come, buy without money and without price, wine and milk." the three liquids which men are thus urged to procure are considered by the sages of israel as typical of the law. one rabbi asked, "why is the word of god compared to water?" to this question the following answer was returned: "as water runs down from an eminence (the mountains), and rests in a low place (the sea), so the law, emanating from heaven, can remain in the possession of those only who are humble in spirit." another rabbi inquired, "wherefore has the word of god been likened to wine and milk?" the reply made was, "as these fluids cannot be preserved in golden vessels, but only in those of earthenware, so those minds will be the best receptacles of learning which are found in homely bodies." rabbi joshua ben chaninah, who was very homely in appearance, possessed great wisdom and erudition; and one of his favorite sayings was, that "though many have exhibited a vast amount of knowledge, notwithstanding their personal attractions, yet had they been less handsome, their acquirements might have been more extensive." the precepts are compared to a lamp; the law of god to a light. the lamp gives light only so long as it contains oil. so he who observes the precepts receives his reward while performing them. the law, however, is a light perpetual; it is a protection forever to the one who studies it, as it is written:-- "when thou walkest, it (the law) will guide thee; when thou liest down, it will watch over thee; and when thou awakest, it will converse with thee." when thou walkest it will guide thee--in this world; when thou liest down, it will watch over thee--in the grave; when thou awakest, it will converse with thee--in the life to come. a traveler upon his journey passed through the forest upon a dark and gloomy night. he journeyed in dread; he feared the robbers who infested the route he was traversing; he feared that he might slip and fall into some unseen ditch or pitfall on the way, and he feared, too, the wild beasts, which he knew were about him. by chance he discovered a pine torch, and lighted it, and its gleams afforded him great relief. he no longer feared brambles or pitfalls, for he could see his way before him. but the dread of robbers and wild beasts was still upon him, nor left him till the morning's dawn, the coming of the sun. still he was uncertain of his way, until he emerged from the forest, and reached the cross-roads, when peace returned unto his heart. the darkness in which the man walked was the lack of religious knowledge. the torch he discovered typifies god's precepts, which aided him on the way until he obtained the blessed sunlight, compared to god's holy word, the bible. still, while man is in the forest (the world), he is not entirely at peace; his heart is weak, and he may lose the right path; but when he reaches the cross-roads (death), then may we proclaim him truly righteous, and exclaim:-- "a good name is more fragrant than rich perfume, and the day of death is better than the day of one's birth." rabbi jochanan, the son of broka, and rabbi eleazer, the son of chismah, visited their teacher, rabbi josah, and he said to them:-- "what is the news at the college; what is going on?" "nay," they answered, "we are thy scholars; it is for thee to speak, for us to listen." "nevertheless," replied rabbi josah, "no day passes without some occurrence of note at the college. who lectured to-day?" "rabbi eleazer, the son of azaryah." "and what was his subject?" "he chose this verse from deuteronomy," replied the scholar:-- "'assemble the people together, the men, the women, and the children;' and thus he expounded it:-- "'the men came to learn, the women to listen; but wherefore the children? in order that those who brought them might receive a reward for training their children in the fear of the lord.' "he also expounded the verse from ecclesiastes:-- "'the words of the wise are like goads, and like nails fastened (are the words of) the men of the assemblies, which are given by one shepherd.' "'why is the law of god compared to a goad?' he said. 'because the goad causes the ox to draw the furrow straight, and the straight furrow brings forth a plenty of good food for the life of man. so does the law of god keep man's heart straight, that it may produce good food to provide for the life eternal. but lest thou shouldst say, "the goad is movable, so therefore must the law be," it is also written, "as nails," and likewise, as "nails fastened," lest thou shouldst argue that nails pounded into wood diminish from sight with each stroke, and that therefore by this comparison god's law would be liable to diminution also. no; as a nail fastened or planted, as a tree is planted to bring forth fruit and multiply. "'the men of assemblies are those who gather in numbers to study the law. frequently controversies arise among them, and thou mightest say, "with so many differing opinions how can i settle to a study of the law?" thy answer is written in the words which are given by one shepherd. from one god have all the laws proceeded. therefore make thy ears as a sieve, and incline thy heart to possess all these words.'" then said rabbi josah, "happy the generation which rabbi eleazer teaches." * * * * * the rabbis of jabnah expressed their regard for all human beings, learned and unlearned, in this manner:-- "i am a creature of god and so is my neighbor. he may prefer to labor in the country; i prefer a calling in the city. i rise early for my personal benefit; he rises early to advance his own interests. as he does not seek to supplant me, i should be careful to do naught to injure his business. shall i imagine that i am nearer to god because my profession advances the cause of learning and his does not? no. whether we accomplish much good or little good, the almighty will reward us in accordance with our righteous intentions." abaygeh offered the following as his best advice:-- "... let him be also affable and disposed to foster kindly feelings between all people; by so doing he will gain for himself the love both of the creator and his creatures." rabba always said that the possession of wisdom and a knowledge of the law necessarily led to penitence and good deeds. "for," said he, "it would be useless to acquire great learning and the mastery of biblical and traditional law and act irreverently toward one's parents, or toward those superior on account of age or more extensive learning." "the fear of the lord is the beginning of wisdom; a good understanding have all those who do god's commands." rabba said, "holy writ does not tell us that to study god's commands shows a good understanding, but to do them. we must learn, however, before we can be able to perform; and he who acts contrary through life to the teachings of the most high had better never have been born." "the wise man is in his smallest actions great: the fool is in his greatest actions small." a pupil once inquired of his teacher, "what is real wisdom?" the teacher replied, "to judge liberally, to think purely, and to love thy neighbor." another teacher answered, "the greatest wisdom is to know thyself." "beware of conceit and pride of learning; learn thy tongue to utter, 'i do not know.'" if a man devotes himself to study, and becomes learned, to the delight and gratification of his teachers, and yet is modest in conversation with less intelligent people, honest in his dealings, truthful in his daily walks, the people say, "happy is the father who allowed him to study god's law; happy the teachers who instructed him in the ways of truth; how beautiful are his ways; how meritorious his deeds! of such an one the bible says, 'he said to me, thou art my servant; oh, israel, through thee am i glorified.'" but when a man devotes himself to study, and becomes learned, yet is disdainful with those less educated than himself, and is not particular in his dealings with his fellows, then the people say of him, "woe to the father who allowed him to study god's law; woe to those who instructed him; how censurable is his conduct; how loathsome are his ways! 'tis of such an one the bible says, 'and from his country the people of the lord departed.'" * * * * * when souls stand at the judgment-seat of god, the poor, the rich, and the wicked each are severally asked what excuse they can offer for not having studied the law. if the poor man pleads his poverty he is reminded of hillel. though hillel's earnings were small he gave half each day to gain admittance to the college. when the rich man is questioned, and answers that the care of his fortune occupied his time, he is told that rabbi eleazer possessed a thousand forests and a thousand ships, and yet abandoned all the luxuries of wealth and journeyed from town to town searching and expounding the law. when the wicked man pleads temptation as an excuse for his evil course, he is asked if he has been more tempted than joseph, more cruelly tried than he was, with good or evil fortune. yet though we are commanded to study god's law, we are not to make of it a burden; neither are we to neglect for the sake of study any other duty or reasonable recreation. "why," once asked a pupil, "is 'thou shalt gather in thy corn in its season' a scriptural command? would not the people gather their corn when ripe as a matter of course? the command is superfluous." "not so," replied the rabbis; "the corn might belong to a man who for the sake of study would neglect work. work is holy and honorable in god's sight, and he would not have men fail to perform their daily duties even for the study of his law." * * * * * bless god for the good as well as for the evil. when you hear of a death say, "blessed is the righteous judge." prayer is israel's only weapon, a weapon inherited from its fathers, a weapon proved in a thousand battles. even when the gates of prayer are shut in heaven, those of tears are open. we read that in the contest with amalek, when moses lifted up his arms israel prevailed. did moses's hands affect the war, to make it or to break it? no; but while the ones of israel look upward with humble heart to the great father in heaven, no evil can prevail against them. "and moses made a serpent of brass and put it upon a pole; and it came to pass that if a serpent had bitten any man, when he beheld the serpent of brass he lived." had the brazen serpent the power of killing or of giving life? no; but while israel looks upward to the great father in heaven, he will grant life. "has god pleasure in the meat and blood of sacrifices?" ask the prophets. no. he has not so much ordained as permitted them. "it is for yourselves," he says; "not for me, that ye offer." a king had a son whom he daily discovered carousing with dissolute companions, eating and drinking. "eat at my table," said the king; "eat and drink, my son, even as pleaseth thee; but let it be at my table, and not with dissolute companions." the people loved sacrificing, and they made offerings to strange gods; therefore, god said to them: "if ye will sacrifice, bring your offerings at least to me." scripture ordains that the hebrew slave who loves his bondage shall have his ears pierced against the doorpost. why? because that ear heard from sinai's heights these words: "they are my servants; they shall not be sold as bondsmen." my servants, and not lay servant's servants; therefore, pierce the ear of the one who loves his bondage and rejects the freedom offered him. he who sacrifices a whole offering shall be rewarded for a whole offering; he who offers a burnt-offering shall have the reward of a burnt-offering; but he who offers humility to god and man shall receive as great a reward as though he had offered all the sacrifices in the world. * * * * * the god of abraham will help the one who appoints a certain place to pray to the lord. rabbi henah said, "when such a man dies they will say of him, 'a pious man, a meek man, hath died; he followed the example of our father abraham.'" how do we know that abraham appointed a certain place to pray? "abraham rose early in the morning and went to the place where he stood before the lord." rabbi chelboh said, "we should not hurry when we leave a place of worship." "this," said abayyeh, "is in reference to leaving a place of worship; but we should certainly hasten on our way thither, as it is written, 'let us know and hasten to serve the lord.'" rabbi zabid said, "when i used to see the rabbis hurrying to a lecture in their desire to obtain good seats, i thought to myself, 'they are violating the sabbath.' when, however, i heard rabbi tarphon say, 'one should always hasten to perform a commandment even on the sabbath,' as it is written, 'they shall follow after the lord when he roareth like a lion,' i hurried also, in order to be early in attendance." that place wherein we can best pray to god is his house; as it is written:-- "to listen to the praises and prayers which thy servant prays before thee." alluding to the service in the house of god. said rabin, the son of ada, "whence do we derive the tradition, that when ten men are praying in the house of god the divine presence rests among them? "it is written, 'god stands in the assembly of the mighty.' that an assembly or congregation consists of not less than ten, we learn from god's words to moses in regard to the spies who were sent out to view the land of canaan. 'how long,' said he, 'shall indulgence be given to this evil congregation?' now the spies numbered twelve men; but joshua and caleb being true and faithful, there remained but ten to form the 'evil congregation.'" "whence do we derive the tradition that when even one studies the law, the divine presence rests with him?" "it is written, 'in every place where i shall permit my name to be mentioned, i will come unto thee and i will bless thee.'" * * * * * four biblical characters offered up their prayers in a careless, unthinking manner; three of them god prospered; the other met with sorrow. they were, eleazer, the servant of abraham; caleb, the son of ye phunneh; saul, the son of kish; and jephtah the giladite. eleazer prayed, "let it come to pass that the maiden to whom i shall say, 'let down thy pitcher, i pray thee, that i may drink'; and she shall say, 'drink, and to thy camels also will i give drink'; shall be the one thou hast appointed for thy servant isaac." suppose a slave had appeared and answered all the requirement which eleazer proposed, would abraham and isaac have been satisfied? but god prospered his mission, and "rebecca came out." caleb said, "he that will smite kiryath-sepher, and capture it, to him will i give achsah, my daughter, for wife." would he have given his daughter to a slave or a heathen? but god prospered him, and "othniel, the son of keuaz, caleb's younger brother, conquered it, and he gave him achsah, his daughter, for wife." saul said, "and it shall be that the man who killeth him (goliath) will the king enrich with great riches, and his daughter will he give him." he ran the same risk as caleb, and god was good to him also; and david, the son of jesse, accomplished that for which he had prayed. jephtah expressed himself thus: "if thou wilt indeed deliver the children of amon into my hand, then shall it be that whatsoever cometh forth out of the doors of my house to meet me when i return in peace from the children of amon, shall belong to the lord, and i will offer it up for a burnt-offering." supposing an ass, or a dog, or a cat, had first met him upon his return, would he have sacrificed it for a burnt-offering? god did not prosper this risk, and the bible says, "and jephtah came to mizpah unto his house, and behold his daughter came out to meet him." said rabbi simon ben jochai, "the requests of three persons were granted before they had finished their prayers--eleazer, moses, and solomon. "in regard to eleazer we learn, 'and before he had yet finished speaking that, behold rebecca came out.' "in regard to moses, we find, 'and it came to pass when he had made an end of speaking all these words, that the ground that was under them was cloven asunder, and the earth opened her mouth and swallowed them.'" (korach and his company.) "in regard to solomon, we find, 'and just when solomon had made an end of praying, a fire came down,'" etc. * * * * * rabbi jochanan said in the name of rabbi joseh, "to those who delight in the sabbath shall god give inheritance without end. as it is written, 'then shalt thou find delight in the lord,' etc. 'and i will cause thee to enjoy the inheritance of jacob, thy father.' not as it was promised to abraham, 'arise and walk through the land to its length and breadth.' not as it was promised to isaac, 'i will give thee all that this land contains'; but as it was promised to jacob, 'and thou shalt spread abroad, to the west, and to the east, to the north, and to the south.'" rabbi jehudah said that if the israelites had strictly observed the first sabbath, after the command to sanctify the seventh day had been given, they would have been spared captivity; as it is written, "and it came to pass on the seventh day, that there went out some of the people to gather (the mannah), but they found nothing." and in the next chapter we find, "then came amalek, and fought with israel in rephidim." * * * * * one joseph, a jew, who honored the sabbath, had a very rich neighbor, who was a firm believer in astrology. he was told by one of the professional astrologers that his wealth would become joseph's. he therefore sold his estate, and bought with the proceeds a large diamond, which he sewed in his turban, saying, "joseph can never obtain this." it so happened, however, that while standing one day upon the deck of a ship in which he was crossing the sea, a heavy wind arose and carried the turban from his head. a fish swallowed the diamond, and being caught and exposed for sale in the market, was purchased by joseph to supply his table on the sabbath eve. of course, upon opening it he discovered the diamond. rabbi ishmael, the son of joshua, was asked, "how did the rich people of the land of israel become so wealthy?" he answered, "they gave their tithes in due season, as it is written, 'thou shalt give tithes, in order that thou mayest become rich.'" "but," answered his questioner, "tithes were given to the levites, only while the holy temple existed. what merit did they possess while they dwelt in babel, that they became wealthy there also?" "because," replied the rabbi, "they honored the holy law by expounding it." "but in other countries, where they did not expound the law, how did they deserve wealth?" "by honoring the sabbath," was the answer. rabbi achiya, the son of abah, said, "i sojourned once in ludik, and was entertained by a certain wealthy man on the sabbath day. the table was spread with a sumptuous repast, and the dishes were of silver and gold. before making a blessing over the meal the master of the house said, 'unto the lord belongeth the earth, with all that it contains.' after the blessing he said, 'the heavens are the heavens of the lord, but the earth hath he given to the children of men.' i said to my host, 'i trust you will excuse me, my dear sir, if i take the liberty of asking you how you have merited this prosperity?' he answered, 'i was formerly a butcher, and i always selected the finest cattle to be killed for the sabbath, in order that the people might have the best meat on that day. to this, i believe firmly, i owe my prosperity.' i replied, 'blessed be the lord, that he hath given thee all this.'" the governor turnusrupis once asked rabbi akiba, "what is this day you call the sabbath more than any other day?" the rabbi responded, "what art thou more than any other person?" "i am superior to others," he replied, "because the emperor has appointed me governor over them." then said akiba, "the lord our god, who is greater than your emperor, has appointed the sabbath day to be holier than the other days." when man leaves the synagogue for his home an angel of good and an angel of evil accompany him. if he finds the table spread in his house, the sabbath lamps lighted, and his wife and children in festive garments ready to bless the holy day of rest, then the good angel says:-- "may the next sabbath and all thy sabbaths be like this. peace unto this dwelling, peace;" and the angel of evil is forced to say, "amen!" but if the house is not ready, if no preparations have been made to greet the sabbath, if no heart within the dwelling has sung, "come, my beloved, to meet the bride; the presence of the sabbath let us receive;" then the angel of evil speaks and says:-- "may all thy sabbaths be like this;" and the weeping angel of goodness, responds, "amen!" samson sinned against the lord through his eyes, as it is written, "i have seen a woman of the daughters of the philistines.... this one take for me, for she pleaseth in my eyes." therefore through his eyes was he punished, as it is written, "and the philistines seized him, and put out his eyes." abshalom was proud of his hair. "and like abshalom there was no man as handsome in all israel, so that he was greatly praised; from the sole of his foot up to the crown of his head there was no blemish on him. and when he shaved off the hair of his head, and it was at the end of every year that he shaved it off, because it was too heavy on him so that he had to shave it off, he weighed the hair of his head at two hundred shekels by the king's weight." therefore by his hair was he hanged. miriam waited for moses one hour (when he was in the box of bulrushes). therefore the israelites waited for miriam seven days, when she became leprous. "and the people did not set forward until miriam was brought in again." joseph buried his father. "and joseph went up to bury his father." there was none greater among the children of israel than joseph. moses excelled him afterward, however; therefore we find, "and moses took the bones of joseph with him." but the world has seen none greater than moses, therefore 'tis written, "and he (god) buried him in the valley." * * * * * when trouble and sorrow become the portion of israel, and the fainthearted separate from their people, two angels lay their hands upon the head of him who withdraws, saying, "this one shall not see the comfort of the congregation." when trouble comes to the congregation it is not right for a man to say, "i will go home; i will eat and drink; and things shall be peaceful to me;" 'tis of such a one that the holy book speaks, saying, "and behold there is gladness and joy; slaying of oxen, and killing of sheep; eating of flesh, and drinking of wine. 'let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we must die.' and it was revealed in my ears by the lord of hosts; surely the iniquity shall not be forgiven ye until ye die." our teacher, moses, always bore his share in the troubles of the congregation, as it is written, "they took a stone and put it under him." could they not have given him a chair or a cushion? but then he said, "since the israelites are in trouble (during the war with amalek) lo, i will bear my part with them, for he who bears his portion of the burden will live to enjoy the hour of consolation. woe to the one who thinks, 'ah, well, i will neglect my duty; who can know whether i bear my part or not;' even the stones of his house, aye, the limbs of the trees, shall testify against him, as it is written, 'for the stones will cry from the wall, and the limbs of the trees will testify.'" * * * * * rabbi meir said, "when a man teaches his son a trade, he should pray to the possessor of the world, the dispenser of wealth and poverty; for in every trade and pursuit of life both the rich and the poor are to be found. it is folly for one to say, 'this is a bad trade, it will not afford me a living;' because he will find many well to do in the same occupation. neither should a successful man boast and say, 'this is a great trade, a glorious art, it has made me wealthy;' because many working in the same line as himself have found but poverty. let all remember that everything is through the infinite mercy and wisdom of god." rabbi simon, the son of eleazer, said, "hast thou ever noted the fowls of the air and beasts of the field how easily their maintenance is provided for them; and yet they were only created to serve me. now should not i find a livelihood with even less trouble, for i was made to serve my fellow-creatures? but, alas! i sinned against my creator, therefore am i punished with poverty and obliged to labor." rabbi judah said, "most mule-drivers are cruel. they beat their poor beasts unmercifully. most camel-drivers are upright. they travel through deserts and dangerous places, and have time for meditation and thoughts of god. the majority of seamen are religious. their daily peril makes them so. the best doctors are deserving of punishment. in the pursuit of knowledge they experiment on their patients, and often with fatal results. the best of butchers deserve to be rated with the amalekites, they are accustomed to blood and cruelty; as it is written of the amalekites, 'how he met thee by the way and smote the hindmost of thee, and that were feeble behind thee, when thou wast faint and weary.'" * * * * * man is born with his hands clenched; he dies with his hands wide open. entering life he desires to grasp everything; leaving the world, all that he possessed has slipped away. even as a fox is man; as a fox which seeing a fine vineyard lusted after its grapes. but the palings were placed at narrow distances, and the fox was too bulky to creep between them. for three days he fasted, and when he had grown thin he entered into the vineyard. he feasted upon the grapes, forgetful of the morrow, of all things but his enjoyment; and lo, he had again grown stout and was unable to leave the scene of his feast. so for three days more he fasted, and when he had again grown thin, he passed through the palings and stood outside the vineyard, meagre as when he entered. so with man; poor and naked he enters the world, poor and naked does he leave. alexander wandered to the gates of paradise and knocked for entrance. "who knocks?" demanded the guardian angel. "alexander." "who is alexander?" "alexander--the alexander--alexander the great--the conqueror of the world." "we know him not," replied the angel; "this is the lord's gate, only the righteous enter here." alexander begged for something to prove that he had reached the gates of paradise, and a small piece of a skull was given to him. he showed it to his wise men, who placed it in one scale of a balance, alexander poured gold and silver into the other scale, but the small bone weighed heavier; he poured in more, adding his crown jewels, his diadem; but still the bone outweighed them all. then one of the wise men, taking a grain of dust from the ground placed that upon the bone, and lo, the scale flew up. the bone was that which surrounds the eye of man; the eye of man which naught can satisfy save the dust which covers it in the grave. * * * * * when the righteous dies, 'tis earth that meets with loss. the jewel will ever be a jewel, but it has passed from the possession of its former owner. well may the loser weep. life is a passing shadow, say the scriptures. the shadow of a tower or a tree; the shadow which prevails for a time? no; even as the shadow of a bird in its flight, it passeth from our sight, and neither bird nor shadow remains. "my lover goes down into his garden, to the beds of spices, to wander about in the garden and pluck roses." (song of songs). the world is the garden of my lover, and he my lover is the king of kings. like a bed of fragrant spices is israel, the sweet savour of piety ascends on high, the perfume of learning lingers on the passing breeze, and the bed of beauty is fenced round by gentle peace. the plants flourish and put forth leaves, leaves giving grateful shelter to those who suffer from the heats and disappointment of life, and my lover seeking the most beautiful blossom, plucks the roses, the students of the law, whose belief is their delight. when the devouring flames seize upon the cedar, shall not the lowly hyssop fear and tremble? when anglers draw the great leviathan from his mighty deeps, what hope have the fish of the shallow pond? when the fishing-line is dropped into the dashing torrent, can they feel secure, the waters of the purling brook? mourn for those who are left; mourn not for the one taken by god from earth. he has entered into the eternal rest, while we are bowed with sorrow. rabbi akiba was once traveling through the country, and he had with him an ass, a rooster, and a lamp. at nightfall he reached a village where he sought shelter for the night without success. "all that god does is done well," said the rabbi, and proceeding toward the forest he resolved to pass the night there. he lit his lamp, but the wind extinguished it. "all that god does is done well," he said. the ass and the rooster were devoured by wild beasts; yet still he said no more than "all that god does is done well." next day he learned that a troop of the enemy's soldiers had passed through the forest that night. if the ass had brayed, if the rooster had crowed, or if the soldiers had seen his light he would surely have met with death, therefore he said again, "all that god does is done well." * * * * * once when rabbi gamliel, rabbi eleazer, the son of azaria, rabbi judah, and rabbi akiba were walking together, they heard the shouts and laughter and joyous tones of a multitude of people at a distance. four of the rabbis wept; but akiba laughed aloud. "akiba," said the others to him, "wherefore laugh? these heathens who worship idols live in peace, and are merry, while our holy city lies in ruins; weep, do not laugh." "for that very reason i laugh, and am glad," answered rabbi akiba. "if god allows those who transgress his will to live happily on earth, how infinitely great must be the happiness which he has stored up in the world to come for those who observe his commands." upon another occasion these same rabbis went up to jerusalem. when they reached mount zophim and saw the desolation about them they rent their garments, and when they reached the spot where the temple had stood and saw a fox run out from the very site of the holy of holies four of them wept bitterly; but again rabbi akiba appeared merry. his comrades again rebuked him for this, to them, unseemly state of feeling. "ye ask me why i am merry," said he; "come now, tell me why ye weep?" "because the bible tells us that a stranger (one not descended from aaron) who approaches the holy of holies shall be put to death, and now behold the foxes make of it a dwelling-place. why should we not weep?" "ye weep," returned akiba, "from the very reason which causes my heart to be glad. is it not written, 'and testify to me, ye faithful witnesses, uriah, the priest, and zachariah, the son of berachiahu?' now what hath uriah to do with zachariah? uriah lived during the existence of the first temple, and zachariah during the second. know ye not that the prophecy of uriah is compared to the prophecy of zachariah. from uriah's prophecy we find, 'therefore for your sake zion will be plowed as is a field, and jerusalem will be a desolation, and the mount of zion shall be as a forest;' and in zachariah we find, 'they will sit, the old men and women, in the streets of jerusalem.' before the prophecy of uriah was accomplished i might have doubted the truth of zachariah's comforting words; but now that one has been accomplished, i feel assured that the promises to zachariah will also come to pass, therefore am i glad." "thy words comfort us, akiba," answered his companions. "may god ever provide us comfort." still another time, when rabbi eleazer was very sick and his friends and scholars were weeping for him, rabbi akiba appeared happy, and asked them why they wept. "because," they replied, "our beloved rabbi is lying between life and death." "weep not, on the contrary be glad therefor," he answered. "if his wine did not grow sour, if his flag was not stricken down, i might think that on earth he received the reward of his righteousness; but now that i see my teacher suffering for what evil he may have committed in this world, i rejoice. he hath taught us that the most righteous among us commit some sin, therefore in the world to come he will have peace." * * * * * while rabbi eleazer was sick, the four elders, rabbi tarphon, rabbi joshua, rabbi eleazer, the son of azoria, and rabbi akiba, called upon him. "thou art better to israel than the raindrops to earth, or the raindrops are for this world only, while thou, my teacher, have helped the ripening of fruit for this world and the next," said rabbi tarphon. "thou art better to israel than the sun, for the sun is for this world alone; thou hast given light for this world and the next," said rabbi joshua. then spoke rabbi eleazer, the son of azoria:-- "thou art better to israel," said he, "than father and mother to man. they bring him into the world, but thou, my teacher, showest him the way into the world of immortality." then said rabbi akiba:-- "it is well that man should be afflicted, for his distresses atone for his sins." "does the bible make such an assertion, akiba?" asked his teacher. "yes," answered akiba. "'twelve years old was manassah when he became king, and fifty-and-five years did he reign in jerusalem, and he did what was evil in the eyes of the lord' (kings). now, how was this? did hezekiah teach the law to the whole world and not to his son manassah? assuredly not; but manassah paid no attention to his precepts, and neglected the word of god until he was afflicted with bodily pain, as it is written, 'and the lord spoke to manassah and to his people, but they listened not, wherefore the lord brought over them the captains of the armies belonging to the king of assyria, and they took manassah prisoner with chains, and bound him with fetters, and led him off to babylon; and when he was in distress he besought the lord his god, and humbled himself greatly before the god of his fathers. and he prayed to him, and he permitted himself to be entreated by him and heard his supplication, and brought him back to jerusalem unto his kingdom. then did manassah feel conscious that the lord is indeed the (true) god.' "now, what did the king of assyria to manassah? he placed him in a copper barrel and had a fire kindled beneath it, and while enduring great torture of his body, manassah was further tortured in his mind. 'shall i call upon the almighty?' he thought. 'alas! his anger burns against me. to call upon my idols is to call in vain,--alas, alas, what hope remains to me!' "he prayed to the greatest of his idols, and waited in vain for a reply. he called to the lesser gods, and remained unanswered. then with trembling heart he addressed the great eternal. "'o eternal! god of abraham, isaac, and jacob, and their descendants, the heavens and the earth are the works of thy hand. thou didst give to the sea a shore, controlling with a word the power of the mighty deep. thou art merciful as thou art great, and thou hast promised to accept the repentance of those who return to thee with upright hearts. as numerous are my sins as the sands which cover the seashore. i have done evil before thee, committing abominations in thy presence and acting wickedly. bound with fetters i come before thee, and on my knees i entreat thee, in the name of thy great attributes of mercy, to compassionate my suffering and my distress. pardon me, o lord, forgive me. do not utterly destroy me because of my transgressions. let not my punishment eternally continue. though i am unworthy of thy goodness, o lord, yet save me in thy mercy. henceforth will i praise thy name all the days of my life, for all thy creatures delight in praising thee, and unto thee is the greatness and the goodness forever and ever, selah!'" "god heard this prayer, even as it is written, 'and he permitted himself to be entreated by him, and brought him back to jerusalem unto his kingdom.'" "from which we may learn," continued akiba, "that affliction is an atonement for sin." * * * * * said rabbi eleazer, the great, "it is commanded 'thou shalt love the lord thy god with all thy soul and with all that is loved by thee.' "does not 'with all thy soul' include 'with all that is loved by thee?' "some people love themselves more than they love their money; to them 'tis said, 'with all thy soul;' while for those who love their money more than themselves the commandment reads, 'with all that is loved by thee.'" but rabbi akiba always expounded the words, "with all thy soul," to mean "even though thy life be demanded of thee." when the decree was issued forbidding the israelites to study the law, what did rabbi akiba? he installed many congregations secretly, and in secret lectured before them. then papus, the son of juda said to him:-- "art not afraid, akiba? thy doings may be discovered, and thou wilt be punished for disobeying the decree." "listen, and i will relate to thee a parable," answered akiba. "a fox, walking by the river side, noticed the fishes therein swimming and swimming to and fro, never ceasing; so he said to them, 'why are ye hurrying, what do ye fear?' "'the nets of the angler,' they replied. "'come, then,' said the fox, 'and live with me on dry land.' "but the fishes laughed. "'and art thou called the wisest of the beasts?' they exclaimed; 'verily thou art the most foolish. if we are in danger even in our element, how much greater would be our risk in leaving it.' "it is the same with us. we are told of the law that it is 'our life and the prolongation of our days.' this is it when things are peaceful with us; how much greater is our need of it then in times like these?" it is said that it was but shortly after this when rabbi akiba was imprisoned for teaching the law, and in the prison in which he was incarcerated he found papus, who had been condemned for some other offense. rabbi akiba said to him:-- "papus, what brought thee here?" and papus replied:-- "joy, joy, to thee, that thou art imprisoned for studying god's law; but woe, woe is mine that i am here through vanity." when rabbi akiba was led forth to execution, it was just at the time of the morning service. "'hear, o israel! the lord our god, the lord is one,'" he exclaimed in a loud and firm voice. the torturers tore his flesh with pointed cards, yet still he repeated, "the lord is one." "always did i say," he continued, "that 'with all thy soul,' meant even though life should be demanded of thee, and i wondered whether i should ever be able to so observe it. now see, to-day, i do so; 'the lord is one.'" with these word he died. * * * * * elishah ben abuyah, a most learned man, became in after-life an apostate. rabbi meir had been one of his pupils, and he never failed in the great love which he bore for his teacher. it happened upon one occasion when rabbi meir was lecturing in the college, that some students entered and said to him:-- "thy teacher, elishah, is riding by on horseback on this holy sabbath day." rabbi meir left the college, and overtaking elishah walked along by his horse's side. the latter saluted him, and asked:-- "what passage of scripture hast thou been expounding?" "from the book of job," replied rabbi meir. "'the lord blessed the latter days of job more than the beginning.'" "and how didst thou explain the verse?" said elishah. "that the lord increased his wealth twofold." "but thy teacher, akiba, said not so," returned elishah. "he said that the lord blessed the latter days of job with twofold of penitence and good deeds." "how," inquired rabbi meir, "wouldst thou explain the verse, 'better is the end of a thing than the beginning thereof.' if a man buys merchandise in his youth and meets with losses, is it likely that he will recover his substance in old age? or, if a person studies god's law in his youth and forgets it, is it probable that it will return to his memory in his latter days?" "thy teacher, akiba, said not so," replied elishah; "he explained the verse, 'better is the end of a thing when the beginning was good.' my own life proves the soundness of this explanation. on the day when i was admitted into the covenant of abraham, my father made a great feast. some of his visitors sang, some of them danced, but the rabbis conversed upon god's wisdom and his laws. this latter pleased my father, abuyah, and he said, 'when my son grows up ye shall teach him and he shall become like ye; he did not cause me to study for god's sake but only to make his name famous through me. therefore, in my latter days have i become wicked and an apostate; and now, return home.'" "and wherefore?" "because, on the sabbath day, thou art allowed to go so far and no farther, and i have reckoned the distance thou hast traveled with me by the footsteps of my horse." "if thou art so wise," said rabbi meir, "as to reckon the distance i may travel by the footsteps of thy horse, and so particular for my sake, why not return to god and repent of thy apostacy?" elishah answered:-- "it is not in my power. i rode upon horseback once on the day of atonement; yea, when it fell upon the sabbath, and when i passed the synagogue i heard a voice crying, 'return, oh backsliding children, return to me and i will return to ye; except elishah, the son of abuyah, he knew his master and yet rebelled against him.'" what caused such a learned man as elishah to turn to evil ways? it is reported that once while studying the law in the vale of genusan, he saw a man climbing a tree. the man found a bird's-nest in the tree, and taking the mother with the young ones he still departed in peace. he saw another man who finding a bird's-nest followed the bible's command and took the young only, allowing the mother to fly away; and yet a serpent stung him as he descended, and he died. "now," thought he, "where is the bible's truth and promises? is it not written, 'and the young thou mayest take to thyself, but the mother thou shalt surely let go, that it may be well with thee and that thou mayest live many days.' now, where is the long life to this man who followed the precept, while the one who transgressed it is unhurt?" he had not heard how rabbi akiba expounded this verse, that the days would be long in the future world where all is happiness. there is also another reason given as the cause for elishah's backsliding and apostacy. during the fearful period of religious persecution, the learned rabbi judah, whose life had been passed in the study of the law and the practice of god's precepts, was delivered into the power of the cruel torturer. his tongue was placed in a dog's mouth and the dog bit it off. so elishah said, "if a tongue which uttered naught but truth be so used, and a learned, wise man be so treated, of what use is it to avoid having a lying tongue and being ignorant. lo, if these things are allowed, there is surely no reward for the righteous, and no resurrection for the dead." when elishah waxed old he was taken sick, and rabbi meir, learning of the illness of his aged teacher, called upon him. "oh return, return unto thy god." entreated rabbi meir. "what!" exclaimed elishah, "return! and could he receive my penitence, the penitence of an apostate who has so rebelled against him?" "is it not written," said meir, "'thou turnest man to contrition?' no matter how the soul of man may be crushed, he can still turn to his god and find relief." elishah listened to these words, wept bitterly and died. not many years after his death his daughters came, poverty stricken, asking relief from the colleges. "remember," said they, "the merit of our father's learning, not his conduct." the colleges listened to the appeal and supported the daughters of elishah. * * * * * rabbi judah, rabbi joseh, and rabbi simon were conversing one day, when judah ben gerim entered the apartment and sat down with the three. rabbi judah was speaking in a complimentary strain of the gentiles (romans). "see," said he, "how they have improved their cities, how beautiful they have made them, and how much they have done for the comfort and convenience of the citizens; bath-houses, bridges, fine broad streets, surely much credit is due them." "nay," answered rabbi simon, "all that they have done has been from a selfish motive. the bridges bring them in a revenue, for all who use them are taxed; the bath-houses are for their personal adornment--'tis all selfishness, not patriotism." judah ben gerim repeated these remarks to his friends, and finally they reached the ears of the emperor. he would not allow them to pass unnoticed. he ordered that judah, who had spoken well of the nation, should be advanced in honor; that joseh, who had remained silent instead of seconding the assertions, should be banished to zipore; and that simon, who had disputed the compliment, should be put to death. the latter with his son fled and concealed himself in the college when this fiat became known to him. for some time he remained there comparatively safe, his wife bringing his meals daily. but when the officers were directed to make diligent search he became afraid, lest through the indiscretion of his wife his place of concealment might be discovered. "the mind of woman is weak and unsteady," said he, "perhaps they may question and confuse her, and thus may death come upon me." so leaving the city, simon and his son took refuge in a lonely cave. near its mouth some fruit trees grew, supplying them with food, and a spring of pure water bubbled from rocks in the immediate vicinity. for thirteen years rabbi simon lived here, until the emperor died and his decrees were repealed. he then returned to the city. when rabbi phineas, his son-in-law, heard of his return, he called upon him at once, and noticing an apparent neglect in the mental and physical condition of his relative, he exclaimed, "woe, woe! that i meet thee in so sad a condition!" but rabbi simon answered:-- "not so; happy is it that thou findest me in this condition, for thou findest me no less righteous than before. god has preserved me, and my faith in him, and thus hereafter shall i explain the verse of scripture, 'and jacob came perfect.' perfect in his physical condition, perfect in his temporal condition, and perfect in his knowledge of god." * * * * * antoninus, in conversing with rabbi judah, said to him: "in the future world, when the soul comes before the almighty creator for judgment, may it not find a plea of excuse for worldly wickedness in saying, 'lo, the sin is the body's; i am now free from the body; the sins were not mine'?" rabbi judah answered, "let me relate to thee a parable. a king had an orchard of fine figs, which he prized most highly. that the fruit might not be stolen or abused, he placed two watchers in the orchard, and that they themselves might not be tempted to partake of the fruit, he chose one of them a blind man, and the other one lame. but lo, when they were in the orchard, the lame man said to his companion, 'i see very fine figs; they are luscious and tempting; carry me to the tree, that we may both partake of them.' "so the blind man carried the lame man, and they ate of the figs. "when the king entered the orchard he noticed at once that his finest figs were missing, and he asked the watchers what had become of them. "the blind man answered:-- "'i know not. i could not steal them; i am blind; i cannot even see them.' "and the lame man answered:-- "'neither could i steal them; i could not approach the tree.' "but the king was wise, and he answered:-- "'lo, the blind carried the lame,' and he punished them accordingly. "so it is with us. the world is the orchard in which the eternal king has placed us, to keep watch and ward, to till its soil and care for its fruit. but the soul and body are the man; if one violates the precepts, so does the other, and after death the soul may not say, 'it is the fault of the body to which i was tied that i committed sins;' no, god will do as did the owner of the orchard, as it is written:-- "'he shall call from the heaven above, and to the earth to judge his people.' "he shall call from the 'heaven above,' which is the soul, and to the 'earth below', which is the body, mixing with the dust from whence it sprung." a heathen said to rabbi joshua, "thou believest that god knows the future?" "yes," replied the rabbi. "then," said the questioner, "wherefore is it written, 'the lord said, i will destroy everything which i have made, because it repenteth me that i have made them'? did not the lord foresee that man would become corrupt?" then said rabbi joshua, "hast thou children?" "yes," was the answer. "when a child was born, what didst thou?" "i made a great rejoicing." "what cause hadst thou to rejoice? dost thou not know that they must die?" "yes, that is true; but in the time of enjoyment i do not think of the future." "so was it with god," said rabbi joshua. "he knew that men would sin; still that knowledge did not prevent the execution of his beneficent purpose to create them." one of the emperors said to rabon gamliel:-- "your god is a thief, as it is written, 'and the lord god caused a deep sleep to fall upon adam, and he slept. and he took a rib from adam.'" the rabbi's daughter said, "let me answer this aspersion. last night robbers broke into my room, and stole therefrom a silver vessel: but they left a golden one in its stead." the emperor replied, "i wish that such thieves would come every night." thus was it with adam; god took a rib from him, but placed a woman instead of it. rabbi joshua, of saknin, said in the name of rabbi levi, "the lord considered from what part of the man he should form woman; not from the head, lest she should be proud; not from the eyes, lest she should wish to see everything; not from the mouth, lest she might be talkative; nor from the ear, lest she should wish to hear everything; nor from the heart, lest she should be jealous; nor from the hand, lest she should wish to find out everything; nor from the feet in order that she might not be a wanderer; only from the most hidden place, that is covered even when a man is naked--namely, the rib." the scholars of rabbi simon ben jochai once asked him:-- "why did not the lord give to israel enough manna to suffice them for a year, at one time, instead of meting it out daily?" the rabbi replied:-- "i will answer ye with a parable. there was once a king who had a son to whom he gave a certain yearly allowance, paying the entire sum for his year's support on one appointed day. it soon happened that this day on which the allowance was due, was the only day in the year when the father saw his son. so the king changed his plan, and gave his son each day his maintenance for that day only, and then the son visited his father with the return of each day's sun. "so was it with israel; each father of a family, dependent upon the manna provided each day by god's bounty, for his support and the support of his family, naturally had his mind devoted to the great giver and sustainer of life." when rabbi eleazer was sick his scholars visited him, and said, "rabbi, teach us the way of life, that we may inherit eternity." the rabbi answered, "give honor to your comrades. know to whom you pray. restrain your children from frivolous conversation, and place them among the learned men, in order that they may acquire wisdom. so may you merit life in the future world." when rabbi jochanan was sick his scholars also called upon him. when he beheld them he burst into tears. "rabbi!" they exclaimed, "light of israel! the chief pillar! why weep?" the rabbi answered, "were i to be brought before a king of flesh and blood, who is here to-day and to-morrow in the grave; who may be angry with me, but not forever; who may imprison me, but not forever; who may kill me, but only for this world; whom i may sometimes bribe; even then i would fear. but now, i am to appear before the king of kings, the most holy one, blessed be he, who lives through all eternity. if he is wroth, it is forever. if he imprisons me, it is forever; if he slays me, it is for the future world; and i can bribe him neither with words nor money. not only this, two paths are before me, one leading to punishment, the other to reward, and i know not which one i must travel. should i not weep?" the scholars of rabbi johanan, the son of zakai, asked of their teacher this question:-- "wherefore is it, that according to the law, the punishment of a highwayman is not as severe as the punishment of a sneak thief? according to the mosaic law, if a man steals an ox or a sheep, and kills it or sells it, he is required to restore five oxen for the one ox, and four sheep for the one sheep; but for the highwayman we find, 'when he hath sinned and is conscious of his guilt, he shall restore that he hath taken violently away; he shall restore it and its principal, and the fifth part thereof he shall add thereto.' therefore, he who commits a highway robbery pays as punishment one-fifth of the same, while a sneak thief is obliged to return five oxen for one ox, and four sheep for one sheep. wherefore is this?" "because," replied the teacher, "the highway robber treats the servant as the master. he takes away violently in the presence of the servant, the despoiled man, and the master--god. but the sneak thief imagines that god's eye is not upon him. he acts secretly, thinking, as the psalmist says, 'the lord doth not see, neither will the god of jacob regard it.' listen to a parable. two men made a feast. one invited all the inhabitants of the city, and omitted inviting the king. the other invited neither the king nor his subjects. which one deserves condemnation? certainly the one who invited the subjects and not the king. the people of the earth are god's subjects. the sneak thief fears their eyes, yet he does not honor the eye of the king, the eye of god, which watches all his actions." rabbi meir says, "this law teaches us how god regards industry. if a person steals an ox he must return five in its place, because while the animal was in his unlawful possession it could not work for its rightful owner. a lamb, however, does no labor, and is not profitable that way; therefore he is only obliged to replace it fourfold." rabbi nachman dined with his teacher, rabbi yitzchak, and upon departing after the meal, he said, "teacher, bless me!" "listen," replied rabbi yitzchak. "a traveler was once journeying through the desert, and when weary, hungry, and thirsty, he happened upon an oasis, where grew a fruitful tree, wide-branched, and at the foot of which there gushed a spring of clear, cool water. "the stranger ate of the luscious fruit, enjoying and resting in the grateful shade, and quenching his thirst in the sparkling water which bubbled merrily at his feet. "when about to resume his journey, he addressed the tree and spoke as follows:-- "'oh, gracious tree, with what words can i bless thee, and what good can i wish thee? i cannot wish thee good fruit, for it is already thine; the blessing of water is also thine; and the gracious shade thrown by thy beauteous branches the eternal has already granted thee, for my good and the good of those who travel by this way. let me pray to god, then, that all thy offspring may be goodly as thyself.' "so it is with thee, my pupil. how shall i bless thee? thou art perfect in the law, eminent in the land, respected, and blessed with means. may god grant that all thy offspring may prove goodly as thyself." a wise man, say the rabbis, was gebiah ben pesisah. when the children of canaan accused the israelites of stealing their land, saying, "the land of canaan is ours, as it is written, 'the land of canaan and its boundaries belong to the canaanites,'" and demanded restitution, gebiah offered to argue the case before the ruler. said gebiah to the africans, "ye bring your proof from the pentateuch, and by the pentateuch will i refute it. 'cursed be canaan; a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren.' to whom does the property of a slave belong? to his master. even though the land belonged to ye, through your servitude it became israel's." "answer him," said the ruler. the accusers asked for three days' time to prepare their reply, but at the end of the three days they had vanished. then came the egyptians, saying, "'god gave the israelites favor in the eyes of the egyptians, and they lent them gold and silver.' now return us the gold and silver which our ancestors lent ye." again gebiah appeared for the sages of israel. "four hundred and thirty years," said he, "did the children of israel dwell in egypt. come, now, pay us the wages of six hundred thousand men who worked for ye for naught, and we will return the gold and silver." then came the children of ishmael and ketura, before alexander of mukdon, saying, "the land of canaan is ours, as it is written, 'these are the generations of ishmael, the son of abraham;' even as it is written, 'these are the generations of isaac, the son of abraham.' one son is equal to the other; come, give us our share." again gebiah appeared as counsel for the sages. "from the pentateuch, which is your proof, will i confound ye" said he. "is it not written 'abraham gave all that he had to isaac, but unto the sons of the concubines that abraham had, abraham gave gifts?' the man who gives his children their inheritance during his life does not design to give it to them again after his death. to isaac abraham left all that he had; to his other children he gave gifts, and sent them away." proverbial sayings and traditions do not to others what you would not have others do to you. the ass complains of the cold even in july (tamuz.) first learn and then teach. few are they who see their own faults. a single light answers as well for a hundred men as for one. victuals prepared by many cooks will be neither hot nor cold. truth lasts forever, but falsehood must vanish. this is the punishment of the liar, that when he tells the truth nobody believes him. use thy best vase to-day, for to-morrow it may, perchance, be broken. when satan cannot come himself he sends wine as a messenger. woe to the children banished from their father's table. a handful of food will not satisfy the lion, neither can a pit be filled again with its own dust. pray to god for mercy until the last shovelful of earth is cast upon thy grave. cease not to pray even when the knife is laid upon thy neck. open not thy mouth to speak evil. to be patient is sometimes better than to have much wealth. the horse fed too liberally with oats becomes unruly. happy the pupil whose teacher approves his words. when the cucumbers are young we may tell whether they will become good for food. poverty cometh from god, but not dirt. our kindly deeds and our generous gifts go to heaven as messengers, and plead for us before our heavenly father. the noblest of all charities is in enabling the poor to earn a livelihood. the camel wanted to have horns and they took away his ears. the egg of to-day is better than the hen of to-morrow. the world is a wedding. youth is a wreath of roses. a myrtle even in the desert remains a myrtle. teach thy tongue to say, "i do not know." the house which opens not to the poor will open to the physician. the birds of the air despise a miser. hospitality is an expression of divine worship. thy friend has a friend, and thy friend's friend has a friend; be discreet. do not place a blemish on thine own flesh. attend no auctions if thou hast no money. rather skin a carcass for pay, in the public streets, than lie idly dependent on charity. deal with those who are fortunate. what is intended for thy neighbor will never be thine. the weakness of thy walls invites the burglar. the place honors not the man, 'tis the man who gives honor to the place. the humblest man is ruler in his own house. if the fox is king bow before him. if a word spoken in its time is worth one piece of money, silence in its time is worth two. tobias committed the sins and his neighbor received the punishment. poverty sits as gracefully upon some people as a red saddle upon a white horse. drain not the waters of thy well while other people may desire them. the doctor who prescribes gratuitously gives a worthless prescription. the rose grows among thorns. the wine belongs to the master but the waiter receives the thanks. he who mixes with unclean things becomes unclean himself; he whose associations are pure becomes more holy with each day. no man is impatient with his creditors. make but one sale, and thou art called a merchant. mention not a blemish which is thy own, in detraction of thy neighbor. if certain goods sell not in one city, try another place. he who reads the letter should execute the message. a vessel used for holy purposes should not be put to uses less sacred. ornament thyself first, then magnify others. two pieces of coin in one bag make more noise than a hundred. man sees the mote in his neighbor's eye, but knows not of the beam in his own. the rivalry of scholars advances science. if thou tellest thy secret to three persons, ten know of it. when love is intense both find room enough upon one board of the bench; afterward they may find themselves cramped in a space of sixty cubits. when wine enters the head the secret flies out. when a liar speaks the truth he finds his punishment in the general disbelief. sorrow for those who disappear never to be found. the officer of the king is also a recipient of honors. he who studies cannot follow a commercial life; neither can the merchant devote his time to study. there is no occasion to light thy lamp at noontide. if thy friends agree in calling thee an ass, go and get a halter around thee. at the gate of abundance there are many brothers and friends; at the gate of misery there is neither brother not friend. the consciousness of god's presence is the first principle of religion. a man's home means his wife. he who divorces his wife is hated before god. if thy wife is small, bend down to take her counsel. the daughter is as the mother was. do not confine your children to your own learning, for they were born in another time. what the child says out of doors he has learned indoors. this world is an ante-chamber to the next. the just of all nations have a portion in the future reward. every nation has its special guardian angel, its horoscopes, its ruling planets and stars. but there is no planet for israel. israel shall look but to god. there is no mediator between those who are called his children and their father which is in heaven. from the very spoon that the carver carved, he has to swallow hot mustard. the laborer is allowed to shorten his prayers. he who teaches his son to trade is as if he taught him to steal. the laborer at his work need not rise before the greatest doctor. life is a passing shadow, says the scripture. is it the shadow of a tower or a tree? a shadow which prevails for a while? no. it is the shadow of a bird in its flight--away flies the bird, and there is neither bird nor shadow. man's passions at first are like a cobweb's thread, at last become like the thickest cable. were it not for the existence of passions no one would build a house, marry a wife, beget children, or do any work. there is not a single bird more persecuted than the dove, yet god has chosen her to be offered upon the altar. the bull is hunted by the lion, the sheep by the wolf, the goat by the tiger. and god said: "bring me a sacrifice, not from those that persecute, but from them that are persecuted." prayer is israel's only weapon, a weapon inherited from his fathers, a weapon tried in a thousand battles. when the righteous die, they live; for their example lives. let the fruit pray for the welfare of the leaf. meat without salt is fit only for the dogs. trust not thyself until the day of thy death. woe to the country which hath lost its leader; woe to the ship when its captain is no more. he who increaseth his flesh but multiplieth food for the worms. the day is short, the labor great, and the workman slothful. be yielding to thy superior; be affable toward the young; be friendly with all mankind. silence is the fence round wisdom. without law, civilization perishes. every man will surely have his hour. rather be the tail among lions than the head among foxes. into the well which supplies thee with water cast no stones. many a colt's skin is fashioned to the saddle which its mother bears. truth is heavy, therefore few care to carry it. say little and do much. he who multiplieth words will likely come to sin. sacrifice thy will for others, that they may be disposed to sacrifice their wills for thee. study to-day, delay not. look not upon thy prayers as on a task; let thy supplications be sincere. he who is loved by man is loved by god. honor the sons of the poor; they give to science its splendor. do not live near a pious fool. a small coin in a large jar makes a great noise. use thy noble vase to-day; to-morrow it may break. the cat and the rat make peace over a carcass. he who walks each day over his estate finds a coin daily. the dog follows thee for the crumbs in thy pocket. the soldiers fight, and the kings are heroes. when the ox is down many are the butchers. descend a step in choosing thy wife; ascend a step in choosing thy friend. beat the gods and their priests will tremble. the sun will set without thy assistance. hold no man responsible for his utterances in times of grief. one man eats, another says grace. he who curbs his wrath merits forgiveness for his sins. commit a sin twice and it will not seem to thee a crime. while our love was strong we lay on the edge of a sword, now a couch sixty yards wide is too narrow for us. study is more meritorious than sacrifice. jerusalem was destroyed because the instruction of the young was neglected. the world is saved by the breath of school children. even to rebuild the temple, the schools must not be closed. blessed is the son who has studied with his father, and blessed the father who has instructed his son. avoid wrath and thou wilt avoid sin; avoid intemperance and thou wilt not provoke providence. when others gather, do thou disperse; when others disperse, gather. when thou art the only purchaser, then buy; when other buyers are present, be thou nobody. the foolish man knows not an insult, neither does a dead man feel the cutting of a knife. three shall not enter paradise--the scoffer, the hypocrite, and the slanderer. rabbi gamaliel ordered his servant tobi to bring something good from the market, and he brought a tongue. at another time he told him to bring something bad, and he also returned with a tongue. "why did you on both occasions fetch a tongue?" the rabbi asked. "it is the source of good and evil," tobi replied. "if it is good, there is nothing better; if it is bad, there is nothing worse." the forest trees once asked the fruit trees: "why is the rustling of your leaves not heard in the distance?" the fruit trees replied: "we can dispense with the rustling to manifest our presence; our fruits testify for us." the fruit trees then inquired of the forest trees; "why do your leaves rustle almost continually?" "we are forced to call the attention of man to our existence." too many captains sink the ship. an old man is a trouble in the house; an old woman is a treasure in the house. two pieces of coin in one bag make more noise than a hundred. when the flood came over the earth and everything was threatened with destruction, and every kind of beast came in pairs to noah, the lie, too, asked admittance into the ark. noah, however, refused. "only pairs may enter here," he said. the lie went in search of a companion, and at last met vice, whom it invited to go to the ark. "i am willing to keep company with thee, if thou wilt promise to give me all thy earnings," said vice. the lie agreed, and they were both admitted into the ark. after they left the ark, the lie regretted her agreement, and wished to dissolve partnership with vice, but it was too late, and thus it is current that "what lie earneth, vice consumeth." support the aged without reference to religion; respect the learned without reference to age. repent the day before thy death. ten measures of wisdom came into the world; the law of israel received nine measures, and the balance of the world one. ten measures of beauty came into the world; jerusalem received nine measures, and the rest of the world one. the world stands on three pillars: law, worship, and charity. when he who attends the synagogue regularly is prevented from being present, god asks for him. his enemies will humble themselves before the one who builds a place of worship. he who is able to attend synagogue, and neglects to do so, is a bad neighbor. one need not stand upon a high place to pray, for it is written, "out of the depths have i called unto thee, oh lord." the same rabbi prohibits moving about or talking during the progress of prayers, enlarging on solomon's advice, "keep thy foot when thou goest into the house of the lord, and be more ready to hear than to offer the sacrifice of fools." the cock and the owl both await daylight. "the light," says the cock, "brings me delight; but what in the world art thou waiting for?" the thief who finds no opportunity to steal, considers himself an honest man. a galilean said, "when the shepherd is angry with his flock, he appoints for its leader a blind bellwether." though it is not incumbent upon thee to complete the work, thou must not therefore cease from pursuing it. if the work is great, great will be thy reward, and thy master is faithful in his payments. there are three crowns: of the law, the priesthood, and the kingship; but the crown of a good name is greater than them all. who gains wisdom? he who is willing to receive instruction from all sources. who is the mighty man? he who subdueth his temper. who is rich? he who is content with his lot. who is deserving of honor? he who honoreth mankind. despise no man and deem nothing impossible; every man hath his hour and everything its place. iron breaks stone; fire melts iron; water extinguishes fire; the clouds consume water; the storm dispels clouds; man withstands the storm; fear conquers man; wine banishes fear; sleep overcomes wine, and death is the master of sleep; but "charity," says solomon, "saves even from death." how canst thou escape sin? think of three things: whence thou comest, whither thou goest, and before whom thou must appear. the scoffer, the liar, the hypocrite, and the slanderer can have no share in the future world of bliss. to slander is to commit murder. cold water morning and evening is better than all the cosmetics. the question is asked, "why is man born with hands clinched, but has his hands wide open in death?" and the answer is: "on entering the world, man desires to grasp everything; but when leaving it he takes nothing away." two dry logs and one wet; the dry ones kindle the wet. he who seeks for a faultless brother will have to remain brotherless. a town which has no school should be abolished. jerusalem was destroyed because the instruction of the young was neglected. he who instructs a child is as if he had created it. the teachers are the guardians of the state. learn first and philosophize afterward. to what may he be compared who teaches a child? to one who writes on clean paper; and to what may he be compared who teaches an old man? to one who writes on blotted paper. be eager to acquire knowledge; it does not come to thee by inheritance. four dispositions are found among those who sit for instruction, before the wise, and they may be respectively compared to a sponge, a funnel, a strainer, and a sieve; the sponge imbibes all, the funnel receives at one end and discharges at the other, the strainer suffers the wine to pass through, but retains the lees, and the sieve recovers the bran, but retains the fine flour. to pray loudly is not a necessity of devotion; when we pray we must direct our hearts toward heaven. charity is greater than all. who gives charity in secret is greater than moses. he finds authority for this saying in the words of moses, "for i was afraid of the anger," and the words of solomon which he presents as an answer, "a gift given in secret pacifieth anger." a miser is as wicked as an idolater. charity is more than sacrifices. "he who gives (charity) becomes rich," or as it is written, "a beneficent soul will be abundantly gratified." one day a philosopher inquired of rabbi akiba, "if your god loves the poor, why does he not support them?" "god allows the poor to be with us ever," responded akiba, "that the opportunities for doing good may never fail." "but," returned the philosopher, "how do you know that this virtue of charity pleases god? if a master punishes his slaves by depriving them of food and clothing, does he feel pleased when others feed and clothe them?" "but suppose, on the other hand," said the rabbi, "that the children of a tender father, children whom he could no longer justly assist, had fallen into poverty, would he be displeased if kind souls pitied and aided them? we are not the slaves of a hard master. god calls us his children, and himself we call our father." when one stands at the judgment-seat of god these questions are asked:-- "hast thou been honest in all thy dealings?" "hast thou set aside a portion of thy time for the study of the law?" "hast thou observed the first commandment?" "hast thou, in trouble, still hoped and believed in god?" "hast thou spoken wisely?" all the blessings of a household come through the wife, therefore should her husband honor her. men should be careful lest they cause women to weep, for god counts their tears. in cases of charity, where both men and women claim relief, the latter should be first assisted. if there should not be enough for both, the men should cheerfully relinquish their claims. a woman's death is felt by nobody as by her husband. tears are shed on god's altar for the one who forsakes his first love. he who loves his wife as himself, and honors her more than himself, will train his children properly; he will meet, too, the fulfillment of the verse, "and thou shalt know that there is peace in thy tent, and thou wilt look over thy habitation and shall miss nothing." i never call my wife "wife," but "home," for she, indeed, makes my home. he who possesses a knowledge of god, and a knowledge of man, will not easily commit sin. the bible was given us to establish peace. he who wrongs his fellow-man, even in so small a coin as a penny, is as wicked as if he should take life. he who raises his hand against his fellow in passion is a sinner. be not the friend of one who wears the cloak of a saint to cover the deformities of a fool. one who gives way to passion is as bad as an idolater. hospitality is as great a virtue as studying the law. "never put thyself in the way of temptation," advised rabbi judah; "even david could not resist it." rabbi tyra, on being asked by his pupils to tell them the secret which gained him a happy, peaceful old age, replied, "i have never cherished anger with my family; i have never envied those greater than myself, and i have never rejoiced in the downfall of any one." unhappy is he who mistakes the branch for the tree, the shadow for the substance. thy yesterday is thy past; thy to-day thy future; thy to-morrow is a secret. the best preacher is the heart; the best teacher is time; the best book is the world; the best friend is god. life is but a loan to man; death is the creditor who will one day claim it. understand a man by his own deeds and words. the impressions of others lead to false judgment. he through whose agency another has been falsely punished stands outside of heaven's gates. the sins of the bad-tempered are greater than his merits. the man who sins is foolish as well as wicked. the good actions which we perform in this world take form and meet us in the world to come. better to bear a false accusation in silence, than by speaking to bring the guilty to public shame. he who can feel ashamed will not readily do wrong. there is a great difference between one who can feel ashamed before his own soul and one who is only ashamed before his fellow-man. god's covenant with us included work; for the command, "six days shalt thou work and the seventh shalt thou rest," made the "rest" conditional upon the "work." god first told adam to dress the garden of eden, and to keep it, and then permitted him to eat of the fruit of his labor. god did not dwell in the midst of israel till they had worked to deserve his presence, for he commanded, "they shall make me a sanctuary, and then i will dwell in the midst of them." when jerusalem was in the hands of the romans, one of their philosophers asked of the rabbis:-- "if your god dislikes idolatry, why does he not destroy the idols and so put temptation out of the way?" the wise men answered:-- "would you have the sun and the moon destroyed because of the foolish ones who worship them? to change the course of nature to punish sinners, would bring suffering to the innocent also." rabbi judah said:-- "he who refuses to teach a precept to his pupil is guilty of theft, just as one who steals from the inheritance of his father; as it is written, (the law which moses commanded us is the inheritance of the congregation of jacob.) but if he teaches him, what is his reward?" raba says, "he will obtain the blessing of joseph." rabbi eleazer said:-- "that house where the law is not studied by night should be destroyed. "the wealthy man who aids not the scholar desirous of studying god's law will not prosper. "he who changes his word, saying one thing and doing another, is even as he who serveth idols." rabbi chamah, the son of pappa, said:-- "he who eats or drinks and blesses not the lord, is even as he who stealeth, for it is said, 'the heavens are the heavens of the lord, and the earth hath he given to the children of men.'" rabbi simon, the son of lakish, said:-- "they who perform one precept in this world will find it recorded for their benefit in the world to come; as it is written, 'thy righteousness will go before thee, the glory of the lord will gather thee in.' and the same will be the case, in contrast, with those who sin. for the bible says, 'which i commanded thee this day to do them,' to 'do them,' the precepts, to-day, though the reward is not promised to-day; but in the future, ordinances obeyed, will testify in thy favor, for 'thy righteousness will go before thee.'" the rabbis pronounced those the "friends of god," who being offended thought not of revenge; who practiced good through love for god, and who were cheerful under suffering and difficulties. of such isaiah wrote, "they shall shine forth like the sun at noonday." * * * * * love thy wife as thyself; honor her more than thyself. he who lives unmarried, lives without joy. if thy wife is small, bend down to her and whisper in her ear. he who sees his wife die, has, as it were, been present at the destruction of the sanctuary itself. the children of a man who marries for money will prove a curse to him. he who has more learning than good deeds is like a tree with many branches but weak roots; the first great storm will throw it to the ground. he whose good works are greater than his knowledge is like a tree with fewer branches but with strong and spreading roots, a tree which all the winds of heaven cannot uproot. * * * * * better is the curse of the righteous man than the blessing of the wicked. better the curse of achia, the shelonite, than the blessing of bil'am, the son of beor. thus did achia curse the israelites, "and the lord will smite israel as the reed is shaken in the water." the reed bends but it breaks not, for it groweth by the water, and its roots are strong. thus did bil'am bless israel, "as cedar trees beside the waters." cedars do not grow beside the waters: their roots are weak, and when strong winds blow they break in pieces. * * * * * a very wealthy man, who was of a kind, benevolent disposition, desired to make his slave happy. he gave him, therefore, his freedom, and presented him with a shipload of merchandise. "go," said he, "sail to different countries, dispose of these goods, and that which thou mayest receive for them shall be thy own." the slave sailed away upon the broad ocean, but before he had been long upon his voyage a storm overtook him; his ship was driven on a rock and went to pieces; all on board were lost, all save this slave, who swam to an island shore near by. sad, despondent, with naught in the world, he traversed this island, until he approached a large and beautiful city; and many people approached him joyously, shouting, "welcome! welcome! long live the king!" they brought a rich carriage, and placing him therein, escorted him to a magnificent palace, where many servants gathered about him, clothing him in royal garments, addressing him as their sovereign, and expressing their obedience to his will. the slave was amazed and dazzled, believing that he was dreaming, and all that he saw, heard, and experienced was mere passing fantasy. becoming convinced of the reality of his condition, he said to some men about him for whom he experienced a friendly feeling:-- "how is this? i cannot understand it. that you should thus elevate and honor a man whom you know not, a poor, naked wanderer, whom you have never seen before, making him your ruler, causes me more wonder than i can readily express." "sire," they replied, "this island is inhabited by spirits. long since they prayed to god to send them yearly a son of man to reign over them, and he has answered their prayers. yearly he sends them a son of man, whom they receive with honor and elevate to the throne; but his dignity and power ends with the year. with its close his royal garments are taken from him, he is placed on board a ship and carried to a vast and desolate island, where, unless he has previously been wise and prepared for this day, he will find neither friend nor subject, and be obliged to pass a weary, lonely, miserable life. then a new king is selected, and so year follows year. the kings who preceded thee were careless and indifferent, enjoying their power to the full, and thinking not of the day when it should end. be wiser thou; let our words find rest within thy heart." the newly-made king listened attentively to all this, and felt grieved that he should have lost even the time he had already missed for making preparations for his loss of power. he addressed the wise man who had spoken, saying, "advise me, oh, spirit of wisdom, how i may prepare for the days which will come upon me in the future." "naked thou camest to us and naked thou wilt be sent to the desolate island of which i have told thee," replied the other. "at present thou art king, and may do as pleaseth thee; therefore send workmen to this island; let them build houses, till the ground, and beautify the surroundings. the barren soil will be changed into fruitful fields, people will journey there to live, and thou wilt have established a new kingdom for thyself, with subjects to welcome thee in gladness when thou shalt have lost thy power here. the year is short, the work is long: therefore be earnest and energetic." the king followed this advice. he sent workmen and materials to the desolate island, and before the close of his temporary power it had become a blooming, pleasant, and attractive spot. the rulers who had preceded him had anticipated the day of their power's close with dread, or smothered all thought of it in revelry; but he looked forward to it as a day of joy, when he should enter upon a career of permanent peace and happiness. the day came; the freed slave, who had been made king, was deprived of his authority; with his power he lost his royal garments; naked he was placed upon a ship, and its sails set for the desolate isle. when he approached its shores, however, the people whom he had sent there came to meet him with music, song, and great joy. they made him a prince among them, and he lived with them ever after in pleasantness and peace. the wealthy man of kindly disposition is god, and the slave to whom he gave freedom is the soul which he gives to man. the island at which the slave arrives is the world; naked and weeping he appears to his parents, who are inhabitants that greet him warmly and make him their king. the friends who tell him of the ways of the country are his "good inclinations." the year of his reign is his span of life, and the desolate island is the future world, which he must beautify by good deeds, "the workmen and material," or else live lonely and desolate forever. * * * * * the emperor adrian, passing through the streets of tiberias, noticed a very old man planting a fig tree, and pausing, said to him:-- "wherefore plant that tree? if thou didst labor in thy youth, thou shouldst now have a store for thy old age, and surely of the fruit of this tree thou canst not hope to eat." the old man answered:-- "in my youth i worked, and i still work. with god's good pleasure i may e'en partake of the fruit of this tree i plant. i am in his hands." "tell me thy age," said the emperor. "i have lived for a hundred years." "a hundred years old, and still expect to eat from the fruit of this tree?" "if such be god's pleasure," replied the old man; "if not, i will leave it for my son, as my father left the fruit of his labor for me." "well," said the emperor, "if thou dost live until the figs from this tree are ripe, i pray thee let me know of it." the aged man lived to partake of that very fruit, and remembering the emperor's words, he resolved to visit him. so, taking a small basket, he filled it with the choicest figs from the tree, and proceeded on his errand. telling the palace guard his purpose, he was admitted to the sovereign's presence. "well," asked the emperor, "what is thy wish?" the old man replied:-- "lo, i am the old man to whom thou didst say, on the day thou sawest him planting a fig tree, 'if thou livest to eat of its fruit, i pray thee let me know;' and behold i have come and brought thee of the fruit, that thou mayest partake of it likewise." the emperor was very much pleased, and emptying the man's basket of its figs, he ordered it to be filled with gold coins. when the old man had departed, the courtiers said to the emperor:-- "why didst thou so honor this old jew?" "the lord hath honored him, and why not i?" replied the emperor. now next door to this old man there lived a woman, who, when she heard of her neighbor's good fortune, desired her husband to try his luck in the same quarter. she filled for him an immense basket with figs, and bidding him put it on his shoulder, said, "now carry it to the emperor; he loves figs and will fill thy basket with golden coin." when her husband approached the gates of the palace, he told his errand to the guards, saying, "i brought these figs to the emperor; empty my basket i pray, and fill it up again with gold." when this was told to the emperor, he ordered the old man to stand in the hallway of the palace, and all who passed pelted him with his figs. he returned home wounded and crestfallen to his disappointed wife. "never mind, thou hast one consolation," said she; "had they been cocoanuts instead of figs thou mightest have suffered harder raps." * * * * * a citizen of jerusalem traveling through the country was taken very sick at an inn. feeling that he would not recover, he sent for the landlord and said to him, "i am going the way of all flesh. if after my death any party should come from jerusalem and claim my effects, do not deliver them until he shall prove to thee by three wise acts that he is entitled to them; for i charged my son before starting upon my way, that if death befell me he would be obliged to prove his wisdom before obtaining my possessions." the man died and was buried according to jewish rites, and his death was made public that his heirs might appear. when his son learned of his father's decease he started from jerusalem for the place where he had died. near the gates of the city he met a man who had a load of wood for sale. this he purchased and ordered it to be delivered at the inn toward which he was traveling. the man from whom he bought it went at once to the inn, and said, "here is the wood." "what wood?" returned the proprietor; "i ordered no wood." "no," answered the woodcutter, "but the man who follows me did; i will enter and wait for him." thus the son had provided for himself a welcome when he should reach the inn, which was his first wise act. the landlord said to him, "who art thou?" "the son of the merchant who died in thy house," he replied. they prepared for him a dinner, and placed upon the table five pigeons and a chicken. the master of the house, his wife, two sons, and two daughters sat with him at the table. "serve the food," said the landlord. "nay," answered the young man; "thou art master, it is thy privilege." "i desire thee to do this thing; thou art my guest, the merchant's son; pray help the food." the young man thus entreated divided one pigeon between the two sons, another between the two daughters, gave the third to the man and his wife, and kept the other two for himself. this was his second wise act. the landlord looked somewhat perplexed at this mode of distribution, but said nothing. then the merchant's son divided the chicken. he gave to the landlord and his wife the head, to the two sons the legs, to the two daughters the wings, and took the body for himself. this was his third wise act. the landlord said:-- "is this the way they do things in thy country? i noticed the manner in which thou didst apportion the pigeons, but said nothing; but the chicken, my dear sir! i must really ask thee thy meaning." then the young man answered:-- "i told thee that it was not my place to serve the food, nevertheless when thou didst insist i did the best i could, and i think i have succeeded. thyself, thy wife, and one pigeon make three; thy two sons and one pigeon make three; thy two daughters and one pigeon make three; and myself and two pigeons make three also, therefore is it fairly done. as regards the chicken, i gave to thee and thy wife the head, because ye are the heads of the family; i gave to each of thy sons a leg, because they are the pillars of the family, preserving always the family name; i gave to each of thy daughters a wing, because in the natural course of events they will marry, take wing, and fly away from the home-nest. i took the body of the chicken because it looks like a ship, and in a ship i came here and in a ship i hope to return. i am the son of the merchant who died in thy house; give me the property of my dead father." "take it and go," said the landlord. and giving him his father's possessions the young man departed in peace. * * * * * a certain man, a native of athina (a city near jerusalem), visited the city of jerusalem, and after leaving it, ridiculed the place and its inhabitants. the jerusalemites were very wroth at being made the subjects of his sport, and they induced one of their citizens to travel to athina, to induce the man to return to jerusalem, which would give them an opportunity to punish his insolence. the citizen thus commissioned reached athina, and very shortly fell in with the man whom he had come to meet. walking through the streets together one day, the man from jerusalem said, "see, the string of my shoe is broken; take me, i pray, to the shoemaker." the shoemaker repaired the string, and the man paid him a coin more in value than the worth of the shoes. next day, when walking with the same man, he broke the string of his other shoe, and going to the shoemaker, he paid him the same large sum for repairing that. "why," said the man of athina, "shoes must be very dear in jerusalem, when thou payest such a price but for repairing a string." "yes," answered the other; "they bring nine ducats, and even in the cheapest times from seven to eight." "then it would be a profitable employment for me to take shoes from my city and sell them in thine." "yes, indeed; and if thou wilt but let me know of thy coming i will put thee in the way of customers." so the man of athina, who had made merry over the jerusalemites, bought a large stock of shoes and set out for jerusalem, informing his friend of his coming. the latter started to meet him, and greeting him before he came to the gates of the city, said to him:-- "before a stranger may enter and sell goods in jerusalem, he must shave his head and blacken his face. art thou ready to do this?" "and why not," replied the other, "as long as i have a prospect of large profits; why should i falter or hesitate at so slight a thing as that?" so the stranger, shaving the hair from his head and blackening his face (by which all jerusalem knew him as the man who had ridiculed the city), took up his place in the market, with his wares spread before him. buyers paused before his stall, and asked him:-- "how much for the shoes?" "ten ducats a pair," he answered; "or i may sell for nine; but certainly for not less than eight." this caused a great laugh and uproar in the market, and the stranger was driven from it in derision and his shoes thrown after him. seeking the jerusalemite who had deceived him, he said:-- "why hast thou so treated me? did i so to thee in athina?" "let this be a lesson to thee," answered the jerusalemite. "i do not think thou wilt be so ready to make sport of us in the future." a young man, upon his journeys through the country, fell in with a young woman, and they became mutually attached. when the young man was obliged to leave the neighborhood of the damsel's residence, they met to say "good-by." during the parting they pledged a mutual faith, and each promised to wait until, in the course of time, they might be able to marry. "who will be the witness of our betrothal?" said the young man. just then they saw a weasel run past them and disappear in the wood. "see," he continued, "this weasel and this well of water by which we are standing shall be the witnesses of our betrothal;" and so they parted. years passed, the maiden remained true, but the youth married. a son was born to him, and grew up the delight of his parents. one day while the child was playing he became tired, and lying upon the ground fell asleep. a weasel bit him in the neck, and he bled to death. the parents were consumed with grief by this calamity, and it was not until another son was given them that they forgot their sorrow. but when this second child was able to walk alone it wandered without the house, and bending over the well, looking at its shadow in the water, lost its balance and was drowned. then the father recollected his perjured vow, and his witnesses, the weasel and the well. he told his wife of the circumstance, and she agreed to a divorce. he then sought the maiden to whom he had promised marriage, and found her still awaiting his return. he told her how, through god's agency, he had been punished for his wrongdoing, after which they married and lived in peace. * * * * * a wise israelite, dwelling some distance from jerusalem, sent his son to the holy city to complete his education. during his son's absence the father was taken ill, and feeling that death was upon him he made a will, leaving all his property to one of his slaves, on condition that he should allow the son to select any one article which pleased him for an inheritance. as soon as his master died, the slave, elated with his good fortune, hastened to jerusalem, informed his late master's son of what had taken place, and showed him the will. the young man was surprised and grieved at the intelligence, and after the alloted time of mourning had expired, he began to seriously consider his situation. he went to his teacher, explained the circumstances to him, read him his father's will, and expressed himself bitterly on account of the disappointment of his reasonable hopes and expectations. he could think of nothing that he had done to offend his father, and was loud in his complaints of injustice. "stop," said his teacher; "thy father was a man of wisdom and a loving relative. this will is a living monument to his good sense and far-sightedness. may his son prove as wise in his day." "what!" exclaimed the young man. "i see no wisdom in his bestowal of his property upon a slave; no affection in this slight upon his only son." "listen," returned the teacher. "by his action thy father hath but secured thy inheritance to thee, if thou art wise enough to avail thyself of his understanding. thus thought he when he felt the hand of death approaching. 'my son is away; when i am dead he will not be here to take charge of my affairs; my slaves will plunder my estate, and to gain time will even conceal my death from my son, and deprive me of the sweet savour of mourning.' to prevent these things he bequeathed his property to his slave, well knowing that the slave, believing in his apparent right, would give thee speedy information, and take care of the effects, even as he has done." "well, well, and how does this benefit me?" impatiently interrupted the pupil. "ah!" replied the teacher, "wisdom i see rests not with the young. dost thou not know that what a slave possesses belongs but to his master? has not thy father left thee the right to select one article of all his property for thy own? choose the slave as thy portion, and by possessing him thou wilt recover all that was thy father's. such was his wise and loving intention." the young man did as he was advised, and gave the slave his freedom afterward. but ever after he was wont to exclaim:-- "wisdom resides with the aged, and understanding in length of days." * * * * * david, king of israel, was once lying upon his couch and many thoughts were passing through his mind. "of what use in this world is the spider?" thought he; "it but increases the dust and dirt of the world, making places unsightly and causing great annoyance." then he thought of an insane man:-- "how unfortunate is such a being. i know that all things are ordained by god with reason and purpose, yet this is beyond my comprehension; why should men be born idiots, or grow insane?" then the mosquitoes annoyed him, and the king thought:-- "what can the mosquito be good for? why was it created in the world? it but disturbs our comfort, and the world profits not by its existence." yet king david lived to discover that these very insects, and the very condition of life, the being of which he deplored, were ordained even to his own benefit. when he fled from before saul, david was captured in the land of the philistines by the brothers of goliath, who carried him before the king of gath, and it was only by pretending idiocy that he escaped death, the king deeming it impossible that such a man could be the kingly david; as it is written, "and he disguised his reason before their eyes, and played the madman in their hands, and scribbled on the doors of the gate, and let his spittle run down upon his beard." upon another occasion david hid himself in the cave of adullam, and after he had entered the cave it chanced that a spider spun a web over the opening thereto. his pursuers passed that way, but thinking that no one could have entered the cave protected by the spider's web without destroying it, they continued on their way. the mosquito also was of service to david when he entered the camp of saul to secure the latter's weapon. while stooping near abner, the sleeping man moved and placed his leg upon david's body. if he moved, he would awake abner and meet with death, if he remained in that position morning would dawn and bring him death; he knew not what to do, when a mosquito alighted upon abner's leg; he moved it quickly, and david escaped. therefore sang david:--- "all my bones shall say, o lord, who is like unto thee." * * * * * the israelites were commanded to visit jerusalem on three festivals. it happened upon one occasion that there was a scarcity of water in the city. one of the people called upon a certain nobleman who was the owner of three wells, and asked him for the use of the water which they contained, promising that they should be refilled by a stated date, and contracting in default of this to pay a certain large amount in silver as forfeit. the day came, there had been no rain, and the three wells were dry. in the morning the owner of the wells sent for the promised money. nakdemon, the son of gurion, the man who had undertaken this burden for his people's sake, replied, "the day is but begun; there is yet time." he entered the temple and prayed that god might send rain and save him all his fortune which he had ventured. his prayer was answered. the clouds gathered and the rain fell. as he passed out of the temple with a grateful heart, he was met by his creditor, who said:-- "true, the rain has refilled my wells, but it is dark; the day has gone, and according to our agreement thou must still pay me the promised sum." once more nakdemon prayed, and lo, the clouds lifted and the sinking sun smiled brightly on the spot where the men stood, showing that the sunlight of day was still there, though the rain-clouds had temporarily obscured its gleams. * * * * * there was a certain family, the family of abtinoss, the members of which were learned in the art of preparing the incense used in the service. their knowledge they refused to impart to others, and the directors of the temple, fearing that the art might die with them, discharged them from the service, and brought other parties from alexandria, in egypt, to prepare the sweet perfume. these latter were unable to afford satisfaction, however, and the directors were obliged to give the service back into the hands of the family of abtinoss, who on their part refused to accept it again, unless the remuneration for their services was doubled. when asked why they so persistently refused to impart their skill to others, they replied that they feared they might teach some unworthy persons, who would afterward use their knowledge in an idolatrous worship. the members of this family were very particular not to use perfume of any kind themselves, lest the people should imagine that they put the sweet spices used in the manufacture of the incense to a baser use. an exactly similar case to the above occurred with the family of garmah, which had the monopoly of the knowledge of preparing the show-bread used in the services of the temple. it was in reference to these cases that the son of azai said, "in thy name they shall call thee, and in thy city they shall cause thee to live, and from thy own they will give thee," meaning that trustful persons should not fear that others might steal their occupations; "for in thy name they will call thee," as with the families of abtinoss and garmah; "and from thy own they will give thee," meaning that what a man earns is his own, and cannot be taken away. * * * * * rabbi jochanan, the son of levi, fasted and prayed to the lord that he might be permitted to gaze on the angel elijah, he who had ascended alive to heaven. god granted his prayer, and in the semblance of a man elijah appeared before him. "let me journey with thee in thy travels through the world," prayed the rabbi to elijah; "let me observe thy doings, and gain in wisdom and understanding." "nay," answered elijah; "my actions thou couldst not understand; my doings would trouble thee, being beyond thy comprehension." but still the rabbi entreated:-- "i will neither trouble nor question thee," he said; "only let me accompany thee on thy way." "come, then," said elijah; "but let thy tongue be mute. with thy first question, thy first expression of astonishment, we must part company." so the two journeyed through the world together. they approached the house of a poor man, whose only treasure and means of support was a cow. as they came near, the man and his wife hastened to meet them, begged them to enter their cot, and eat and drink of the best they could afford, and to pass the night under their roof. this they did, receiving every attention from their poor but hospitable host and hostess. in the morning elijah rose up early and prayed to god, and when he had finished his prayer, behold the cow belonging to the poor people dropped dead. then the travelers continued on their journey. much was rabbi jochanan perplexed. "not only did we neglect to pay them for their hospitality and generous services, but his cow we have killed;" and he said to elijah, "why didst thou kill the cow of this good man, who--" "peace," interrupted elijah; "hear, see, and be silent. if i answer thy questions we must part." and they continued on their way together. toward evening they arrived at a large and imposing mansion, the residence of a haughty and wealthy man. they were coldly received; a piece of bread and a glass of water were placed before them, but the master of the house did not welcome or speak to them, and they remained there during the night unnoticed. in the morning elijah remarked that a wall of the house required repairing, and sending for a carpenter, he himself paid the money for the repair, as a return, he said, for the hospitality they had received. again was rabbi jochanan filled with wonder, but he said naught, and they proceeded on their journey. as the shades of night were falling they entered a city which contained a large and imposing synagogue. as it was the time of the evening service they entered and were much pleased with the rich adornments, the velvet cushions, and gilded carvings of the interior. after the completion of the service, elijah arose and called out aloud, "who is here willing to feed and lodge two poor men this night?" none answered, and no respect was shown to the traveling strangers. in the morning, however, elijah re-entered the synagogue, and shaking its members by the hands, he said, "i hope that you may all become presidents." next evening the two entered another city, when the _shamas_ (sexton) of the synagogue, came to meet them, and notifying the members of his congregation of the coming of two strangers, the best hotel of the place was opened to them, and all vied in showing them attention and honor. in the morning, on parting with them, elijah said, "may the lord appoint over you but one president." jochanan could resist his curiosity no longer. "tell me," said he to elijah, "tell me the meaning of all these actions which i have witnessed. to those who have treated us coldly thou hast uttered good wishes; to those who have been gracious to us thou hast made no suitable return. even though we must part, i pray thee explain to me the meaning of thy acts." "listen," said elijah, "and learn to trust in god, even though thou canst not understand his ways. we first entered the house of the poor man, who treated us so kindly. know that it had been decreed that on that very day his wife should die. i prayed unto the lord that the cow might prove a redemption for her; god granted my prayers, and the woman was preserved unto her husband. the rich man, whom next we called up, treated us coldly, and i repaired his wall. i repaired it without a new foundation, without digging to the old one. had he repaired it himself he would have dug, and thus discovered a treasure which lies there buried, but which is now forever lost to him. to the members of the synagogue who were inhospitable i said, 'may you all be presidents,' and where many rule there can be no peace; but to the others i said, 'may you have but one president;' with one leader no misunderstanding may arise. now, if thou seest the wicked prospering, be not envious; if thou seest the righteous in poverty and trouble, be not provoked or doubtful of god's justice. the lord is righteous, his judgments all are true; his eyes note all mankind, and none can say, 'what dost thou?'" with these words elijah disappeared, and jochanan was left alone. * * * * * there was once a man who pledged his dearest faith to a maiden, beautiful and true. for a time all passed pleasantly, and the maiden lived in happiness. but then the man was called from her side, he left her; long she waited, but he did not return. friends pitied her and rivals mocked her; tauntingly they pointed at her, and said, "he has left thee; he will never come back." the maiden sought her chamber, and read in secret the letters which her lover had written to her, the letters in which he promised to be ever faithful, ever true. weeping she read them, but they brought comfort to her heart; she dried her eyes and doubted not. a joyous day dawned for her; the man she loved returned, and when he learned that others had doubted and asked her how she had preserved her faith, she showed his letters to him, declaring her eternal trust. israel, in misery and captivity, was mocked by the nations; her hopes of redemption were made a laughing-stock; her sages scoffed at; her holy men derided. into her synagogues, into her schools went israel; she read the letters which her god had written, and believed in the holy promises which they contained. god will in time redeem her; and when he says:-- "how could you alone be faithful of all the mocking nations?" she will point to the law and answer:-- "had not thy law been my delight, i should long since have perished in my affliction." * * * * * when god was about to created man the angels gathered about him. some of them opening their lips exclaimed, "create, o god, a being who shall praise thee from earth even as we in heaven sing thy glory." but others said:-- "hear us, almighty king, create no more! the glorious harmony of the heavens which thou hast sent to earth will be by man disturbed, destroyed." then silence fell upon the contesting hosts as the angel of mercy appeared before the throne of grace on bended knees. sweet was the voice which said entreatingly:-- "o, father, create thou man; make him thine own noble image. with heavenly pity will i fill his heart, with sympathy toward every living thing impress his being; through him will they find cause to praise thee." then the angel of mercy ceased, and the angel of peace with tearful eyes spoke thus:-- "o god, create him not! thy peace he will disturb, the flow of blood, will follow sure his coming. confusion, horror, war, will blot the earth, and thou wilt no longer find a pleasant place among thy works on earth." then spoke in stern tones the angel of justice:-- "and thou wilt judge him, god; he shall be subject to my sway." the angel of truth approached, saying:-- "cease! o god of truth, with man thou sendest falsehood to the earth." then all were silent, and out of the deep quietness the divine words came:-- "thou, o truth, shall go to earth with him, and yet remain a denizen of heaven; 'twixt heaven and earth to float, connecting link between the two." * * * * * it was customary in bithar when a child was born for the parents to plant a young cedar tree, to grow up with the infant. it happened upon one occasion when the daughter of the emperor was riding through the city, that her chariot broke down, and her attendants pulled up a young cedar tree to use in repairing it. the man who had planted the tree, seeing this, attacked the servants and beat them severely. this action incensed the emperor, who immediately dispatched an army of eighty thousand men against the city. these captured it and killed the inhabitants, men, women, and children. the rivers ran red with blood, and 'tis said that the ground was rich and prolific to the farmers for seven years, from the bodies of those who perished, said to be four hundred thousand israelites. * * * * * when the guilt of the israelites grew too great for the forbearance of the most high, and they refused to listen to the words and warnings of jeremiah, the prophet left jerusalem and traveled to the land of benjamin. while he was in the holy city, and prayed for mercy on it, it was spared; but while he sojourned in the land of benjamin, nebuchadnezzar laid waste the land of israel, plundered the holy temple, robbed it of its ornaments, and gave it a prey to the devouring flames. by the hands of nebuzaradan did nebuchadnezzar send (while he himself remained in riblah) to destroy jerusalem. before he ordered the expedition he endeavored by means of signs, in accordance with the superstition of his age, to ascertain the result of the attempt. he shot an arrow from his bow, pointing to the west, and the arrow turned toward jerusalem. then he shot again, pointing toward the east, and the arrow sped toward jerusalem. then he shot once more, desiring to know in which direction lay the guilty city which should be blotted from the world, and for the third time his arrow pointed toward jerusalem. when the city had been captured, he marched with his princes and officers into the temple, and called out mockingly to the god of israel, "and art thou the great god before whom the world trembles, and we here in thy city and thy temple!" on one of the walls he found the mark of an arrow's head, as though somebody had been killed or hit near by, and he asked, "who was killed here?" "zachariah, the son of yehoyadah, the high priest," answered the people; "he rebuked us incessantly on account of our transgressions, and we tired of his words, and put him to death." the followers of nebuchadnezzar massacred the inhabitants of jerusalem, the priests and the people, old and young, women, and children who were attending school, even babies in the cradle. the feast of blood at last shocked even the leader of the hostile heathens, who ordered a stay of this wholesale murder. he then removed all the vessels of gold and silver from the temple, and sent them by his ships, to babel, after which he set the temple on fire. the high priest donned his robe and ephod, and saying, "now that the temple is destroyed, no priest is needed to officiate," threw himself into the flames and was consumed. when the other priests who were still alive witnessed this action, they took their harps and musical instruments and followed the example of the high priest. those of the people whom the soldiers had not killed were bound in iron chains, burdened with the spoils of the victors, and carried into captivity. jeremiah the prophet returned to jerusalem and accompanied his unfortunate brethren, who went out almost naked. when they reached a place called bet kuro, jeremiah obtained better clothing for them. and he spoke to nebuchadnezzar and the chaldeans, and said, "think not that of your own strength you were able to overcome the people chosen of the lord; 'tis their iniquities which have condemned them to this sorrow." thus the people journeyed on with crying and moaning until they reached the rivers of babylon. then nebuchadnezzar said to them, "sing, ye people,--play for me,--sing the songs ye were wont to sing before your great lord in jerusalem." in answer to this command, the levites hung their harps upon the willow trees near the banks of the river, as it is written, "upon the willows in her midst had we hung up our harps." then they said, "if we had but performed the will of god and sung his praises devoutly, we should not have been delivered into thy hands. now, how can we sing before thee the prayers and hymns that belong only to the one eternal god?" as it is said, "how should we sing the song of the lord on the soil of the stranger?" then said the officers of the captors, "these men are men of death; they refuse to obey the order of the king; let them die." but forth stepped pelatya, the son of yehoyadah, and thus he addressed nebuchadnezzar:-- "behold, if a flock is delivered into the hands of a shepherd, and a wolf steals a lamb from the flock, tell me, who is responsible to the owner of the lost animal?" "surely the shepherd," replied nebuchadnezzar. "then listen to thine own words," replied pelatya. "god has given israel into thy hands; to him art thou responsible for those who are slain." the king ordered the chains to be removed from the captives, and they were not put to death. * * * * * through kamtzah and bar kamtzah was jerusalem destroyed; and thus it happened. a certain man made a feast; he was a friend of kamtzah, but bar kamtzah he hated. he sent a messenger to kamtzah with an invitation to his banquet, but this messenger making a mistake, delivered the invitation to his master's enemy, bar kamtzah. bar kamtzah accepted the invitation, and was on hand at the appointed time, but when the host saw his enemy enter his house, he ordered him to leave at once. "nay," said bar kamtzah, "now that i am here, do not so insult me as to send me forth. i will pay thee for all that i may eat and drink." "i want not thy money," returned the other, "neither do i desire thy presence; get thee gone at once." but bar kamtzah persisted. "i will pay the entire expense of thy feast," he said; "do not let me be degraded in the eyes of thy guests." the host was determined, and bar kamtzah withdrew from the banquet-room in anger. "many rabbis were present," said he in his heart, "and not one of them interfered in my behalf, therefore this insult which they saw put upon me must have pleased them." so bar kamtzah spoke treacherously of the jews unto the king, saying, "the jews have rebelled against thee." "how can i know this?" inquired the king. "send a sacrifice to their temple and it will be rejected," replied bar kamtzah. the ruler then sent a well-conditioned calf to be sacrificed for him in the temple, but through the machinations of bar kamtzah the messenger inflicted a blemish upon it, and, of course, not being fit for the sacrifice it was not accepted. through this cause was cæsar sent to capture jerusalem, and for two years he besieged the city. four wealthy citizens of jerusalem had stored up enough food to last the inhabitants a much longer time than this, but the people being anxious to fight with the romans, destroyed the storehouses and brought dire famine upon the city. a certain noble lady, miriam, the daughter of baythus, sent her servant to purchase some flour for household use. the servant found that all the flour had been sold, but there was still some meal which he might have purchased. hurrying home, however, to learn his mistress's wishes in regard to this, he discovered on his return that this too had been sold, and he could obtain nothing save some coarse barley meal. not wishing to purchase this without orders he returned home again, but when he returned to the storehouse to secure the barley meal, that was gone also. then his mistress started out herself to purchase food, but she could find nothing. suffering from the pangs of hunger she picked from the street the skin of a fig and ate it; this sickened her and she died. but previous to her death she cast all her gold and silver into the street, saying, "what use is this wealth to me when i can obtain no food for it?" thus were the words of ezekiel fulfilled:-- "their silver shall they cast into the streets." after the destruction of the storehouses, rabbi jochanan in walking through the city saw the populace boiling straw in water and drinking of the same for sustenance. "ah, woe is me for this calamity!" he exclaimed; "how can such a people strive against a mighty host?" he applied to ben batiach, his nephew, one of the chiefs of the city, for permission to leave jerusalem. but ben batiach replied, "it may not be; no living body may leave the city." "take me out then as a corpse," entreated jochanan. ben batiach assented to this, and jochanan was placed in a coffin and carried through the gates of the city; rabbi eleazer, rabbi joshua, and ben batiach acting as pall-bearers. the coffin was placed in a cave, and after they had all returned to their homes jochanan arose from the coffin and made his way to the enemy's camp. he obtained from the commander permission to establish an academy in jabna with rabbon gamliel as the principal. titus soon captured the city, killed many of the people, and sent the others into exile. he entered the temple, even in the most holy, and cut down the veil which separated it from the less sacred precincts. he seized the holy vessels, and sent them to rome. from this history of kamtzah and bar kamtzah we should learn to be careful of offending our neighbors, when in so slight a cause such great results may originate. our rabbis have said that he who causes his neighbor to blush through an insult, should be compared to the one who sheds blood. * * * * * during the terrible times which followed the fall of the holy city, hannah and her seven sons were cast into prison. according to their ages they were brought before the tyrant conqueror, and commanded to pay homage to him and his gods. "god forbid," exclaimed the eldest lad, "that i should bow to thy image. our commandments say to us, 'i am the lord thy god;' to no other will i bow." he was immediately led out to execution, and the same demand made of his brother, the second son. "my brother bowed not," he answered, "and no more will i." "wherefore not?" asked the tyrant. "because," replied the lad, "the second commandment of the decalogue tells us, 'thou shalt have no other god but me.'" his death followed immediately his brave words. "my religion teaches me, 'thou shalt worship no other god,'" said the third son, "and i welcome the fate accorded to my brothers rather than bow to thee or thy images." the same homage was demanded of the fourth son, but brave and faithful as his brethren, he replied, "'he that sacrificeth unto any god save unto the lord only,'" and was slain pitilessly. "'hear, o israel! the lord our god, the lord is one,'" exclaimed the fifth lad, yielding up his young life with the watchword of israel's hosts. "why art thou so obstinate?" was asked of the sixth brother, when he, too, was brought before the tyrant and scorned the propositions made him. "'the lord thy god is in the midst of thee, a mighty and terrible god,'" he said; and died for the principles he proclaimed. then the seventh and youngest boy was brought before the murderer of his relatives, who addressed him kindly, saying:-- "my son, come bow before my gods." and the child answered:-- "god forbid! our holy religion teaches us 'know therefore this day, and reflect in thy heart that the lord he is god, in the heavens above and on the earth beneath there is none else.' never will we exchange our god for any other, neither will he exchange us for any other nation, for as it is written, 'thou hast this day acknowledged the lord,' so is it also written, 'and the lord hath acknowledged thee this day, that thou art unto him a peculiar people!'" still the tyrant spoke smoothly, and with kind words. "thou art young," he said; "thou hast seen but little of the pleasures and joys of life, not as much as has fallen to the portion of thy brethren. do as i wish thee and thy future shall be bright and happy." "the lord will reign forever and ever," said the lad; "thy nation and thy kingdom will be destroyed; thou art here to-day, to-morrow in the grave; to-day elevated, to-morrow lowly; but the most holy one endures forever." "see," continued the other, "thy brothers lie slain before thee; their fate will be thine if thou refusest to do as i desire. see, i will cast my ring to the ground, stoop thou and pick it up; that i will consider allegiance to my gods." "thinkest thou that i fear thy threats?" returned the unterrified lad; "why should i fear a human being more than the great god, the king of kings?" "where and what is thy god?" asked the oppressor. "is there a god in the world?" "can there be a world without a creator?" replied the youth. "of thy gods 'tis said, 'mouths they have, but speak not.' of our god the psalmist says, 'by the word of the lord were the heavens made.' thy gods have 'eyes but see not,' but 'the eyes of the lord run to and fro in the whole earth!' thy gods have 'ears but hear not,' but of our god 'tis written, 'the lord hearkened and heard.' of thy gods 'tis said, 'a nose they have but smell not,' while our god 'smelled the sweet savor.' 'hands have thy gods but they touch not,' while our god says, 'my hand hath also founded the earth.' of thy gods 'tis written, 'feet they have but walk not,' while zachariah tells us of our god, 'his feet will stand that day upon the mount of olives.'" then said the cruel one:-- "if thy god hath all these attributes, why does he not deliver thee from my power?" the lad replied:-- "he delivered chananyah and his companions from the power of nebuchadnezzar, but they were righteous men, and nebuchadnezzar was a king deserving of seeing a miracle performed, but for me, alas, i am not worthy of redemption, neither art thou worthy of a demonstration of god's power." "let the lad be slain as were his brothers," commanded the tyrant. then spoke hannah, the mother of the boys:-- "give me my child," she cried, "oh, cruel king, let me fold him in my arms ere thou destroyest his innocent young life." she threw her arms around the lad, clasping him tightly to her bosom, and pressing her lips to his. "take my life," she cried; "kill me first before my child." "nay," he answered, scoffingly, "i cannot do it, for thy own laws forbid; 'whether it be ox or sheep ye shall not kill it and its young in one day.'" "oh, woe to thee," replied the mother, "thou who art so particular to regard the laws." then pressing her boy to her heart, "go, my dear one," she said, "say to abraham that my sacrifice hath exceeded his. he built one altar whereon to sacrifice isaac; thy mother hath built seven altars and sacrificed seven isaacs in one day. he was but tempted; thy mother hath performed." after the execution of her last son, hannah became insane, and threw herself from her house-top. where she fell, she expired. happy are ye, ye seven sons of hannah; your portion in the future world was waiting for you. in faithfulness ye served your god, and with her children shall your mother rejoice forever in the eternal world. * * * * * moses maimonides, one of the greatest of jewish commentators, and a descendant of rabbi judah, the compiler of the mishna, was born in the city of cordova, spain, march , . his father was somewhat advanced in life when he married, and it is said that he entered into the conjugal state through having dreamed several successive times that he was wedded to the daughter of a butcher in his neighborhood; the lady whom he did actually marry. moses was the only child of this lady, who died shortly after his birth. his father lamented her demise for about a year, and then married again, several children being the result of this second union. moses displayed no love for study in his youth; a fact which grieved his father much. all efforts to induce him to become more studious failed; his brothers called him "the butcher's boy," as a term of reproach for his dullness; and finally, in anger, his father drove him from his home. while traveling, entirely friendless, moses fell in with a learned rabbi, and admired his wisdom and knowledge so much that he resolved to study zealously and emulate such attainments. many years after this a new preacher was announced to lecture in the synagogue, at cordova, upon a designated sabbath. numerous rumors of his wonderful learning and eloquence were rife, and all were anxious to hear him. in matter, delivery, earnestness, and effect, the sermon excelled all that the people had before listened to, and to the amazement of maimonides the elder, and his sons, they recognized in the man all were eager to honor, their outcast relative. the first commentary of maimonides is upon the mishna, and it concludes with these words:-- "i, moses, the son of maymon, commenced this commentary when twenty-three years of age. i have finished it at the age of thirty in the land of egypt." maimonides fled from spain to cairo, in egypt, from fanaticism and persecution. there he studied the greek and chaldaic languages, becoming master of both after seven years' attention. his fame spread through the country. his scientific standing and his general knowledge were universally recognized, and his books were not only valued by his brethren in faith, but by all the cultured and enlightened of his day. it is said that the king of egypt appointed him as one of his staff of physicians. the enlightened men of the kingdom were divided into seven grades, each grade occupying a corresponding position near the throne of the king on state occasions. the monarch considered maimonides so much superior to the others that he made for him a special position. this, moses, a modest man, declined. the other physicians, however, were jealous of his high standing, and being unable to injure him openly, they endeavored to accomplish his ruin in a secret manner. the king was taken very sick, and maimonides attended him. taking advantage of this, the physicians put poison in the draught which moses had prepared for him, and then informed the king that the latter designed his death. to prove their words, they gave some of the mixture to a dog, and the animal died. the king was grieved and surprised, and maimonides, struck dumb with amazement, was unable to say a word. "death is the penalty for one who attempts to assassinate his ruler," said the king. "choose now the mode of thy punishment." moses asked for three days for consideration, which the king granted. during this time he prepared a certain mixture, and instructed his pupils to have it ready and apply it according to his directions, when he should be brought home senseless. he then appeared before the king, and desired to have his veins opened. the vital artery was missed, as he had anticipated, and the result was as he had foreseen. after his recovery, he fled from egypt, taking refuge in a cave, where he wrote his _yad hazakah_ (the "strong hand"), consisting of fourteen divisions, typified by the word _yad_, which also means fourteen. maimonides simplified the talmudical rules and traditions, making them clear to the comprehension of all. he was the author of an exhaustive work, entitled, _mishne torah_, the "second law," which was eagerly copied and extensively disseminated. he also wrote many philosophical treatises leveled against atheism, and designed to prove that god produced the world from naught, and at the age of fifty gave to the world his great work, _moreh nebuchim_ ("guide of the perplexed"), to which rabbi judah charizi added an appendix. maimonides died at the age of seventy years, and his remains were interred at cairo, egypt. both jews and gentiles mourned his loss. the lamentation in jerusalem was intense, a fast was declared, the synagogues were opened, and a portion of the law (levit. : to end), and the fifth chapter of samuel , were made parts of the service of the day. * * * * * during the reign of one of the bishops in metz, there lived a jew in that city, who was called rabbi amnon. he was of illustrious family, of great personal merit, rich and respected by the bishop and the people. the bishop frequently pressed him to abjure judaism and embrace christianity, but without the slightest avail. it happened, however, upon a certain day, being more closely pressed than usual, and somewhat anxious to be rid of the bishop's importunities, he said hastily, "i will consider the subject, and give thee an answer in three days." as soon as he had left the bishop's presence, however, his heart smote him, and an unquiet conscience blamed him for admitting, even in this manner, a doubt of the true faith. he reached home overwhelmed with grief; meat was set before him, but he refused to eat; and when his friends visited him and ascertained the cause of his low spirits, he refused their proffered consolation, saying, "i shall go down mourning to the grave for these words." on the third day, while he was still lamenting his imprudent concession, the bishop sent for him, but he refused to answer the call. having refused several of the bishop's messengers, they were finally ordered to seize him, and bring him by force before the prelate. "amnon," said the bishop, "why didst thou not come to me, according to thy promise, to inform me of thy decision in regard to my request?" "let me," answered amnon, "pronounce my own doom for this neglect. let my tongue, which uttered those hasty, doubting words, be cut out; a lie i uttered, for i never intended to consider the proposition." "nay," said the bishop, "i will not cut out thy tongue, but thy feet which refused to come to me, shall be cut off, and the other parts of thy obstinate body shall be also punished and tormented." under the bishop's eye and order, the toes and thumbs of rabbi amnon were then cut off, and after having been severely tortured, he was sent home in a carriage, his mangled members beside him. rabbi amnon bore all this with the greatest resignation, firmly hoping and trusting that this earthly torment would plead his pardon with god. his life after this was of course to be measured only by days. the feast of the new year came round, while he was living, and he desired to be carried to the synagogue. he was conveyed to the house of god, and during the service he requested to be allowed to utter a prayer. the words which proved to be his last were as follows:-- "i will declare the mighty holiness of this day, for it is awful and tremendous. thy kingdom is exalted thereon; thy throne is established in mercy, and upon it thou dost rest in truth. thou art the judge, who chastiseth, and from thee naught may be concealed. thou bearest witness, writest, sealest, recordest, and rememberest all things, aye, those which we imagine long buried in the past. the book of records thou openest; the great _shophar_ (cornet) is sounded; even the angels are terrified, and they cry aloud, 'the day of judgment dawns upon us,' for in judgment they, the angels, are not faultless. "all who have entered the world pass before thee. even as the shepherd causes the flock he numbers to pass under his crook, so thou, o lord, causest every living soul to pass before thee. thou numberest, thou visitest; appointing the limitations of every creature, thy judgment and thy sentence. "on the new year it is written, on the day of atonement it is sealed. aye, all thy decrees are recorded. who is to live and who to die. the names of those to meet death by fire, by water, or by the sword; through hunger, through thirst, and with the pestilence. all is recorded. those who are to have tranquillity, those who are to be disturbed. those who are to be troubled, those who are to be blessed with repose. those who are to be prosperous, those for whom affliction is in store. those who are to become rich, who poor; who exalted, who cast down; but penitence, prayer, and charity, o lord, may avert all evil decrees." when he had finished this declaration, in which he designed to acknowledge his sin and the justice of his punishment, rabbi amnon expired, dying fitly in god's house among the assembled sons of israel. fasts and festivals passover the feast of unleavened bread, or "passover," begins upon the evening of the th day of _nissan_ (april), and was instituted in commemoration of our ancestors' redemption from egypt, a memorial forever. during its continuance we are strictly forbidden the use of any leavened thing. moses said to the israelites in the name of the lord:-- "draw out and take for yourselves a lamb," etc. by the observance of this precept they would deserve well of god and he would redeem them, for when he spoke they were "naked and bare" of good deeds and meritorious acts. "draw out and take for yourselves a lamb." draw yourselves away from the idols which ye are worshiping with the egyptians, the calves and lambs of stone and metal, and with one of the same animals through which ye sin, prepare to fulfill the commandments of your god. the planet sign of the month _nissan_ is a lamb; therefore, that the egyptians might not think that through the powers of the lamb they had thrown off the yoke of slavery, god commanded his people to take a lamb and eat it. they were commanded to roast it whole and to break no bone of it, so that the egyptians might know that it was indeed a lamb which they had consumed. the lord said to moses, "tell the children of israel that they shall borrow of the egyptians gold and silver vessels," in order that it might not be afterward said, "the words 'they will make them serve, and they will afflict them,' were fulfilled: but the words 'they shall go out with great substance' did not come to pass." when moses told the israelites that they should go up out of egypt with great substance, they answered, "would that we could go even empty-handed," like to the servant confined in prison. "to-morrow," said the jailer to him, "i will release thee from prison, and give thee much money." "let me go to-day, and give me nothing," replied the prisoner. on the seventh day of the passover the children of israel passed through the red sea on dry land. a man was once traveling along the road and his son preceded him on the way. a robber appeared in the path, and the man put his son behind him. then lo, a wolf came after the lad, and his father lifted him up and carried him within his arms. the sea was before the israelites, the egyptians were behind them, so god lifted up his child and carried it within his arms. when israel suffered from the hot rays of the sun god "spread the cloud for a covering;" when they were hungry he sent them bread from heaven; and when they thirsted "he brought forth floods from a rock." pentecost the feast of weeks, or "pentecost," occurs upon the sixth day of the third month, _sivan_ (june). it is called the feast of weeks because forty-nine days, or seven weeks, duly numbered, elapse between the second day of passover, when (during the existence of the temple) a sheaf of green barley was offered, and this festival, when two loaves made of the first flour of the wheat harvest were "brought before the lord." it is also the anniversary of the delivery of the commandment from mount sinai. why does not the bible particularize in this as on other occasions, and say directly, "on the sixth day of the third month was the law given?" because in ancient times the men called "wise" placed their faith and dependence upon the planets. they divided these into seven, apportioning one to each day of the week. some nations selected for their greatest god the sun, other nations the moon, and so on, and prayed to them and worshiped them. they knew not that the planets moved and changed according to the course of nature, established by the most high, a course which he might change according to his will, and into their ignorant ideas many of the israelites had entered. therefore, as they considered the planets as seven, god made many other things depending on that number, to show that as he made them, so had he made the planets. the seventh day of the week he made the sabbath; the seventh year he made the year of rest; after seven times seven years, or after seven sabbatical years, he ordained the jubilee, or year of release. seven days he gave to the passover festival, and seven days to the feast of tabernacles. seven days was jericho surrounded, and seven priests took seven trumpets and marched round its walls seven times upon the seventh day. therefore, after numbering seven weeks during the ripening time of the grain, the israelites were to hold a holy convocation, to praise the one who can prevent all things, but who cannot be prevented; who can change all things, but is unchangeable. the first day the israelites were redeemed from slavery and superstition; the fiftieth day a law was given them for their guide through life; therefore they are commanded to number these days and remember them. the children of ishmael, says the legend, were asked to accept the law. "what does it contain?" they asked. "thou shalt not steal," was the answer. "how can we then accept it," they returned, "when thus was our forefather blessed, 'thy hand shall be against every man?'" the children of esau were asked to accept the law, and they also inquired, "what does it contain?" "thou shalt not kill," was the answer. "we cannot accept it, then," said they, "for thus did our father isaac bless us, 'by the sword shalt thou live.'" when israel was asked to accept the law, the people answered, "we will do and obey." new year, or the day of memorial on the first day of the seventh month, _tishri_ (october), is the commemoration of the creation of the world. then the cornet is blown to announce to the people that a new year has begun its course, and to warn them to examine strictly their conduct and make amends therein where amends are needed. would not any person of sense, knowing that he must appear before a court of judgment, prepare himself therefor? either in a civil or a criminal case would he not seek for counsel? how much more, then, is it incumbent upon him to prepare for a meeting with the king of kings, before whom all things are revealed. no counsel can help him in his case; repentance, devotion, charity, these are the arguments which must plead in his favor. therefore, a person should search his actions and repent his transgressions previous to the day of judgment. in the month of _elul_ (september) he should arouse himself to a consciousness of the dread justice awaiting all mankind. this is the season when the lord pardoned the israelites who had worshiped the molten calf. he commanded moses to reascend the mount for a second tablet, after he had destroyed the first. thus say the sages, "the lord said unto moses in the month _elul_, 'go up unto me on the mountain,' and moses went up and received the second tablet at the end of forty days. before he ascended he caused the trumpet to be sounded through the camp." since that time it is customary to sound the _shophar_ (cornet) in the synagogues, to give warning to the people that the day of judgment, new year, is rapidly approaching, and with it the day of atonement. therefore, propitiatory prayers are said twice every day, morning and evening, from the second day of _elul_ until the eve of the day of atonement, which period comprises the last forty days which moses passed on sinai, when god was reconciled to israel and pardoned their transgressions with the molten calf. rabbi eleazer said, "abraham and jacob were born in _tishri_, and in _tishri_ they died. on the first of _tishri_ the universe was created, and during the passover was isaac born. on the first of _tishri_ (new year), sarah, rachel, and hannah, three barren women, were visited. on the first day of _tishri_ our ancestors discontinued their rigorous labor in egypt. on the first of _tishri_ adam was created; from his existence we count our years, that is the sixth day of the creation. on that day, too, did he eat of the forbidden fruit, therefore is the season appointed for one of penitence, for the lord said to adam, 'this shall be for a sign in future generations; thy descendants shall be judged upon these days, and they shall be appointed as days of pardon and forgiveness.'" four times in the year the lord pronounces his decrees. first, new year, the first of _tishri_. then the judgments of all human beings for the coming year are ordained. second, the first day of passover. then the scarcity or fullness of the crops is determined. third, pentecost. then the lord blesses the fruit of the trees, or bids them bear not in plenty. fourth, the feast of tabernacles. then the lord determines whether the rain shall bless the earth in its due season or not. man is judged on new year's and the decree is made final on the day of atonement. rabbi nathan has said that man is judged at all times. thus taught rabbi akiba. "why does the law command the bringing of a sheaf of barley on the passover? because the passover is the season of the harvest of the grain. the lord says, 'offer for me a sheaf of barley on passover, that i may bless the grain which is in the field.' "why does the bible say, 'bring two loaves of the new wheat on pentecost?' because at pentecost time the fruit ripens, and god says, 'offer for me two loaves of the new wheat, in order that i may bless the fruit which is on the trees.' "why were we commanded to bring a drink-offering of water into the temple on the feast of tabernacles? because then is the season of rain, and the lord says, 'bring the drink-offering of water to me, in order that i may bless the rain of the year.' "why do they make the cornet which they blow of a ram's horn? in order that the lord may remember the ram which was sacrificed instead of isaac, and allow the merits of the patriarchs to weigh in favor of their descendants, as it is written in the decalogue, 'showing mercy to thousands of those who love me and keep my commandments.'" on new year's day they recite in the synagogues the record of the binding of isaac for the same purpose. while god has mercy upon his creatures he gives them a season for repentance, that they may not perish in their wickedness, therefore as it is written in lamentations : , we should "search through and investigate our ways and return unto the lord." during the year man is apt to grow callous as to his transgressions, therefore the cornet is sounded to arouse him to the consciousness of the time which is passing so rapidly away. "rouse thee from thy sleep," it says to him; "the hour of thy visitation approaches." the eternal wishes not to destroy his children, merely to arouse them to repentance and good resolves. three classes of people are arraigned for judgment: the righteous, the wicked, and the indifferent. to the righteous the lord awards a happy life; the wicked he condemns, and to the indifferent ones he grants a respite. from new year's day until the day of atonement his judgment he holds in abeyance; if they repent truly they are classed with the righteous for a happy life, and if they remain untouched, they are counted with the wicked. three sounds for the cornet are commanded in the bible. a pure sound (_t'kiah_), a sound of alarm or trembling (_t'ruah_), and, thirdly, a pure sound again (_t'kiah_). the first sound typifies man's first awakening to penitence; he must search well his heart, desert his evil ways, and purify his thoughts, as it is written, "let the wicked forsake his ways and the man of unrighteousness his thoughts, and let him return unto the lord." the alarm sound typifies the sorrow which a repentant man feels for his misconduct and his earnest determination to reform. the last sound is the pure sound again, which typifies a sincere resolve to keep the repentant heart incorrupt. the bible says to us:-- "the word is very nigh unto thee, in thy mouth and in thy heart, that thou mayest do it." this verse teaches us that repentance is nearer to those who believe in god and his book than fanatics would make it. difficult penances are ordained for the sinner among them. he must fast many days, or travel barefoot through rugged ways, or sleep in the open air. but we are not required to travel to the nether end of the ocean or to climb to mountain tops, for our holy word says to us, "it is not in heaven, neither is it beyond the sea, but the word is very nigh." in three ways may we repent:-- first, by words of mouth, finding birth in an honest heart. secondly, with our feelings, sorrow for sins committed. thirdly, by good deeds in the future. rabbi saadiah declared that god commanded us to sound the cornet on new year's day for ten reasons. first, because this day is the beginning of the creation, when god began to reign over the world, and as it is customary to sound the trumpets at the coronation of a king, we should in like manner proclaim by the sound of the cornet that the creator is our king,--as david said, "with trumpets and the sound of the cornet, shout ye before the lord." secondly, as the new year day is the first of the ten penitential days, we sound the cornet as a proclamation to admonish all to return to god and repent. if they do not so, they at least have been informed, and cannot plead ignorance. thus we find that earthly kings publish their decrees with such concomitant, that none may say, "we heard not this." thirdly, to remind us of the law given on mount sinai, where it is said, "the voice of the cornet was exceeding loud." to remind us also that we should bind ourselves anew to the performance of its precepts, as did our ancestors, when they said, "all that the lord hath said will we do and obey." fourthly, to remind us of the prophets, who were compared to watchmen blowing the trumpet of alarm, as we find in ezekiel, "whosoever heareth the sound of the cornet and taketh not warning, and the sound cometh and taketh him away, his blood shall be upon his own head; but he that taketh warning shall save his life." fifthly, to remind us of the destruction of the temple and the fearsome sound of the battle-cry of our enemies. "because thou hast heard, oh my soul, the sound of the trumpet, the alarm of war." therefore when we hear the sound of the cornet we should implore god to rebuild the temple. sixthly, to remind us of the binding of isaac, who willingly offered himself for immolation, in order to sanctify the holy name. seventhly, that when we hear the terrifying sound, we may, through dread, humble ourselves before the supreme being, for it is the nature of these martial instruments to produce a sensation of terror, as the prophet amos observes, "shall a trumpet be blown in a city, and the people not to be terrified?" eighthly, to remind us of the great and terrible day of judgment, on which the trumpet is to be sounded, as we find in zeph., "the great day of the lord is near, and hasteneth much, a day of the trumpet and of shouting." ninthly, to remind us to pray for the time when the outcasts of israel are to be gathered together, as promised in isaiah, "and it shall come to pass in that day, the great trumpet shall be sounded, and those shall come who were perishing in the land of assyria." tenthly, to remind us of the resurrection of the dead, and our firm belief therein. "yea, all ye that inhabit the world, and that dwell on the earth, when the standard is lifted upon the mountain, behold, and when the trumpet is sounded, hear!" says the prophet isaiah. therefore should we set our hearts to these seasons, and fulfill the precept that the bible commands us, as it is written:-- "and the lord commanded us to do all the statutes ... that it might be well with us at all times." the day of atonement the hearts of all who fear god should tremble with the reflection that all the deeds of the creature are known to the creator, and will be by him accounted to them for good or evil. god is ready at all times to acknowledge true penitence; and of repentance there are seven degrees: first, the righteous man, who repents his misconduct as soon as he becomes aware of his sin. this is the best and most complete. secondly, of the man who has for some time led a life of sin, yet who, in the vigor of his days, gives over his evil ways and conquers his wrong inclinations. as solomon has said, "remember thy creator in the days of thy youthful vigor." while in the prime of life abandon thy evil ways. thirdly, of the one who was prevented by some cause from the commission of a contemplated sin, and who truly repents his evil intention. "happy is the man who fears the lord," said the psalmist. the man, not the woman? aye, all mankind. the word is used to denote strength; those who repent while still in their youth. fourthly, of the one who repents when his sin is pointed out to him, and he is rebuked for the same, as in the instance of the inhabitants of nineveh. they repented not until jonah proclaimed to them, "yet forty days more, and nineveh shall be overthrown." the men of nineveh believed in god's mercy, and though the decree had been pronounced against them, yet they repented. "and god saw their work, that they had returned from their evil ways, and god bethought himself of the evil which he had spoken that he would do to them, and he did it not." therefore say the rabbis, "our brethren, neither sackcloth nor fasting will gain forgiveness for sins; but repentance of the heart and good deeds; for it is not said of the men of nineveh, 'god saw their fasting and sackcloth,' but 'god saw their work, that they had turned from their evil ways.'" fifthly, of those who repent when trouble befalls them. how much nobler is this than human nature! instance jephtah: "did ye not hate me ... and why are ye come unto me now when you are in distress?" but the infinite mercy of our god accepts even such repentance; as it is written, "when thou art in tribulation, and all these things have overtaken thee ... then wilt thou return unto the lord thy god." founded upon this is the proverb of the fathers, "repentance and good deeds form a shield against punishment." sixthly, the repentance of age. even when man grows old and feeble, if he repents truly, his atonement will be received. as the psalmist says, "thou turnest man to contrition, and sayest, 'return, ye children of men.'" meaning, man can return at any time or any age, "return, ye children of men." say the rabbis, "although a man has been righteous in his youth and vigor, yet if he rebels against the will of god in his old age, the merit of his former goodness shall be lost to him, as it is written, 'when a righteous man turns away from his righteousness and doeth wrong, and dieth therefor; through his wrong which he hath done must he die.' but a man who has been wicked in his early days, and feels true sorrow and penitence in his old age, shall not be called 'wicked' any more. this, however, is not gracious penitence when it is so long delayed." seventhly, is the last degree of penitence. of the one who is rebellious against his creator during all the days of his life; turns to him only when the hand of death is laid upon him. say the rabbis, if a person is sick, and the hour of his decease approaches, they who are by his deathbed should say to him, "confess thy sins to thy creator." they who are near the point of death should confess their shortcomings. the sick man is as the man who is before a court of justice. the latter may have advocates to defend him or laud his case, but the only advocates of the former must be penitence and good deeds. as is written in the book of job, "if there be now about him one single angel as defender, one out of a thousand, to tell for man his uprightness; then is he gracious unto him, and saith, 'release him from going down to the pit; i have found an atonement.'" thus we have seven different degrees of penitence, and he who neglects them all must suffer in the world to come. therefore fulfill the duties laid upon you; repent as long as you are able to amend. as the rabbis say, 'repent in the antechamber, that thou mayest enter the room of state.' "turn ye, turn ye from your evil ways; wherefore will ye die, o house of israel!" exclaimed the prophet ezekiel; and what does this warning mean? without repentance ye shall die. * * * * * penitence is thus illustrated by a parable:-- there was once a great ship which had been sailing for many days upon the ocean. before it reached its destination, a high wind arose, which drove it from its course; until, finally, becalmed close to a pleasant-appearing island, the anchor was dropped. there grew upon this island beautiful flowers and luscious fruits in "great profusion"; tall trees lent a pleasing, cooling shade to the place, which appeared to the ship's passengers most desirable and inviting. they divided themselves into five parties; the first party determined not to leave the ship, for said they, "a fair wind may arise, the anchor may be raised, and the ship sail on, leaving us behind; we will not risk the chance of missing our destination for the temporary pleasure which this island offers." the second party went on shore for a short time, enjoyed the perfume of the flowers, tasted of the fruit, and returned to the ship happy and refreshed, finding their places as they had left them; losing nothing, but rather gaining in health and good spirits by the recreation of their visit on shore. the third party also visited the island, but they stayed so long that the fair wind did arise, and hurrying back they just reached the ship as the sailors were lifting the anchor, and in the haste and confusion many lost their places, and were not as comfortable during the balance of their voyage as at the outset. they were wiser, however, than the fourth party; these latter stayed so long upon the island and tasted so deeply of its pleasures, that they allowed the ship's bell of warning to sound unheeded. said they, "the sails are still to be set; we may enjoy ourselves a few minutes more." again the bell sounded, and still they lingered, thinking, "the captain will not sail without us." so they remained on shore until they saw the ship moving; then in wild haste they swam after it and scrambled up the sides, but the bruises and injuries which they encountered in so doing were not healed during the remainder of the voyage. but, alas, for the fifth party. they ate and drank so deeply that they did not even hear the bell, and when the ship started they were left behind. then the wild beasts hid in the thickets made of them a prey, and they who escaped this evil, perished from the poison of surfeit. the "ship" is our good deeds, which bear us to our destination, heaven. the "island" typifies the pleasures of the world, which the first set of passengers refused to taste or look upon, but which when enjoyed temperately, as by the second party, make our lives pleasant, without causing us to neglect our duties. these pleasures must not be allowed, however, to gain too strong a hold upon our senses. true, we may return, as the third party, while there is yet time and but little bad effect, or even as the fourth party at the eleventh hour, saved, but with bruises and injuries which cannot be entirely healed; but we are in danger of becoming as the last party, spending a lifetime in the pursuit of vanity, forgetting the future, and perishing even of the poison concealed in the sweets which attracted us. who hath sorrow? who hath woe? he who leaves much wealth to his heirs, and takes with him to the grave a burden of sins. he who gathers wealth without justice. "he that gathereth riches and not by right in the midst of his days shall he leave them." to the portals of eternity his gold and his silver cannot accompany the soul of man; good deeds and trust in god must be his directing spirits. although god is merciful and pardons the sins of man against himself, he who has wronged his neighbor must gain that neighbor's forgiveness before he can claim the mercy of the lord. "this must ye do," said rabbi eleazer, "that ye may be clean from all your sins before the lord. the day of atonement may gain pardon for the sins of man against his maker, but not for those against his fellow-man, till every wrong done is satisfied." if a man is called upon to pardon his fellow, freely he must do it; else how can he dare, on the day of atonement, to ask pardon for his sins against the eternal? it is customary on this day for a man to thoroughly cleanse himself bodily and spiritually, and to array himself in white fresh clothing, to typify the words of isaiah, "though your sins should be as scarlet, they shall become white as snow." * * * * * it happened that the mayor of a city once sent his servant to the market to purchase some fish. when he reached the place of sale he found that all the fish save one had been sold, and this one a jewish tailor was about purchasing. said the mayor's servant, "i will give one gold piece for it;" said the tailor, "i will give two." the mayor's messenger then expressed his willingness to pay three gold pieces for it, but the tailor claimed the fish, and said he would not lose it though he should be obliged to pay ten gold pieces for it. the mayor's servant then returned home, and in anger related the circumstance to his master. the mayor sent for his subject, and when the latter appeared before him asked:-- "what is thy occupation?" "a tailor, sir," replied the man. "then how canst thou afford to pay so great a price for a fish, and how dare degrade my dignity by offering for it a larger sum than that offered by my servant?" "i fast to-morrow," replied the tailor, "and i wished the fish to eat to-day, that i might have strength to do so. i would not have lost it even for ten pieces of gold." "what is to-morrow more than any other day?" asked the mayor. "why art thou more than any other man?" returned the other. "because the king hath appointed me to this office." "well," replied the tailor, "the king of kings hath appointed this day to be holier than all other days, for on this day we hope that god will pardon our transgressions." "if this be the case thou wert right," answered the mayor, and the israelite departed in peace. thus if a person's intention is to obey god, nothing can hinder its accomplishment. on this day god commanded his children to fast, but they must strengthen their bodies to obey him by eating on the day before. it is a person's duty to sanctify himself, bodily and spiritually, for the approach of this great day. he should be ready to enter at any moment into the fearful presence with repentance and good deeds as his companions. a certain man had three friends. one of these he loved dearly; the second he loved also, but not as intensely as the first; but toward the third one he was quite indifferently disposed. now the king of the country sent an officer to this man, commanding his immediate appearance before the throne. greatly terrified was the man at this summons. he thought that somebody had been speaking evil of him, or probably accusing him falsely before his sovereign, and being afraid to appear unaccompanied before the royal presence, he resolved to ask one of his friends to go with him. first he naturally applied to his dearest friend, but he at once declined to go, giving no reason and no excuse for his lack of friendliness. so the man applied to his second friend, who said to him:-- "i will go with thee as far as the palace gates, but i will not enter with thee before the king." in desperation the man applied to his third friend, the one whom he had neglected, but who replied to him at once:-- "fear not; i will go with thee, and i will speak in thy defense. i will not leave thee until thou art delivered from thy trouble." the "first friend" is a man's wealth, which he must leave behind him when he dies. the "second friend" is typified by the relatives who follow him to the grave and leave him when the earth has covered his remains. the "third friend," he who entered with him into the presence of the king, is as the good deeds of a man's life, which never desert, but accompany him to plead his cause before the king of kings, who regardeth not person nor taketh bribery. thus taught rabbi eleazer:-- "on this great and tearful day the angel samal finds no blots, no sins on israel." thus he addresses the most high:-- "'o sovereign lord, upon the earth this day one nation pure and innocent exists. even as the angels is israel on this atonement day. as peace exists in heaven, so rests it now upon this people, praying to thy holy name.' "god hears this testimony of his angel, and pardon's all his people's sins." but though the almighty thus forgives our sins, we may not repeat them with impunity, for "to such a one as saith, 'i will commit a sin and repent,' there can be no forgiveness, no repentance." feast of tabernacles the feast of tabernacles begins on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, _tishri_ (october), and during its continuance, seven days, the israelites are commanded to dwell in tabernacles or booths. this is designed to keep fresh in their memory the tents with formed their homes during their forty years' sojourn in the wilderness. the symbols of the festival are branches of the palm, bound with sprigs of myrtle and willow, and a citron. the lord said, "this is not to be to you a fast as the day of atonement; eat, drink, be merry, and sacrifice peace-offerings thereon." the bible says, "seven days unto the lord"; therefore we should in all our merriment devote a few serious thoughts to him. the feast of tabernacles is held in the autumn, after the fruits of the field have been garnered in the storehouses, according to the words of the bible, "the feast of tabernacles shalt thou hold for thyself seven days when thou hast gathered in the produce of thy thresh-floor and thy wine-press." this dwelling in booths is also to bring to mind the manner in which the israelites lived for forty years after they left egypt. with merely temporary walls to protect them from summer's heat and winter's cold, from wind and storm. god was with them through all their generations, and they were protected from all evil. according to the opinion of some of the rabbis, the israelites did not really dwell in booths in the wilderness, but were surrounded by clouds--by seven clouds. four clouds, one at each of the four sides; a fifth, a shadow, to protect them from the hot rays of the sun; the sixth, a pillar of fire to give them light by night (they being able to see as clearly by night as by day); and the seventh, to precede their journeying and direct their way. the children of israel departed from egypt in _nissan_ (april), and obtained immediately these booths, which they made use of for forty years. thus they were in booths during the entire cycle of the year, and we could as easily commemorate this fact in the spring as in the fall, in the summer as in the winter. why, then, has god made autumn, and neither spring nor summer, the season of observance? because if we dwelt in booths in the summer, it would be a question whether we did so in obedience to god's behest or for our own gratification; for many people seek airy retreats during this season; but in the fall, when the trees lose their leaves, and the air grows cold and chilling, and it is the time to fix our houses for the winter, then by inhabiting these temporary residences, we display our desire to do as our creator has bidden us. the feast of tabernacles is also the feast of ingathering, when we should thank god for the kindness shown us and the treasure with which he has blessed us. when the eternal has provided man with his sustenance, in the long evenings which follow he should meditate and study his bible, and make this indeed a "feast to the lord," and not entirely for personal gratification. the four species belonging to the vegetable kingdom which we use in this festival, are designed to remind us of the four elements of nature, which work under the direction and approval of the most high, and without which all things would cease to exist. therefore the bible commands us on this "feast of the lord," to give thanks, and bring before him these four species, each typifying one of the elements. "ye shall take for yourselves the fruit of the tree _hadar_" (the citron). its color is high yellow and resembles fire. the second species is the palm branch (heb. _lulab_). the palm is a high tree, growing up straight in the air, and its fruit is sweet and delicious to the taste; this then represents the second element, air. the third is the bough of the myrtle, one of the lowliest of trees, growing close to the ground; its nature, cold and dry as earth, fits it to represent that element. the fourth is "the willow of the brook," which grows in perfection close beside the water, dropping its branches into the stream, and symbolizing thus the last element, water. the bible teaches us that for each of these four elements we owe special thanks to god. the citron we hold in the left hand, and the other three we grasp together in the right. this we do because the citron contains in itself all that the others represent. the outside skin is yellow, fire; the inside skin is white and damp, air; the pulp is watery, water; and the seeds are dry, earth. it is taken into the left hand, because the right hand is strongest, and the citron is but one, while the other emblems are three. these four emblems represent likewise the four principal members of the human body. the citron is shaped somewhat like a heart, without which we could not live, and with which man should serve his fellows; the palm branch represents the spine, which is the foundation of the human frame, in front of which the heart lies; this signifies that we should serve god with our entire body. the branches of the myrtle resemble a human eye, with which man recognizes the deeds of his fellows, and with which he may obtain a knowledge of the law. the leaves of the willow represent the lips, with which man may serve the eternal and thank him. the myrtle is mentioned in the bible before the willow, because we are able to see and know a thing before we can call its name with our lips; man is able to look into the bible before he can study the same. therefore, with these four principal parts of the human frame should we praise the creator, as david said, "all my bones shall say, o lord, who is like unto thee?" maimonides, in his work called _moreh nebuchim_ ("the guide of the perplexed"), explains that god commanded the israelites to take these four emblems during this festival to remind them that they were brought out from the wilderness, where no fruit grew, and no people lived, into a land of brooklets, waters, a land flowing with milk and honey. for this reason did god command us to hold in our hands the precious fruit of this land while singing praises to him, the one who wrought miracles in our behalf, who feeds and supports us from the productiveness of the earth. the four emblems are different in taste, appearance, and odor, even as the sons of men are different in conduct and habits. the citron is a valuable fruit; it is good for food and has a most pleasant odor. it is compared to the intelligent man, who is righteous in his conduct toward god and his fellow-man. the odor of the fruit is his good deeds; its substance is his learning, on which others may feed. this is perfect among the emblems, and is, therefore, always mentioned first, and taken by itself in one hand. the palm branch brings forth fruit, but is without odor. it is compared to those people who are learned, but who are wanting in good deeds; they who know the law, but transgress its mandates. the myrtle is compared to those people who are naturally good, who act correctly toward god and man, but who are uneducated. the willow of the brook has neither fruit nor odor; it is, therefore, compared to the people who have no knowledge and who perform no good deeds. the rabbis have said that he who has failed to participate in the keeping of the tabernacle festival in jerusalem has failed to taste real enjoyment in his life. the first day of the feast was kept with great solemnity, and the middle days with joy and gladness in various methods of public amusement. the temple in jerusalem was provided with a gallery for the women, which was called the apartment of the women, and the men sat below, as is still the custom of the synagogue. thither all repaired. the young priests filled the lamps of the large chandeliers with oil, and lighted them all, even that the place was so bright that its reflection lighted the streets of the city. hymns and praises were chanted by the pious ones, and the levites praised the lord with harps, cornets, trumpets, flutes, and other instruments of harmony. they stood upon fifteen broad steps, reaching from the lower floor to the gallery, the court of the women. and they sang fifteen psalms as they ascended, beginning with "a song of degrees," and the large choir joined voices with them. the ancient hillel was accustomed to address the assemblages on these occasions. "if god's presence dwells here," he was used to say, "then are ye here, each one of you, the souls of each; but if god should be removed from your midst through disobedience then which of you could be here?" for the lord has said "if thou wilt come to my house, then will i come to thy house, but if thou refusest to visit my dwelling, i will also neglect to enter yours;" as it is written, "in every place where i shall permit my name to be mentioned i will come unto thee and i will bless thee." then some of the people answered:-- "happy were the days of our youth, for they have not set to blush the days of our old age." these were men of piety. others answered:-- "happy is our old age, for therein have we atoned for the sins of our youth." these were repentants. then joining together, both parties said:-- "happy is the one who is free from sin; but ye who have sinned, repent, return to god, and ye will be forgiven." the festival was continued during the entire night; for when the religious exercises concluded the people gave themselves up to innocent but thorough enjoyment. this festival was also called the "festival of drawing water." because, during the existence of the temple, wine was offered during the year for a burnt-offering, but on the feast of tabernacles they offered two drink-offerings, one of wine and one of water. of the other they made a special festival on the second day of the tabernacle assemblage, calling it the feast of drawing the water. it was founded upon the words of the prophet:-- "and ye shall draw water with joy from the fountains of salvation." hannukah this festival is observed for eight days during the ninth month _kislev_ (december), and commemorates the dedication of the temple after it had been defiled by antiochus epiphanes, whose armies were overthrown by the valiant maccabees, hashmoneans. the most holy one has frequently wrought wonders in behalf of his children in their hour of need, and thereby displayed his supreme power to the nations of the world. these should prevent man from growing infidel and ascribing all happiness to the course of nature. the god who created the world from naught, may change at his will the nature which he established. when the hashmoneans gained, with the aid of god, their great victory, and restored peace and harmony to their land, their first act was to cleanse and dedicate the temple, which had been defiled, and on the twenty-fifth day of _kislev_, in obedience to the teachings of the rabbis, we inaugurate the "dedication feast" by lighting the lamps or candles prepared expressly for this occasion. the first night we light one, and then an additional one each succeeding night of its continuance. we also celebrate it by hymns of thanksgiving and hallelujahs. this feast is foreshadowed in the book of numbers. when aaron observed the offerings of the princes of each of the tribes and their great liberality, he was conscious of a feeling of regret, because he and his tribe were unable to join with them. but these words were spoken to comfort him, "aaron, thy merit is greater than theirs, for thou lightest and fixest the holy lamps." when were these words spoken? when he was charged with the blessing to be found in numbers : , as will be found in the book of maccabees in the apocrypha. the lord said unto moses, "thus say unto aaron. in the generations to come, there will be another dedication and lighting of the lamps, and through thy descendants shall the service be performed. miracles and wonders will accompany this dedication. fear not for the greatness of the princes of thy tribe; during the existence of the temple thou shalt sacrifice, but the lighting of the lamps shall be forever, and the blessing with which i have charged thee to bless the people shall also exist forever. through the destruction of the temple the sacrifices will be abolished, but the lighting of the dedication of the hashmoneans will never cease." the rabbis have ordained this celebration by lighting of lamps, to make god's miracle known to all coming generations, and it is our duty to light the same in the synagogues and in our homes. although the lord afflicted israel on account of iniquities, he still showed mercy, and allowed not a complete destruction, and to this festival do the rabbis again apply the verse in leviticus : :-- "and yet for all that, though they be in the land of their enemies, will i not cast them away, neither will i loathe them to destroy them utterly, to break my covenant with them, for i am the lord their god." and thus do the rabbis explain the same:--"will i not cast them away." in the time of the chaldeans i appointed daniel and his companions to deliver them. "neither will i loathe them." in the time of the assyrians i gave them matthias, his sons and their comrades, to serve them. "to destroy them." in the time of haman i sent mordecai and esther to rescue them. "to break my covenant with them." in the time of the romans i appointed rabbi judah and his associates to work their salvation. "for i am the eternal, your god." in the future no nation shall rule over israel, and the descendants of abraham shall be restored to their independent state. the dedication commemorated by hannukah occurred in the year -- b.c.e. purim this festival, occurring on the fourteenth day of the twelfth month, _adar_ (march), is to commemorate the deliverance of the hebrews from the wiles of haman, through the god-aided means of mordecai and esther. although the holy one threatens the israelites, in order that they may repent of their sins, he has also tempted them, in order to increase their reward. for instance, a father who loves his son, and desires him to improve his conduct, must punish him for his misdeeds, but it is a punishment induced by affection which he bestows. a certain apostate once said to rabbi saphra:-- "it is written, 'because i know you more than all the nations of the earth, therefore i visit upon you your iniquities;' how is this? if a person has a wild horse, is it likely that he would put his dearest friend upon it, that he might be thrown and hurt?" rabbi saphra answered:-- "suppose a man lends money to two persons; one of these is his friend, the other his enemy. he will allow his friend to repay him in installments, that the discharge of the debt may not prove onerous; but from his enemy he will require the amount in full. the verse you quote will apply in the same manner, 'i love you, therefore will i visit upon you your iniquities;' meaning, 'i will punish you for them as they occur, little by little, by which means you may have quittance and happiness in the world to come.'" the action of the king in delivering his signet ring to haman had more effect upon the jews than the precepts and warnings of forty-eight prophets who lectured to them early and late. they clothed themselves in sackcloth, and repented truly with tears and fasting, and god had compassion upon them and destroyed haman. although the reading of the book of esther (_megilah_) on purim is not a precept of the pentateuch, 'tis nevertheless binding upon us and our descendants. therefore the day is appointed as one of feasting and gladness, and interchange of presents, and also of gifts to the poor, that they too may rejoice. as in the decree of haman, no distinction was made between rich and poor, as all alike were doomed to destruction, it is proper that all should have equal cause to feel joyful, and therefore in all generations the poor should be liberally remembered on this day. transcriber's note: (gutenberg preparation by ge j. snoek : g.snoek @chello.nl the original printed paper book pages are marked as <xxx> right aligned, (because lots of pages are referenced: omitting page nrs troubles comfortable searching, while footnotes are marked/numbered between square [ ] hooks.) johan m. snoek the grey book a collection of protests against anti-semitism and persecution of jews issued by non-roman catholic churches and church leaders during hitlers rule introduction by uriel tal van gorcum & comp. n.v. dr. h.j. prakke & h.m.g. prakke--assen, contents introduction (by uriel tal) part i problems of evaluation factors leading to public protests results help to christians of jewish origin "mercy-baptisms" part ii historical events germany the netherlands belgium france switzerland denmark sweden hungary rumania great britain and ireland the united states international organizations of churches part iii historical events, - germany norway the netherlands france yugoslavia greece denmark slovakia rumania bulgaria hungary switzerland sweden great britain the united states the world council of churches territories in which the churches remained silent in conclusion appendix i appendix ii bibliography periodicals and reports introduction (by uriel tal) the protests of the non-roman catholic churches against the persecution and extermination of the jews during the nazi period, carefully compiled and amply documented in this volume, possess a significance that is not confined to the history of christian-jewish relations. they constitute an important chapter in the history of christianity itself in that they reveal the deeper aspects of the church's antagonism to the anti-religious and hence anti-christian character of nazi anti-semitism. the well-attested facts presented to us in this volume are a clear confirmation of the church's reputation of nazi doctrines, not only when these doctrines were directed against the jews but, first and foremost, when they threatened the very existence of the church itself, both as a system of theological doctrines and beliefs and as an historical institution. the church regarded freedom, freedom of man as well as its own, as an inalienable right rooted in the nature of man as a rational being created in god's image. hence, when the church was deprived at the right of self-determination, it felt its very existence endangered, and it was then that it recognized the full symbolic import of jewish persecution. this view was plainly set forth at the beginning of the persecution of the jews by the nazi-regime in holland, by d. j. slotemaker de bruine, protestant pastor and minister of state, who declared: "...freedom of the spirit is our life-blood. by that i mean freedom in questions of the spirit, freedom of conscience, freedom of the church, freedom of instruction, freedom of the word of god, freedom to bear witness..." [ ] <i> in the light of this statement it is obvious that the church was provoked to raise its voice in protest chiefly because the nazis appropriated the messianic structure of religion which they exploited to their own ideological and political ends. this was made clear already in the early days of the third reich by "die geistlichen mitglieder der vorlaufigen leitung der evangelischen kirche" who, in a memorandum (denkschrift) addressed to the fuehrer (may ), accuse hitler of pursuing a policy that is not only directed against the church but which is designed "to de-christianize the german people" (das deutsche volk zu entchristlichen), quoting, among other things, the words of reichsorganisationsleiter dr. robert ley: "the party lays total claim to the soul of the german people...and hence we demand the last german, whether protestant or catholic..." [ ] to those church circles that raised their voices in protest this totalitarian structure of the nazi regime presented a double threat to the very existence of the church. first, the pseudo-religious and pseudomessianic character of nazism was calculated to weaken the church from within and to mislead the christian community, especially its youth. it became increasingly clear to these circles that the nazi racial doctrine - which hitler and also the "deutsche christen" had called positive christianity in their first formulation as early as may - constituted a kind of additional gospel of messianic redemption that ostensibly strengthened christianity as an institution and as a religion of revelation. secondly, this pseudo- messianic and pseudo-religious authority that the nazi regime arrogated to itself was able by means of its repressive measures to curtail the influence of the church and even to reduce it to silence. this danger was perceived at an early date by the "bekenntnissynode der deutschen evangelischen kirche" in its botschaft (part i, par , ) adopted by the conference held in berlin- dahlem - october , which stated: <ii> "the national church that the reich's bishop has in view under the slogan: one state - one people - one church, simply means that the gospel is no longer valid for the german evangelical church and that the mission of the church is delivered to the powers of this world.... the introduction of the fuehrer principle into the church and the demand of unconditional obedience based upon this principle are contrary to the word of scripture and bind the officials of the church to the church regiment instead of to christ... [ ] towards the end of the period that is dealt with in the sources collected in this volume, in the year , we also meet with a clear expression of the church's opposition to this pseudo-religious and pseudo-messianic character of nazism in the "pastoral concerning national socialist philosophy" that was sent in holland: ... to parochial church councillors to give them the necessary basis for their opposition in the struggle against national socialist ideology, and especially against the intangible, but all the more dangerous religious ideas and expressions of national socialism which will exercise an influence even after the war." in its penetrating analysis of the totalitarian character of nazism this pastoral observes: "...it is not surprising that national socialism has the power to become the religion of the masses, and its assemblies to take the form of a kind of popular worship in which a great deal of latent religious emotion is released.... in carrying out its ministry the church must therefore make its work in this connection even more definite in character, and must tell its members very clearly and resolutely that what is at stake here is the first commandment: thou shalt have no other gods besides me...!" [ ] <iii> this pseudo-religious and pseudo-messianic character of nazism was by no means accidental or the product of mass hysteria induced by some skilful propagandists. it was rather an ideological structure that was consciously given definite patterns and developed within a conceptual system in accordance with its own laws of logic. in this development the traditional theological concepts of christianity were retained but given an altogether different meaning. values that had previously been regarded as relative in the culture of christianity and of the west now became absolute; and values that had formerly been considered absolute, being interpreted as metaphorical or visionary, became relative. phenomena with an imminent historical essence were lifted to a meta-historical plane. means were converted to ends, and ends were endowed with absolute authority in so far as they sanctified the means. in this manner the fundamental concepts of religion were not invalidated nor the integrative functions served by these concepts impaired, such as those cohesive factors that hold together the social structure and ensure its normal functioning. the nazis retained these concepts and their functions as a legitimate part of their racial theory and, after depriving them of their authentic historical content, turned them into political expedients to be used in their attack against humanism, religion and christian values. basic theological concepts such as god, redemption, sin and revelation were now used as anthropological and political concepts. god became man, but not in the theological christian sense of the incarnation of the word: "...and the word became flesh and dwelt among us..." (john . ) or in the pauline conception of the incarnation of god in christ in whom "the whole fullness of deity dwells bodily" (colossians . ). in the new conception god becomes man in a political sense as a member of the aryan race whose highest representative on earth is the fuehrer. this change in the essential meaning of the concepts god-man is, from the standpoint of cognition, effected by converting the relative into the absolute and, from the standpoint of theology, by transferring the pauline conception (ephesians . ; colossians . ) from the plane of metaphysics and eschatology to that of nationality rind politics. <iv> it was this radical change from christian doctrines to pagan myths that aroused the churches to express their protest against nazism, and also against the persecution of the jews, in the above pastoral of the year : "and there is now a return to the worship of life and power by accepting and exalting the old adam as the original and eternal man. there is an attempt at self-salvation - the old adam is not crucified with christ (rom. . ) but by his very own inmost strength achieves a new life and a heightened vitality..." [ ] similarly, the theological concepts of sin and redemption were transferred to a legal category of administrative regulations that demanded outer conformity and inner obedience. the traditional conception of sin and redemption that was common to all currents of christian thought held that man's redemption, and hence eschatological existence, depends on his faith: "the righteousness of god through faith in jesus christ... since all have sinned and... they are justified by grace... through the redemption which is in christ jesus..."(rom. . - ). in the totalitarian nazi regime the concepts sin and redemption were used as means by the state or the party to convert man into a loyal subject whose allegiance is assured by his constant fear not only of violating some concrete ordinance or governmental decree but simply of just deviating from the official ideology. the christian belief that man could be saved through faith in the forgiveness of jesus who died for his sins, "so that the sinful body might be destroyed, and we might no longer be enslaved to sin" (rom. . ), was transferred from the theological to the secular, political plane. even the comforting assurance of the believer that his sins shall be forgiven and that he shall be found worthy of the purifying influences of grace could now be gained only by the individual's complete identification with the state, the party and the superior aryan race. an instructive illustration of this shift from theology to ideology is to be found in the circular letters (rundschreiben) and in the speeches of the reichsorganisationsleiter dr. robert ley, for example in his words of . june : "strength through joy (kraft durch freude) is the embodiment of national socialism. <v> over against sin we put discipline, over against penitence pride! over against the weak and their infirmities we put strength... " [ ] this doctrine was not mere aryan propaganda; it became an integral part of school studies and was systematically inculcated into the minds of the young. the following is an example of a dictation given in to the third grade of an elementary school: "just as jesus redeemed mankind from sin and hell, so did hitler rescue the german people from destruction. jesus and hitler were persecuted; but whereas jesus was crucified, hitler rose to be chancellor... jesus worked for heaven, hitler for the german soil..." [ ] this same pattern of reversing meanings was also applied by the totalitarian nazi regime to the basic concepts of western culture. nationalism as an historical phenomenon of a people with a common language and culture and with the consciousness of a common destiny was raised to a mythical, meta-historical plane. the essence of national unity was discovered to reside in race and soil; the cultural and spiritual creations of the nation were attributed to man's biological resources. similarly, the state became an end in itself, an ideal meta-historical entity that was identical with the national spirit. [ ] this view was critically described by the dutch church as follows: "... the whole cult of national socialism finds its most powerful manifestation in a state which claims to support, lead and fill in the material and spiritual, educational, cultural and religious spheres, the whole life of its subjects. not only does the state order the life of the individual, but it takes a creative part in it. it becomes the founder of the true religion and the dispenser of the true philosophy; it furnishes the data for knowledge..." [ ] <vi> mythical nationality in the totalitarian regime thus developed a monolithic structure which functioned as the only ontological framework in which the individual may acquire his own identity, his selfknowledge and understanding. while in a different, non-totalitarian civilization man establishes his inner freedom by means of intellectual autonomy, the nazi regime made the actual biological belonging to the aryan race into the ultimate condition for the self-realization of man. hence one who could not belong to the aryan race, the prototype of whom was the jew, was doomed to be completely alienated, deprived not only of all rights, but of the very justification to exist. it was this reversal of the status of the individual which prepared the ground for subsequent developments against which the church protested, such as forced labour, the repression of independent thought, the indoctrination of the young by the state and their estrangement from their parents, teachers and preachers. an example of this tendency towards the total dehumanization of the individual, as reflected in the persecution of the jews, and that provoked the church to protest, was the decree authorizing sterilization. the stand of the church in this matter was stated in the "letter on the question of sterilization" that was sent in may by the protestant and catholic churches in holland to the officials of the reich and in which, among other things, we find the following: "...in the last few weeks the sterilization of the so-called mixed marriages has begun. but god, who created heaven and earth and whose commandments are for all men, and to whom even your excellency will have to give account one day, has said to mankind: 'be fruitful and multiply' (gen. . ). sterilization is a physical and spiritual mutilation directly at variance with god's commandment that we shall not dishonour, hate, wound or kill our neighbours. sterilization constitutes a violation of the divine commandment as well as of human rights. it is the last consequence of an anti-christian racial doctrine that destroys nations, and of a boundless self-exaltation. it represents a view of the world and of life which undermines true christian human life, rendering it ultimately impossible... [ ] <vii> the fact that the protest of the church against the persecution and annihilation of the jews was an inseparable part of its general protest against the inhuman and anti-christian character of modern anti-semitism places the documents collected in this volume in a broad historical context. these documents offer ample evidence of the church's opposition to an historical phenomenon rooted long before the nazis came to power, hence also prior to the rise of modern anti-semitism. the protest of the church was fundamentally directed against those pagan and mythological elements that had crept into christianity itself in the course of its historical development among the heathen. to many of the fathers of modern anti-semitism, which is the racial and political anti-semitism that arose towards the end of the th century and reached its highest stage during the third reich, the rejection of judaism was tantamount to the rejection of religion in general. this view goes back to feuerbach's anthropological criticism of religion, to the young hegelians (max stirner, bruno bauer) and to the early romantics who longed to return to the primitive forms of a religion called "vorchristliches germanenthum". [ ] modern anti-semitism was influenced by these streams of thought through nietzsche's concept of the 'antichrist', although nietzsche himself kept aloof from the more vulgar manifestations of political anti-semitism of his day. in him the anthropological view reaches its culmination - god, who is nothing more than the deified form of man [ ] is finally overthrown by dionysian man who found courage to assert his instinctive life and abjure the gross and enslaving notions of christianity that men <viii> are equal and can be redeemed by faith, the gospel of the downtrodden and everything that creeps on earth. [ ] these views, inimical to religion and to christianity, were already being expounded with great vigour towards the end of the th century. christian doctrine was accused of perverting man's instinctive life, vitiating his natural enthusiasm, inflaming his ego, invading his private life over which it declares its dominance only to enslave human nature, to weaken and alienate man, by imposing upon him "un-natural" restraint such as the anguish of his conscience. wilhelm marr, one of the early fathers of modem racial and political anti-semitism and the man who during the late 's coined the term 'anti-semitism'[ ] included in the rejection of judaism his critique of christianity as early as the year . in a polemical work called "der christenspiegel von anti-marr" by moritz freystadt, a member of the "society for history and theology" in leipzig, written in answer to marr's "judenspiegel", the author interprets marr's rejection of judaism as a rejection of monotheism, based on his anthropological view of god as a subjective product of our conscious life - an antireligious analysis marr evidently borrowed from voltaire, feuerbach and bruno bauer. [ ] with marr's intensification of anti-jewish propaganda inspired by the new racial anti-semitism we find increased criticism of christianity both as a system of beliefs and as an institution. in one of his popular books "religioese streifzuege eines philosophischen touristen" ( ) marr, relying on theories propounded by voltaire and feuerbach, observes that from the atheistic point of view it is evident: <ix> "that christianity, in its dogmas and precepts, is like every religion, a malady of human consciousness. the philosopher explains... every religion as a product of man's conscious life and relegates to the sphere of phantasm the so-called 'revelations' of which all people boast depending on the state of their culture..." [ ] most additional factors in the rejection of judaism, marr continues, go beyond the attack directed against christianity as a system of beliefs and superstitions that demoralizes man and corrupts his nature. anti-semitism is not only called to combat religion and christianity; its chief aim is to save the german nation and the whole world from jewish domination and from the moral depredation of the jewish race. christianity is not yet fully cognizant of the gravity of the problem, and it deceives itself when it thinks that baptism or conversion is a gratuitous deliverance from native corruption, for the jew's aberrations are not religious but biological and hence incorrigible. the jewish question, marr concludes, is a racial question for the infidelity of the jew is essentially biological, and hence christianity is in no position to save the world from the perils of the semitic-jewish race. [ ] <x> we here encounter a primary distinction between the doctrines of racial anti-semitism and those of the christian heilsgeschichte, a contradiction that awoke the church to the dangers of nazism when, in , it opposed the "arierparagraph". this racial law rejected the notion that the jews could still hope for redemption, and for a renewed status of election, assured them in the new testament (rom. - ) on condition that they acknowledge their error and accept the redeeming truth of christianity. even in the early years of racial anti-semitism, in the seventies and eighties of the last century, we already find this inner contradiction between a racial theory that regards jews as the ontological embodiment of an ineradicable evil and the views of the heilgeschichte that believes this evil to be remedial if only the jews could be persuaded that salvation comes from the savior who was sent first of all to the jews themselves, and who atoned for the sins of all mankind. it is this inner tension between the recalcitrance of the jew and the incorrigibility of judaism that refuses to acknowledge jesus as the messiah, already conspicuous in the change that took place in luther's attitude to the jews between and , which charactarizes the theological and political attitude of adolf stoecker, court preacher in the bismarck era and one of the leading figures of modern anti-semitism. until recently historians concentrated much on his importance in preparing the ground for racial and political anti-semitism. it is true that without his powerful influence during the last decades of the th century the rise of modern political anti-semitism would be incomprehensible. a more balanced approach has been taken lately, as may be seen in the instructive study by walter holsten on the part played by stoecker in the rise of modern anti-semitism. the author shows that many phases of stoecker's anti-semitism had their roots in the conservative tradition of lutheranism and at the same time were opposed to the anti-christian tendencies of racial anti-semitism. [ ] <xi> the early phases of stoecker's activity already reveal the ambivalent nature of his attitude to the jews and to judaism, an ambivalency that characterized the anti-christian elements in antisemitic "christian" ideology throughout the days of the third reich. in his speeches after the political defeat of his christian social labor party in the summer of , stoecker insisted on making a distinction between the anti-jewish attitude that arises in conjunction with or flows from christianity and the antisemitic attitude which at the same time also impugns christian ethics. in his well-known antisemitic speech as early as . . stoecker warns his listeners: "we can already detect here and there a hatred directed against the jews that is contrary to the gospels". [ ] even in his most violent speeches against the jews stoecker did not draw the extreme biological consequences of his racial theories and continued to maintain that conversion was the only authentic solution to the jewish question that would complete the universal mission of christianity and that only baptism could save the jews from their ignominious belief in the validity of the halacha after the coming of jesus. the salvation promised to the jew then is to be saved from his judaism. the final redemption, however, will not raise the jews above the nations of the world, as promised in the old testament, but this position of eminence and election will pass, or actually has already passed, from the jews not just to the christians but to christian germany. the redemption promised to the jews is thus to be attained by way of the baptismal font at the entrance to the church: <xii> "all israel will be saved when the fullness of the heathen shall have come to an end. this was paul's promise to his beloved people - final salvation and not a future glory that will raise israel above the other nations as proclaimed in the old testament... and every believing christian knows well what a rejoicing there will be in the kingdom of god when the people of the old testament finally acknowledge their sin against christ and repent. this event will be hailed by all christendom and by the angelic hosts with paeans of praise, and it will be turned by the church in the end of days into glory and renown when israel will bring to it its uncommon religious talents and intellectual gifts..." [ ] the inner tension between the theological view that sees the solution of the jewish question in the liquidation of judaism and the racial view that sees it in the liquidation of the jews is clearly expressed in an address delivered by stoecker on . . about the danger to the german reich from jews in public life, in which he states: "we regard the jewish question not as a religious nor indeed as a racial question. although it is at bottom both of these, it appears in its external form as a social-ethical question, and is treated by us as such. no people can tolerate the preponderance of an alien spirit without degenerating and being destroyed? we would not solve the jewish question radically by force, but gradually in a spirit of peace and amity... we must keep the wounds open until they are healed..." [ ] although stoecker himself was opposed to the use of force, modern political anti-semitism, which was to no small degree influenced by him, did not shrink from advocating violence in its hostility to judaism, to religion and finally to christianity. a significant contribution in this direction was made by the darwinian racial doctrines of eugen duehring and his antisemitic disciples. whereas marr had formulated the anti-religious meaning of modern anti-semitism in ominous terms of the jewish domination of europe and especially germany, dühring adopted a so-called constructive approach by suggesting an alternative to religion and religious culture, namely, race. in his antisemitic writings after judaism serves as the prototype of religion in general, including christianity. <xiii> the primary aim of this anti-christian anti-semitism was for duehring the struggle against jews and judaism, and this also entailed the struggle against the monotheistic religions and all forces that suppressed what he called "the instinct of the free, natural life." in his anti-religious book "wert des lebens" ( ), and especially in the third edition issued four years later, he points out that christianity as a monotheistic religion is opposed to life and that all religious systems are nothing but pathological maladies (ein stueck weltgeschichtliche krankheitslehre des geistes). christianity is thus not interested "in ennobling man, but rather in suppressing his natural instincts" as is evident, for example, in the "paradox christian doctrine" of the crucifixion of the flesh. [ ] hence, it is absurd and hopeless to conduct the struggle against the jews with christian theological concepts borrowed from judaism, and those christians who attach importance to this only deceive themselves for it is plain that: "...their anti-semitism lacks the primary truth, namely, that christianity itself is semitism, a truth... that must serve as the terminus a quo for all genuine anti-hebraism..." [ ] as long as the christians fail to disavow their jewish source and their jewishness they themselves will be tainted by its anti-natural influence. but since christianity is inextricably bound to its jewish origins, and even the new testament is nothing but "a racially jewish tradition" (eine rassenjuedische ueberlieferung), the only hope for struggling humanity is to throw off once for all this humiliating yoke, meaning the religious heritage of jews and christians alike. the liberation from the jewish-christian heritage, on the one hand, and the strengthening of the nordic german race on the other cannot be achieved through the process of education or civilization but only by means of racial purity which will cleanse man of religious depravities and restore the vital sources of his instinctive life. christianity is inadequate for this struggle since it is itself ineradicably debased by its complicity with judaism: <xiv> "those who would cling to christian tradition are in no position to combat judaism effectively. ...an understanding christian cannot be a serious antisemite... the nordic gods are rooted in nature itself, and no millennial diversion can eradicate them... we here see a vivid phantasy in operation that is incomparably loftier than the jewish slave-imagination..." [ ] this basic thesis that racial anti-semitism must also be directed against christianity continued to be elaborated from the end of the th century onwards by theodor fritsch as well as in a number of journals: the antisemititche correspondenz, which in became the official organ of the d.a.p. under the name of deutsche-soziale blaetter, the antisemiten-katechismus which was later called handbuch zur judenfrage and, in the early years of the present century, the influential journal hammer. the general tendency of this movement was directed against christianity as an ecclesiastical institution, sometimes chiefly against the catholic church which was suspected of "ultramontanist" sympathies for a foreign ecclesiastical power. christianity was also opposed as a system of beliefs and practices that tended to debilitate the german aryan race in its struggle for existence. finally, christianity was opposed because of its jewish origins which deteriorate the whole human race by elevating spirit over body, rational thought over the wisdom of the senses, abstract ideas over direct and spontaneous experience, and the discursive intellect over the vital emotions. in the course of this debate the antisemitic movement displayed a readiness to reconcile itself to the continued existence of christianity on condition that it subsitute the biological values of the aryan race for its jewish origins, as was recommended by the idealogues who made jesus a member of the aryan race - julius langbehn, max bewer, houston stewart chamberlain, leopold werner, and the german christians in the days of the third reich. [ ] <xv> we find the same line of thought pursued by the followers of duehring, such as prof. paul foerster, as well as in those circles connected with the antisemitic journals, such as heimdall, freideutschland, staatsburger zeitung, also some of the functionaries connected with the imperialist der alldeutscher verband, such as friedrich lange, the author of the anti-christian reines deutschtum ( ), and numerous writers, historians, orientalists, scientists and students influenced by anthropology, materialism and darwinism. a popular exposition that reveals the national and romantic roots of this ideology appeared in the hammer (oct. ), and reads in part as follows: "what shall we do with a christ whose kingdom is not of this world? a bluecher, a gneisenau, a koerner, an arndt can always be useful for germany, but not a christ. the god who was called upon at leuthen, leipzig and sedan was not the god of love, nor the god of abraham. christ comforts the lowly, the weak and the sick. we too are sorry for these poor folk and try to alleviate their condition; but they are of no use to us and to our future. they only degrade that which we deem to be the highest good - the german character. strength, health, the joy of life are what we need. the kingdom of heaven can be left to the lowly and the wretched, as long as we possess the earth. give the bible to the sick and the lonely, the shut-ins and the scholars who wear their faces on their backs!..." [ ] similarly, the antisemitic propagandist, dr. ernst wachler, writes in the same journal (jan. ): "away with the stones and tales, the doctrines and precepts of jews as well as of christians!... not only the free-thinkers, but our basic aryan instincts demand: the church with all its trappings must be done away with..." [ ] <xvi + (whole page xvii is footnote)> the available historical sources, including the documents collected in this volume, clearly indicate that the protests of the church against the persecution of the jews, with its human and ethical concern for their fate, were an inseparable part of a more comprehensive opposition directed against the pseudo-messianic and hence anti-christian character of nazism. seen in this context, the protest of the church gives rise to a number of historical and theological questions that require further study. the questions that arise fall into three groups. a. to what extent did the secularizing tendencies of the last century, the rationalistic attacks on religion, the romantic philosophies, pagan mythology, darwinism and the anthropological critique of religion, contribute to the anti-christian character of modern anti-semitism? how did the process of secularization influence the teachings and art of richard wagner, the christian mythology of houston st. chamberlain, julius langbehn, ernst bergmann and the movement of the "german christians", or the "mythus" of alfred rosenberg? can modem historiography support the psychoanalytical freudian explanation of anti-christian anti-semitism in terms of a revival of vestigial pagan elements which were latent in christianity itself, and which consequently revolted against the ethical judaic basis of christianity and against the jews who were now made responsible for all that disturbed the christian conscience? from the vast literature that has grown up around these problems [ ] we see that side by side with the all-pervasive secularization of life there were also historical and theological factors embedded in christianity which later turned against christianity itself. through further study, we might find in the history of christianity traditions <xviii> that originated in the barbarism of the pagan world, turned anti-christian by that very paganism, then continued as anti-jewish attitudes and policies on the part of the christian world - and finally culminating dialectically into a destructive force that was directed not only against judaism, but through judaism against humanity and hence also against christianity. one of these powerful anti-jewish elements which rooted in christianity, and after having been secularized became an effective means used by totalitarianism against the jews as well as against the jews as the symbol of non-conformism, as the embodiment of the human quest for a free existence, for the right to be different and yet to be, is the very concept of collective guilt. its origin is the idea of guilt for the crucifixion of god who took on flesh (matt. . ; i thess. . ), a guilt which lies as a heavy yoke on the shoulders of all the jews till the end of the days. it was applied to social life by various church synods (such as elvira in , clermont in , orleans in , the lateran councils of and ) with their succession of repressive measures and harassments directed against the jews. it culminated under the influence of blood libels in the late middle ages (andreas of ryn p. , simon of trient ) [ ], and in modern times (tisza-esslar, korfu, xanten, polna, konitz) - down to the days of the third reich. by using the very pattern of a collective guilt, the christian projected on to the jew the frailties common to all human beings. this mechanism enabled the christian to see his own weakness reflected in the jew so that by persecuting the jew, moreover by exterminating him, the christian could obliterate his own image as a sinner, and cleanse his conscience from the burden of guilt. these patterns of thought and conduct, these models of generalization, projection and prejudice that originally were established by christianity with respect to the jews - to what extent were they now employed by the nazi regime against humanity, as well as against the church itself whenever the racial antisemites attacked its ethical judaic basis? <xix> b. the second group of questions concerns the problems as to whether the survival of the jews on the one hand, and their ultimate christianization on the other, are both indispensable to christianity. since the promise made to the jews in the old testament (gen. . ; ii sam. . ; isaiah . ), will be fulfilled or perhaps superseded by those of the new testament (rom. - ) when the jews return in penitence and acknowledge jesus as the messiah, it seems that the christian concern for the fate of the jews, even in the days of the holocaust, is unavoidably accompanied by an interest in his salvation. alas, his salvation is conceived by the christian in terms that are unacceptable for the jew as long as he wishes to adhere to judaism as a religion, a people and an unfulfilled eschatology. as we study the documents before us in their total historical context including parts not directly relevant to the very protest and therefore not printed in this volume, we are impressed with the following fact; while the church raised its voice against the persecution of the jews out of human motives, as well as in the hope of thereby strengthening its own members, the traditional, dogmatic concept of the jew continued to be dominant. according to this view the persecution of the jews constitutes an error, not only for reasons of humanity, but mainly because persecution prevents the jew from seeking redemption among his persecutors. it prevents the jew from turning to jesus as the messiah and from seeking in the new testament that salvation which not only is promised him, but without which christianity itself is doomed to remain unfulfilled. from the theological point of view regarding the right of judaism to exist, the church in its protest against the nazis reverted to the original attitude of luther, as expressed in "das jesus christus eyn geborener jude sey" of . when luther protested against the anti-jewish policy of the church, claiming that the church treated the jews "als waren es hunde", and that under such circumstances he himself would: "...ehe eyn saw geworden denn eyn christe", this very protest was also not based on an acknowledgment of the right of judaism to exist as an independent, autonomous religion. the motive that inspired this protest was the hope that christianity would mitigate the persecution of the jews and apply to them instead the christian commandment of love and tolerance, as written by luther: <xx> "...ob etliche halsstarrig sind was ligt daran? sind wyr doch auch nicht alle gute christen...". in that case, and only in that case, christians might be hopeful that the jews would return in penitence and believe in the salvation brought to them by their own messiah. against this historical background [ ] it seems that even during the holocaust, christianity continued to identify the jew not in his own, authentic, terms, but according to the classical traditions. the jew is one who persists in the impenitent rejection of christ, but must be saved, for it is the jew who has to complete the eschatological process of the heilsgeschichte. therefore jews, and especially converts, have to be rescued from racial discrimination. moreover, since judaism continues to be an integral part of christianity, the very notion of the jews as a race can have no basis whatsoever in christian theology. [ ] this has been stated as early as september by the theological faculty of the university of marburg in its statement against the "arierparagraph". similar statements were issued by theologians such as rudolf bultmann and the members of the bekenntnis der vaeter und die bekennende gemeinde (betheler bekenntnis), [ ]. thus, even at the height of nazi persecution and in times of the extermination of the jews, the church would not acknowledge judaism as a religion in its own right and on its own terms, but insisted that a jew who became a christian was merely fulfilling his predestined role; such a jew did not leave his faith, he returned to his true faith. it is most symptomatic and instructive to note that in the controversy between heinrich vogel, one of the leaders in the protests against the persecution of jews and the author of the " theses of protest" (march ) and friedrich gebhart, a spokesman of the "german christians" and the author of the "reply to the theses" (may ), <xxi> both sides, despite their theological and political contradictions adhere to the same traditional christian view that the jews are in a state of rejection (verwerfung). one view holds that the jew can abrogate his old covenant with jehovah and step over to the side of the redeemer; the other holds that the derelict jew is beyond salvation and the redeeming influences of the church, that ueberzeuging cannot overcome zeugung, that the vollendung of judaism in christ should be turned into the endloesung of jewish existence. both, however, despite the far reaching differences and contradictions between them, deny the jew the right to live on his own terms and according to his own autonomy. this approach to the jewish question on the part of those who protested against the persecution of the jews was not confined to the bekennende kirche in germany. even the dutch church, in the early forties, did not deviate from its theological tradition. a typical illustration is to be found in the pastoral letter written by the general synod of the dutch reformed church (sept. ), a document that will go down in history as a striking witness to spiritual integrity and moral courage. although the letter emphasizes the fact that the new testament is dependent on the old testament (deut. , - ; mark , - ) and that the love of one's fellowman also applies to the treatment of the jew (lev. , ; matt. , ), it defines judaism as a religion that is destined to disappear by being redeemed through and in christianity. again, this is in keeping with christian tradition which holds that the metaphysical status of election and the promise of eschatological salvation as given to the jews in the old testament are fulfilled in jesus who is "...the fulfilment of all god's promises to israel, the true king of this nation sent by god..." [ ] hence, the document continues, having rejected jesus as the redeemer, the jews are still sunk in sin: "...israel did not recognize him, but rejected him... in this way they hardened their hearts against the grace of god... they are no longer israel in the original sense of the lord, they are 'jews' now. a jew is a man of israel who rejects jesus christ, and thus is to us a sign of human hostility to the gospel..." [ ] the church that protested jewish persecution by the nazis with such courage and religious conviction still finds it indispensable to advocate conversion as the only solution to the problem of jewish stubborn existence, an existence which equals infidelity: <xxii> "...the true destiny of the jewish people lies in its conversion to christ, by joining the christian church. the jew remains a jew in the bitter sense which this word has for him first and foremost; the jew cannot free himself from himself, as long as he does not come to christ..." [ ] are there any pronouncements of the church that offer a christian-jewish relationship other than that of conversion? [ ] is there a possibility that the church may acknowledge the inherent right of self-determination for the jew, so that he could retain his identity and not seek to "free himself from himself?" this "bitter sense" of the jew the church spoke about even when protesting against nazism, is it indigenous to judaism or rather the result of the social and political conditions in a christian world? similar questions arise when we read the documents in appendix i which do not deal with the period of the third reich but with the period after the second world war. in these documents we find a number of explicit statements by eminent christian theologians condemning anti-semitism. but even here we find no acknowledgment of the right of judaism to exist on its own terms. nor do we find such acknowledgment in the special declaration of a group of theologians, during the second assembly of the world council of churches which convened in evanston in , entitled "hope of israel" [ ]. in this declaration a systematic attempt is made to renew relations with <xxiii> judaism since"... to be a member of the christian church is to be involved with the jews... and the people of the new covenant cannot be separated from the people of the old covenant..." [ ] jews, however, are still regarded as candidates for salvation on christian terms, so that even in this enlightened document - a document which was composed years after the wholesale extermination of the jews by the nazis - theologians find no other solution but "...to hope for the conversion of the jewish people..." [ ]. moreover, when these circles in the church desire for reasons of conscience and remorse to express "...the grievous guilt of the christian people towards the jews throughout the history of the church...", they find no better way to express their deep sorrow than to revert to the "findings of the pre-evanston conference of the american committee on the christian approach to the jews" (lake geneva, wisconsin, august - , ) which states that '... the church cannot rest until the title of christ to the kingdom is recognized by his own people according to the flesh...'" [ ]. another typical example of this attitude is the proclamation of the joint committee of the world council of churches and the international missionary council, after its consultation at the ecumenical institute, bossey, sept. - , . an attempt was made to elevate the missionary activities of the church, to seek the salvation of the jews by the power of the spirit only: "...our hope for the jews does not mean that we can calculate the time or define the nature of the coming of christ in his kingdom... we may find a further warning against too precise speculation with regard to the second coming of christ..." (ch. iii, par. c, d.). [ ] in conclusion, however, the joint committee could not help adding a declaration which for the jew makes any authentic dialogue meaningless if not impossible: "... the jewish people will not find their true destiny until they return and acknowledge jesus as christ and lord" (cf. chap. iv, ) [ ]. <xxiv> c. the third group of questions that arise from reading the documents and require careful study, deal with the actual situation as it existed during the nazi regime. were the protests of the church effective, in rescuing jews and then in strengthening the spirit of resistance, or even the religious feelings among christians? were the protests raised at the right time and under the proper circumstances, to mitigate the persecution or to postpone the annihilation of the jews? was the protest the most useful means of rescuing jews, or would it have been more helpful for the church to keep quiet so that it could devote itself more to actual underground activities - but, then, could the church keep quiet? was the church, in its protest, ready to endanger its members as well as their relatives for the sake of an effective anti-nazi struggle, or did the protest function as a catharsis, relieving the members of the church from the burden of moral responsibility towards the persecuted? did the protests create a new, perhaps even a revolutionary non-conformist stand of the church over against political power? how was the protest of the church related to the concept of obedience to the existing regime, as expressed in paul's letter to the romans ch. , and in luther's "von weltlicher obrigkeit wie weit man ihr gehorsam schuldig ist" ? finally, what was the reaction of the jews who were persecuted, and especially of those jews who lived in free countries and who might have been expected to exert themselves to save their brethren? did they endanger their personal safety to rescue their fellow-jews and display a deeper sense of responsibility towards them than the church? this collection of sources, by concentrating on only one aspect of the entire interrelationship between christianity and judaism during the period of the holocaust may confuse the reader in thinking that the protest was the prime characteristic and policy of the church regarding anti-semitism, the persecution of the jews and their extermination. the author of this book, the rev. johan m. snoek, is correct in bringing to our attention that the protest must be viewed as one and only one aspect of the position of the church and of the christian world as a whole during the nazi regime. a collection of sources on the protest of the church does not preclude the fact that there existed other positions among christians; the position of cooperation with antisemites, whether it was active or passive, direct or indirect, with knowledge of without, whether voluntary or <xxv> through coercion. this volume does not attempt to research the entire and definite historical and theological position of the church during the holocaust. its purpose is to bring light upon one aspect, which until now has not been sufficiently investigated. by having gathered these documents, and by having placed them before us in their historical and geo-political order, a major contribution has been made towards a more balanced and varied understanding of this period. uriel tal the hebrew university, jerusalem <xxvi> preface much has been published as to whether the pope remained silent during the persecution of the jews in europe, primarily as a reaction to rolf hochhuth's play "the representative" (der stellvertreter in german or in dutch "plaatsbekleder"). not so much, however, has been published about the attitude of the non-roman catholic churches. when there is a vacuum in our knowledge, it is an excellent breeding place for myths. we should fill a gap therefore as well as possible. there exist certain myths, which die hard. many people still believe that it was richard iii who murdered the princes in the tower, though this has been shown to be false. the dutch people for instance did not behave as courageously during the second world war as is generally believed, but the myth seems to be firmly established; just as is the story that the king of denmark walked through the streets of copenhagen wearing the yellow badge in protest against the german measures concerning the jews. one should not lightly dismiss the existence of such historical untruths on the assumption that there is always a grain of truth in every myth. sometimes a myth is completely false, as in the case of murdered princes. moreover, this type of myth is sometimes very harmful. we need only remind ourselves of the infamous ritual-murder myth, suggesting that the jews used the blood of a christian child for ritual purposes. < > it is undeniable that throughout the ages many christians took an active part in the persecution of jews. [ ] this fact has been officially and repeatedly admitted by christian bodies. some of the statements in this documentation unequivocally plead guilty in this respect. small wonder, then, that many christians, as well as jews, honestly believe that "there was a complete and terrible silence on the part of the church" [ ]. in the process of creation of anti-jewish myths, there is a tendency to generalize: "the jews have ..." we like to think in general terms because stereotypes are so easy, whilst it costs us much more mental effort to discriminate. let us not commit the same offence against logic as the anti-semites have and let us remember that it is just as fallacious to talk about "the churches" as about "the jews". it is important for many reasons not to overrate the positive things the churches did and said. it is also important, again for many reasons, not to belittle them. we certainly must denounce acts of anti-semitism, even when outstanding leaders of the church were the perpetrators, but this remains a negative. we must also mention the positive, which is more encouraging. i believe this is one of the underlying intentions of "yad vashem's" competent department in trying to seek out and honour the "righteous of all nations": non-jews who helped jews at the risk of their own lives. [ ] it seems far too early to come to a definite evaluation of many aspects of the holocaust. far be it from me, to claim that i can say the last word about that one aspect under discussion here: the attitude < > of the non-roman catholic churches. i can and must try to be objective, but i cannot be detached, as probably none of our generation can: we were all involved, in one way or another. [ ] but i am convinced that our generation can and must do the groundwork. it must collect the material that may otherwise be completely lost or forgotten, and investigate it before even more people, who were personally involved, have passed away. collecting these documents was like trying to make a jigsaw puzzle from which many pieces are missing, the difference being that in this case one often does not even know that something is missing. however, the lack of other pieces is known. [ ] as regards my own country (the netherlands), i am fairly sure that the collection of documents is well-nigh complete. some statements issued by churches were published in bulgarian or slovak, etc., but not in english. even such documents as were available in english were not generally known. most of the material in this book had to be translated from hebrew, french, german, dutch, norwegian, swedish, danish, slovak, hungarian, bulgarian or greek. initially, i sent a circular letter to the heads of churches in eastern europe asking for information and i received some replies, though not many. some replies stated that no documents were available because everything had been destroyed during the war. this seems quite possible, and perhaps we must give the churches in question the benefit of the doubt. moreover, it was not advisable, for security reasons, to keep certain documents. thus, for instance, all documents of the world council of churches and its preceding organizations, which might incriminate christian leaders in germany, were destroyed when, in , it was feared that germany would invade switzerland. [ ] < > yet, some churches, which probably could have sent material, and which in some cases as, for example, the churches in bulgaria and greece, had a good record of resistance against anti-semitism, failed to do so. it would appear that church archives are sometimes the safest place in the world for documents not to be found. the library and archives of "yad vashem", in jerusalem, had much material. i was also able to spend some days in the wiener library, in london, and in the library of the world council of churches, at geneva. i could never have succeeded in finding the material and having it translated without the help of many interested friends, jews as well as christians, to whom i am deeply indebted. it would be difficult to mention all their names, but i should like at least to express here my indebtedness to the late director of "yad vashem", dr. arjeh leon kubovy, of blessed memory; and to dr. shaul esh, of blessed memory, who made valuable suggestions for the chapters on germany. i am also especially indebted to dr. j. robinson, of new york, and prof. dr. c. augustijn, of amsterdam, who read the manuscript and suggested many improvements. of course the responsibility for any eventual mistakes solely rests on me. i am deeply grateful for all the kind help rendered to me by the chief librarian of "yad vashem", miss ora alcalay, and her assistants. most of the chapters in part iii (during the war) have some particulars about anti-semitic measures taken by the germans: i wanted to give some historical background for the statements issued by churches. for the background of statements issued in the different countries before the second world war, the historical survey and the chapter on germany in part ii should be consulted. one can never have too much knowledge of the situation and background in the countries concerned, if one is to see facts clearly in their historical context and interpret them correctly. thus, more publications are mentioned in the notes for further study. some figures concerning the membership of churches are given in appendix ii, though they are of limited value. many territorial changes took place in central and eastern europe. some churches count as members all who were baptized, whether they ever attended services or not; others count < > "communicants"; the baptists do not count the children. but one will at least acquire a conception of the numerical strength of a certain church. an investigation into the question whether the non-roman catholic churches kept silent, must necessarily have certain limitations. firstly, no statement issued by a church under the authority of the pope are recorded in this book, with the exception, of course, of joint statements issued by protestants and roman catholics, as was the case in the netherlands. thus i have recorded nothing from the polish greek catholic metropolitan sheptitsky, or from the maronite patriarch of syria, mgr. arida. [ ] secondly, this investigation is not concerned with the acts of individual christians, unless they were leaders of the church and clearly spoke in the name of their church. [ ] thirdly, i have not recorded the contents of protests issued solely against the treatment of christians of jewish origin. it was certainly the duty of the churches to do all in their power to protect those christians, but this is not my subject. i am interested in what manner the churches acted or failed to act on behalf of the jews in general. this book is first of all an attempt to draw up an inventory, rather than to draw up the balance-sheet. however, the fact that i have often had the privilege of lecturing on the subject to jewish, christian or mixed audiences, always followed by brisk discussion, encourages me to feel that i have correctly understood some of the problems and questions which arise. the introduction arrived only just in time to be printed. i am particularly grateful to dr. uriel tal for his penetrating comment and questions. it stands to reason that our views need not agree in every detail, but < > christians should know that such questions as are raised in the introduction are asked by many jews. it is of the utmost importance for jewish-christian relations to discuss them as frankly as dr. tal did. < > i general considerations problems of evaluation commentators on the attitude of the churches in certain lands frequently contradict one another. some christians, such as rev. niemoeller [ ] and rev. buskes [ ] for instance, pass a severe verdict on the churches and include themselves also. it seems to me that at least one jewish commentator gives too positive a picture about the attitude of the population in his country, greece.[ ] he may, consciously or unconsciously, have tried not to embarrass the people amongst whom he still lived when he wrote his book. but also the opinion of a christian that "the hundreds of thousands of jews that escaped the doom decreed for them owed their survival more to the rescue activities of individuals and private groups, above all the churches, than to governmental resistance policy" [ ], seems to me too favourable. it must be difficult for jews who know of anti-semitic actions perpetrated by church leaders throughout the centuries, and who personally suffered and lost their relatives in the holocaust, to believe that not merely a few "righteous of all nations" but also churches publicly and unequivocally spoke out against hitler's murderous anti-semitism. on the other hand, christians are in danger of trying to whitewash the church and ignoring the many instances when the church failed. we all tend to forget our failures and to remember our victories. some commentators tend to forget how the actual situation was in those days. indeed, it is difficult even for people who themselves lived through it, to project themselves back into the time when hitler seemed all-powerful. moreover, we now have the benefit of living after the events, and thus we know many facts, which were not generally known in those days. < > it seems unbelievable now, but in the summer of , when some people somewhere in the netherlands formed a resistance group, their leader stated that the british would not liberate us before christmas , and everybody present felt sorely disappointed. this kind of unwarranted optimism was fostered by many people throughout the war, and thus they underestimated the danger to the jews and believed that, if german action against them could be delayed by some kind of compromise, much, and perhaps all, would be won. many people in occupied europe, in great britain and in the united states thought, that the information about the gas-chambers was "atrocity propaganda". the president of the federal council of churches of christ in the u.s.a. stated, on may , : "what is happening to the jews on the continent of europe is so horrible that we are in danger of assuming that it is exaggerated" [ ]. we quote the following from "unity in dispersion": "the undertaking was so staggering that, until the revelation about the maidanek camp, a majority of the people in the united states as well as in england dismissed the facts of extermination as 'atrocity mongering'... it should be conceded, as extenuating circumstances, that never before in history had states descended to such depths of bad faith, deceit, and treachery as did germany and some of her satellites in their resolve to murder. in , tens of thousands of polish jews volunteered for cunningly disguised 'resettlement' and agricultural work in the territories recently conquered by the germans in the east, and thus entered of their own accord on a road at the end of which destruction awaited them." [ ] the germans tried to deceive the victims about their aims as well as the people amongst whom these victims lived, and they succeeded in this to a considerable extent. [ ] < > they had, in occupied europe, all the instruments of mass communication, such as press and radio, at their disposal. all these and other factors are mentioned in "unity in dispersion" [ ] in order to explain to some extent "the failure of organized jewry to halt or even to slow down the most terrible catastrophe in jewish history". much of it is, mutatis mutandis, also applicable to "organized christianity". on the other hand, when the true facts became known, there was danger mentioned by the archbishop of canterbury: "it is one of the most terrible consequences of war that the sensitiveness of people tends to become hardened... there is a great moral danger in the paralysis of feeling that is liable to be brought about." [ ] we now are in danger of forgetting that so many other problems burdened people in those days. the british people were fighting their life-and-death struggle against the third reich, but were free. in the occupied countries, many young people were sent to germany for compulsory labour; food was rationed and became more and more scarce. people went out in the night to cut wood illegally as there was hardly any fuel. one cannot understand what happened in occupied europe without remembering these things; neither can one understand, without realising the power of human egoism and the will to survive. no one who has never really been hungry, nor has been deprived of his liberty, can understand what it meant in practice to "love one's neighbour" during the second world war. the persecution of the jews was not the only challenge confronting the churches in those days, though we only now can perceive better that it was the most important one. the list of steps taken by the churches in the netherlands shows the type of problems which faced the churches: intercession in church services for the queen; arrest of pastors; suppression of the church press; compulsory labour for youth; requisition of church bells; deportation of labourers to germany; closing down of the bible society; ban on church conferences; death sentences: plea for mercy; deportation of students, and national-socialist education in christian schools. [ ] < > we tend now to underestimate the power of the hitlerite terror. it has been said that all the dutch should have blocked the railways with their own bodies, thus preventing the deportation of the jews, because hitler could not have murdered the entire dutch population. i do not doubt that he could have and he would have done precisely that. [ ] it is not surprising then that many lay members of the church and church leaders were afraid, and therefore failed to fulfil their duties. gerstein said, in rolf hochhuth's play: "a christian in these days cannot survive if he is truly christian". [ ] dr. banning said: "if the church had fully exercised the obedience of faith, no pastor or priest would have come out alive. [ ] but the greatness of the risks matched the appalling need to help: the germans committed genocide. whenever the church remained silent in view of the holocaust, it was guilty. "nevertheless a crime of such magnitude falls in no small measure to the responsibility of those witnesses who never cried out against it - whatever the reason for their silence." [ ] therefore, all the considerations mentioned above cannot exempt churches, christians or non-christians, though they can help us to be fairer in our judgment. one is sometimes in danger of becoming irritated by people who did not stand the test themselves, and yet claim to know exactly what should have been said and done. there recently appeared a book [ ] in which the author sharply criticizes much what was done, or was not done, during the german occupation of the netherlands. < > he himself took a very active part in the struggle. perhaps that is the reason why his criticism is not without compassion, and that it is to a large extent self-criticism. in order to understand how difficult it was to risk one's life or even freedom on behalf of others, one had to have been in it oneself. i, who am now living in israel, have sometimes, when lecturing on the subject, invited my audience to imagine for a moment that (god forbid!) some foreign power should occupy the land of israel, say in the year ; and that this foreign power should deport many jews for compulsory labour abroad, and also ration all food supplies, but that the jewish part of the population should not risk their lives when complying with the demands of the enemy; that, however, the christian minority in israel should be deported and exterminated; that they should be deprived of their ration cards, that their identity cards should be stamped with a c, and that they must wear a yellow badge in the form of a cross, in order to distinguish them as christians. i then asked the question: "would you be willing, in such a situation, to hide my wife, one of my children or me, who all look very "aryan", though you knew that, as in every community, you were in danger of being betrayed and in even greater danger of being given away by careless talk of other people? or would you, if you were the chief rabbi, be prepared to denounce the anti-christian measures publicly and unequivocally?" factors leading to public protests there were many factors that led churches to protest publicly. one of them is mentioned by the executive council of the federal council of churches in the u.s.a. in : "no true christian can be anti-semitic in thought, word or deed without being untrue to his own christian heritance." [ ] but how often true christians were untrue... < > the national council of the reformed church in france made a similar statement, in september, , declaring: "a christian church would lose its soul and the reason for its existence, were it not to maintain... the divine law above human contingencies." [ ] the bible (the old as well as the new testament) was frequently cited in the protests. this may appear strange to people who only knew that the new testament was used as a source of anti-semitic influence. the same applies, by the way, to the old testament. [ ] in my opinion, this use is quite indefensible. we list some of the texts cited in the protests: "open thy mouth for the dumb in the cause of all such as are appointed to destruction. open thy mouth, judge righteously, and plead the cause of the poor and the needy. (proverbs , - ). indirect reference, particularly in switzerland and germany, was made to ezekiel , when the church's office as watchman is mentioned. "when i bring the sword upon a land, if the people of the land take a man of their coasts, and set him for their watchman: if when he seeth the sword come upon the land, he blow the trumpet and warn the people; then whosoever heareth the sound of the trumpet, and taketh not warning; if the sword come, and take him away, his blood shall be upon his own head... but if the watchman see the sword come, and blow not the trumpet, and the people be not warned; if the sword come, and take any person from among them, he is taken away in his iniquity; but his blood will i require at the watchman's hand. so thou, o son of man, i have set thee a watchman unto the house of israel..." (ezekiel , - , - ). "with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again." (matthew , ). "verily i say unto you, inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me. (matthew , ). "we ought to obey god rather than man." (acts , ). "...and (god) hath made of one blood all the nations of men..." (acts , ). "there is neither jew nor greek...: for ye are all one in christ jesus. (galatians , ). < > in addition to this, the parable of the good samaritan (luke , - ) was quoted. it was frequently pointed out, though the wordings differ, that jesus was born a jew. with regard to the churches in the netherlands, it has been stated that "the moral implications of christian doctrine motivated the resistance of the churches". [ ] such a statement seems to me to oversimplify matters. i believe that the christian doctrine (or rather: the teachings of the bible) demanded the resistance of the churches, but it is always possible to find convenient excuses to escape a challenge, as for example the opinion that the church should not interfere in political matters. i once tried to convince a devout protestant (he was an elder of the church) that he should hide a jewish child, by reminding him that one day he would have to give account of his deeds to the supreme judge. the man, who certainly could have hidden that child (he had a large farm) flatly refused, not because he denied that he would have to give account of his deeds, but because he was afraid, - too afraid to hide the child. i pointed out to him that he should rather fear god and not man, but my words simply had no effect. christian teaching did not work in this case, though that does not mean that it did not work in other cases. chief rabbi safran spoke to the rumanian patriarch nicodemus of the terrible responsibility he was taking upon his conscience in the eyes of the supreme judge [ ], and in this case it worked, though there were probably other motivations as well. everybody's decisions are also motivated by the principles to which he adheres, and thus a christian's decisions are influenced by christian principles, though it must be admitted that mostly there are many other influences and motivations, probably more than the person who makes a decision, realizes. < > the whole matter of the attitude of the churches during the war was once discussed at a conference, and one of the speakers began by expressing as his opinion that hitler and eichmann were christians, but later on he said that mr. johannes bogaard, one of the "righteous of all nations" who saved many jews and whose father, brother and son were murdered by the germans, was "just a courageous dutchman". i happen to know mr. bogaard very well and i am convinced that he acted as he did during the war, primarily because he is a committed christian. of course this does not alter the fact that many christians did not do very much, if anything, on behalf of their neighbours, the jews; nor should it be denied that many non-christians did do what they could, out of national, socialist, humanist or communist convictions. the same applies to the attitudes of a community. a member of a left wing kibbutz stated his views very clearly to me, and i know that many people hold views similar to his: "allow me to express my position which is based on dialectical materialism. the protestant churches were active everywhere according to the local circumstances, first of all according to the nature of the people amongst whom they lived. the churches did not act in a vacuum. for instance, in the countries of western-europe, such as holland, norway and denmark, where the 'final solution' met with the resistance of all sections of the population, the courageous stand of those nations found its vehement expression in the attitude of the different churches. the non-roman catholic churches merely reflected the opinion and reactions of the people." it seems to me that there is more than a grain of truth in such a view and certainly no church ever acted in a vacuum. much in the protests issued by churches in countries such as bulgaria and greece, points to nationalist rather than to spiritual-christian considerations. reading and analysing the contents of the statements may be of some help when assessing the motivations of christians and groups of christians who resisted the persecution of jews. < > if, however, one indeed believes that everything can be explained by the influences of local circumstances etc., one should be consistent and stop holding churches responsible for acts of anti-semitism committed by churches or by people professing to be christians throughout the ages, for in such a case they were also "merely reflecting the opinion and reactions of the people amongst whom they lived". in the case of such a rigid determinism, it seems difficult to hold anyone anywhere responsible for his acts and decisions. in my opinion we are all influenced by the people amongst whom we live, by social circumstances and by many other factors. we are all subject to a kind of mimicry, but that does not necessarily mean that we are just chameleons and nothing else. churches are certainly influenced, just like any other group of people, by circumstances and surroundings, but they on their part influence these circumstances and surroundings. there is interplay of factors. similar to the opinion mentioned above is the viewpoint that churches always tend to support the establishment. the united states and great britain were at war with germany, and the churches participated in the crusade against the enemy. the same applies to churches in occupied europe, even when their own government was in exile. i think that the old testament already gives us many examples of organized religion supporting the establishment, but it also gives us some instances when religious leaders (the prophets!) refused to do so. [ ] it is doubtful whether the british government was pleased with the church's protest against the pogroms of the "crystal night", just after the munich agreement. [ ] the archbishop of canterbury's speech in the house of lords and the bishop of chichester's letters to the times, in , must have embarrassed political leaders who were of the opinion that the main object was to win the war, and that attempts to rescue jews were of less importance. [ ] the swiss churches could hardly be accused of supporting the establishment, when they protested against the decision of the swiss government to return refugees to nazi germany who had illegally entered switzerland. [ ] similar examples can be given regarding the united states, sweden and other lands. the little that was said by the "confessing church" in germany on behalf of the jews was certainly not in support of the establishment. < > a church must try to be the conscience of nation and government, even though this may mean that its leaders have to speak out against the seeming interests of their nation. churches frequently failed to do so, but we should refrain from generalizing. whenever churches were conscious of belonging to a worldwide fellowship, this contributed to their making a stand against anti-semitism. church leaders in the netherlands followed the struggle of the "confessing church" in germany, and were on the alert when they were challenged themselves. the church in sweden was moved to protest by the statement issued by the church of norway. church leaders in hungary realized, when they did not carry their protest before the hungarian public, that this course would "incur... the reproach and accusation of the leading bodies of the christian churches" and stated that, if their intervention proved ineffective, they would be obliged "to testify before the congregations of our church and the protestants of the world that we did not suppress the message of god". [ ] many of the church leaders who took a clear stand, knew one another personally. [ ] in view of the attempts of the germans to deceive world opinion as to their ultimate aims concerning the jews, and in view of the tendency to dismiss reports about what was going on as "atrocity propaganda", the importance of the information given by the world council of churches through its press service and by other means can hardly be overestimated. the need to combine efforts and thus break through denominational barriers in order to come to a joint stand, was understood in some countries. in the netherlands, protestants and roman catholics began a new chapter in their relationship by protesting together. in france and hungary there was consultation between roman catholics and protestants, but it is to be regretted that they did not achieve a common front. < > sometimes there existed close contact between christian and jewish leaders, as for example in the united states, in great britain, in bulgaria and between the leaders of the world council of churches and the world jewish congress, in geneva. thus, again, information about what was going on was communicated and action could be co-ordinated. the negative implication is also clear: whenever a spirit of particularism, provincialism and isolationism was strong in a church, it did not fulfil its duty toward the persecuted jews. results in order to ascertain the practical effects that could be expected from steps taken by the churches, the political and geographical position of the countries concerned, as well as the time factor, must be born in mind. where there was a national government, as was the case in slovakia, hungary, rumania and bulgaria, protests had a better chance of some success than in countries under direct nazi control. yet even then what jeno levai stated about hungary was sometimes true: "the church was not in a position to promise or to threaten. thus, in spite of their very best intentions, they could obtain only very little. naturally this little meant life to the persons concerned." [ ] typical were the differences between the scandinavian countries: sweden was neutral; finland was an ally of the germans; denmark was occupied but it had its own king and was officially not even in a state of war with germany; norway's king had fled and the infamous quisling had become prime minister. < > geography also played an important role. the jews in the netherlands were in a deadly trap; hungary was, at least for some time, a place of refuge for jews in the neighbouring countries; jews in denmark and norway had a chance to flee to sweden and the jews in france and italy to switzerland, in so far as that country was willing to admit them. the time persecution began was a vital factor. the earlier it started, the smaller the chance of saving at least some lives. it should be noted that these three factors were utterly unfavourable in germany. it is difficult to assess the range of influence of any church. figures have been given about membership in appendix ii, but one must remember that many churches have a high percentage of nominal members who, perhaps since their baptism, never attended a church service. therefore it can be misleading to read that there were forty-five million protestants in germany, or, that , per cent of the population of norway are members of the state church. only per cent of the members of the norwegian church regularly attend sunday services. in many other countries the situation is similar. many people who were not church goers may never even have known about the protests of the church, and this is especially true of occupied europe in those days, for there the church could only speak from the pulpits, not through press and radio. moreover, many nominal christians are influenced by other outlooks on life, rather than by the christian faith. however, when press and radio were silenced and the church alone could voice an open and public protest, it met with the response of many people who were outside the fold. church services were better attended than in times of peace. the former editor-in-chief of the dutch communist daily de waarheid relates that he went to a church service in those days: that church meant something to us in those black days, were it only to listen to the prayer of a man, who dared make a public address on behalf of the people tortured in the concentration camps. [ ] < > i myself belong to the persons who, in those days, found their way back to the fold, attracted as we were by the church's spiritual resistance to the nazis. when attempting to assess the practical results of steps taken by churches or church leaders on behalf of the jews, we distinguish between countries under german occupation, countries under a satellite government, neutral countries, and countries that were at war with germany. in countries under german occupation, efforts made by the churches had hardly any direct practical result for the jews in general. personal intervention did not help or, at best, could only cause some delay in the deportations. the only step that had some effect on the germans (as we now know!) was the issuing of a public protest. again it was evident, that the german authorities did not fear or have any step taken by the churches as much as their protests which were read from the pulpits. letters of protest they could throw in the dustbin or file away. they could listen to oral protests without taking them to heart. but they tried in every way to prevent public protests (in those days the only form of public protest), fearing their effect upon the people."[ ] the most effective protests were those, which clearly encouraged the faithful to help the jews. others called for non-cooperation with the germans, and this had at least some result. six roman catholic police-agents at utrecht informed their chief on february , , that on the grounds of a pastoral letter read in their church on february , they would have to refuse if ordered to arrest jews. their chief threatened to dismiss them without pension and said that "those who do not announce their intended refusal and yet have the impudence to carry it out will be considered saboteurs, with all the serious consequences. the germans immediately tried to arrest these agents but they had gone into hiding. the germans then arrested their wives and children." [ ] < > generally speaking, the positive indirect effect of public protests was, that it counteracted the attempts of the germans to separate and isolate the jews from the non-jewish population, in order to break their will to resist deportation and annihilation. [ ] it is impossible to count the lives saved through the activities of the churches in the occupied territories. i agree with the opinion of dr. visser 't hooft: "so far we have only spoken of public protests. but were these protests implemented by deeds? the answer is that they were, though by no means as generally as ought to have been the case. the full story of christian assistance to the jews in their hour of great need will never be fully told, for in many cases individuals acted quietly and behind the scenes." [ ] in the countries under a satellite government, actions undertaken by the churches were of some and sometimes even of much avail. [ ] concerning the neutral countries, the steps and protests of the churches in switzerland contributed to the relaxation of measures against the refugees [ ], and in sweden the lutheran archbishop encouraged his government to broadcast its willingness to take in the jews of denmark. [ ] it is difficult to assess how far the protests of the churches in countries that were at war with germany had a practical effect. [ ] they apparently helped to combat anti-semitic influences in these countries (the same applies to protests issued in the countries mentioned above) and they contributed towards "breaking the wall of silence." < > "the world wide public, overburdened with the issues and the incidents of a world conflict fraught with the gravest consequences, was not receptive to reports which it was ready to dismiss as propaganda tales; besides, the facts were hidden from it, not withstanding persistent endeavours by the (world jewish) congress to keep it informed. a wall of secrecy concealed the terrible tragedy... the main difficulty was how to convince public opinion and induce the allied governments to act. the battles of world war ii raged fiercely on three continents, the onslaught of barbarity was nowhere decisively checked, the democratic nations feverishly tried to overcome their unprepared ness for a conflict of such dimensions. the governments in exile were chiefly concerned with the sufferings of their nations as a whole." [ ] the pressure exerted by jewish and christian leaders on their governments did not, however, result in effective rescue activities being undertaken by these governments. it has been suggested that the protests from the churches mostly came too late, and thus fell flat. this is partly true. the protestant leaders in hungary did speak out very late, and bishop wurm of wurttemberg sent his letters when there only remained a chance of doing something for the "privileged" jews. on the other hand, churches or church leaders in belgium, france, switzerland, sweden, great britain and the united states began to protest in . the churches in the netherlands protested at the very beginning of the german attacks on the dutch jews, in . the church of denmark had prepared a public protest before the deportations started. it is, however, necessary to keep the dates of protests in mind, in order to arrive at a fair evaluation of the moral courage which such protests required. after hitler's defeat at stalingrad, at the end of , and the defeat of rommel at el-alamein, it became more and more clear that germany would lose the war. the measure of success is in itself no yardstick for the moral value of a deed. one can hardly say that church leaders in rumania behaved better than church leaders in, for instance, the netherlands, because the former, contrary to the latter, actually succeeded in saving many lives. < > to this it must be added, however, that the seeming absence of any chance of success could not be an excuse for maintaining silence or for doing nothing against the terror of the nazis. prince william the silent is said to have stated that it is not necessary to hope in order to try, nor to succeed in order to persevere. help to christians of jewish origin apart from the , jews who registered as members of their community in , there were some , jews in germany who no longer belonged to the jewish community. though born as jews, they had been baptized. in addition, some , people had at least one jewish parent, and another , one jewish grandparent; thus a total of some , people in germany were, in addition to the "full jews", affected by racial legislation. [ ] until the end of the year , christian leaders and churches tended to stress the necessity of helping christian refugees of jewish origin, rather than calling for help for jews in general. a notable exception to this rule was the appeal of the ecumenical council for life and work, in , to help "jews, christians of jewish origin and political refugees". [ ] during the war, churches in countries such as bulgaria, hungary and the netherlands, instituted steps to protect their members of jewish origin. it can hardly be denied that it was the right as well as the duty of the churches to do so, but more than once the churches were tempted to try and save their own members while neglecting the jews in general. the announcement read from the pulpits of the hungarian protestant churches, on july , , is significant: "the bishops... wish to inform the congregations that in connection with the jewish question, and particularly in the case of baptised jews, they have repeatedly intervened with the competent government authorities..." [ ] < > a comment on the "confessing church" in germany is: "the church took up the cudgels for the baptized jews and that meant to the average churchgoer that the unbaptized jew, i.e. the jew as such, was left to the devil." [ ] church leaders in the netherlands regarded the issue as a temptation: "great dangers and temptations threatened continually. from the german side came the voice of the tempter: 'do not protest; only negotiate'. 'do not speak on behalf of the jews any more; then we shall be lenient to the christians of jewish origin.'... it is a great miracle that, in general, the church recognized these voices as coming from the tempter, and boldly rejected the temptation." [ ] that these questions were very difficult indeed, becomes clear from the following comment of herzberg: "the baptized jews [in the netherlands], who were able to save their lives, owed this exclusively to the resistance of the churches, a resistance which was especially impressive because of the principles by which it was motivated." [ ] quite different, however, is the sharp verdict of presser: "and the churches (in the netherlands)? with what hesitation did they begin their resistance? how many were there, unfortunately, who were resigned to the fatal decrees of the occupying power, even appealing to texts in the bible, and actually helping to carry out the decrees. how many times did they stand up only on behalf of baptized jews and not on behalf of others." [ ] < > it makes a difference, whether churches on their own initiative stressed the importance they attached to the fate of christians of jewish origin, or were forced into a compromise by the tactics of the germans. the latter was the case when the dutch reformed church failed to read the telegram of protest publicly in the church services. [ ] the protestant christians of jewish origin in the netherlands indeed survived. we should not pass judgment lightly and we must realize that we now have the benefit of being after the events, church leaders in those days were not always aware of the fact that the germans, who offered not to deport the christians of jewish origin, were not just making a concession, but were also providing themselves with a means of exerting further pressure on the churches. it is most regrettable that on several occasions certain churches interpreted the saying "charity begins at home" as they did. "mercy-baptisms" christian clergymen in many lands were prepared to baptize jews if the ceremony of baptism meant that lives could be saved. the following is related of the lutheran church in slovakia: "many jews who tried to escape persecution sought rescue by giving up their religion and by requesting to be received into the evangelical church, for the catholic church did not receive them. [ ] the evangelical church did not refuse them, which was an act of courage in those days, but enabled them to become members of the church... here some examples follow: < > in , persons, most of them adults, became christians in bratislava. for the year the number was ; for the first half of the year : persons; for the second half: . persons were admitted in ; only in . in horne zelenice (near hlohovec), persons became christians in ; in ; in only one. in frencin persons; in kochanovce (near treucin) ; in banska bystrica, persons became christians in . this help aroused the anger of the rulers, of the gestapo and of the hlinka guard. they began to arrest evangelical christians and pastors. pastors were sent to the concentration camps in germany. joseph bucko, minister at martine, perished in the camp." [ ] it is reported that in bulgaria, "... ministers of various christian denominations engaged in mass 'mercy baptisms'; several of them were removed from office because of this (one of these ministers, with a community of about souls, managed to baptize additional persons between january and september , ). high dignitaries of the bulgarian orthodox church declared that 'conversion to christianity' and 'formal baptism' were two different acts, the first of which necessarily preceded the second, sometimes by a considerable period; because the law spoke of conversion and not of baptism having to have taken place before september , , jews baptized later could also be saved if the minister declared that they had expressed their will to adopt christianity before that date. many courts accepted this reasoning. in this way, a number of baptized jews and offspring of mixed marriages escaped the provision of the law." [ ] the following is quoted from the testimony of richard simantov: < > "... it must be admitted that, with a few exceptions, all the christian religious institutions [in bulgaria], as also their clergy, behaved with sympathy towards the jewish victims of the anti-jewish legislation. when issuing the required legal documents to the christian jew, the clerk of the court or the judge himself interrogated the priest, whether he had indeed carried out all the religious formalities, and how long the teaching of the catechism had lasted for the person of jewish origin concerned. the priest would always reply in the affirmative and would declare that the man had received instruction for , or months, and that he regularly attended church services etc., although often these documents, which were issued by the church, were given only in exchange for a payment, without the ceremony having been performed..." [ ] we have the following particulars about greece : "many tried to evade the racial laws through baptism. more than jews embraced the orthodox religion; some scores preferred to become catholics. it was clear that it was not out of conviction that these jews entered into the church. it was well-known, that only the desire to escape persecution moved them to seek refuge in the shadow of the cross. out of compassion, the priests did not hesitate to accept the new converts. they were on friendly terms with them in different ways. out of noble feelings and not in order to receive a reward, the priests also distributed baptismal certificates to jews who had never attended a church service..." [ ] the biographer of the archbishop of athens, damaskinos, relates: "later on, when the persecutions started affecting the jews of athens, the archbishop decided on the following measures. he summoned the director general of the administrative services of the community of athens, mr. p. haldezos, and said to him: "i have made the sign of the cross and have spoken to god, and have decided to save as many jews as i can, even though i run a great risk. i am going to baptize them, and you must give certificates enabling them to obtain the identity cards of christian greeks. mr. haldezos agreed to this. with the help of a municipal official, they opened a register wherein they registered jews as christians, all of whom were saved. there was no treachery." [ ]< > rev. j.j. buskes discussed the considerations, which led clergymen in the netherlands to provide jews with false certificates of baptism: "we are well aware that many pastors had conscientious objections to giving forged baptismal certificates. but, thank god, there were other ministers who had conscientious objections about not doing so. such a certificate was, of course, false. but the man who wrote it out and gave it to a jew, did service to the truth and helped his neighbour. the one, however, who would not write it and thus refused help to a jew, served falsehood and failed the jew. there is a truth which is like a lie and there is a lie which is like the truth. god commanded us to lie in the service of the truth. not the end, but the obedience to god's commandment (to love our neighbour as ourselves) justified the means. thus the humble and scrupulous dr. oorthuis wrote in a pamphlet of the underground movement: even forged passports can be safe-conducts from the lord, and stolen ration cards be gifts of mercy from god, which we accept with thanksgiving." [ ] many people may feel horrified when reading the views of rev. buskes. the same author stated in another publication: "if i can save a man whose life is threatened by a scoundrel by saying to that scoundrel that two and two make five, i shall say so to him, in obedience to the ninth commandment. in such a case i am even prepared to declare that two and two make ten." [ ] a personal friend of mine, who is a devout christian, took the oath declaring that a child in his house was not jewish but his own child born out of wedlock. he saved the child. people who are horrified at such behaviour, probably never lived under german occupation. at any rate, they should remember st. paul's saying: "owe no man any thing, but to love one another: for he that loveth another hath fulfilled the law". [ ] in my opinion, it was morally permissible and even laudable to baptize jews in those days in order to save their lives, as long as it was mutually understood that this was in order to deceive the persecutors and that the baptism in fact was invalid. < > ii before the war historical events a. hitler's rise to power - the nuremberg laws. (jun., -sept., ) president hindenburg entrusted hitler with the chancellorship on january , . the reichstag fire, on february , was followed by a wave of arrests. the "ordinance for the protection of the people and the state", issued on february , suspended the sections of the constitution which guaranteed individual and civil rights. the "enabling act" (march ) stripped parliament of its power and handed it over to the reich cabinet. laws enacted by the cabinet were to be drafted by the chancellor (hitler) and might deviate from the constitution. on april , jewish shops throughout germany were boycotted. jewish civil servants were dismissed on april . on the same day the exclusion of "non-aryan" lawyers was ordered. according to a decree of april , no jewish physicians were allowed to work for sick funds anymore. at the end of april another decree restricted the admission of jewish children and students to schools and universities. in the following months jews were excluded from working in the fields of art, music, literature and journalism. the "law on revocation of naturalizations and deprivation of german citizenship" (july, ) robbed jews, who had been naturalized before or had been born outside germany, from their citizenship. in january, , it was decreed that jews could no longer be members of the labour front. when president hindenburg died, on august , , hitler became president and supreme commander of the army. on may , , it was decreed that only "aryans" could serve in the army. it is estimated that , jews emigrated from germany in ; in , the number was , , whilst , jews left germany in . [ ] < > b. the nuremberg laws - crystal night. (sept., -nov., ) on september , , two fundamental laws were adopted by the reichstag meeting at nuremberg. one, the "law respecting reich citizenship", decreed that only a national of german or kindred blood, who proved by his conduct that he was willing and likely to serve the german people and reich faithfully, could be a citizen. the second, the "law for the protection of german blood and honour", specifically referred to the jews and singled them out as undesirable aliens, impure of blood and dangerous to the honour and security of the german people. there followed seven paragraphs, the first of which dealt with the prohibition of marriages between jews and nationals of german or kindred blood. paragraph three prohibited jews to employ in domestic service female nationals of german or kindred blood, under the age of forty-five years. on april , , it was decreed that all jewish assets in excess of , marks should be registered. on june , , about , jews were arrested and deported to a concentration camp. on july , it was decreed that jewish physicians were no longer permitted to treat non-jewish patients. in the same month, jews had to apply for special identity cards. on august , , the first name "israel" for jewish men and "sara" for jewish women was made compulsory in addition to their own names. in october, all passports of jews were stamped with the letter j. austria had been incorporated into the third reich, on march , . the german anti-jewish laws were also enforced in austria, where about , jews were living. it is estimated that , jews emigrated from germany in , and , in . [ ] in march, , president roosevelt invited thirty-three governments to join in a co-operative effort to aid the emigration of refugees from germany and austria. on july , , the intergovernmental conference met at evian, france. nearly all the delegates expressed their sympathy for the refugees but were very careful not to assume any obligations on behalf of their governments. < > it is important to keep some of the major political events of those days in mind. italy attacked ethiopia on october , . in may, , the ethiopian emperor went into exile into great britain. on march , , the rhineland was remilitarized. on november , , the anti-comintern pact with japan was signed. on july , , civil war in spain broke out. on september , , the munich agreement was signed by hitler, chamberlain, mussolini and daladier. as a result, sudetenland was occupied by germany. poland and hungary also occupied part of czechoslovakia. c. crystal night - the outbreak of the war. (nov., -summer, ) on october , , , - , jews of polish origin were rounded up and expelled. on november , a seventeen-year-old jewish boy, herschel grynspan, whose parents had been among the people expelled to poland, shot ernst vom rath, a minor nazi official in the paris embassy. he died two days later. this was the pretext for unleashing a pogrom that has entered history under the name crystal night: , jewish shops were looted and windows of shops and houses were smashed; many synagogues were burned; more than , jews were arrested, many of whom were sent to concentration camps; at least were killed. [ ] on november , the jews in germany were ordered to pay a collective fine of thousand million reichsmark. on november , jewish children were dismissed from german schools. jews were prohibited from visiting theatres, cinemas, concert halls, museums and public baths. on december , a decree was issued expelling jews from the universities. at the beginning of january, , the "aryanisation" of jewish enterprises began. since january , , jews were forbidden to be employed in the professions of dentist, pharmacist and veterinary surgeon. on january , , hitler publicly declared that the jewish race in europe would be annihilated if war broke out. < > hitler annexed czechia, on march , . slovakia became "independent". in april, , mussolini occupied albania. from the beginning of until october , (when further emigration was forbidden) an estimated , jews left germany. [ ] jews in germany at the beginning of the hitler regime, numbered , . the census, registered within the borders of the pre-hitler reich, amounted to no more than , . [ ] germany the vast majority of the protestants of germany belonged to one of the landeskirchen (lutheran, reformed or uniate), of which the largest was the church of the old prussian union, with million members. the landeskirchen were independent members of the german evangelical church union, founded in . in all, there were forty-five million germans who were, nominally at least, members of the protestant church. in , members of the church who supported hitler had founded the "german christians' faith movement". these "german christians" demanded the creation of one protestant church, the application of the fuehrer principle in church affairs, the introduction of racialism within the church, the "germanization" of christianity (the "aryan jesus"!) and the elimination of "jewish influence" from teaching, liturgy and preaching. in , some pastors belonged to this group. church elections took place on july , . on the eve of the elections, hitler made an unexpected radio appeal asking the electorate to vote "german christians". they won a decisive victory. on september , , rev. martin niemoeller and others created the "pastors' emergency league", which opposed the "german christians". in the beginning, niemoeller's group was definitely in the minority. by december, , its membership had grown to , . between the two groups, a majority tried to remain neutral while more or less sympathizing with the group of niemoeller, but in practice obeying hitler's orders without open protest. < > after a protege of hitler, ludwig mueller, had been elected as reich bishop under pressure of the government, niemoeller's opposition group constituted the "confessing church" which declared itself to be the legitimate protestant church of germany and set up a provisional church government. [ ] the "german christians" had, in the meantime, gained control in several landeskirchen, sometimes with the active help of the national-socialist party. in april, , the landeskirche of thuringia required of its clergy a formal oath of allegiance to hitler; the "thuringian christians" wanted to give this symbol of unconditional obedience to hitler as a birthday present. there was a division in other landeskirchen, as for instance in the largest: the church of the old-prussian union. in the summer of , a law had been issued forbidding the appointment of pastors or church officers of "non-aryan descent" and ordering the dismissal of such pastors and church officers. [ ] in its session on sept. , , the synod of the old prussian union accepted this law; the opposition party protested and, when this was of no avail, left the meeting. later on the opposition organized the "confessing synod of the evangelical church of the old-prussian union". < > it is not, as has been stated in the preface, my intention to record the contents of statements issued by churches or church leaders on behalf of christians of jewish origin. it is of importance, however, to know to what extent the "german christians" supported discrimination against these members of the church, and, also, to know that the confessing church defended them. thus i mention the more important statements, which were issued, without recording their full contents. [ ] there was sharp controversy and much discussion as to whether the anti-jewish laws should be applied within the church. the following persons and institutions protested against such a measure: the theological faculty of the university of marburg (sept. , ); the theological faculty of the university of erlangen (sept. , ); rev. martin niemoeller (nov. , ), and prof. rudolf bultmann (dec., ). on the other hand, the "german christians" declared at the beginning of april, , that only those who were "of pure german blood" should be admitted to the ministry. on may , , they had already decided to consider missionary work amongst the jews as a great danger "as it is the entrance gate for foreign blood into our national body". the example of the synod of the old-prussian union (see above) was followed by other landeskirchen, as for instance in saxony, thuringia and braunschweig: ministers of jewish origin were to be dismissed. the church in saxony even voted, on dec. , , to accept the principles of blood and race, and that only those who according to the laws of the state were compatriots should be members of the national church! < > the decision of the church of saxony was publicly rejected by the theological faculty of the university of leipzig, and by the pastors' society of the rhine. the majority of the theological faculty of the university of berlin, however, supported the racialism of the saxonians. this all happened in the years - . in those days, it certainly needed courage to stand up publicly for the rights of christians of jewish origin in the church. it should be noted, however, that the publications mentioned above did not publicly oppose discrimination against the jews in general, nor even discrimination against christians of jewish origin outside the church. in march, , the confessing synod of the evangelical church of the old-prussian union sent a "word to the congregations", which was read from the pulpits. we quote the following: "we believe that our nation is threatened by a mortal danger. this danger lies in a new religion.... in it, racial and nationalistic ideology becomes supreme. blood and race, nationality, honour and freedom become its idols. ... whoever substitutes blood, race and nationality as the creator and source of authority instead of god, undermines the state." [ ] the government struck back with arrests. pastors were imprisoned. * * * after the notorious laws of nuremberg had been promulgated, only individuals in the confessing church pleaded for the issue of a public declaration. dietrich bonhoeffer said : "only the man who loudly cries out on behalf of the jews, is at liberty to sing the gregorian chants". [ ] the "council of brethren" of the confessing church stated, in a declaration in defense of the right to baptize jews, in september, : "we only say the necessary minimum (alas, perhaps even not the minimum) concerning things about which we are not allowed to keep silent..." [ ] < > the provisional church council of the confessing church sent a memorandum to hitler, in may, . we quote the following from it: "... when blood, race, nationality and honour are thus raised to the rank of qualities that guarantee eternity, the evangelical christian is bound by the first commandment to reject that assumption. when the aryan human being is glorified, god's word bears witness to the sinfulness of all men. when in the framework of the national-socialist ideology, anti-semitism is forced on the christian obliging him to hate the jews, he has nonetheless the divine command to love his neighbour..." [ ] the memorandum, which was published in the foreign press without the consent of the confessing church, resulted in the arrest of dr. weissler who worked in the office of the provisional church council. he perished in a concentration camp. [ ] on june , , several members of the reich brethren council were arrested, and on july , , rev. martin niemoeller also. he remained a prisoner until the end of the war. the office of the provisional church council was closed by the authorities, and thus the confessing church was to a large extent forced into underground resistance. * * * no public protest was voiced after the crystal night pogroms. in september, , an office for helping persecuted jews, but mainly christians of jewish origin, was opened under the direction of rev. grueber. rev. grueber also contacted the jewish and catholic relief-organizations. repeated journeys to switzerland, the netherlands and great britain were made to find places for jewish refugees. < > at the end of , rev. grueber was arrested and the office in berlin was closed. the branches in heidelberg, under rev. maas; in breslau, under vikarin staritz; and in kassel, continued to function, though under the pressure of fierce hostility. on the initiative of rev. werner sylten, grueber's deputy, an attempt was made to continue the work of the berlin office on a smaller scale. conversations with the evangelical church council of berlin took place; negotiations with the gestapo were held. this eventually led to the arrest of rev. sylten, who perished in the concentration camp of dachau, at the end of . only a few of the members of grueber's office, most of them of jewish origin, lived to see the end of the war. most of them died in the gas chambers. [ ] in dec., , the kirchentag of the confessing church stated: "... we again face the fact that many servants of the church are being hampered in the execution of their ministry and are being expelled from their offices. in the hour of threatening war some fulfilled the duty of the church, doing penance for the whole nation and beseeching forgiveness and deliverance from god's judgment. thereupon, they were charged with high-treason. in view of what happened to the jews others earnestly preached the ten commandments and were persecuted for it..." [ ] the thuringian church, followed by mecklenburg, anhalt and sachsen (all directed by "german christians") promulgated (february, ) a law which eliminated jews from membership in their churches. < > in april, , the infamous declaration of godesberg was published. it accepted national-socialism and stated that "the christian faith is in irreconcilable opposition to judaism". the declaration was accepted by the leaders of landeskirchen in which the "german christians" were the ruling party. the confessing reich brethren council sharply opposed the godesberg declaration in a statement issued on april , . one day later, it also opposed the law of the thuringian church (see above) which denied permission to christians of jewish origin to be members of the church. the reich brethren council stated: "... the men responsible for these laws thereby show themselves to be enemies of the cross of christ. they cannot exclude anybody from the church of christ. they have, however, separated themselves from the holy christian church, by the promulgation of these laws..." [ ] the fundamental difference between "german christians" and the confessing church is obvious: the former completely identified themselves with national-socialist racialism, the latter repudiated it verbally but showed weakness of action. one feared that, by an all-out intervention on behalf of all non-aryans, the theological protest against the separation of christian non-aryans from the community of the church would be politically misinterpreted, and that thus the intervention on behalf of them would become even more difficult. [ ] that the confessing church hardly spoke out at all was not the worst fact; it seems infinitely worse that the so-called "german christians" supported hitler and his racialism. one may agree with the words of the german lutheran pastors in england: "it is not for us who now live in safety to criticise those who, under fire, have done their utmost not to bow to baal". the fact remains, however, that so many did bow to baal. [ ] the netherlands < > before the second world war, no church in the netherlands publicly protested against german anti-semitism, as distinct from churches in great britain, france, sweden, the united states etc. the following reasons for this can be given: . there was little co-operation between the protestant churches. . the churches did not speak out publicly on any subject. . the spiritual life of many churches was at a low ebb. . many people were afraid of endangering holland's precious neutrality and its economic interests with germany. . many christians considered national-socialism a bulwark against communism. [ ] the exceptions to the rule were provided by inter-denominational church bodies. in april, , the dutch council of the "world alliance for international friendship through the churches" adopted and published the following motion: "the dutch council of the world alliance for international friendship through the churches, aware of its duty to promote friendly relations among the nations, and convinced that the anti-jewish measures taken and carried out in germany must be regarded as a manifestation of racial hatred which considerably prejudices such an understanding, requests the international executive committee to define publicly its position with regard to these measures and, subsequently, to do everything in its power in accordance with the aims and principles of the alliance, to disperse the tension and indignation which these measures have provoked in the netherlands as well as in the entire civilized world, and to work towards the establishment of those relations which, according to the principles of the christian conscience, ought to exist among the different races." [ ] this appeal to the international executive committee was successful. [ ] the same council also sent a letter to the "permanent general committee of the dutch israelite community", informing them that they had heard with a sense of shame and distress of the treatment of the jews by the german government on grounds of racial hatred. the council expressed its conviction "that this hatred is contrary to the christian conscience" and quoted the letter sent to the international committee. [ ] < > in may, , a manifesto was published, signed by many individual dutchmen, denouncing anti-semitism. [ ] in the same month, christians of jewish origin turned to the "synodal committee of the dutch reformed church", requesting that on one particular sunday the jewish question should be the main theme of the sermon. the committee replied that "they were convinced that it is the duty of the church to pay attention to israel and pray for it, but that in the present circumstances it would not be wise to set apart a special sunday for this purpose". [ ] on may , , a public meeting of protest was held. amongst other speakers was the rev. j.j. buskes, who later became one of the leaders of church resistance during the war. he then spoke "as a member of a christian church". dr. w. banning also protested against the nazi terror, "in the name of socialism and of the gospel". [ ] * * * on september , , a meeting of protest was held at amsterdam. there were three protestant speakers, one of them, rev. j.j. buskes. [ ] in , the synod of the reformed churches in the netherlands declared that members of the church who were members of the dutch national-socialist party, must be advised to terminate their membership of the party. if they would not heed this admonition, they must be barred from participating in holy communion. this measure was maintained throughout the war. the report to the synod on the n.s.b. (national-socialist movement of the netherlands) says: "even though the n.s.b. rejects idolization of the race, the manner in which it stresses in its program the unity of the aryan race [ ] shows, that it is not blameless in this respect." [ ] < > a protestant committee for help to protestant refugees of jewish origin was formed on may , . * * * in , , jewish refugees were admitted into the netherlands. the government was of the opinion that holland could not bear too heavy a strain on the labour market. the protestant prime minister declared: "if an unlimited stream of foreign jews were admitted, public opinion regarding the jews will take an unfavourable turn". [ ] thus the border was closed and jews who had "illegally" entered into holland were sent back to germany, unless they could prove that their life was in danger there. of course it is easy to be wise after the event, and in those days it was not yet clear to everybody that the life of all jews in germany was in mortal danger. the fact remains that these inhuman measures were taken by a government of which most of the members were professing christians. and no church protested. prof. d. cohen states: "our committee [for help to jewish refugees] had clashed vigorously with the government on this point, notwithstanding our good relations and good co-operation with it. however, we had public opinion with us." [ ] the last part of his statement is doubtful, at least regarding a large section of the protestant press. [ ] a national collection was held on december , , and recommended by the synodal committee of the dutch reformed church: "the committee, concerned about the bitter sufferings resulting from the persecution of the jews, considers it to be the duty of the church to practise christian mercy. it urgently recommends that all local churches should take up a special collection, on behalf of the victims of this persecution, so that their suffering may be alleviated." [ ] < > here help to the persecuted jews in general was recommended, not just to christians of jewish origin. in november, , the executive of the dutch ecumenical council turned to the world council of churches, geneva, requesting it to organize immediate action on behalf of the german jews. [ ] belgium the protestant churches in belgium are minority churches, together comprising less than half a percent of the population. the following statements are all from the year . to the best of my knowledge no other statements were issued after this year. on april , , the federation of protestant churches of belgium sent the following letter to dr. kapler, the president of the protestant federation of germany: "the federation of protestant churches of belgium has directed us to send a fraternal message to the protestant federation of germany. we would ask you, mr. president to accept it in the same christian spirit, and to do us the honour of transmitting it to your executive council. we are much distressed by the events of recent weeks during which the german jewish population has been subjected to discriminatory measures; the situation threatens to deteriorate even further. our german co-religionists, imbued with a sense of justice, must certainly be equally distressed by these excesses. it certainly cannot be pleasing to them that, in most countries, spontaneous public opinion has espoused the cause of german jewry. we would therefore ask you, mr. president, if it would not be possible for the federation of german evangelical churches itself to intervene, discreetly as they may deem fit, on behalf of the german jews so that they may be reinstated in all their rights of citizenship. would it not be a great triumph for the spirit of tolerance, which is certainly a protestant attribute? would it not mean a re-establishment, in the eyes of the world, of that reputation which your country has enjoyed for so long, of being a highly cultured country? may one not say that german jews have, up till now, been much attached to their country; that they have added to its distinction in the field of science, art and literature. < > in short, that they are known for their adherence to the principles of freedom of conscience? inspired as we are by purely christian and humane sentiments, we have no doubt that you will accept the above message in the spirit of grace." yours faithfully, henri anet, secretary; a. rey, president. [ ] this letter was certainly not lacking in courtesy and we get the impression that it was written in a spirit of moderate optimism. apparently it was some months later that the president of the synod of the evangelical protestant churches of belgium sent the following letter to the chief rabbi of belgium: "time has passed since, during the first explosion of hate throughout germany, it might be supposed that a period of calm would follow. but according to accounts in the press, it seems that a general and lasting exclusion of all jewish intellectuals cold-bloodedly continues. this illegal and cruel oppression of a highly respectable minority shows that the new germany is descending into a mental attitude fit only for the middle ages. the destruction of such an out-grown mentality had been, until now, the noblest work and the most imperishable glory of the new spirit of the last four centuries." [ ] even more outspoken was the address of rev. schijns, the president of the federation of protestant churches, at a meeting of protest in bruxelles, on april , : "you have heard the lay protests against anti-semitic persecutions in germany. you have heard the catholic protest. may i be permitted to speak on behalf of the protestant churches of belgium. it is true that the voice of christ, who clearly proclaimed the inviolable rights and imperative demands of justice, has not always been listened to over the centuries; on many occasions christians themselves have had recourse to violence; i cannot forget that in the th century my ancestors, the huguenots, and the beggars, [ ] also suffered cruel persecution... nevertheless, thanks to a clearer understanding of the demands of the gospel, as well as to the progressive evolution of the lay conscience, we had become sincerely convinced that henceforth violence, which was unanimously condemned by public opinion, is morally inconceivable. yet now we discover that violence has been 'honourably' reinstated, so that even today it is still attacking innocent victims." < > we never supposed that, in our times, any person, on religious grounds, could be accused of a political offence! yet, now we hear that in germany a religion (the jewish religion) is being formally and coldly proscribed, by the civil authorities. this inhuman attitude, inspired by a narrow, sectarian nationalism, stands in absolute contradiction to the gospel: it is a monstrous heresy, which cannot but dwarf all other crimes. the ancient jewish law contains the following beautiful maxim: 'thou shalt love the lord thy god with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might'. it is therefore with all my heart, with all my soul and with all my might that i deliver here, in the name of my protestant co-religionists, a message of vigorous and profound sympathy for all innocent victims of violence. the sufferings of today, like those in the past, tragically illustrate the struggle of brute force against the forces of the spirit. but just as moral strength has triumphed in ages past, we are sure that to-day also, by virtue of an eternal law, victory lies with the powers of the spirit!" [ ] france though a small minority, numbering altogether not more than , souls, the spiritual sons of the huguenots early and unequivocally protested against the persecution of jews. they themselves had been persecuted. rev. marc boegner, president of the protestant federation of france, sent the following letter to the chief rabbi of france, in : "the council of the protestant federation of france which reassembled to-day, for the first time since the beginning of the period of the great sufferings of your coreligionists in germany, has asked me to assure you that the protestants of france whole-heartedly associate themselves with the indignation of their jewish compatriots and with the distress of the victims of such base fanaticism. the spiritual sons of the huguenots are stirred with emotion and sympathy whenever a religious minority is persecuted. they are well aware how much christianity, and in particular the reformed churches, owe to the prophets who paved the way for the gospel, and feel afflicted by the blows descending upon their jewish brothers. may god help your sorely tried co-religionists to find in him their strength and consolation, as did their frequently persecuted ancestors. may he impart to you, and to the jews of france, the secret of soothing pain and reviving hope. < > i wish to reassure you, that we are certain, that all our churches will unite, during the holy week, in fervent intercession on behalf of the jews of germany." [ ] in the same year the following letter was sent by rev. cleisz, honorary president of the consistory of the reformed churches of lorraine, to the chief rabbi of nancy: "you will hardly be surprised to find me among those who energetically protest against the wave of anti-semitism in germany, which has cast so many jewish families in distress. i abhor fanaticism, whatever its source, and am dismayed to observe in the middle of the twentieth century such an excess of folly. therefore i join whole-heartedly with those who protest against such a tyranny. i wish to assure you of my deep compassion for so many human beings overcome by grief..." [ ] rev. wilfred monod sent the following letter to the french committee for the protection of persecuted jewish intellectuals: "allow me to express my feelings of relief at the thought that france is offering hospitality to jews escaping from the darkness of a new mediaevalism. although jews were crushed by the great empires of the west; later becoming the vassals of the anti-semitic kings of egypt and syria; politically annihilated by the romans; hated by the moslems; persecuted by the church; held in public disdain; treated as a stateless and homeless people even in the twentieth century, and sometimes deprived of their civil rights in the countries in which they were dispersed; the jews have not disappeared as did the phoenicians or the people of nineveh. without territory, without government, without currency, without flag, abraham's race has kept itself alive. what marvellous obstinacy! what supernatural tenacity! in spite of all this, judaism has given the human race that mysterious book which maintains alive on this earth the inextinguishable flame of a universal, international ideal, the world-embracing ideal of human catholicity. israel has bequeathed to men the bible, jesus christ, and the messianic vision of the kingdom of god... on th august, , up in the vosges, one of our catholic soldiers, mortally wounded, asked for a crucifix, and it was the jewish chaplain who brought him this venerable symbol, some minutes before he himself gave up his soul in the arms of a jesuit priest. this happened on a saturday, the holy day of the jewish sabbath. welcome to the representatives of the wandering nation! on french soil they will find a place to rest their head." [ ] < > on april , , a protest meeting was held at lille. rev. bosc was the protestant spokesman, speaking in his "triple capacity as a human being, a frenchman and a christian". we quote the following: "... finally, to protest against the persecutions and victimisations of the jews is a task in harmony with the spirit of jesus christ, and here i thank monsieur l'abbe who has just sounded forth a note of profound truth. everyone of us knows that the spirit of jesus christ is the spirit of peace, the spirit of justice, and more than that: the spirit of brotherhood and of love. it is the spirit which to-day imbues all moral and social systems in the world, so that jesus christ is acknowledged as the unrivalled ruler not only by christianity as a whole but also by all mankind... the spirit of jesus christ which, ladies and gentlemen, means the spirit out of which are woven the dreams we have of a better future for mankind, the dreams we dream when, surrounded by all sorts of iniquities and by all kinds of ugliness, we nevertheless look towards some glorious dawn! the spirit of jesus means that spirit which will triumph because it is the living truth. it is in my triple capacity as human being, frenchman and christian that i fully pledge my entire, conscious support to this movement of truth in its efforts to infuse a little justice and kindness into mankind, against the attempt to lead humanity back to the night and the iniquities of the middle ages, from which it began to emerge." [ ] * * * on november , , a meeting of protest was held in the hall of chopin, paris. rev. marc boegner, president of the protestant federation of france, said the following: "... since i am here representing both christian and protestant france, i should say that in the light of what is going on in germany - whether it be the persecutions of jews or of christians - it is impossible for us not to add our most energetic protests to those you have heard so far. what christianity owes to judaism "christianity, as has been indicated by president reynaud, is essentially a universal creed. once one believes in christ, whatever one's denomination may be, it is impossible not to subscribe fully to the words of that jew of olden times st. paul, the apostle, who having plumbed the depths of christ's thought, exclaimed: 'there is neither jew nor greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female; for ye are all one in christ jesus'. (gal. , ). this is the basic tenet on which, since july , all preaching in the churches of germany has been practically proscribed. < > first i wish to state that what has shocked and appalled christian conscience, what has provoked protests from one end of the christian world to the other? protests which will certainly be reiterated and increased - is precisely the fact that this new gospel of racialism already has been applied to the jews, and seems to have reached its culmination point in the nuremberg decrees. one cannot know whether even worse may not happen later on. i have met many jews who had been driven out of germany since the hitler revolution, and when i went to germany as recently as this year, on two occasions while travelling through a large part of germany, i could not but feel intensely moved on seeing, at the entrance of villages and towns, large signboards forbidding access to the jews; and on many trees along the roads, posters full of insults against them. christian as i am, and knowing what christianity owes to judaism, i know that the church of jesus christ is the daughter of what it calls the ancient church of israel. the protestant in me knows what the gospel owes to those prophets who, beginning eight centuries before jesus christ, have presaged the universalism which the religion of christ would later proclaim throughout the world. did not isaiah welcome the day when all nations would flow unto the mountain of the lord? and others after him, such as jeremiah, did they not show their people, the only people ever elected, the road by means of which they were to bring to others the revelation which had been bestowed upon them, so that all nations might come to know the true god? the gospel is the heritage and fulfilment of that great hope of the prophets. it is impossible for a christian, when he sees the infamous crusades conducted against judaism, not to be among those who declare that they are unable to forget what they owe to the jewish people. we are among those who remember all this with deep gratitude. we believe that this gratitude, in view of the suffering of this people who are being crucified once again, ought to be shown in acts of sympathy and solidarity. racialism inside the christian churches "the gospel of racialism of which you have just been told does not rear its ugly head solely outside the church, but also inside the christian churches. since july , under the pretext of rallying the whole of germany round the doctrine of racial superiority - you have seen the outcome of such teaching - and of purity of blood, they have begun to persecute those who are not percent aryan, even inside the churches. i was in berlin in july, , and there, where every wall might have been equipped with a hidden microphone, i met one of the most representative personalities of the evangelical church of prussia. he informed me of what had been happening during the last few weeks. he said that he had felt compelled to resign from the high position he had occupied in the german church, even though his resignation would mean a considerable financial sacrifice. he and those who were thinking and acting like him were now unable to speak, to write, to telephone, or to do anything whatsoever. < > "but," said he, "how could i have agreed to go and tell the young evangelical pastors whom i ordained two or three years ago, that they are not fit to preach the gospel or to carry out the duties of their ministry, simply because they have a jewish grandmother or grandfather? this problem of the non-aryam has since then caused much anguish to many men who are pastors or simply beadles. the new gospel has made its appearance in the church, propagated, preached and spread by groups calling themselves the 'deutsch-christliche' or the german christians. it is necessary, they claim, to expel from the churches and from all church posts, in every denomination, those men who are not of absolutely pure aryan blood for three or four generations back. the church resists "this has resulted in unbearably painful conflicts. it should be acknowledged that tremendous pressure was exerted by the state authorities as well as by the pressure of the opinion which increasingly tends to assert in religious circles that adolf hitler was the man through whom germany was able to re-establish herself. in spite of all this, however, there have been instances of catholic and protestant consciences refusing to bow and submit. resistance was organized in the catholic church, where the warning bell to the conscience of christians was rung by that admirable man, the cardinal archbishop of munich. in the protestant church, the great voice of the theologian, kar barth, and the voices of many others, have been raised to rally christian consciences to their call. a completely new confessing church has sprung up comprising more than half of the pastors in germany, quite apart from those who are still hesitating, because they must make a living, and, therefore, ask themselves what will happen to-morrow. about a thousand pastors have placed themselves behind bishop mueller, the 'german christian', whom you, mr. paul reynaud, have just mentioned. the "new gospel" "it is not only through the persecution of the non-aryans that the desire has arisen amongst many germam to preach a new gospel, but because of a claim to meet christ on a new basis, particularly on the basis of the glorification of the german race and blood. the most extraordinary statements have been made. paganism has asserted itself on the fringes of the church and its influence gradually has pervaded it. an effort even has been made in certain churches by pastors imbued with the spirit of national-socialism, to have the old testament - containing the magnificent history of the jewish people and i even would say, of god's great acts toward the jewish race - banned and barred from religious instruction. included also is that moving page in the first book of your bible, and ours - note this, any jews who may be listening to me - where we are told that abraham went so far as to be ready to sacrifice isaac, his only son, to god! "never will the churches agree..." < > "subsequently there have been attempts to make peace with the churches, and the papers during the past few weeks have brought us news of 'peace feelers' offered to the churches. negotiations were envisaged both with the catholic church and with the evangelical churches. but they never will induce either true catholics or protestants, to put as a gospel source, an affirmation of the superiority of the german race over the others, nor a denial of anybody's right to belong to the church of jesus christ. they may again start their persecutions, and i think they will. they may chase pastors and priests from their churches and send them to concentration camps. they may resort to petty annoyance and to persecution; however, i am absolutely convinced that the christian conscience has been aroused. perhaps this experience was necessary to awaken it out of a certain stupor? the christian conscience will absolutely oppose the events which have succeeded each other which such rapidity over the past few years and any attempt which may be made to persuade the churches in any way to insert into the gospel (which desires that all men should be considered the children of god and be reconciled in universal brotherhood) an addition which asserts that some shall rank first and others may be excluded. never will the churches agree that the gospel of love, symbolized by the two arms of christ extended on the cross, will be replaced by a gospel of race and blood. i am convinced that by affirming our sympathy with all in germany who are being persecuted for their views, and with all in the christian church who make efforts to resist (as i have tried to show) the determined attempt to lead them onto the ground of racial discrimination, we are helping them in their resistance. we are helping them to discover that there is a christian, as well as, a merely secular public opinion, throughout the entire world, which is aware of all that this resistance implies in the way of present sacrifice, and perhaps of still more suffering in the future. let us therefore be among those who by word and example give evidence of that sympathy and solidarity. let us unite here, as mr. paul reynaud has asked us to do, without distinction of religious, philosophic or even political convictions, in protest against the besmirching of justice and the dignity of man." [ ] * * * the council of the protestant federation of france, in its session of november , , unanimously adopted the following resolution: "the council of the protestant federation of france, reassembled for the first time since a terrible crime has provided a pretext for new persecutions against the jews, feels itself to be the mouthpiece of all the churches which it represents in our country, in making a solemn protest against a similar outburst of violence and cruelty. < > the christian churches will betray the message entrusted to them, if they do not unreservedly condemn racial doctrines which are contrary to the teaching of christ and the apostles; and if they do not express their utmost disapproval of the barbaric methods by which such doctrines are practised..." [ ] in the light of "the serious problem confronting the authorities by the arrival on french territory of numerous foreigners who had been expelled from their own country by persecution", the council of the protestant federation in france instructed "all protestant frenchmen" as follows: . to aid the government - in determined resistance to any suggestion of violence, wherever it may come from and in whatever manner it expresses itself - to solve so complex a problem in a quiet atmosphere and with respect for human dignity. . to contribute as much as possible, by their gifts and by their co-ordinated initiative, for the relief of the terrible distress which they are witnessing and which makes its appeal to them. the council draws their attention to the existence of a french committee for protestant refugees, aryans and non-aryans, which is now functioning and to which financial contributions can be sent... [ ] switzerland the protestant churches of switzerland are cantonal churches, distinct and independent from one another. in most of the cantonal churches, the legislative body is the synod and the executive organ the synodal council. the federation of the protestant churches of switzerland at first consisted only of national churches, but it soon admitted the free evangelical churches, the methodist church and the "evangelische gemeinschaft". the federation has , , baptized members. at the beginning of april, , the following declaration, signed by protestant ministers, was addressed to "various protestant ecclesiastical groups in french-speaking switzerland": "moved by the present situation of the german jews, and unable to understand how the authorities, otherwise attentive to moral values, can ignore the right of freedom of conscience, and of work, as well as security to every human being, we, the undersigned, think that the time has come to draw the attention of christians to the serious implications in an attitude which is the very negation of the evangelical spirit; a spirit which is synonymous with love, freedom and mutual assistance. we expect the churches to raise their voices in order to claim for the jews the same degree of justice, which it is their duty to demand for every oppressed minority." [ ] < > on may , , the synod of the free evangelical church of the canton vaud sent the following letter to the president of the council of the federation of protestant churches of switzerland: "we beg to bring to your attention the fact that the synod of the free evangelical church of the canton of vaud, at its annual meeting at lausanne, unanimously resolved upon the following declaration, which we now submit to use as you see fit. "moved by the news which has reached us from germany concerning the numerous and regrettable restraints imposed upon the freedom of conscience, and, in particular, concerning the ill-treatment of the jewish population of that country; "and with the conviction that the gospel of jesus christ constitutes an affirmation of freedom and love among the races of mankind; the synod of the free evangelical church of the canton of vaud, assembled at lausanne, unites itself with all protests raised in favour of freedom of conscience and respect for the jews of germany." [ ] in september, , the protestant churches of geneva published the following declaration: "events shocking and hurtful to a sense of justice are mounting in germany and have repercussions here. men are persecuted for their opinions. dismissed, boycotted, ostracized, they are suffering as in the days when neither freedom of thought nor of conscience were tolerated. the mere fact of belonging to the jewish race, even if only by descent, frequently incurs implacable treatment. these actions have given rise to protests in numerous countries and in the most varied circles. here too, our christian conscience has been roused. it would be dangerous to consider ourselves better than others. intolerance and injustice have their roots in our own soil. we must be on our guard. several papers make appeals for violence. the seeds of discord are being sown among our people. anti-semitism, which until now has been foreign to us, now finds its advocates among us. members of our churches, also, forgetting that the same blood flows in all mankind, and that, before god our father, we are all brothers, have been swayed by the passions of these times. let us not permit a spirit incompatible with the teachings of jesus christ to take root in our country." the national protestant church of geneva; the free evangelical church of geneva; evangelical christian association; the committee for popular evangelism; the council of the methodist church. [ ] < > it is striking that the declarations and resolutions issued in switzerland, so many times mention the danger of anti-semitic influences within the country itself, and sometimes within the church. [ ] * * * on november , , the church council of canton zurich addressed the following public letter "to the reformed people of zurich": "in indignation and horror we recently have witnessed, in the state neighbouring us to the north, that jew baiting has erupted and, in its dimensions, surpassed the severest atrocities yet experienced. we feel in spirit united with all our brothers and sisters in the neighbouring country who, whatever their attitude toward jewry may be, deeply deplore such injustice, yet they must keep silent on the subject. we must not be silent. we must consider it a christian obligation to cry out against it, not only within our church walls but to the world at large. it is a terrible injustice to exterminate, by all conceivable means, a nation which possesses, as does every nation, the right to exist. it fills us with deep humiliation and shame to discover in a country living for centuries under the influence of the gospel and of luther, that sentiments of passionate hatred can break out and boil over against a small racial and religious minority, and that all humane and christian feelings be suffocated. it plainly shows us, to our horror, what human hearts are capable of when racial hatred and blind raving passion win the upper hand, drowning the voice of justice, mercy and goodness. can we swiss suppose that we are immune against such frenzy? but are not the same dark powers active within our own people, openly at times and sometimes secretly, confusing conscience; stirring passions; igniting racial hatred? it pains us that consideration for so many unemployed citizens in our own nation prevents us from offering a protecting asylum to the suffering refugees, who, like wild game, are chased from country to country. < > at least let us do for them all that is in our power! when in the next few days a general collection is made for the benefit of these refugees, among whom are not a few who, although jewish by birth, are of the christian faith and thus a part of the evangelical church, let us open our hearts and hands and express loving-kindness towards these remorselessly persecuted people. let us close our hearts to all feelings of unchristian racial and religious hatred. neither hate, slander, oppression nor violence, but jesus christ's love alone is capable of bringing longed for peace to restless humanity. but above all, let us pray to the almighty that he will protect all those who are persecuted, and that he will save our swiss people from the disgrace of an anti-jewish campaign and deliver us, and all nations, from the forces of violence and injustice, and bring his kingdom of justice, love and peace." [ ] again (as in ) the danger of anti-semitic influences within switzerland was mentioned. the letter also gave as an excuse for not admitting more refugees, that there were "so many unemployed citizens in our own nation". the same motive had led other governments - as for instance the dutch government - to issue decrees restricting immigration. the members of the ministers union of geneva wrote a letter to the chief rabbi of the city of geneva in which they expressed their deep sympathy with the persecuted jews. this letter, together with the declaration of the church council of zurich (see above) was read at a service, held in the synagogue on a sunday and not, as usual, on a saturday. this postponement was in order that the prayers of that day could be united with those of all the christian churches in switzerland for the persecuted jews. [ ] in december, , the synod of the canton of bern issued the following declaration: "the synod of the evangelical reformed church of canton bern declares, that it views the merciless persecution of jews and fellow-christians stemming from jewry, as an expression of a spirit which has nothing in common with the spirit of jesus christ. it calls upon all members of our church to intercede on behalf of the persecuted, especially our persecuted brothers; to stand up for them on every occasion; and to oppose any further attempt to poison the soul of our people with the spirit of racial hatred." [ ] * * * < > denmark leading danish theologians - three professors and one lecturer of the copenhagen university [ ] and the bishop of copenhagen, fuglsang-damgaard - published a declaration on january , , denouncing an anti-semitic brochure, "the christian church according to the concept of the peoples of the north", based on the "protocols of the elders of zion". professor frederik torm related the history of this forgery in an informative article. the matter drew attention, even in germany, where the "volkische beobachter" in its edition of january , reported the story as told by its correspondent in copenhagen under the caption "danish theologians grow nervous" and with the subtitle: "the jewish question arises in denmark". the report of the former german envoy, richthofen, dated january , , shows the same attitude, considering the article of the theologians as an act of defence against "the ever increasing understanding of the jewish question in germany among the danish public". [ ] in the autumn of , bishop fuglsang-damgaard said in his sermon at the opening of a new church, lundehuskirken, that it was with deep pain that the christian community had heard about the persecution of the jews in germany, which had reached a culminating-point in those days. pastors of copenhagen supported these words by a public statement and pronounced their "deep sympathy with our jewish countrymen on account of the sufferings which at this time befall their brethren and which must fill every christian with horror". < > dr. fuglsang-damgaard asked the pastors to pray for the suffering jews in the services the following sunday, and he himself declared at a service in helligkors church, that we must pray to god "to protect our people against the poisonous pestilence of anti-semitism, hatred of the jews and persecution of the jews. our lord and saviour jesus christ was david's son after the flesh, and those who love him cannot hate his people". [ ] sweden the swedish ecumenical council sent the following letter, dated april , , to the german evangelical church council in berlin: "the swedish ecumenical council, a representation of different swedish church communities, sincerely regrets the existing conditions in germany and the boycott of german goods abroad, and is deeply concerned by the anti-semitic action in your country, such as has been expressed in official statements and actions. we hope and pray that, with god's help, it will be possible for the german evangelical churches actively to stress the genuinely christian principles, which you upheld in your appeal before the latest elections. "be not overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good." as christian brothers, we are anxious to be in communication with you in this matter and further hear your views. in sincere communion in the faith, for the swedish ecumenical council: arch-bishop erling eidem, chairman. [ ] the appeal of the german evangelical church council to which this letter referred, was published on march , , just before the elections for the reichstag. unfortunately, we do not know whether any reply was received by the swedish ecumenical council. in , prominent protestant church leaders also published an "appeal to swedish christianity", warning against anti-semitic influences in sweden: "action against the jews in germany seems to work as a stimulant - and no small one - for the anti-semitism which exists in certain swedish circles. many of us may have been prone to consider this movement in our country as insignificant, and not worth combating. but the matter is more serious than that. if sufficiently great spiritual strength is not mobilized against this fanatical and shortsighted nationalism, it is difficult to foresee the result. < > the undersigned regard it as their duty to express the worry and anger with which this anti-semitic movement has filled them, and to appeal to swedish christianity of all denominations to fight against racial hatred, stressing christ's valuation of man and his brother-love. < > already from a general and cultural viewpoint, anti-semitism is an expression of ingratitude and shortsightedness. no less in our country, citizens of jewish descent, have contributed in all fields to such a degree that, if all trace of what they have done were erased from the swedish civilization, to-day, it would be much poorer. but first, anti-semitism must be condemned from a christian-religious viewpoint. here too one can, rightly, speak of a debt of gratitude. the prophets and psalms of israel also belong to our holy heritage. and in spite of all wild racial hypotheses, jesus christ is a son of israel and a perfecter of these prophets' work. however, it is not only, and not first and foremost, the gratitude for a spiritual inheritance which urges christian people to take their stand against anti-jewish activity. they would be denying their master if they did not do so. for in him all racial differences are overcome, in the divine love, which has taken form in him, we are all each other's brothers, no matter to which nation or race we belong. whosoever professes himself a follower of christ, yet lets himself be seized by nationalistic presumption, of which anti-semitism is one of the most repellant expressions, must realize that any action designed to attach a stamp of inferiority on members of the jewish people or deprive them of full civil rights, is in absolute opposition to the spirit and teaching of jesus. the gravity of the situation has impelled us to make public this declaration, which is also an appeal to swedish christianity to oppose unmitigatedly a propaganda which is becoming louder and more aggressive anti-jewish, and the mentality of violence from which it stems. time must not be lost. freedom of speech is not yet stifled. the gospel of truth and love may still sound its voice." [ ] at a meeting of the stockholm pastors' society, held in , professor nygren of lund opened the discussion on the subject: "what is the reason for the struggle within the german church?" the pastors' society unanimously decided to publish in the press their agreement with the fundamental viewpoints expressed in prof. nygren's address. the society's resolution reads as follows: "the furious struggle now taking place within the german church is not on a personal question, a question of rights or a question of organization. nor is it a struggle for or against the national-socialistic state or for or against the liberalistic freedom ideal. < > the struggle concerns christianity itself, its existence or non-existence. what is happening in germany to-day is nothing more or less than the appearance of a new religion, beside and in contrast to christianity - a religion based on 'blut und boden', on racial idealism and racial egoism. this has to some extent thrown christians and non-christians into jail. from a deeper viewpoint, the difference between 'german christians' and the heathen 'german faith movement', therefore, becomes surprisingly small. if we observe the deepest tendency, of which, in general, the followers of these movements are quite unconscious, it can even be said that, for the former group, it is a question of the new religion in christian guise; for the latter, the same religion in germanic guise. the extraordinary danger is that the present church management has not the least understanding of the reason for the struggle. it believes that it is fighting for the sake of christianity and does not realize that it has slipped into a new racial religion. true, it often stresses that the bible and the confession should be left 'unas- sailed', but the tone of the voice itself reveals that it is on something else that one subsists. out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaks. the real pathos first appears when one can talk of 'blut und boden', 'blut und rasse', 'blut und ehre'. the god one really worships is the idol of one's own people. but in the german church there are men - and fortunately these are not few - who understand what is at stake; what this new religion has to offer the people, from a christian viewpoint, is nothing less than idolatry. one creates a new god in one's own image, the image of 'the german man'. the christians who see this must, through their faithfulness to the gospel, be forced out into the struggle. because of this they find themselves in tragic conflict; for there is so much in the new state to which, in their hearts, they say 'yes', and with joy. but when they fight this new heathen spirit that has penetrated the church and seized the power in it, they are stamped as enemies of the state by the uncomprehending church management. the point has been reached, where those who do not want to give up their christian faith are attacked by the german church management: with external means of power, the secret state police, removals from office and suspensions. we, evangelical christians of a kindred people, have seen with grief and concern that the german church management through such activities has tarnished the christian name. with the deepest sympathy we follow the oppressed christians' brave and joyfully self-sacrificing struggle, in defence of evangelical christianity, not only in germany but also the world over." [ ] < > the resolution contains points that to-day are obvious to us, but in those days they undoubtedly enlightened many ignorant people. much that has been said by the lutheran church leaders of sweden, already in the first years of hitler's regime, shows a deep theological insight into the nature of anti-semitism. few churches in other lands showed this insight at so early a date. this fact should prevent us from over-simplifying the answers to the question, as to how far certain of luther's views about the jewish people influenced the lutheran churches in the twentieth century. * * * the following statement, signed by erling eidem, archbishop of uppsala, and other church leaders was issued by the swedish ecumenical council, in autumn : "a storm of violence and cruelty goes through the world. the jewish people are severely hit by this. their horrible fate must awake in christian minds strong indignation, as well as deep sympathy for the victims. to belong to the jewish race is becoming equivalent to being stateless within that portion of humanity which calls itself christian. this brings shame upon the christian name. anti-semitic propaganda in sweden "in our country, too, anti-semitic propaganda is prosecuted, even though it may, in some respects, avoid publicity and, especially under the pressure of recent occurrences, has met with deserved resistance. more than others, christians here must be on their guard. no racial differences exist in the christian evaluation of man. love of christ forbids branding any person inferior. persecution of the people of israel on the one hand requests christ's congregation to fight against violence and injustice, and preventive action on the other. the swedish ecumenical council, representing the ecumenical world organizations as well as the larger swedish church communities, hereby begs to remind you of our christian responsibility in this matter. we must not forget that we too, bear a measure of guilt for this evil power that has arisen through loveless ness and injustice in the world. we appeal to all who, in their capacity as pastor, congregation head or preacher, are responsible for the creation of public opinion in such circles as come under christian influence, to resist the spirit of mercilessness and injustice in the anti-semitic propaganda, by all ways and means available in each community. it seems especially important to us to try to prevent its poison penetrating the minds of the young. not only religious instruction in the schools can give an opportunity for this, but also instruction in sunday schools, confirmation classes and bible classes. a few congregational evenings could be used to throw light upon the plight of the jewish people and to stress our christian responsibility towards them. the un-christian element in all racial hatred could at times be stressed in the sermon. all discussion of politics naturally must be banned from such christian instruction and preaching. < > aid of refugees "where the feeling of responsibility has been awakened, it must be transformed into action. this can be done by gifts to the relief organizations among the banished, which also have branches in our country. in co-operation with other organizations, the swedish ecumenical council's refugee committee seeks to aid refugees both within and outside our country's borders, particularly christians of non-aryan descent. the money already collected is now almost spent, but the need for help is still very great. gifts for this activity can be deposited under the name "help for refugees" on the swedish ecumenical council's postal current account no. , stockholm. recently, the council's refugee committee, the deacon board's social committee and the swedish israel mission have started other aid activities, such as accommodating children of jewish refugees, preferably jewish-christian, in swedish homes for a shorter or longer period, and trying to find places farmers' homes for about a year for jewish-christian youth, particularly male, who need re-education for later emigration to countries which have declared themselves willing to receive them. information of such homes as well as financial contributions will be gratefully received by pastor b. pernow, idungatan , stockholm, postal current account no. . intercession "at this period, with the mentality of violence penetrating minds more and more, it is important not to neglect the possibilities we still have to make christ's mind and christ's thoughts heard regarding the relation between man and man, between people and people. scarcely at any other point has this task seemed clearer and more demanding than as it concerns the western peoples' conduct towards israel. may christ's love in our hearts light a flame of concern for a people who were the lord's own, the people of the prophets and the apostles. may christ's love make us burning and persistent in our intercession for those who suffer persecution, as well as, for those who persecute. may they receive the grace to repent. may christ's love make us firm against all hatred, drive out all fear, and make our hands ready for service. brethren, in the name of christ we beg you to receive this appeal in a brotherly spirit." [ ] it is difficult to understand how "all discussions of politics" can be banned from christian instruction and teaching, as the statement demands, whilst at the same time resisting "the spirit of mercilessness...". < > in this same statement, support was requested for the refugee committee, which sought "to aid refugees... particularly christians of non-aryan descent". we have seen the same trend in churches in other countries. however, the appeal of the bishops of sweden, also in , pleaded for aid to jewish children and youth in general. this "appeal for help to jewish refugees" was signed by archbishop eidem and other church leaders: "with deep sorrow and sincere sympathy, we have witnessed the terrible sufferings to which the jewish people, not least during recent months, have been exposed spiritually as well as physically. the question of the jewish people has become a question for all mankind. no one can escape responsibility any longer. our consciences shaken by the suffering of innocent people will not rest until peace and refuge has been provided for the jewish people. each one of us must be on his guard against contamination by the plague of racial hatred; we must not betray the christian commandment of love to every suffering neighbour. may we willingly do our samaritan service in aiding mercy. the duty and possibility nearest to us is to support jewish refugees who have had to relinquish home and property. we must hurry to help provide a refuge and a new future for innocent children and youth. various collections in this respect have already begun. we hereby wish to stress that collections for jewish children and youth are being mediated by the swedish church's deacon board. contributions should be sent to "deacon board, help for jewish children, stockholm , postal cheque account no. '." [ ] hungary the first anti-jewish law, restricting the economic activities of jews, was enacted in . the representatives of the churches in the hungarian upper house, amongst whom was the protestant bishop ravasz, voted for the passage of this law. [ ] < > "the only amendment the representatives of the churches wished to be introduced was that certain modifications should be included for the benefit of the baptized jews. apart from that, they took the view that once the bill had become law 'it would be possible to avoid emphasis being laid on the jewish question and thus to allay anti-semitism'. this attitude turned out to be a fatal mistake. it was the stone that started the landslide, and it is all the more regrettable that the christian churches lent this bill their support." [ ] rabbi fabian hershkovits (former chief rabbi of budapest, now living in tel- aviv, israel) had the following to say: "bishop ravasz was certainly not an anti-semite. after the war, in , he was the president of the council of christians and jews of which i also was a member. he and his friends intended, by supporting the anti-jewish law in , to guard the national hungarian interest. he did not understand that europe, after hitler had come to power, had become a powder-magazine; one should not light a match in a powder-magazine; that was bishop ravasz's historical mistake." [ ] the fact remains that protestant bishops supported an anti-semitic law. if this was an error of judgment, it certainly was a fatal error. in , the hungarian government introduced a bill for the enactment of the second anti-jewish law. the measures included drastic curtailments of personal rights. the representatives of the churches "stood solidly against the passage of the bill" but ultimately "refrained from voting down the teleki government," that is to say they did not vote against the passage of the law but tried "to incorporate such provisions in the law as would insure the greatest possible benefits for particular jewish categories, the first among these being the jewish converts to christianity". [ ] hilberg comments: "in waging the struggle for the baptized jews in the first place, the church had implicitly declined to take up the struggle for jewry as a whole. in insisting that the definition exclude christians, the church in effect stated the condition upon which it would accept a definition that set aside a group of people for destruction." [ ] < > rumania we hardly found any statement against anti-semitism issued by one of the orthodox church leaders in eastern europe, before the second world war. rumania was notorious for the strong anti-semitic influences in that country. the following declaration, issued on april , , by mgr. pimem, metropolitan of moldavia and suceava, is the more striking: "we now are in the holy week and for a time we must forget petty affairs and acts of men. nevertheless i wish to state one thing, namely, that i do not approve of the actions and policies of the nazis with respect to the jews of germany, just as i disapprove of the anti-christian campaign carried out in russia. i desire peace for the entire world and on the occasion of this holy feast i express my wishes for the health and progress of our people. we should follow but one course: the way of christ, for only thus can we be led to salvation." [ ] great britain and ireland many leaders of the churches in great britain publicly protested against the first anti-jewish measures in germany. most of the protests were made by the leaders of the church of england, though some made by other churches are also recorded. the church of england, however, certainly had the widest range of influence in england. i have not recorded all protests that were made. [ ] < > already in the protests were clear and unequivocal, though the church leaders seemed to be afraid of offending the german government. the archbishop of canterbury said in the house of lords, on march , , in reply to statements made by lord reading: "i feel that it would be a decided omission on my part, were i not to state publicly, in the name of the worthiest citizens of our country, whom i represent here, that i entirely agree with the words just spoken by the right hon. lord reading, words which touched us all. i sincerely hope that his majesty's government will, as i know it hopes to do, be able to assure us that it is doing its utmost to express to the jewish community the sympathy of this country and of all christian subjects, - not least of those amongst us who have a feeling of sincere friendship for the german nation." [ ] the archbishop himself apparently belonged to "those amongst us who have a feeling of sincere friendship for the german nation". the bishop of ripon addressed the following message to the international league combating anti-semitism and racialism, on may , : "most gladly do i avail myself of this opportunity of expressing my sympathy with you and the international league in your struggle against anti-semitism, on the occasion of the distressing situation created in germany by the new form of government. it seems almost incredible that such things should happen in the th century, and above all in a country like germany. the leaders of this country, - of the church as well as of the state, - have not left the german government in doubt as to the feelings aroused in us by its policy of cruelty and suicide." [ ] on may , , the archbishop of york issued the following message: "racial persecution is an insult to civilization and culture. it is our duty to endeavour to understand the cause and the character of the nazi revolution in germany, which has gained the support of a large number of the best citizens of the country. but although it generally happens that understanding produces sympathy, the persecution of jews, pacifists and others, such as has so far disgraced the conquests of the revolution, cannot but alienate all sympathies. it is highly important that the government and leaders of the german nation should realize how great the animosity is which these acts provoke among the best british citizens. < > whatever excuses may be made for deeds of violence committed in the course of a revolution, no condemnation can be too severe for the persecution and the organized terror, which undeniably are typical aspects of the recent revolution." [ ] no doubt the nazi revolution in germany had gained the support of a large number of citizens of that country. that the archbishop believed that they belonged to the best citizens of germany, is typical of the atmosphere that reigned in those days. fortunately, however, "the best british citizens were provoked by the persecution". on may , , a meeting of protest was held in birmingham. the bishop of birmingham presented the following resolution: "this meeting of christian citizens of birmingham who are anxious to promote friendly international relations, expresses its profound conviction that the discriminating measures adopted against the jewish race, both in germany and elsewhere, are contrary to the spirit and the principles of christianity. it urges christian men and women everywhere to exert their influence in order to do away with racial and national prejudice." [ ] the resolution was adopted at the close of the meeting. on may , , the archbishop of canterbury addressed a meeting of anglican clergy at westminster. the english primate appealed to the german nation: "to give up, without delay, the racial discrimination which is now being practised. the true strength of a nation and the respect owing to it by other nations lies in the impartial administration of justice to all those who live in its territory". [ ] on june , , the archbishop of canterbury addressed a meeting of protest, held at queen's hall, london: "we all know that at this very time while we are gathered here in an atmosphere of peace and security, the members of the jewish community in germany are being expelled from all public employment, from the posts which they had obtained in virtue of their qualifications, in law, in medicine, and at the universities, and that they are even excluded from concert halls, where music was always considered to be the language common to all mankind. they are being progressively deprived - even when permission is given to practise their profession or their trade - of every chance of earning a living... < > i think with particular indignation of what i have heard concerning the treatment inflicted on jewish children, who are set apart in schools, separated from other children as though they were unclean. think of the effect this must produce on such children in whom the feeling is inculcated from their tenderest years that they are not worthy to mix with other germans! and then picture to yourselves the effect this is bound to have on non-jewish german children, who are thus taught from their earliest days to despise and look down upon other children. when injustice prevails to such an extent, it is impossible here or in any part of the civilized world, that men for whom justice is a part of the heritage they desire to keep intact should remain silent. they must needs speak, were it only to ease their own conscience." [ ] the archbishop showed a remarkable insight when he expressed his particular indignation about the separation of jewish children in schools from other children. that was at a time when many christians and jews tended to underestimate the malevolent intentions of the rulers of the third reich. representatives of all religious creeds, responding to an appeal of the united council of christian churches in ireland (now renamed the irish council of churches) voted for the following resolution, on the occasion of a public meeting of protest, held at belfast, in may : "we have met here in order to express our deepest regret that millions of law-abiding citizens who are not guilty of any crime or of any criminal intentions, should have been accused, persecuted and placed beyond the pale of the law, for the sole reason that they belong to the race which was, after all, the source of our european religion, and to which the founder of christianity belonged. the meeting is horrified at the thought of the sufferings endured and the consequences, which are bound to ensue for europe and the whole world. the history of the human race, of these islands, and of ireland herself presents countless examples of the disastrous effects that persecution has had for us, not to mention the repercussion elsewhere. we know the obstacles that intolerance placed in the way of our national development, the harm it has done, the wounds it has inflicted, the hatred it has caused to accumulate in the course of centuries; hatred by which the minds of men are poisoned long after the actual grievances have disappeared. for this reason we deplore this new seed of death, the dire results of which we foresee, not only for germany, but also for the whole of europe."[ ] < > the church of scotland is by far the largest church in scotland. the general assembly of the church of scotland is the final authority of that church. it is convened annually in may and attended by about ministers and elders, delegated by the presbyteries of the church. the following statement was issued by the general assembly, in may, : "the general assembly rejoice that, in this country, the longstanding traditions of friendliness and goodwill to the jewish people continue to be maintained; they deplore the growth of anti-semitism in many lands to-day, and, in particular, its recent intensified manifestations in germany; and they respectfully appeal to the sister german churches to secure, through their influence with their fellow countrymen and governing authorities, that, notwithstanding the inevitable unsettlement of revolutionary conditions, the suffering of the innocent shall cease, and justice and charity towards all shall prevail." [ ] the church of scotland apparently was optimistic about the "influence of the sister german churches with their fellow-countrymen and governing authorities". we, who now live after the events, are not astonished that the general assembly lamented, in , that, "the protesting voice of the christian church has been so barren of results". [ ] the general assembly of the church of scotland was the only ecclesiastical authority, which as far as i know, spoke out against anti-semitism year after year. the contents of the statements show that it was not an automatic affair, for the changing character of the situation was reflected in these protests. in may, , the following statement was adopted: "the general assembly of the church of scotland, in light of the present world situation as concerns the jewish race, place on record the following expression of their view and convictions. < > remembering the age-long sufferings of the jewish people, their homelessness a nation which has lasted for centuries, the persecutions, injustices and hardships they have endured, from governments, churches and individuals; in view also of the present fresh outbreaks of anti-semitic fanaticism manifested in many lands, the general assembly offer to the jewish people their heartfelt sympathy with them in their almost intolerable wrongs. the general assembly of the church of scotland desire to assure the entire jewish world that ill-treatment of the jews on account of their race or religion is to them abhorrent; that in their judgment it is a denial of the first principles laid down by the great founder of the christian faith, who places love and kindness to all as fundamental laws of his kingdom; and that it is their firm belief that any church which claims to be animated by the spirit of jesus christ and which nevertheless acts with intolerance towards members of the jewish race, is thereby denying the elementary doctrines of the christian faith. the general assembly acknowledge with gratitude to god the great contributions to human knowledge which the jewish race has made in many realms; in a special degree they express their debt to the jewish people for the scrupulous care with which they preserved the early documents of holy scripture for the ultimate benefit of all nations, which for centuries have nourished the piety of myriads who thereby have learned of the grace of almighty god. the general assembly would, in conclusion, again express their sense of the profound significance of the fact that the one whom they rejoice to believe in as the divine saviour of the world came, according to the flesh, of the jewish race, and they feel that this thought imparts to the hebrew nation a special and peculiar position in world history, rendering it a duty on the part of all who love the lord jesus christ to love also the race from which he sprang." [ ] it was then moved and resolved that the assembly send to the chief rabbi a message of sympathy. the statement issued in may, , is as follows: "the general assembly renew their protest against the anti-semitic spirit which still prevails in many countries, express their sympathy with the jews in their sufferings, and urge their faithful people to a greater earnestness in commending the gospel as the one sure basis of fellowship and peace among all men." [ ] not all statements and protests issued over this period in great britain and ireland can be recorded here, but we mention in conclusion two statements issued by churches, not yet mentioned. < > in april , the following message was sent by dr. scott midgett, president of the united methodist church, to a meeting at the white-chapel art gallery: "all the different branches of the christian churches share the jewish communities' horror of all deeds of violence against citizens, and especially of such outbursts of violence against any race or class of society. i feel convinced that i am interpreting the feeling of the methodist church in stressing our hope that measures will instantly be taken in germany in order to prevent a recurrence of explosions of this nature in the future." [ ] in , the "report to the general assembly of the presbyterian church in england" stated: "there has unhappily appeared in various parts of the world, notably in germany, a recondescense of that irrational and wholly unchristian spirit of anti-semitism, which from time to time has disgraced european civilisation. a number of its victims have arrived in our country, and the archbishops of great britain have issued a moving appeal for their relief. but we must do something more. to quote the news sheet issued by the international committee for the christian approach to the jews: "we must play the part of the good samaritan". but that is only one of our objectives. wise christian statesmanship demands that in addition to our relief activities, we must also endeavour to eliminate the causes, which create anti-semitism and its victims. those who are in a position to know, maintain that the outbreak in germany is sure to spread to other lands. indeed it has already begun to do so. we know of attempts to foster the spirit in our own country. and there are so-called christians who attempt to justify it. but note the fact that anti-semitism is essentially anti-christian. no conscious anti-semite can do homage to christ, the jew." the assembly adopted the following resolution: "the assembly regrets the spirit of anti-semitism now prevalent in germany and other parts of europe, and urges its faithful people so to act towards all jews as to allay the spread of this spirit." [ ] < > * * * on november , , the bishop of chichester (dr. george bell) moved a resolution in the church assembly. [ ] the archbishop of canterbury (dr. lang) had to leave to officiate at the christening of his majesty's grandson. he asked the archbishop of york to take his place in the chair. without a word of explanation, however, his absence might be misunderstood. "speaking simply for himself, he felt bound to say that he did most strongly protest against the persecution of the jews... he was sure that the continuation of the present modes of persecution must seriously affect the good will with which the people of this country desired to regard the german nation." the bishop of chichester then moved: "that this assembly desires to express its sympathy with the jewish people and those of jewish origin in the sufferings which are being endured by many of their number in germany, and trusts that christian people in this and other countries will exert their influence to make it plain to the rulers of germany that the continuance of their present policy will arouse widespread indignation and prove a grave obstacle to the promotion of confidence and good will between germany and other nations". he said he moved the resolution with great reluctance, as one who had a profound admiration for germany, as one who had many friends in that country, and desired the closest co-operation and the firmest mutual understanding between germany and great britain. he was compelled to move his resolution because, as a human being, he saw a wrong done to humanity in one great area of german life and action. as a friend of germany he saw the hoped-for friendship between two kindred countries tumbling into ruin through the prosecution of a policy against a section of its population, which was unworthy of a great civilized nation. he appealed to the rulers of germany to desist from a course which shocked christian opinion in this country in a way to which the nearest analogy was the oppression of the jews in russia by the tsarist government exactly years ago. the hardships suffered by baptized persons of jewish origin made a peculiar claim upon their christian sympathy and compassion. there were two points of attack: < > the casting out of the jews from all cultural and professional life, together with the precariousness of their position in business, and the defamation of the jews throughout germany. the nuremberg laws passed last september were supposed to give protection and security within limits to the jews, yet suffering of individuals increased and the personal attacks grew bolder. no doubt they saw in the times not so many weeks back that prayer was asked in all german synagogues for protection for the jews against slander, with the result that the chief rabbi suffered imprisonment for one day and other rabbis suffered punishment. he was sure that great masses of german people themselves abhorred the policy of persecution. they, too, must feel as we felt, that it was a great scar across the fair fame of germany. the bishop of southwark (dr. parsons), in seconding the resolution, said they had hoped that the days of the ghetto had passed for ever. now the jewish people in germany apparently were being forced back into conditions which reminded them all too vividly of the ghetto. their whole position, if it could not be compared with that of slaves, could be compared with that of helots. an article in the times had described the whole policy as a "cold pogrom". mr. s. carlile davis, the german vice-consul at plymouth, in opposing the resolution, said that every member of the assembly would agree that they should all express sympathy with those who suffered from persecution, envy, hatred, malice, or any uncharitableness... the jewish question, so far as it affected germany, was purely a race question, and it was nothing new in germany. it was not for us to dictate to any people how they should handle a race question... the bishop of durham (dr. henson) submitted that they had in the resolution brought before them by the bishop of chichester one of those matters which required from them as a great representative assembly of christian men a clear pronouncement of their convictions. one thing which they ought to emphasize was the solidarity of civilization... the jews were just as mixed a race as the germans - they could hardly be more. this nonsense about race - as if there were some poison in the ancestry of judaism which must be guarded against - was sheer hallucination and nonsense. we knew in this country that the jews could be as prominent in good citizenship as any other section of his majesty's subjects. we, who were the children of christendom, could not exclude from our minds the vastness of the obligations under which we stood to the jewish people. our divine lord, according to the flesh, was a jew. his apostles were all jews. the sacred book, which we used was a jewish book. it was preposterous, base and almost incredibly mean that we, the children of christendom, should turn on the ancient children of god, to whom religiously, spiritually and morally we owed almost everything we value. < > "the least we can do," dr. henson concluded, "is to make it clear from our hearts that we loathe and detest this attitude which is obtaining in germany, and protest against the continuance of this brutal oppression of a small minority of jewish citizens in germany." (loud and continued cheers.)... mr. g.f. lefroy (exeter), in opposing the resolution, said that parliament itself would not dream of passing it. he moved, as an amendment, that only the first portion of the resolution should be moved, confining it to the words "that the assembly desires to express its sympathy with the jewish people and those of jewish origin in the sufferings which are being endured by many of their numbers in germany". on being put to the vote, mr. carlile davis's motion for the previous question and mr. lefroy's amendment were rejected by very large majorities. the bishop of chichester's motion was then carried, with few dissentients. [ ] some of the bishop of chichester's words mentioned above could create misunderstanding, for instance, that he "had a profound admiration for germany". dr. bell's record regarding the fight against anti-semitism (as well as in many other respects) is outstanding. [ ] one should note the policy of deception practised by the germans: "the nuremberg laws passed last september were supposed to give protection and security within limits to the jews...". [ ] that seems incredible, and yet it provided a pretext for people who wanted to do nothing. in the discussion on the above mentioned resolution, one mr. lefroy, in opposing the resolution, said: "parliament itself would not dream of passing it. therefore, why should the assembly pass it?" apparently it escaped the attention of mr. lefroy that a church assembly is not a parliament, and that a church body often can and ought to say things publicly, even though a parliament is not prepared to do so, or perhaps for that very reason. however, the bishop of durham's speech, in the same meeting of the church assembly, is an outstanding example of how a christian leader could and should speak. < > the chief rabbi, dr. j.h. hertz, wrote to the bishop of chichester: "your words will come as a ray of hope to hundreds of thousands whose annihilation seems to have been decided upon by the nazi rulers." [ ] at a meeting of the london diocesan conference [ ] held in central hall, westminster, in , the following resolution was submitted for discussion by permission of the bishop of london: "this conference, while fully aware of the difficulties that must arise from the presence in certain districts of large populations of people of other religious beliefs and social habits, asserts that the jew and the christian are equal children of god, and therefore calls upon all christians to stand firm against any and every attempt to arouse anti-semitic feeling for political or any other needs." [ ] the bishop of chichester was very active in promoting help for christians of jewish origin. [ ] this subject is, however, beyond the scope of this book. in the summer session of the church assembly, in june , dr. bell pleaded that the needs of jews and christians alike should be remembered. "the bishop of chichester moved: that this assembly records its deep distress at the sufferings endured by 'non-aryan' christians, as well as by members of the jewish race, in germany and austria, and urges that not only should everything possible be done by government aid to assist their emigration into other countries but also that christians everywhere should express their fellowship with their suffering brethren by material gifts as well as by personal sympathy and by prayer." he said he did not want to speak of political matters in a country with which they desired to be friends, nor to attack the leadership of the great german state. he asked the assembly not to make any protest against a system, but to record its deep distress at the suffering of christians and jews... < > what could members do? first of all they must not forget it, but let it be printed on their memory and never rest while the distress was unhealed. they must remember the needs of jews and christians alike. it was wrong to separate the jews and leave the jews to the jews and the christians to the christians. they both made a deep appeal by their sufferings to all humanity and above all to the christian church.'... first of all they could pray for the sufferers; prayer from the heart availed and was a great bond of fellowship. next they could feel deeply for and with them until something was done. thirdly there was material help... he asked for their (the assembly's) help and for the help of their constituents all over england and he asked for the awakening of conscience. they would not forget and he could not forget that their master was a jew, a non-aryan. they thought in their hearts that if they saw their master in sorrow they would wish to help him, but it was right to remember the parable that their master uttered of judgment and what he said when he rebuked certain disciples: 'for i was an hungered and ye gave me no meat: i was thirsty and ye gave me no drink: i was a stranger and ye took me not in: naked and ye clothed me not: sick and in prison and ye visited me not.' when the disciples in defending themselves asked what he meant, the master added: 'verily i say unto you, in as much as ye did it not to one of the least of these, ye did it not to me'. he was convinced that their attitude in england and in the church of england to the needs of those suffering non-aryan christians and members of the jewish race was the test of their attitude to their master himself. it was because of that that he felt so deeply and that he asked them to give their prayers and sympathy and their material help. the motion was carried. [ ] the bishop of chichester followed this move with a plea for more vigorous government action in his maiden speech in the house of lords, on july , . he began with a strong condemnation of the nazi persecution: "i cannot understand - and i know many germans - how our own kinsmen of the german race can lower themselves to such a level of dishonour and cowardice as to attack defenceless people in the way that the national-socialists have attacked the non-aryans. < > he then pleaded with the government to follow up the initiative of president roosevelt by increasing its facilities for training younger refugees in great britain, by providing greater scope for settlement in the colonies, and by persuading the dominions to open their doors more widely. the under-secretary of state for foreign affairs assured him that the government would do what it could. but dr. bell remarked a few weeks later in his diocesan gazette: "it is almost as hard to understand the seeming apathy with which the fate of the jews and the non-aryan christians is being regarded by the people of the british empire... these non-aryans can no longer be called 'refugees' for they have as yet no country of refuge. we emphasize the responsibility of the british empire in this connection, because the british colonies and the british dominions cover the larger part of the whole available globe. it seems to us impossible, both on the grounds of charity and on the grounds of statesmanship, that the doors can remain forever shut." [ ] resolutions adopted by the presbyterian church of england exposed the danger of anti-semitism existing in england in those days. in , the general assembly stated: "the assembly notes with concern the attempts which have been made to create racial antipathy against the jews, with whom the assembly expresses its sympathy. the assembly expresses its conviction, that in a nation professing christianity, no discrimination on grounds of race must be recognised. the assembly urges that the freedom accorded by law in this country to citizens of any faith to live in peace and pursue their lawful callings shall be specially safeguarded. the assembly resolves to send a copy of this resolution to the board of deputies of british jews, and to the home secretary." [ ] in may, , the general assembly adopted the following resolution: "the assembly urges its faithful people to encourage every effort to overcome the evil spirit of anti-semitism which thing we hate." < > there was hesitancy in the minds of some about the word 'hate', when the convener moved this resolution, but the assembly overwhelmingly approved of it. [ ] the general assembly of the church of scotland certainly did not mince words. it declared in : "the general assembly learn with profound regret that the past year has brought no alleviation of the sufferings caused to the jewish people by the inhuman political, social and economic persecutions prevalent in central and eastern europe. they protest against the religious intolerance, the narrow nationalism and race-pride on which anti-semitic hatreds are based. they call on the christian people of scotland, in loyalty to the law of christ and their own high traditions of liberty and toleration, to rid their minds of all narrow anti-jewish prejudice, and to broaden out their obedience to the gospel ever commanding peace and goodwill to all men. the general assembly again commend to the liberality of their faithful people appeals made on behalf of refugee jews from germany and other lands, specially remembering the christians of jewish race who are involved in the terrors of persecution." [ ] in , the general assembly declared: "the general assembly renew in christ's name their condemnation of the unabated brutality still being dealt to the jewish minorities in central and eastern europe, and lament that the protesting voice of the christian church has been so barren of result. they deprecate the attempts in certain parts of england to create antipathy against the jews." [ ] the statement adopted in may , reads as follows: "the general assembly renew their protest against the virulence and cruelty of the attacks still being directed against helpless jewish minorities in central and eastern europe, and they affirm that no church can be truly christian and anti-semitic at one and the same time." [ ] * * * the first reaction to the horrors of the "crystal night" pogroms was a letter of the archbishop of canterbury to "the times": "i believe that i speak for the christian people of this country in giving immediate expression to the feelings of indignation with which we have read of the deeds of cruelty and destruction which were perpetrated last thursday in germany and austria. < > whatever provocation may have been given by the deplorable act of a single irresponsible jewish youth, reprisals on such a scale, so fierce, cruel and vindictive, cannot possibly be justified. a sinister significance is added to them by the fact that the police seem either to have acquiesced in them or to have been powerless to restrain them. it is most distasteful to write these words just when there is in this country a general desire to be on friendly terms with the german nation. but there are times when the mere instincts of humanity make silence impossible. would that the rulers of the reich could realize that such excesses of hatred and malice put upon the friendship which we are ready to offer them an almost intolerable strain. i trust that in our churches on sunday and thereafter remembrance may be made in our prayers of those who have suffered this fresh onset of persecution and whose future seems to be so dark and hopeless." [ ] the archbishop's letter expressed "feelings of indignation", but also reflected the spirit of appeasement: the british prime minister neville chamberlain had signed the munich agreement with hitler, only six weeks before. on november , , during the autumn session of the church assembly, the bishop of chichester pleaded that help should be given to christian refugees of jewish origin. in january , he was to urge "to aid the entire mass of non-aryans". now the tendency still was to stress the help to christians of jewish origin, not to the jews in general. there was one notable exception, in which jews and christians jointly took action, without asking themselves whether the persons to be helped were jews or christians. lord gorell was asked by the archbishop of canterbury to be joint chairman (with lord samuel) of the "movement for the care of children from germany", in february . this movement succeeded in bringing over , children from germany to england. roughly nine-tenths were jewish, and one-tenth christian children. < > "where a jewish child was received in a christian home - which occurred frequently - it was prescribed by the movement, and accepted by the foster-parents, that there should be no attempt to proselytise. the nearest rabbi, or jewish teacher, was put in touch with the child, and if personal contact was not possible, instruction was arranged by correspondence. the last transports of the children from germany reached england a few days after the outbreak of the war." [ ] a joint statement was issued by british church leaders, in april : "in making the following statement, we, the undersigned, - the archbishop of york; dr. jas. black, moderator of the church of scotland; the bishop of edinburgh; dr. s.m. berry, congregational union of england and wales and federal council of free churches; the rev. m.e. aubrey, baptist union of great britain and ireland, - feel that we are giving expression to the convictions of a large number of christians in great britain: . we believe that the following is an essential and basic principle of all true civilization: religious freedom, freedom of opinion and action in accordance with religious beliefs, provided that social order is in no way endangered thereby; legal equality for all, independently of social position or race..." [ ] in november, , the moderator of the church of scotland wrote a letter to the chief rabbi of the british empire, who replied as follows: london, th nov. / . dear dr. black, "i am indeed touched by your letter of the th inst. conveying to me on behalf of the general assembly of the church of scotland, the deep horror of the suffering inflicted on the jewish people throughout europe. in the agony through which hundreds of thousands of my coreligionists are now passing, it is fortifying to read your strong repudiation of all persecution as unchristian, inhuman and pagan; and to learn that the love of god, love of fellow-man, and love of freedom rule with undiminished strength in little, but great scotland. i should be glad if you would kindly convey to the general assembly the deep felt thanks of my community for their kind expression of christian sympathy with the suffering of israel. the general assembly commented: < > "it is now the duty of the church to contrive that the wave of sympathy shall not ebb, but, while it is on the flow, shall be turned into the only channel, which, as we believe, reaches the heart of the jewish problem. the immediate duty, however, is to direct sympathy towards practical and generous action with regard to the gigantic refugee problem which confronts the free peoples of the world..." [ ] the following statement was issued by the conference of the methodist church in ireland, in june : "the conference notes with grave concern the growth of anti-semitism in europe and america, and expresses its profound conviction that this tendency is directly contrary to the spirit of christianity. it views with horror the treatment now being meted out to men, women and children in germany on purely racial grounds, and regards with apprehension the possibility of the spread of such policy to other countries. it commands to the sacrificial sympathy of the church, the efforts being made on behalf of non-aryan refugees both in eire and in northern ireland, and suggests that they offer a most effective method of bearing christian testimony against the terrible divisions of the present hour." [ ] the united states protestant churches in america have protested against racial discrimination in general. we only record, however, the resolutions and statements, which expressly denounced anti-semitism. on march , , american christian clergymen and laymen appealed to the german people to put an end to the persecution of jews. they urged preachers throughout the united states to rally their congregations on the following sunday for a united stand against hitlerism. the summons to the churches was sponsored by the interfaith committee and signed by bishop manning (episcopalian), mr. al smith, the former governor of new york state (a roman catholic), and others equally prominent. [ ] < > on march , , a mass meeting was held in new york, madison square garden, attended by , persons, as a protest against anti-semitic activities in germany. , swarmed round the building to hear the voice of speakers brought to them through amplifiers. the meeting followed a day of fasting and prayer with similar protests being staged in other cities. former governor alfred smith, bishop william t. manning, and senator robert f. wagner were among the speakers. [ ] on may , , a manifesto signed by protestant ministers from states of the united states and canada was published: "we christian ministers are greatly distressed at the situation of our jewish brethren in germany. in order to leave no room for doubt as to our feelings on this subject, we consider it an imperative duty to raise our voices in indignant and sorrowful protest against the pitiless persecution to which the jews are subjected under hitler's rule. we realize full well that there are religious and racial prejudices in america, against which we have repeatedly protested and for this very reason we all the more deeply deplore the retrogression which has supervened in germany where so much had been achieved while we in america were still fighting for human rights. for many weeks we have waited, refusing to believe all the reports concerning a state policy against the jews. but now that we possess the irrefutable testimony of facts, we can no longer remain silent. hitler had long vowed implacable hatred against the jews. one of the fundamental nazi doctrines is that jews are poisonous germs in german blood and must therefore be treated as a scourge. hitler's followers now apply this doctrine. they systematically pursue a 'cold pogrom' of inconceivable cruelty against our jewish brethren, dismissing them from important positions they had occupied, depriving them of civil and economic rights, and deliberately condemning those who survive to a life without legal protection, - as outcasts, threatening them with massacre should they make the slightest protest. we are convinced that the efforts made by nazis to humiliate an entire section of the human family, are liable to cast the civilized world back into the clutches of mediaeval barbarism. we deplore the consequences which may ensue for the jews and also for christianity which tolerates this barbarous persecution, and, more particularly, for germany herself. we are convinced that in thus protesting against hitler's cruel anti-semitism we are acting as sincere friends of the german nation." [ ] < > speaking of their "jewish brethren in germany", those protestant ministers apparently had in mind the jews of germany in general, not just the christians of jewish origin. * * * the next statement to be recorded in this chapter was issued by the federal council of the churches of christ in america. this organization represented the great majority of american protestants. the total membership of churches affiliated with it was, in - : , . . the executive committee of the federal council published the following statement in november : "at a recent meeting of protest against the treatment at present inflicted on jews in germany, the assembly of the church of england expressed the hope that other christian bodies would join in this protest. we feel constrained to do so. we are members of churches which have numerous and close bonds of union with the german church. we recognise our indebtedness to the great german preachers and teachers of christianity, who have done so much to enrich our common heritage from the days of luther to the present day. after the last war we protested strongly against the limitations to which germany was subjected by the treaty of versailles and made constant efforts for their suppression. for this very reason we consider it our duty to speak equally freely now that germany is pursuing a policy, which threatens her with moral isolation. we protest against this policy because the treatment of the jews is unworthy of a great nation. to treat a considerable part of the population as being essentially inferior for racial reasons only, and to impose restrictions on the normal life of persons whose families have lived in germany for generations, and who have rendered eminent services in the realms of education, art, and government, is to violate the codes of honour and good faith which are the common property of civilized nations. but our reason for protesting goes far deeper. we protest against this policy because the philosophy on which it is based is a heathen philosophy. founded on a religious interpretation of race, the actual treatment inflicted on the jews raises far greater problems than any former persecutions of jews and other minorities, which were founded on political and incidental considerations. it is an attempt of a tribal heathen movement, based on race, blood, and soil, to separate christianity from its historical origin and a christian nation from its religious past. all the different branches of the christian church are, therefore, in duty bound to protest, not only in the name of the human brotherhood, but also in the name of our christian faith. [ ] < > the meeting of protest mentioned at the beginning of this statement was held on november , . [ ] the response of the federal council came very promptly indeed. international contacts between churches were a factor the importance of which can hardly be overestimated. dr. charles s. macfarland, the then general secretary of the federal council, had had a personal interview with hitler in the autumn of . before accepting hitler's invitation to call, he was warned that no one was even permitted to mention the jewish issue to him. dr. macfarland, however, had made it clear that he was not going there to discuss tennyson or browning and that he would have to be permitted to choose his own subjects. word came that "his excellency desired me to talk freely with him". dr. macfarland relates: "i told herr hitler that, in my judgment, the german evangelical church could not and would not yield itself to his polito-social theory, including his so-called aryan laws, and that if it did, it would not only cut itself off from the christian churches of the world, but would cease to be christian..." [ ] dr. macfarland followed up this conversation by correspondence. in one letter he wrote that the near complete hostility of the american people was deeply ethical in nature and could be modified only by two processes: . "a constructive measure of justice in dealing with the jews in germany, stopping all continuation of the boycott, conferring with leading jews of high character, and, while still recognizing the social problem involved, endeavouring to secure needed readjustments by friendly measures and, above all, restoring neighbourly good feeling between jewish rabbis and christian pastors and among jews and non-jews who live side by side... i also hope that, by a final settlement of the jewish problem which will do full justice, this barrier between the german people and the peoples of the world may be removed." [ ] < > apparently hitler did not underestimate the influence of the american churches: he replied to dr. macfarland's letters, stating that he wished "to promote the unity of the church", that he accepted one of these letters "in the same spirit in which it was written" and that he thanked dr. macfarland for his "candid and sympathetic appeal". [ ] on june , , however, dr. macfarland published an open letter to hitler, from which we quote the following: "you especially demarcated the church's "confession" as a sacred ground on which the state could not and would not intrude, and i handed you a memorandum calling attention to the fact that by that confession the church was supernatural, supernational and superracial and that the so-called 'aryan paragraph' cut right across the confession; that if the church accepted it, it would make a breach between the church in germany and the 'positive christianity' for which you declared you stood. as previously mentioned, you replied to later correspondence that you accepted my appeal 'in the spirit in which it was given'. that appeal was for a constructive measure of justice in dealing with the jews in germany, stopping all continuation of the boycott, conferring with leading jews of high character and, while still recognizing the social problem involved, endeavouring to secure needed readjustments by friendly measures and, above all, restoring neighbourly good feeling between jewish rabbis and christian pastors and among jews and non-jews who live side by side'. and i added: 'i hope that this barrier between the german people and the peoples of the world may be removed'... what now are the results of my continued study and how do they appear in the light of your earnest assurances?... instead of doing justice to the jews, you have permitted them to be harassed and despoiled. your treatment of them has been ruthless, without the slightest appearance of mercy, even reminding one of the infamous edict of herod in stretching the hand of violence to the littlest child. your attitude toward the little handful of jews in germany and your so-called aryan and nordic ideas have had no little effect in confusing members of the evangelical church, so that, in this way, you divided instead of fulfilling 'the desire you expressed to me of uniting the church. you undermined the most basic ideal of christianity, on which unity alone could be secured... i have been reading a paper called der stuermer. not only does it explicitly teach and urge hate-hate-hate, but does it in forms whose viciousness never would be believed by one who had not seen it. the language in this paper is too vile for repetition, and its falsehoods are obvious to any ordinarily informed person who knows germany. the best that one can say of the illustrations is to hope that they emanate from a disordered, rather than a depraved mind..." [ ] < > i think that, if dr. macfarland had been a citizen of my country (the netherlands), legal proceedings might have been instituted against him in those days, for "public offence to the head of a friendly state". the home missions council, early in december , issued a special christmas message concerning jewish and christian relations which it addressed to all christians of north america. we quote the following from this message: "as christians of the united states and canada we desire to express to those jews who are the victims of injustice and abuse our sincere sympathy, and we emphatically declare that such conduct is utterly alien to the teaching and spirit of the faith we profess and an affront to all our ideals of civil liberty and justice." [ ] * * * the executive committee of the federal council of churches of christ in america proposed to set aside november , , as "the occasion when prayer will be sought in the united states for refugees, both christian and jewish". [ ] the officials of both the roman catholic church and jewish organizations, following the example set by the federal council, designated the same date for a period of prayer and intercession. the governors of about a score of states issued statements or proclamations urging citizens to repair to their places of worship on that day for united prayer for the suffering. the day of prayer was widely observed in all parts of the country and in all the churches. [ ] the executive of the federal council had issued "an appeal to all church people to respond generously to the efforts for the relief of refugees as carried on by the american committee for christian german refugees and also by the catholic and jewish organizations". [ ] when the first reports of the new measures of oppression and persecution of the jews in germany appeared in the press, the federal council's office invited outstanding christians, both ministers and laymen, to express their views and give wide publicity to them. < > among the lay voices, which were most widely heard across the nation was that of honourable herbert hoover, who, in a message telegraphed to the federal council, gave expression to the sympathy of all thoughtful christian people. a statement of dr. edgar de witt jones of detroit, president of the federal council, was also quoted in all parts of the country. [ ] on the evening of november , , the federal council of churches sponsored a national broadcast over the columbia broadcasting system in which christian sympathy was again expressed and carried to every part of the nation. there also was a national broadcast under the auspices of the national conference of jews and christians, on november , . [ ] on january , , a petition on behalf of german refugee children was left for president roosevelt at the white house by a deputation of clergymen. the petition was signed by leaders of the catholic and protestant churches. it read as follows: "the american people has made clear its reaction to the oppression of all minority groups, religious and racial, throughout germany. it has been especially moved by the plight of the children. every heart has been touched, and the nation has spoken out its sorrow and dismay through the voices of its statesmen, teachers and religious leaders. americans have felt that protest, however vigorous and sympathy, however deep, are not enough, and that these must translate themselves into such action as shall justify faith. we have been stirred by the knowledge that holland and england have opened their doors and their homes to many of these children. we conceive it to be our duty, in the name of the american tradition and the religious spirit common to our nation to urge the people, by its congress and executive, to express sympathy through special treatment of the young, robbed of country, homes and parents. a heartening token of the mood of america is to be found in the fact that thousands of americans of all faiths have made known their eagerness to take these young children into their homes, without burden or obligation to the state. working within and under the laws of congress, through special enactment if necessary, the nation can offer sanctuary to a part of these children by united expression of its will to help. < > to us it seems that the duty of americans in dealing with the youthful victims of a regime which punishes innocent and tender children as if they were offenders, is to remember the admonition of him who said, 'suffer little children to come unto me'. and in that spirit we call on all americans to join together without regard to race, religion or creed in offering refuge to children as a token of our sympathy and as a symbol of our faith in the ideals of human brotherhood." [ ] senator robert f. wagner, attempting to implement the clergymen's proposal, introduced a resolution in the senate. known as the child refugee bill, it proposed that a maximum of ten thousand children under the age of fourteen be admitted in , and a similar number in . their entry would be considered apart from and in addition to the regular german quota. [ ] the executive of the federal council supported the bill: "in the extraordinary circumstances which have created the problem of jewish and christian refugees from germany, we feel that it is not enough to call upon other nations to help or to voice our protests but some such practical step as the one here contemplated is imperative and will do much to facilitate a larger approach to the problem of which it is but one part." [ ] on july , , the proposed bill was modified: the twenty thousand childrens' visas would be issued against the german quota, not in excess of them. senator wagner, realizing that the twenty thousand children's visas might become twenty thousand death warrants for adults they would replace, withdrew his proposal. [ ] < > in march , the federal council urged the united states to continue to provide asylum for refugees of other countries in the face of any legislative proposals to suspend immigration or curtail existing quotas. declaring that the churches were deeply concerned with the refugee problem and that "as christians we have responsibility for suffering human beings as children of our common father wherever they may be", the council said: "we, therefore, urge our government to maintain its historic policy of friendliness to refugees. we oppose legislative proposals, which would suspend immigration at this time or curtail the established quotas." in its objection to any change in the immigration policy the council pointed out that refugees "would be consumers as well as producers" and added: "however, even if they were not an economic asset as well as a liability, we would still have a christian responsibility to them." [ ] in april , the national council of the protestant episcopal church issued the following resolution on behalf of aid to refugees: "in view of the persecution of minorities now taking place in europe, we, as christians and members of the national council of the protestant episcopal church, and in keeping with the traditional spirit of our country, reaffirm our conviction that the united states should continue to show its spint of generosity and hospitality in opening its doors to afflicted people. we commend the program, as prepared by the episcopal committee on german refugees, to the interest and support of all members of the church, reminding ourselves of our lord's admonition: 'in as much as ye have done it unto the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me'." the program prepared by the committee on german refugees called for co-operation with local refugee committees in helping to obtain employment, in placing children in homes and in obtaining affidavits of support for individual immigrants. [ ] to the best of my knowledge, there is no other country in which churches and church leaders in those days so unequivocally demanded asylum for the refugees. so far we have recorded actions and statements on behalf of the refugees only. the following statements also denounced anti-semitism in germany and/or in the united states. < > the presbyterian church in the u.s.a. stated, at the end of : "... we are deeply shocked at the continuance of persecutions based on race in germany, austria, rumania and other nations. we sympathize with our jewish brethren in the united states, many of whose relatives are the innocent victims of fanatical hatred abroad. we commend the national conference of jews and christians for all its labour to the end that race murders and race discriminations shall not happen here..." [ ] in its bulletin (february, ) the federal council of the churches of christ published the following article: the christian attitude towards anti-semitism every thoughtful christian must gratefully acknowledge his spiritual indebtedness to the hebrews. we christians have inherited the ethical and religious insights of israel. we hold them with a difference - at one point with a momentous difference - but we can never forget that the historic roots of our faith are in the hebrew people. from israel we inherit the ten commandments, which are still our basic moral standards. from israel we inherit the priceless treasure of the psalms, which are an essential part of christian worship around the world. from israel we inherit the vision of social justice which has come to us through amos and isaiah and micah. from israel we inherit even our own unique christian classic, the new testament, nearly all of which (if not all) was written by jews. a christian who faces the modem world must also be conscious of a present spiritual kinship with his jewish neighbours to whom their religious heritage is still a vital force. that kinship is grounded in our common faith in the ultimate spiritual foundations of the universe. over against those who adhere to a materialistic philosophy of life and a mechanistic conception of human destiny, we recognize ourselves as at one with the jews in the first sublime affirmation of the pentateuch: 'in the beginning god'. over against current disillusionment and despair christian and hebrew stand together in their belief in the one holy god who is the creator of all and whose righteous will gives meaning and direction to life. a christian who knows anything of history must also speak a word of confession. for he cannot help recalling how grievously the jewish people have suffered at the hands of men who called themselves christians. the record of the treatment of jews in europe through long centuries is one which christians of to-day view with penitence and sorrow. one has also regretfully to admit that the day of cruel treatment of the jews by some who call themselves christians is not yet a thing of the past. even in our own country there are misguided groups which circulate statements that spread a poison of mistrust and hate which is antithetical to the true genius both of america and of the christian religion. anti-semitism is inherently un-christian, contrary to the plain teaching and spirit of our lord, and it can be asserted with confidence that an intolerant attitude towards the jews is opposed by the great body of american christians... < > but everything which has happened since shows that what started as a movement against the jews turns out to be a movement against christianity also... [ ] in may , the commissioners of the general assembly of the presbyterian church in the u.s.a. stated: "... we confess the sins of our country in this respect. we condemn the attacks on jews and christians and other minority groups throughout the world. we would be lacking in a sense of common morality and decency if we did not express our strong disapproval of such an outrageous assault by any government upon an innocent and defenceless people. we urge our government to continue its efforts to make generous arrangement for the settlement of refugees, so continuing our national tradition of being an asylum for the oppressed of all the nations." [ ] the general synod of the reformed church in america, attended by pastors and delegates, adopted (june, ) the social welfare report which said in part: "the failure of the church to recognize the jew has behind it a record of misunderstanding, intolerance and spiritual malpractice that has been unequaled in dealing with any other people. even america is not free from the blight of anti-jewish prejudice. both jew and gentile are responsible for existing conditions and both must co-operate for their betterment. christians must rebuke all anti-semitism... third, in reference to the refugee problem, a linking up of our efforts and agencies with all others in more adequately caring for those who are so greatly in need. fourth, a wholehearted endorsement of the legislation permitting , children (refugees) to be received each year for two years." [ ] international organizations of churches the world alliance for international friendship through the churches was constituted at constance, in , at the eve of the first world war. its supreme body, the international council, was composed of some members appointed by the various national councils. < > in some countries, especially on the continent of europe, the national councils worked in close relation with ecclesiastical authorities; in most areas, however, they remained entirely independent agencies, based on the personal adhesion of their members. the executive council of the "world alliance", at its meeting in sofia, , unanimously adopted the following resolution: "... we especially deplore the fact that the state measures against the jews in germany have had such an effect on public opinion that in some circles the jewish race is considered a race of inferior status. we protest against the resolution of the prussian general synod and other synods [ ] which apply the aryan paragraph of the state to the church, putting serious disabilities upon ministers and church officers who by chance of birth are non-aryans, which we believe to be a denial of the explicit teaching and spirit of the gospel of jesus christ." [ ] the international council of the "world alliance", at its meeting in chamby (august, ), adopted the following resolution: "in view of the pitiable situation of refugees and stateless persons in europe, having regard to the policy of expulsion which is being pursued by the majority of the european states, to the inadequacy of the measures for providing refugees with valid identification papers and residence and labour permits, and recognising the fact that a turn for the better cannot be attained by legislation undertaken by individual states but only on the basis of international agreements, the world alliance most warmly welcomes the initiative taken by the norwegian government which, in the spirit of fritjof nansen, has proposed to place the situation of the refugees upon the agenda of the next plenary assembly of the league of nations. it expresses the hope that in this way it will be possible to secure for refugees and stateless persons a minimum of individual rights and, by the setting up of a central organisation for refugees, within the framework of the league of nations, to provide a basis for the settlement of the problem. in order to make this resolution effective, the world alliance resolves: a. to bring the text of this resolution of the norwegian government to the knowledge of the general secretary of the league of nations and of all states members of the league of nations; b. to request the churches and organisations affiliated to the world alliance in the different countries to make representations to their governments in the spirit of the resolution before the next meeting of the league of nations in order to obtain the support of these governments for the norwegian initiative." [ ] < > another international organization of churches, more influential than the "world alliance", was the ecumenical council for life and work, which had its first world conference in , in stockholm, and its second in , in oxford. its purpose was "to stimulate christian action in society". its president, dr. george bell (bishop of chichester) wrote a letter to dr. kapler, president of the federation of protestant churches in germany, dated may , : "... we do not wish to enter into political questions, nor indeed is it our business to do so. at the same time it would not be fair to disguise from our friends in germany that certain recent events, especially the action taken against the jews, have caused and continue to cause us anxiety and distress; and we feel that we ought to share our concern with you here..." [ ] the annual meeting of life and work was held at novi sad, in yugoslavia, on - september, . a german delegation under the leadership of dr. heckel, who supported hitler's policy, was present at the meeting. the minutes record that representatives of other churches had expressed grave anxiety over the severe action taken against people of jewish origin. [ ] bishop bell proposed that, in addition to this, he should write a letter to the leaders of the german church. this proposal was adopted unanimously. only dr. heckel abstained from voting. bishop bell wrote this letter to the german reich bishop mueller, on october , . he referred to two features, which were gravely disturbing to the christian conscience, namely, the adoption of the aryan paragraph by the prussian church synod [ ] and certain other synods, and the forcible suppression of minority opinion. mueller's reply of december was intended to be reassuring. the enactment of the aryan paragraph had been stopped, and he hoped for an opportunity when they might discuss together the problems of race, the state, and international order. [ ] the executive committee of the ecumenical council of life and work at novi sad issued the following "appeal on behalf of german refugees" in november, : < > "a new appeal is hereby addressed to christians, at this christmastide. it is an appeal to help those who are suffering because there is no place for them in germany: jews, christians of jewish origin and political refugees. they are dispersed in palestine and in different lands of europe. they are in a deplorable situation and a great number of them are destitute... the gifts of the churches will constitute a welcome proof of that truly ecumenical and christian spirit which, beyond all differences of race and class, regards every man as a brother." george cicestr, president of the ecumenical council for life and work; germanos, archbishop of thyatira, co-president; w.a. brown, president of the administrative committee; waldemar ammundsen, interim president of the european section; wilfred monod, vice president. [ ] * * * the international missionary council was organized in , to co-ordinate missionary work throughout the world. its "committee on the christian approach to the jews" met at vienna, june- july, . a report of the subcommittee on anti-semitism and the church was submitted, and adopted in the following form: "we desire to record our conviction that in contemporary anti-semitism we face an extraordinary menace against which all christians must be warned. all forms of hatred and persecution must be deplored by christians, and their victims must be succoured; but there exists to-day a type of racial anti-semitic propaganda inspired by hatred of everything springing from jewish sources; and this creates more crucial issues for christianity than ordinary outbursts of race feeling. christian churches must be warned that they cannot be silent in the presence of this propaganda, still less connive at or participate in the extension of its errors and falsehoods, without betraying christ, undermining the basis of the church, and incurring the most severe judgment of god. the christian church must let no doubt about this attitude prevail in the eyes of the world. realizing that enmity to the jews has now become a cloak for the forces of anti-christ, and conceals hatred for christ and his gospel, the christian church must reject anti-semitism with complete conviction. < > to realize its true nature and to vindicate its right to the title of the 'body of christ', the church must preach the gospel and open its fellowship to men of all race, including the jews. our mission to the jews cannot consistently be carried out without at the same time combating anti-semitism among christians, and giving more tangible evidence than has been given of our sympathy with jews and hebrew christians in their present distress. anti-semitism can and should be combated systematically: . by suitable literature, capable of influencing specially wide classes, also by sustained treatment in christian reviews and newspapers. . by occasional conversations, discussions, and lectures, on the destiny and the hope of the people of israel. . by sincere and friendly discussion between jews and christians. . by the realization among christians of the treasures committed to them (christianizing of christians)." [ ] the same committee submitted the following resolution to the oxford conference, in : "the international committee on the christian approach to the jews desires to lay before the oxford conference on church and community and state the problem of anti-semitism. the fact of anti-semitism is proved, by the ample material in the possession of the committee to be of growing importance and menace in the world. it constitutes one of the principal denials of modern life of the christian doctrine of man. it is an attack upon the unity of the una sancta, it is even a denial of the person of christ himself. it has been largely instrumental in aggravating existing economic and social strains until they have become intolerable. the human misery created, maintained and at the same time concealed by the influence of anti-semitism is difficult to estimate. graver, however, than the volume of human misery is the poisoning of the spirit, the drying up of sympathy and the warping of judgment caused by the influence of anti-semitism, especially among the young. deepest of all is the denial which anti-semitism offers to the unity of the church, and to the meaning of the person of christ himself. the committee would further ask the conference to consider the terrible fact that this problem is not, like many on the conference will consider, that of an influence external to the christian church with which it must make its account, but also of an evil within the church. anti-semitism antedates christianity and it is not suggested that it is a purely christian phenomenon, but it is aided by false christian teaching and it results in the appalling situation, present in several countries where christian churches are reluctant, or frankly refuse, to receive a jewish convert. < > it is plain that where racial and physical conditions of church membership override the conversion of heart and will, the christian religion has ceased to exist except in a vain form. but this devitalising influence is present within the church, not only in one country but in many, and far more widely than is suspected. the committee therefore invites the oxford conference to do two things: in the first place, realizing that the conference can make its voice heard widely among the churches of all lands it begs the conference to speak out clearly on the dangers of anti-semitism to the church itself and to recognize openly the total impossibility of a church tainted with this form of racial absolutism bearing any valid witness to the word of god in the world. secondly, it asks that in any provision that is made after the conference for international christian study of the great problems that confront the church in the modem world, attention shall be given to this problem of anti-semitism. the international committee which has already collected a certain amount of information on the subject would gladly co-operate in such a study." [ ] the oxford conference (july, ), organized by "life and work", was an event of major importance. [ ] the regular members of the conference included delegates officially appointed by the churches, representing communions in forty countries, and constituting a cross-section of christendom, with the exception of the roman catholic church; only some personal observers from that communion were present by invitation. not less than delegates came from the united states and the british common-wealth. the orthodox churches and the lesser eastern churches were represented by some two score dignitaries and scholars. this delegation represented the ecumenical patriarchate, the patriarchates of alexandria and antioch, the churches of cyprus, greece, rumania, yugoslavia, bulgaria, poland, the russian church in exile, the coptic orthodox church, the armenian church, and the church of the assyrians. < > german church leaders had taken a prominent part in the preparations for the conference, but the german secret police had seized the passports of leading members of the confessing church, including those of dibelius and niemoeller, who had been chosen as delegates to oxford. on july , , before the conference opened, niemoeller was arrested. other delegates of the confessing church who still retained their passports decided that, unless all the representatives of the confessing church were allowed to attend, none of them would come, thereby demonstrating their unity. [ ] the german authorities must have realized that the absence of the leaders of the confessing church would make a bad impression on world opinion, but apparently they were also aware that the position of niemoeller and his friends would have been strengthened, if they had been able to attend the conference. the oxford conference sent a "message to the churches of christ throughout the world". we quote the following: "the christian sees distinctions of race as part of god's purpose to enrich mankind with a diversity of gifts. against racial pride or race-antagonism the church must set its face implacably as rebellion against god. especially in its own life and worship there can be no place for barriers because of race or colour. similarly the christian accepts national communities as part of god's purpose to enrich and diversify human life. every man is called of god to serve his fellows in the community to which he belongs. but national egotism tending to the suppression of other nationalities or of minorities is, no less than individual egotism, a sin against the creator of all peoples and races. the deification of nation, race, or class, or of political or cultural ideals, is idolatry, and can only lead to increasing division and disaster." [ ] we also quote the following from the oxford conference's "longer report on church and community": "each of the races of mankind has been blessed by god with distinctive and unique gifts. each has made, and seems destined to continue to make, distinctive and unique contributions to the enrichment of mankind. all share alike in the love, the concern and the compassion of god. therefore, for a christian there can be no such a thing as despising another race or a member of another race. moreover, when god chose to reveal himself in human form, the word became flesh in one of a race, then as now, widely despised... < > against racial pride, racial hatreds and persecutions, and the exploitation of other races in all their forms, the church is called by god to set its face implacably and to utter its word unequivocally, both within and without its own borders. there is a special need at this time that the church throughout the world should bring every resource at its command against the sin of anti-semitism... the recrudescence of pitiless cruelty, hatred, and race-discrimination in the modern world (including most notably anti-semitism) is one of the major signs of its social disintegration. to these must be brought not only the weak rebuke of words but the powerful rebuke of deeds. for the church has been called into existence by god not only for itself but for the world; and only by going out of itself in the work of christ can it find unity in itself." [ ] an immense effort was made, notably in the anglo-saxon world, to bring home the message of the conference to the rank and file of the churches. the message was referred to by church leaders when the fight against anti-semitism intensified as, for instance, by the ministers in the city of new york, , [ ] and rev. bertrand in france, in his circular letter of june , . [ ] many church leaders who were present at the oxford conference were to denounce anti-semitism vehemently and publicly, during the second world war. we mention: dr. visser 't hooft, the general secretary; the archbishop of york (dr. temple); the bishop of chichester (dr. bell); archbishop eidem, of sweden; bishop fuglsang-damgaard, of denmark; archbishop stephan, of bulgaria; dr. samuel osusky, czechoslovakia; the rev. marc boegner, france; prof. emil brunner, switzerland; and dr. samuel mccrea cavert, the united states. another statement to be recorded in this chapter was adopted by the world alliance for international friendship through the churches, on its meeting at larvik (norway), in august, : "the council appeals to its members to do all they can to awaken public opinion in their own countries to the great evils involved in the systematic ostracism and persecution now being directed against the jewish race and against thousands of christians who have kinship with the jews. whilst acknowledging the weakness, hesitancy and failure of christians in this matter, it is appalled by the growth of racial and religious intolerance throughout the world. < > it holds it to be a total denial of faith in the fatherhood of god and the brotherhood of men as revealed in jesus christ and it calls upon all christians to unite their efforts so that in a distracted and divided world christ may be made manifest 'who is our peace. who made both one and hath broken down the middle wall of partition between us'." [ ] * * * in , two great ecumenical movements - faith and order and life and work - associated together in forming a provisional committee of the world council of churches (in process of formation). the world council of churches was officially constituted in amsterdam, in . on november , , dr. visser 't hooft, general secretary of the world council of churches, h. l. henriod, general secretary of the world alliance for international friendship through the churches and adolf keller, director of inter-church aid sent the following letter to the member churches: "at the moment when the terrible persecution of the jewish population in germany and in other central european countries has come to a violent climax, it is our duty to remind ourselves of the stand which we have taken as an ecumenical movement against anti-semitism in all its forms. the world alliance at the meeting of its executive in sofia in and at its recent assembly at larvik in august , and the conference on church, community and state at oxford in have unequivocally expressed the christian attitude on this point and called upon the churches to help those who suffer from racial persecution. we suggest that at this time all churches should take immediate action based on these statements. the most practical action would seem to be: . corporate prayers of intercession. . an approach to the governments of the various countries requesting that they should act immediately. a. in order to allow a larger percentage of non-aryan refugees to enter provisionally or definitely into the country concerned; b. to further without delay the plan proposed by the evian conference [ ] for securing a permanent settlement of a large number of actual and potential non-aryan refugees. . undertake as a church the responsibility of the maintenance of some non-aryan and christian families and particularly of at least one non-aryan pastor or theological student. < > we put ourselves at your disposal for further information on any of these projects." [ ] we know that church leaders in the united states made the requested "approach to the government". [ ] the international missionary council held a large international conference at tambaram, madras, in december, . it reiterated the vienna ( ) statement of the international committee on the christian approach to the jews on anti-semitism [ ], expressed "its deep concern about the increasingly tragic plight of the jews", and urged "that this constitutes a claim of first importance on the christian church". it recommended: . that prayer should be regularly made in christian churches, and particularly on good friday and the jewish day of atonement, for all jews and non-aryans who are suffering persecution. . that individuals, churches and christian councils in countries suitable for the reception of immigrants should use their influence, wherever possible, to secure an open door for refugees. . that christian people in all countries should make a special effort to welcome and help such of their refugee brethren as arrive in their country. . that an appeal be made in all churches for help for recognized refugee funds..." [ ] in january , at the first ordinary session of the provisional committee of the world council of churches, the bishop of chichester proposed that the council create a special department to deal with refugee problems. "he felt that the time had come to aid the entire mass of non-aryans. he meant not only the non-aryan members of the church but also the others, albeit there being a special responsibility towards members of the christian church. soon afterwards dr. adolf freudenberg was appointed the first secretary of this new department for aid to refugees." [ ] < > iii during the war historical events, - sept. germany attacks poland. sept. - great britain and france declare war upon germany. sept. russia invades poland. nov. russia attacks finland. march finland accepts peace with russia. apr. germany occupies denmark and attacks norway. may germany attacks the netherlands and belgium. may capitulation of the netherlands. may capitulation of belgium. may -june : evacuation of the british expedition force at dunkirk. june italy attacks france. june france concludes armistice with the axis. aug.-nov. the "battle of britain": hitler tries to subdue great britain by air raids. oct. italy attacks greece. dec. - victory of great britain in north africa. april victory of germany in north africa. april germany attacks yugoslavia and greece. april belgrade occupied. april athens occupied. may rudolf hess flies to scotland. june germany invades russia. dec. russian counter offensive; germany fails to take moscow. dec. japan attacks pearl harbour. dec. hitler declares war upon the united states. jan. the wannsee conference on the "final solution of the jewish question" in europe. june rommel defeats great britain in north africa and captures el alamein. aug. germany's sixth army reaches the volga near stalingrad. nov. montgomery breaks through at el alamein. nov. allied forces land in morocco and algeria. nov. germany seizes the unoccupied zone of france. nov. russia launches its counter offensive near stalingrad. jan. end of the battle of stalingrad. april -may warsaw ghetto uprising. july allied forces land on sicily. sept. allied forces land in southern italy. dec. the soviet armies approach the polish and rumanian frontiers. june the beginning of the invasion. july attempt on hitler's life. august russia conquers rumania. aug. liberation of paris. sept. liberation of brussels. jan. russia captures warsaw. feb. russia captures budapest. apr. hitler commits suicide. may capitulation of berlin. may unconditional surrender of germany. < > germany deportations from austria and the protectorate (bohemia-moravia) began in the winter of / . on february , , jews were deported from stettin. on july , , heydrich was charged by goering with the preparation and execution of the "final solution". on october , , the systematic deportation of the jews from the reich began. on january , , the wannsee-conference on the "final solution of the jewish question in europe" was held. from july, , the selections for the gas chambers took place in concentration camps such as auschwitz. on june , , goebbels declared berlin to be free of jews. an estimated number of , jews, however, succeeded in surviving "illegally", until the end of the war. it is, as has been explained before, not my intention to record the help rendered by individuals to jews. there are, however, indications that organized help to jews did not wholly stop with the closure of rev. grueber's office. [ ] mr. krakauer relates how he and his wife were helped and hidden during the last years of the war. [ ] not less than ministers of the confessing church were involved in the rescue of these two people. they all had them in their homes for some days or longer, as staying at the same place for too long a period was too dangerous. it appears that there existed a kind of organization of pastors who passed on persecuted jewish people from one manse to another. the book also shows how difficult it was in those days, to help and hide people who had no identity cards and no ration cards. mr. krakauer stated: "on may , , i had the opportunity to speak with landesbischof d. wurm, the highest prelate of the country (of wurttemberg), and to thank him for the fact that by his attitude he had made it possible for his pastors to interest themselves actually on our behalf". [ ] some church leaders did not speak out publicly, or, only spoke when it was too late; the reason may just have been that they were afraid to accept the personal risk involved. we know of bishop wurm's protests, which came late, even too late to do any good for the jews in general. < > i do not know very much about his "attitude" in the time before he took official action. the fact that mr. krakauer felt that he should thank the bishop, throws an important sidelight on the dilemma which church leaders sometimes had to face. if they spoke out publicly against the persecutions, they did not only risk their own freedom and life, but they also risked the lives of the persecuted jews whom they secretly tried to save. mr. krakauer's story should certainly be read by anyone who is interested in the attitude of protestants in hitler's germany toward the jews. no public statement whatsoever against anti-semitism was issued by the confessing church in germany, or by any of its leaders, from the end of until . in april, , a letter was sent by a group of christian laymen to the lutheran bishop of bavaria. the bishop asked for at least two signatures to enable him to raise the matter officially, but no one was willing to sign. however, the letter had an indirect influence because bishop wurm of wurttemberg read it, and then sent two letters to the german government. letter of a group of christian laymen: "as christians we no longer can tolerate that the church in germany should keep silent in regard to the persecution of the jews. in churches where the true gospel is preached, all members are equally responsible for supporting such preaching. we are therefore aware that we also, are equally guilty for the church's failure in this matter. the inclusion of the so-called 'privileged' jews in this persecution is the next threat: the dissolving of marriages which are valid according to god's law, should cause the church to protest, in faithfulness to the world of god, against this violation of the fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth commandments, thus, at last, doing what it should have done long ago. what moves us is the simple commandment to love one's neighbour, as expounded by jesus in the parable of the good samaritan. here he explicitly precluded any limitation of our love only to members of our own faith, race or nation. at this time every 'non-aryan' in germany, whether jew or christian, 'has fallen among murderers'; we are challenged as to whether we will act towards him as did the priest and the levite, or as the good samaritan? the duty of the church < > no 'jewish question' can release us from this decision. rather should the church declare that the jewish question is primarily an evangelical question and not a political one. the politically unusual, and unique existence and character of the jews is, according to the holy scriptures, based on the fact that god has chosen this people as the instrument for his revelation. the church, just as the first apostles after the crucifixion, must tirelessly testify to the jews: 'unto you first, god, having raised up his son jesus, sent him to bless you, in turning away every one of you from his iniquities' (acts of the apostles , ). this testimony of the church will only seem worthy of belief to israel, if the church is also concerned about the jews who 'have fallen among murderers'. the church must especially resist 'christian' anti-semitism within its borders, which excuses the actions of the non-christian world against the jews, as well as, the inactivity of the church in this matter, by saying that a 'deserved' curse lies upon israel. let us not forget the apostle's exhortation to us gentile christians: 'be not high-minded, but fear: for if god spared not the natural branches, take heed lest he also spare not thee' (romans , , ). the church must testify to the state about the purpose of israel in the plan of salvation, thus actively resisting every attempt, to 'solve' the jewish question, according to a man-made political gospel, which brings about the annihilation of the jews. this is an attempt to fight against god and his first commandment. the church must confess that she, as the true israel, is united with jewry by indissoluble ties, both in her guilt and in her right to the promises of god. she must not try any more to remain in safety while israel is attacked. rather, she must testify that by the attack on israel, the church and her lord jesus are also being attacked. god remains faithful to his covenant. the parable of the good samaritan reveals the kind of example which should be given by the church, in regard to the jewish question. the phenomenal history of the jews, in which the prophecy has been fulfilled: 'they shall be a curse, and an astonishment, and a hissing, and a reproach, among all the nations' (jeremiah , ), proclaims to the whole world that the god who gave the first commandment, by his dealings with israel has manifested to the nations his sovereignty. the church must explain this phenomenon. she also must, by her faithful testimony, make certain that the authorities are not able to avoid the challenge by obliterating the phenomenon of the jews. she must therefore proclaim the message of god, who brought both israel and the church 'out of the land of egypt, out of the house of bondage' (exodus , ). notwithstanding all the unfaithfulness of those he has elected among both jews and gentiles, he remains faithful to his covenant. the church thus proclaims to the authorities that only by faith in jesus christ can they be delivered from their demonic political 'gospel', which they in their obsession wish to realize, being unrestrained by the law of god. the church, therefore, must proclaim the commandments concerning our neighbour to the authorities in connection with their attitude to israel, but also the first commandment concerning their attitude towards god. for the rulers can only exercise their powers rightly by upholding the law rightly, in obedience to the first commandment. < > a public protest demanded the protest of the church against the persecution of the jews in germany thus becomes a specially important example of the witness she is charged to give against all violations of the ten commandments by any power. the church must warn the state, in the name of god, not with political arguments, as has happened occasionally, that it must 'not oppress the stranger, the fatherless and the widow' (jeremiah , ). she must remind the state of its duty to maintain public justice in an orderly, legal system based on humane laws; of the commandment to execute punishment in righteousness; of its duty to protect the oppressed and to respect certain basic rights of its citizens, etc. this witness of the church must be made publicly, either through preaching or by means of a special pronouncement of the bishop in his function as shepherd and watchman. only thus can the church fulfil her duty towards all who, either in a legislative or in an executive capacity, participate in this persecution. also the conscience of the stricken jews and the christian community, which is tempted to deny its faith, must be instructed. so far the church in germany cannot be said to have made such a witness, for nothing that she has said in public has done justice to her responsibility to preach the truth in this respect. [ ] it is significant that the authors of this letter claimed that as christians they no longer could tolerate that the church in germany should keep silent regarding the persecution of the jews; that all members of the church are equally responsible for supporting such preaching (of the true gospel) and that the protest of the church must be made publicly. yet, they themselves refused to sign their own letter. on january , bishop d. wurm of wurttemberg sent a letter to a "senior state official" (ministerial director dr. dill, of the ministry of interior). we quote the following: "... apart from these matters, ecclesiastical in the limited sense of the word, i would like to raise another delicate and difficult, but unfortunately, unavoidable point. wide circles, and not only those in the confessing church, are unhappy at the manner in which the war against other races and nations is conducted. < > from soldiers on home leave we learn how jews and poles are systematically murdered in the occupied territories. also those who objected to jewish predominance in public life (even at a time when the entire press was in favour of the jews), cannot assume that one nation is entitled to exterminate another through measures applied to individuals irrespective of their personal blame. the putting to death of people without any trial, solely on the basis of their belonging to a different nationality, or on account of their diseased health, clearly contradicts the divine commandments, and therefore also every concept of justice and humanity which is indispensable in a civilised nation. there can be no blessing on such an attitude. it leads one to consider the fact that from the time these measures were adopted, the german forces have not been as successful as they were at the beginning of the war. many germans see in these occurrences not only a disaster but also a sign of guilt, which will bring its own vengeance. their moral burden would be lightened, if a courageous and noble-minded decision were taken by the government, which would cleanse the besmirched shield of honour of the german nation. the evangelical church has not publicly protested before, to avoid embarrassing the german nation in the eyes of foreign countries. but now that new and great sacrifices are being demanded of the german people, it should also be granted relief from its moral burdens." [ ] on july , , bishop wurm sent a letter to all the members of the government, in which he pleaded for the "so-called privileged non-aryans". we quote the following: "... in the name of god, and for the sake of the german nation, we urgently request that the responsible leaders of the reich stop the persecution and the annihilation of so many men and women, which under german domination is being carried out without any judicial sentence. now that non-aryans under german domination have to a great extent been removed, it is much to be feared that individuals, the so-called privileged non-aryans, who until now were spared, are now in danger of being treated likewise. in particular we emphatically protest against those measures which threaten to dissolve legal marriages and thus penalize the children born out of these marriages. these aims are, like other actions of annihilation taken against non-aryans, in flat contradiction to god's commandment, and they violate the foundation of all western existence and human values in general..." [ ] < > on december , , another letter was sent by bishop wurm, to the chief of the reich chancellery, lammers: "... not because of any philosemitic sympathies but solely from religious and ethical considerations, i must declare, in accordance with the opinion of all positive christian circles in germany, that we as christians consider the policy of annihilation of the jews as a terrible injustice, fatal to the german people. killing without military necessity and without trial is contrary to god's commandments, even though it is ordered by the goverment. just as every conscious transgression of god's commandments, it will recoil sooner or later on its perpetrators. our people in many respects is experiencing sufferings which it has to bear from the air-attacks of the enemy, as if in retribution for what was inflicted upon the jews..." [ ] a public protest, issued not by one church leader but by the confessing synod of the evangelical church of the old-prussian union, was the "interpretation of the fifth commandment": . "the sword is given to the state only that it may execute criminals and for the destruction of enemies in war-time. what it does beyond that, it does arbitrarily and to its own detriment. when life is taken for other reasons than those mentioned, men's confidence in one another is undermined and thus the unity of the people is destroyed. the divine world order knows no such terms as 'to expunge', 'to liquidate' or 'valueless life' with regard to human beings. to slay human beings simply because they are related to criminals, because they are old or mentally afflicted, or because they belong to a different race, is not the use of the sword sanctioned by the scripture... . in our time, especially, elderly people are more than ever before dependent on our help. the same is the case with the incurably ill, the weak-minded and the mentally diseased. we must also not forget those who receive no support - or almost no support - from public funds. in such matters the christian is not concerned with public opinion. his neighbour is always the one who is helpless and who especially needs him, and he makes no distinction between races, nations or religions. < > god alone has authority over human life. all life is sacred to him, even that of the people of israel. israel has indeed rejected the christ of god, but neither as human beings nor as christians are we called upon to pass sentence on their unbelief..." [ ] the publication of the "interpretation of the fifth commandment" was an act of courage but one shudders to read the opinion that "israel has indeed rejected the christ of god". it was only after the war that the kirchentag ( ) declared: "jews and christians are insolubly linked with each other: ...god hath not cast away his people, which he foreknew". [ ] such declarations were lacking at the time when they were most necessary. several leaders of the confessing church have severely criticized their church, and themselves. rev. martin niemoeller, who himself was imprisoned from until the end of the war, stated: "nobody wants to take the responsibility for the guilt. nobody admits to guilt but instead points to his neighbour. yet the guilt exists, there is no doubt about it. even if there were no other guilt than that of , , clay urns; the ashes of burnt jews from all over europe. this guilt weighs heavily on the german people, on the german name, and on all christendom. these things happened in our world and in our name... i regard myself as guilty as any ss man." [ ] rev. grueber, who himself suffered in a concentration camp because of his help rendered to jews, said: "in a few meetings of the confessing church a call to protest was given. but protests were made by the few, in comparison with the millions who co-operated or kept silent, who, at best, played the ostrich or clenched their fists in their pockets." [ ] < > the following is the opinion of dr. freudenberg, who was the director of the world council of churches' secretariat for refugees, during the war: "the attitude of the christians, also of the adherents of the confessing church, towards the national-socialist persecution of the jews, shows great weakness and uncertainty. the anti-semitic outcry of the environment made a greater impression than the word of jesus christ, the son of david... but even the apparently feeble witness of the church demanded great confessional courage in the situation of that time. one wrestled to give many a witness, and one suffered when the right word at the right time was not given... it certainly is not accidental that even the confessing church, though offering determined resistance against the introduction of the arierparagraph within the church, only very hesitatingly made its stand against the anti-semitic laws and the persecution of the jews in the state... the fact that the policy of the state towards the jews ultimately is the policy of the church and that persecution of the jews is persecution of christ, was not acknowledged in time, and when finally it was made, it was far from adequate. moreover, this policy was effectively veiled by the national-socialist methods of camouflage. at the beginning of the regime one simply could not believe that the rulers relentlessly pursued a plan for the annihilation of the jews and the elimination of the christian church from public life... if we want to evaluate the documents correctly, we must always consider hitler's incomprehensible terrorization in the reich. it may disappoint us that the matter was not raised more often and more forcibly. we should, however, bear in mind under which circumstances speaking or keeping silent took place. we should keep in mind that only now, after all the atrocities have become known, has it become customary to make a categorical condemnation of national-socialism. but this phenomenon was, in general, judged quite differently, that is to say, much more positively, not only by the germans but everywhere in the world, at the time when (some of) these documents were issued." [ ] the evangelical church in germany herself, after the war, pleaded guilty, unequivocally and repeatedly. [ ] the verdict seems obvious: even the protestant group in germany which resisted hitler, totally failed when they should have stood up in the defence of the jews. after all this has been said, however, something should be added. . the confessing church in germany did speak out against anti-semitism in , and, indirectly, also in and , when already this meant martyrdom. churches in other lands, for instance in the netherlands, did not speak out in those days. many churches outside germany denounced anti- semitism long before , but it cost them little, if anything. < > . the confessing church, when speaking on behalf of the jews, spoke against its own government and seemingly against national interests. church leaders in countries occupied by the germans also risked their lives when denouncing german anti-semitism, but they spoke against the national enemy. public declarations of church leaders in germany were used by foreign propaganda media against the third reich. [ ] fortunately, this served to open the eyes of many blind people outside germany, but it certainly made things even more difficult for church leaders in germany: many of their compatriots regarded the issue of such declarations as an act of high-treason. . guenter lewy, discussing the attitude of the roman-catholic church in germany, states: "the concern of the gentile populations of these countries (france, the netherlands and belgium) for their jewish fellow citizens was undoubtedly one of the key factors behind the bold public protests of the french, dutch and belgian bishops - just as the absence of such solicitude in germany goes a long way toward explaining the apathy of their german counterparts." [ ] this is also applicable to the leaders of the confessing church. < > the occupied countries norway only , jews were living in norway. in october , the jews were barred from certain professions. in june , registration was ordered and in october confiscation of jewish property was decreed. the jews received identity cards stamped with the letter j; at the same time, arrests of jews began. on october , , all male jews of sixteen and over were arrested and interned. on november , the women and children were seized. jews, including refugees from central europe, were deported by boat to stettin and thence to auschwitz. the majority of norwegian jews ( ) were smuggled to sweden. [ ] the constitution of norway proclaims: "the evangelical-lutheran religion shall remain the official religion of the state". the majority of government ministers must be members of the church of norway. quisling had received the title of minister-president on february , . the bishops of the church of norway decided unanimously, on february , , to "cease administrative co-operation with a state which practices violence against the church", although maintaining the right to exercise the spiritual vocation given them by ordination at the lord's altar. on april , , the quisling authorities imprisoned bishop berggrav and four other church leaders. later on bishop berggrav returned from the concentration camp in which he was held, but remained under house arrest. < > on november , , the (lutheran) bishops of norway sent a letter of protest to the minister president quisling. this protest was also signed by the baptists, the methodist church, the norwegian mission association, the norwegian mission alliance, the sunday school union and the salvation army. following is the text of the protest: "the minister president's law, announced october , , regarding the confiscation of property belonging to jews have been received by our people with great sorrow, and was deepened by the decree that all jewish men over years of age were to be arrested. when now we appeal to the minister president, it is not to defend whatever wrongs jews may have committed; if they have committed crimes they should be tried, judged and punished according to norwegian law, just as all other citizens. but those who have committed no crime should enjoy the protection of our country's justice. for years jews have had a legal right to reside and to earn a livelihood in our country. now they are being deprived of their property without warning; men were being arrested and thus prevented from providing for their property- less wives and children. this not only conflicts with the christian commandment to 'love thy neighbour', but with the most elemental of legal rights. jews have not been charged with transgression of the country's laws, much less convicted of such transgressions by judicial procedure. nevertheless, they are being punished as severely as the worst criminals are punished. they are being punished because of their racial background, wholly and solely because they are jews. this disaffirmation by the authorities of the jews' worth as human beings is in sharp conflict with the word of god which from cover to cover proclaims all racial groups to be of one blood. see particularly acts , . there are few references where god's word speaks more plainly than here. god does not differentiate among people. romans , . there is neither jew nor greek. galatians , . there is no difference. romans , . above else: when god through incarnation became man, he allowed himself to be born in a jewish home of a jewish mother. thus, according to god's word, all people have, in the first instance, the same human worth and thereby the same human rights. our state authorities are by law obliged to respect this basic view. paragraph of the constitution states that the evangelical lutheran religion will remain the religion of the state. that is to say, the state cannot enact any law or decree which is in conflict with the christian faith or the church's confession. when now we appeal to the authorities in this matter we do so because of the deepest dictates of conscience. to remain silent about this legalized injustice against the jews, would render ourselves co-guilty in this injustice. if we are to be true to god's word and to the church's confession we must speak out. < > regarding worldly authority, our confession states that it has nothing to do with the soul but that it shall 'protect the bodies and corporal things against obvious injustice, and keep the people in check in order to maintain civic peace and order'. (augustana, article ). this corresponds with god's word which says the authority is of god and established by him, not as a terror to good works, but to the evil. romans , . if the worldly authority becomes a terror to good works, that is, to the one who does not transgress against the country's laws, then it is the church's god-given duty as the conscience of the state to object. the church, namely, has god's call and full authority to proclaim god's law and god's gospel. therefore it cannot remain silent when god's commandments are being trampled underfoot. one of christianity's basic values now is being violated: the commandments of god which are fundamental to all society, namely law and justice. one cannot dismiss the church with a charge that it is mixing into politics. the apostles courageously spoke to the authorities of their day and said: 'we ought to obey god rather than men'. acts , . luther says: 'the church does not interfere in worldly matters when it warns the authority to be obedient to the highest authority, which is god'. by the right of our calling we therefore warn our people to desist from injustice, violence and hatred. he who lives in hatred and encourages evil invokes god's judgment upon himself. the minister president has on several occasions emphasized that nasjonal samling, according to its program, will safeguard the basic values of christianity. to-day one of these values is in danger. if it is to be protected, it must be protected soon. we have mentioned it before, but re-emphasize it now in closing: this appeal of ours has nothing to do with politics. before worldly authority we maintain that obedience in all temporal matters which god's word demands." [ ] the close relationship between church and state in norway is reflected in the protest: "the state cannot enact any law or decree which is in conflict with the christian faith or the church's confession". important is the reference to luther; the attitude of the lutheran churches in germany has been explained by recalling luther's conception of the two dominions through which god rules this world: the spiritual one, or the church, and the secular one, or the "worldly authorities". the people, according to luther, have not the right to resist the authorities; only princes have. < > the lutheran church of norway, however, quoted the confession (augustana) and luther, in order to stress that it was "the church's god-given duty as the conscience of the state to object" (to the anti-semitic measures). the letter of protest won response throughout the country. it was read in the churches on the th and th december, . it was also noted outside the borders of the country. the swedish newspapers quoted it in full. the swedish lutheran bishops referred to it in a pastoral letter which they issued at the beginning of december. [ ] in radio london the protest was quoted in full. "breaking the wall of silence" did not help much, if at all, the jews of norway; but it warned people in sweden and denmark, so that they were on their guard when the germans tried to apply their 'final solution' to the jewish community in denmark. naturally enough, the attitude taken up by the christians earned them fresh attacks from the quisling followers. on december , , the trondheim paper adresseavisen concluded an editorial on the 'detrimental jewish influence' in norway with these words: "... but now all this is forgotten. on boxing day the norwegian clergy read a new pastoral letter from the pulpits, glorifying the jews and their activities, sighing and lamenting because the chosen race of israel is not allowed to pursue its activities among the norwegian people as before, but must be held responsible for its actions." [ ] nevertheless, in a new year's message for , which was read from the pulpits throughout the country, the provisional church council boldly declared that it would continue to fight nazism to the end. the council called upon the congregations to pray for imprisoned clergymen and persecuted jews. it added: "the appeal which the norwegian church and the christian people recently sent to the minister president on account of the atrocious treatment of the jews, has not yet been answered. in this case we have clearly seen what may happen when god's words concerning the worth of man and love are being trampled underfoot." [ ] < > the netherlands a. the preliminary phase on may , , the dutch army surrendered to the germans. seyss-inquart was appointed reich commissioner to the netherlands; rauter was chief of police and security; general christiansen was head of the military administration. the political situation in the netherlands was better than in occupied poland and bohemia, but worse than that in most of the other occupied countries, such as denmark. the queen and the cabinet were in exile. the german rulers in the netherlands were ruthless and efficient. in october, , the first anti-jewish decrees were promulgated. in november, jews were dismissed from public posts. on january , , the decree ordering registration of the jews was signed. on february , , the first raid on the jewish quarter of amsterdam was made. on february , , a general protest-strike was declared in amsterdam which paralyzed transport and industry, spreading to other districts. it was suppressed by force within three days. in may, , the jews were banned from parks and places of public amusement. in july, , identity cards of jews were stamped with the letter j. between january and april of , thousands of jews were deported to labour camps. after may, , the jews had to wear the yellow star.' [ ] there are people who believe that the record of dutch resistance against national-socialism is outstanding and that the majority of the population was engaged in rescue activities on behalf of the jews. to those who believe this, the reading of dr. j. presser's book "destruction" must be a shattering experience. on june , , the synodal committee of the dutch reformed church [ ] invited seven other protestant churches to a consultation. < > the churches invited were: the reformed churches in the netherlands, the christian reformed church, the re-united reformed churches, the evangelical lutheran church, the re-united evangelical lutheran church, the brotherhood of remonstrants and the society of mennonites. representatives of these churches convened for the first time on june , . a "council of churches" was established, and later on, became known as the "inter- church consultation". [ ] most of the public protests were issued by this council. particularly at the beginning, the attitude of several members of the "council of churches" showed a lack of determination. one of the factors that led the council, as well as the churches themselves, to a more determined attitude, was the influence of the "circle of lunteren". this group, consisting of ministers belonging to different churches but mainly to the dutch reformed church, had followed the plight of the confessing church in germany with deep sympathy; many of them were influenced by the clear stand and the teachings of prof. karl barth. [ ] the "circle of lunteren" secretly met for the first time in the village of lunteren, on august , . a letter was sent to the synodal committee of the dutch reformed church, urging the church to give clear advice to the local churches and to the nation at large, especially regarding increasing anti-semitic propaganda. [ ] the reply of the synodal committee, however, was both reserved and evasive. [ ] the "circle of lunteren" also published clandestine brochures; , copies of the brochure "almost too late" were distributed. it was written by rev. j. koopmans. he spoke of the danger of following new messiahs, instead of the messiah who came "not from our race, but from the much hated jewish race". < > he especially mentioned the fact that people in official posts were commanded to sign a document stating that they were "aryan", and that the vast majority of those concerned had signed it, perhaps not even realizing its implications for the jews. [ ] rev. koopmans pointed out that it was a grave mistake to sign the document, and since many people had already signed it, indeed it was "almost too late". therefore quick action should be taken if it would not be too late altogether. everyone should explicitly declare that he would not take part in the expulsion of the jews from public life. the pamphlet closed with the words: "dutchmen, it is almost too late, but still not too late! it is still not too late to return to the christian faith and to a clear conscience. it is still not too late to stand up for our jewish compatriots, for the sake of mercy and on the grounds of holy scripture. it is still not too late to show the germans that their wickedness has not overcome everything, but that there are people who are determined not to be robbed in this way of their christian faith and their clear conscience." [ ] someone was caught distributing this brochure; he was sentenced by a german judge to one and a half year imprisonment. [ ] another clandestine pamphlet was published by the "circle of lunteren": "what we believe and what we do not believe". it was written in the summer of and widely distributed. we quote the following: "therefore we believe that he who stands up against israel, stands up against the god of israel... therefore we believe anti-semitism to be something much more serious than an inhuman racial theory. we believe it to be one of the most stubborn and most deadly forms of rebellion against the holy and merciful god whose name we confess." [ ] < > on october , , the protestant churches sent a letter to the reich commissioner for occupied holland, protesting against the discriminatory regulations against jewish officials. the letter reads as follows: "we, the undersigned, representing the following protestant churches in questions regarding the relations between the church and the civil authority: the dutch reformed church; the reformed churches in the netherlands; the christian reformed church; the re-united reformed church; the brotherhood of remonstrants; the society of mennonites, feel impelled to appeal to your excellency in view of the regulations recently issued forbidding the appointment or promotion in the netherlands of officials or other persons of jewish blood. in our view the spirit of these regulations, which bear in a special way upon important spiritual questions, is contradictory to christian mercy. moreover, these regulations also effect members of the church itself insofar as they have adopted the christian faith in recent generations and who have been received as perfect equals into the churches, as is expressly demanded by the holy scripture (rom. , ; gal. , ). finally, the churches are deeply concerned since this affects the people from whom came the saviour of the world, and for whom all christians intercede that they may recognize in him their lord and king. for these reasons we urgently appeal to your excellency to induce the authorities to abolish the said regulations. moreover, we refer to your excellency's solemn promise to respect our national character and to refrain from enforcing on us any ideology alien to us." [ ] as the boards of both the lutheran churches refused to associate their churches with this protest, it was only submitted on behalf of six of the eight protestant churches. the text was made public in an abbreviated form on sunday, october , in most of the churches. however, the reformed churches in the netherlands and the christian reformed church did not make the protest public to their congregations. therefore prof. h. h. kuyper, who was the representative of the reformed churches in the netherlands, was sharply criticized and some of the other members of the council refused to co-operate with him further. he then resigned on account of his "deafness", and another was appointed in his place. [ ] < > on january , , the decree ordering registration of the jews was signed by seyss-inquart. on february , , a general protest-strike was declared in amsterdam which paralyzed transport and industry, spreading to other districts. it was suppressed by force in three days. the next protest of the churches was a letter, dated march , , and sent to the assembly of general secretaries (an assembly which, in the absence of the ministers of state, represented the supreme dutch authority in the netherlands). the evangelical lutheran church also signed this protest; thus seven protestant churches participated in this action. here follows the text: "the churches are deeply distressed about the development of events, which is becoming increasingly clear. the proclamation of the word of god entrusted to the church charges us with the express duty to make its stand for right and justice, truth and love. it must raise its voice when these values are threatened or attacked in public life. the fact that these values are being seriously threatened cannot be denied by anyone who observes the present situation of our nation. clear symptoms of this state of affairs which not only weighs as a heavy burden on the conscience of our fellow citizens but is also, according to the deep conviction of the church, contrary to the word of god, are incidents in the public street and the treatment to which the jewish part of the dutch population is being increasingly subjected. there is growing insecurity in the administration of justice and a continual attack on the freedom indispensable to the fulfilment of christian duties. for this reason the churches deem it their duty to request the assembly most urgently to employ all means at its disposal to ensure that also at this time, justice, truth and mercy may be guiding principles of government action. the churches humbly consider it their bounden duty to influence the lives of the people as to inculcate in them these spiritual values. we trust that you will be prepared to pass on the word of the churches as expressed in this document in any way you deem expedient to those who, in the present period of occupation, bear the ultimate responsibility for the course of events in our country. we fully realize the extremely difficult task which faces the assembly at this juncture, and we pray god that he may give it his light and his help." [ ] < > the churches intended to inform all the congregations of the nature and contents of this letter by a short announcement from the pulpits. the necessary circulars had been prepared in time for the reading of the declaration on sunday, march , . but on march , the secretary of the synod of the dutch reformed church and the chairman of the "council of churches" were arrested. the authorities were sure that the reading of the declaration would become the signal for an insurrection and that the churches would be responsible for a disturbance of public order. when it was shown that this was a misunderstanding, the two representatives of the churches were released. to show that the churches had not intended political action, the pastors who could still be contacted were asked not to read the letter from the pulpit. thus it was only read in those towns and villages which did not receive the counter-order until too late. [ ] on march , , a pastoral letter of the general synod of the reformed churches in the netherlands was read from the pulpits. we cite the following: "in our time the notion is advanced with ever increasing emphasis that it is not personal relationship to god's name but belonging to a certain people or race which determines the meaning of a person's life and which divides mankind into distinct divisions. you will always be able to give the right answer to this doctrine (which has already been accepted by many) if you are faithful to the holy scripture. in repudiation of this doctrine the church should not present its own ideas but only convey the powerful word of god. you have already shared the anxiety which has filled the hearts of so many of our compatriots in recent months. this is a matter of course because, as the church of christ well knows from the gospels, it was in the course of the history of the jewish people that christ was born. therefore the fact of belonging to a special race must never limit our love towards our neighbour, nor the mercy that we owe him." [ ] on january , , delegates of the protestant and roman catholic churches together applied to the general secretary of the ministry of justice for an interview with the reich commissioner, seyss-inquart. < > this was the first time in dutch history that the protestant and catholic churches acted together and signed a document of protest. moreover, this was a unique proceeding in occupied europe and considerably increased the impact of the protests. the national-socialist daily "volk en vaderland" commented: "what god has been unable to achieve for centuries, the jewish star has achieved. churches which were never able to unite for the greater glory of god, now conduct a united action." [ ] an interview was arranged for february , . two delegates of the protestant churches and one from the roman catholic church submitted a translation into german of the memorandum to the reich commissioner which had previously been given to the general secretary of the ministry of justice, who had already passed on a copy to seyss-inquart. in handing over the document the delegates declared that they were speaking in the name of the entire christian church of the netherlands. we quote the following: "then the treatment of people of jewish origin must be mentioned. at the moment the churches do not offer judgment on anti-semitism which, incidentally, they reject utterly on christian grounds; nor do they wish to initiate a discussion on the political measures taken against the jews in general. they wish to confine themselves to the fact that a large number of jews were arrested in the course of the year and deported, and that since then an alarmingly large number of official announcements of death among these deportees has been received. the churches would be neglecting their elementary duty if they did not insist that the authorities should put an end to these measures. this is a duty of christian mercy." [ ] prof. aalders, one of the spokesmen, then gave an oral explanation of the memorandum. in his reply the reich commissioner said: "... in our treatment of the jews there can be no talk of mercy; only, at best, of justice. the jewish problem will be solved by the germans and no distinction will be made between jews and jews..." [ ] < > the results of the interview were negative. shortly afterwards, prof. aalders was arrested. the churches intended to inform all the congregations of the interview from their pulpits. the german security service, however, threatened heavy punishment, if this intention were carried out. the dutch reformed church protested against this in a letter sent to seyss-inquart, dated march , . [ ] moreover, a short message was read from the pulpits on april , : "... the church has protested against the lawlessness and cruelty to which those of jewish faith in our nation are being subjected and against the attempt to enforce a national-socialist philosophy of life which stands in direct contradiction to the gospel..." [ ] a full report was sent to all local church councils, at the same time. a decree, which initially did not seem so dangerous, actually resulted from the desire to isolate the jews from other dutchmen in order to exterminate them more easily. it was the regulation to place a notice "forbidden to jews" on public gardens, public baths and cinemas. at the beginning of it was ordered that such a notice must be placed on all public buildings. the churches refused to obey this order: "it is absolutely forbidden to place the notice on any church building or on premises used by the church. on a building with christian purposes the notice in question cannot be permitted as a matter of principle, because it would be a denial of the gospel." in some church buildings concerts were held, which required placing the notice. but the advice of the leaders of the church was, that in such cases the concerts must be cancelled. the advice to sports clubs which were compelled to display the notice was: "for reasons of principle there is no other way but to stop the activities". [ ] many ministers of religion were fined or imprisoned because of their refusal to display this notice. < > b. mass deportation mass deportations of jews began in june, . the jews were assembled in westerbork camp; trains to the extermination camps in poland left every week. the last large-scale deportations were in the spring and summer of . in january, , there were , jews in the netherlands, of whom , were dutch citizens, and , foreign jews. at least , of them were murdered. after the systematic rounding up of jews had started in amsterdam, the representative of the remonstrant fraternity proposed to the council of churches, to turn the "new church", in the centre of amsterdam, into a house of refuge for persecuted jews, and that attired in their robes of office the ministers of the different churches should occupy the entrances of the church and stand or fall with the jews in the church. the proposal was not accepted. the majority of the council believed that it would be a sublime but useless gesture which might well cause a bloodbath and at the very least an acceleration of deportations. [ ] the council decided, however, to send a telegram of protest to seyss-inquart, to general christiansen, and to the two german general-commissioners rauter and schmidt. the telegram read as follows: "dismayed by the measures that have been taken against the jews in the netherlands by excluding them from participation in the normal life of the community, the undersigned churches have now learnt, with horror, of the new measures whereby men, women and children, as well as whole families, are being deported to germany or countries now subservient to it. the suffering which this brings to tens of thousands, the recognition that these measures offend the deepest moral sense of the dutch people, the opposition to god's laws of justice and mercy, all this forces us to address to you the most urgent plea not to implement these measures. moreover, as far as christians of jewish origin are concerned this plea is strengthened by the fact that they have been debarred by this decree from participation in the life of the church." [ ] < > thereupon the germans offered a concession. they declared their readiness not to deport christians of jewish origin. on the other hand, they made it clear that the sending of the telegram of protest had better not be made public during church services. this was accepted by the general synod of the dutch reformed church. the synod considered that "among decent people one party does not publish any document if the other party objects". another important argument was the fear that all that had been gained in favour of the christians of jewish origin might be lost. [ ] none of the other protestant churches followed the example of the dutch reformed church, nor did the catholic bishops. [ ] the germans took their revenge: all roman catholics of jewish origin (amongst whom was the philosopher edith stein) were deported, on july , , and perished, while most of the protestants of jewish origin survived. on september , , rauter wrote to himmler: "... since my last report the catholics among the christian jews have been deported because the five bishops, with archbishop de jong of utrecht at their head, did not abide by our original agreements. the protestant jews are still here, and attempts to break through the united front presented by the catholic and protestant churches have indeed been successful. archbishop de jong declared at a conference of bishops that he would never again form a united front with the calvinists and other protestants. the storm of protest raised by the churches when the evacuation began has thus been greatly undermined and has now subsided..." [ ] < > rev. h.c. touw, the historian of the resistance of the dutch reformed church, asked the questions: "did the synod take the right decision? or did it succumb to a satanic temptation? was it unfaithful to its lord in order to save the lives of its own members?" [ ] the question of choosing between "quiet diplomacy" and public protest now seems to be easy: negotiations with the devil are senseless. we should not forget, however, that church leaders who issued a public protest not only took considerable personal risks, but also took upon themselves the responsibility for endangering the freedom and life of others. noteworthy is the opinion of a group of christians of jewish origin who addressed themselves to the synod of the dutch reformed church: "be assured that - if the proclamation of the word of god (concerning the persecution of jews) needs to be more clearly emphasized at this time - those among us who truly belong to the lord are willing to be deported to poland, confidently trusting in the lord." [ ] in the summer of , regular contact was established between protestants in holland and dr. visser 't hooft, general secretary of the world council of churches, geneva. couriers brought copies of protests of the churches (and much other information) in microfilm to geneva, dr. visser 't hooft sent the microfilms to the dutch government in london. the churches expressed themselves again in a protest which was sent to seyss-inquart on february , , and which was read from the pulpits in all the churches. we quote from this protest the following: "the churches would be culpable if they failed to point out to the authorities the sins they committed in the execution of their authority, and if they failed to warn them of god's judgment. the churches have already drawn your attention to the increasing lawlessness, the persecution unto death of jewish compatriots... < > but it is also the duty of the churches to preach this word of god: 'we ought to obey god rather than men'. this commandment is the touchstone in all conflicts of conscience, also in those that arise out of the recently taken steps. because of god's justice, no one may participate in unjust actions since thereby he would become equally guilty of injustice." [ ] it was important that this protest was read out in all the local churches for it frequently happened that dutch police agents were ordered to arrest jews and others. the churches thus warned the faithful that "no one may participate in unjust actions". [ ] c. the "privileged categories"; the "other god" in spring , after nearly all jewish families had been deported, the occupying authorities confronted jews in mixed marriage with the alternative of being deported or sterilized. we quote below the protest of the churches. it was sent on may , , and signed by the delegates of the nine protestant and the roman catholic churches, while the bishop of the old catholic church sent a letter of adherence to the protest, a month later. "following on the many happenings in the years of occupation which have forced the christian churches of the netherlands to complain to your excellency - especially in the matter of jewish citizens of our county - something so frightful is now being perpetrated that we cannot but address a word to your excellency in the name of our lord. we have already protested about several acts committed by the occupation authorities, which are in absolute contradiction to the spiritual principles of our people - a people and its government which, from the very beginning, have at least endeavoured to live under god's word. in the last few weeks the sterilisation of so-called mixed married has begun. but god who created heaven and earth and whose commandments are for all men, to whom even your excellency will have to give account one day, has said to mankind: 'be fruitful and multiply' (gen. , ). sterilisation is a physical and spiritual mutilation directly at variance with god's commandment that we shall not dishonour, hate, wound, or kill our neighbours. < > sterilisation constitutes a violation of the divine commandment as well as of human rights. it is the latest consequence of an anti-christian racial doctrine which destroys nations, and of a boundless self-exaltation. it represents a view of the world and of life which undermines true christian human life, rendering it ultimately impossible. at the present time your excellency is de facto the highest political authority in the netherlands; you have been entrusted with the task of maintaining law and order in this country - entrusted not only by the leader of the german reich but also by the inscrutable will of the god whom the church proclaims here on earth. the commandments of this god and judge of all the earth apply to you as much as to anybody else and all the more in view of your high position. it is for this reason that the christian churches of the netherlands say to your excellency in the name of god and of his word: it is your excellency's duty to stop this shameful practice of sterilisation. we have no illusion. we are well aware of the fact that we can hardly expect your excellency to listen to the voice of the church, which is the voice of the gospel, which is god's voice. but things that cannot be expected of men, may be hoped for in the christian faith. the living god has the power to incline even the heart of your excellency to repentance and obedience. for that we pray god, both for the benefit of your excellency and of our suffering people." [ ] this time again no official reply was received from seyss-inquart. however, he communicated by a verbal message that all cases which had occurred up till then, were dealt with on a voluntary basis and furthermore, that he had transferred the matter to general-commissioner rauter to deal with. thus the churches were advised to send any further protest to rauter. the churches turned again to seyss-inquart in their letter of june , , in which was written, amongst other things: "the churches must, irrespective of the question of who is charged with a particular matter, consider your excellency as ultimately responsible for everything that has happened, and is happening, in our country during the years of occupation." [ ] the letters had no practical effect. many hundreds of jews of mixed marriages were forced to undergo sterilisation; some, by using bribery or appealing to patriotic physicians, were able to arrange sham operations or get certificates of exemption. [ ] < > german racial policy encouraged the partners of "mixed marriages" to divorce the "non-aryan" spouses. by a nominal formality, a partner could part from the one to whom he was legally married. the reaction of the churches to this is laid down in their letter to seyss- inquart of october , , which ran as follows: "time and again the christian churches in the netherlands have approached your excellency in matters concerning the jews of our country, who long have been settled in the netherlands, and who have been integrated into the life of our people. your excellency decided not to listen to the urgent words of warning from the churches. most of our jewish compatriots who, until now enjoyed a limited liberty, have been deported. for them as well as for the very small group which yet remains, we appeal urgently to your excellency, to prevent deportation and allow them privileged treatment in the netherlands. further, the churches are seriously alarmed by indications that the german administration is again paying particular attention to the so-called mixed- marriages, with the aim of bringing about divorce, at least in a number of these marriages. this aim may, as happened in the case of sterilisation, be made to appear more harmless by a pretension that each divorce is a voluntary one. as before, the churches beg emphatically to stress to your excellency that this way of dissolution of marriage may not be followed. the lord jesus says, and he does not say that to his church alone, but to the whole world, and thus also to your excellency: 'what therefore god hath joined together, let no man put asunder' (matthew , ). therefore the churches urgently appeal to your excellency to let these small groups which are at present under consideration for the clauses of exemption, share also in the possibility recently opened for some of them, i.e., to be exempted from the restrictions that are in force for jews. commotion and indignation cannot diminish if actions are continued which injure the dutch people in their deepest religious and moral convictions." [ ] in the autumn of a pastoral letter was sent to parochial church councillors of the dutch reformed church, to give them the necessary basis for their opposition in the struggle against national-socialist ideology. after sections on "another god" and "another morality", there follows the section on "anti-semitism". we quote the following from this section: < > "this 'other god' and this 'other morality' is clearly recognizable in deliberate anti-semitism. that the people of israel should be hated and persecuted with fanatical passion and systematically annihilated with malice aforethought, is a phenomenon which has never before appeared in history in this form; for in the last resort there are no strategic, economic or cultural reasons to be adduced for this; the basis of anti-semitism lies deeper, and this the church should clearly perceive. the boundless and unrestrained hatred of the jews comes from natural aversion to the 'jewish god' and the 'jewish bible'. this outrage, this blasphemy, spread as it has in many written tracts and his been made into the spiritual nourishment of millions (of course under a regime where the state and the state alone is responsible, and intends to make itself responsible for the guidance of the people, and where public utterances and printed statements can thus never be attributed to the whim of private persons or groups as is the case under a democratic regime), must be an absolutely clear indication to the christian church that faith, itself, is being attacked in its deepest foundations. the church must not overlook the fact that in this respect, too, its members urgently need guidance based on the scriptures. there are still members of the church who, while detesting the systematic annihilation of our jewish fellow-men and fellow-citizens, yet justify their aversion to the jews by adducing the judgment of god." [ ] d. some comments and evaluations it is to the honour of the churches in the netherlands, that they already protested against one of the first steps taken against the jews, in october, . it is regrettable that sometimes the churches chose to ask for "mercy" on behalf of the jews instead of demanding the maintenance of justice. it is even more regrettable that the churches never publicly exhorted their members, to actively help and hide jews. much in the declarations and protests issued, however, shows a deep biblical insight, in contrast to protests of churches in other countries in which the national-socialist terminology often was used, or national reasons were stressed rather than the biblical viewpoint. there have been many comments on the attitude of the churches in the netherlands, and we quote some of them below. < > dr. w.a. visser 't hooft, general secretary of the world council of churches: "these documents must be read carefully. they are precious, for those who composed them and also those who read them from the pulpit were in great danger; they risked much when giving their witness." [ ] rev. h.c. touw, the historian of the resistance of the dutch reformed church: "the church's struggle on behalf of the jews was a struggle of mixed failure and success. nevertheless this struggle was the most moving, the most dramatic, and the most persistent part of the resistance of the dutch church." "just as too many kept silent in the pulpits, certainly too few took persecuted persons into their houses. many felt that the synod had failed to give sufficient guidance in this respect. it did not issue any exhortations, nor did it find any way by which to quicken the conscience of the people. this must be considered a great, collective guilt. here there is no reason whatsoever for christian self-glorification, but there is every reason to be ashamed." [ ] h. wielek: "in april , important declarations showing dignity and courage were proclaimed from the pulpits of the churches. the activity of the church did not slacken. the pastors evinced personal courage; even without synodal exhortation they understood how to act. their sermons did not lack clarity, particularly in regard to the persecution of the jews and their persecutors. many pastors had to pay for their courageous attitude by a term in a concentration camp." [ ] w. warmbrunn: "the attempt of the churches to caution the germans in their actions, especially with respect to the persecutions of the jews, could not be effective, since the course of action in major matters of this kind was determined by the reich leadership." [ ] "it appears to this writer that groups that excelled in effective resistance were voluntary organizations independent of state control that were conveyers of religious or ethical norms. the moral implications of christian doctrine motivated the resistance of the churches." [ ] rev. j.j. buskes: "why did i let myself be seduced? yes, indeed, seduced into making compromises. why did i not say: 'thus speaks the lord'? < > it is a painful matter also for others of whom it is said (as of myself) that they have behaved excellently. for it depends on the standard by which one judges." [ ] message of the dutch reformed church to the church in germany, march , : "...we publicly confess before god and the world, that in this struggle we have not been sufficiently faithful, nor willing to accept suffering gladly and courageously." [ ] france the armistice was signed on june , . it was stipulated that / of the french territory would be occupied by the germans. in the unoccupied zone a nominally independent regime was established. marshall petain became president; laval was vice-president until april, , when he was succeeded by admiral darlan. delegate for the occupied zone was ambassador brinon. in november, , the germans occupied vichy france. thus we have inserted this chapter under "occupied countries", not under "satellite countries". it should be noted, however, that the vichy government maintained diplomatic relations with the outside world and that it had at least a certain freedom of action in its own territory, until november, . laval was in a position to bargain for the french jews by sacrificing the foreign jews in france. [ ] a. the preliminary phase < > at the end of the jewish population of france had reached a total of about , . after may, , more than , jews streamed into france from holland, belgium and luxembourg. [ ] the number of jews deported from france is estimated to be approximately , persons. [ ] according to tenenbaum, the number was , out of a total pre-war jewish population of some , . "this relatively favourable result in comparison with the other countries is due primarily to the determined attitude of the french people with regard to their jewish neighbours." [ ] chief rabbi kaplan shows us the other side of the picture: "i do not forget, when recalling these dreadful crimes, that priests, pastors, men and women of all confessions and philosophical doctrines and of all classes, exposed themselves to the greatest dangers in order to come to the rescue of the persecuted jews. here i wish to mention particularly, the energetic and courageous protests issued by the eminent leaders of french catholicism and protestantism. nonetheless the undeniable fact remains, that christian ethical education - inculcated over a long succession of generations - has not prevented the majority of the people of a nation claiming to be christian, from becoming more or less responsible for the abominable hitlerite persecution." [ ] many factors played their part. it was easier to go into hiding in france than, for instance, in the netherlands. the attitude of the italians who held part of occupied france was an important factor: they either found excuses for their non-cooperation with the germans or just refused. france was the first country to be liberated: the invasion started on june , . on september , , the decree for compulsory registration of jews was promulgated in the occupied zone, including the marking of jewish stores with the star of david. a few days later - october , - the vichy french council of ministers decreed the statute des juifs which disfranchised the jews in all france. on march , , a "department for jewish affairs" was created by the vichy government. in may, , , polish jews were rounded up in paris. in august, there was another raid. the victims were placed in three camps (drancy, pithiviers and beaune la rolande). on june , , jewish registration was made compulsory in both zones. on november , , the vichy regime decreed that all jewish organizations were to be dissolved. < > the protestants in france are a small minority, numbering altogether not more than , souls. france is, to my knowledge, the only country where a small minority group of protestants publicly protested against the persecutions. poliakov stated one of the reasons: "it must also be remembered that the french protestants are themselves a minority and have known centuries of persecution - such trials, when they are surmounted, sharpen one's sensitivity to injustice." [ ] another positive factor was the fact that the president of the protestant federation of france, rev. marc boegner, was also one of the three vice- chairmen of the provisional council of the world council of churches. he had many international contacts. this fact gave an additional impact to the protests. rev. boegner did not only speak in the name of the french protestants, but also informed marshal petain "of the deep emotion felt in swiss, swedish and united states churches". [ ] rev. boegner relates that he first stayed in vichy at the end of july, . a "very highly placed personality" told him: "the jews have done so much damage to the country that they need collective punishment". he himself realized then "where we are going to be dragged and what would be the responsibility of the churches". [ ] the establishment of the department for jewish affairs, in march, , aggravated the situation. german pressure on the vichy government became stronger. rev. boegner spoke of this to admiral darlan, who tried to calm him by saying that "it primarily was a matter of saving the french jews". a high police officer sought to persuade him that this was a government matter which was no business of the churches. [ ] < > in lyon, where the national council of the reformed church had convened before the end of , rev. bertrand informed rev. boegner that the council of the protestant federation wanted a written protest without delay. it was agreed, however, that rev. boegner should continue with his oral interventions for some time longer. but when the national council of the reformed church reconvened in march, , it was unanimously resolved that the position of the reformed church should be set down in writing without delay. it was on these instruction that rev. boegner wrote two letters. the first was sent to the chief rabbi of france, on march , : "the national council of the reformed church of france has just convened for the first time since the law of october rd, , came into force. it has instructed me to express to you the grief we all feel at the introduction of racial legislation in our country, and at the trials and innumerable injustices which it has brought upon the french jews. there are some among us who have thought that the state has been faced with a great problem as a result of the extensive immigration of a large number of foreigners - jews and non-jews - and by hasty and unjustifiable naturalisations, but they have always expressed the conviction that this problem should be handled with the respect due to human beings; with strict adherence to state undertakings; and in accordance with the demands of justice which france has always championed. they are all the more distressed because of the rigorous enforcement of a law which, applying exclusively to jews, makes no distinction between jews who have been frenchmen for many generations, in many cases for centuries, and between those who received their citizenship only yesterday. our church which has in the past known all the sufferings of persecution, harbours feelings of warmest sympathy for your communities whose freedom of worship in certain places has already been restricted and whose faithful members have so suddenly been afflicted with misfortune. it has already taken steps - which it will not fail to pursue vigorously - for the necessary repeal of the law." [ ] this letter shows hesitation: it considers the "extensive immigration of a large number of foreigners" as a problem and creates the impression that the french protestants cared less for the jews who had "received their citizenship only yesterday" than for the jews who had been frenchmen for many generations. < > the same applies to the letter sent to admiral darlan, also on march , : "we have just convened at nimes, for the first time since the enforcement of the law of october rd, , concerning the status of the jews. on the eve of our meeting we learned from a notice in the press, of your intention to set up an office for jewish affairs. we consider it our duty to inform you in the name of the reformed church of france, comprising the vast majority of french protestants, of our feeling on this painful question. we in no way disregard the seriousness of the problem which the state has to face in view of the recent, large immigration of a great number of foreigners, many of them of jewish origin; and in view of hasty unjustifiable naturalisations. we are convinced that this problem ought, and can be, resolved with due respect to individual people and due care for the justice, of which france has always desired to be a champion. we also know that under the present circumstances strong pressure is undoubtedly being exerted on the government of france in order to force its decision to pass anti-jewish laws. we are nonetheless deeply distressed, as frenchmen and as christians, by a law which introduces the principle of racial discrimination into our legislation, the strict enforcement of which entails severe trials and tragic injustices for the french jews. especially, do we protest against the principle of racial discrimination, because it has caused the state to break its formal undertakings on behalf of men and women, the vast majority of whom have served it loyally and disinterestedly. we are assured that the law of october rd, , is not a law of religious persecution. but if freedom of worship really remains untouched, for jews as for catholics and protestants, why then is it, in fact, already being barred or threatened in certain places? the fact is, that a religious minority is being wronged. our church which has known all the sufferings of persecution, will fail in its primary mission if it does not raise its voice on behalf of this minority. we know that by setting up an office for jewish affairs, you sincerely wish to do whatever is in your power, to avoid even greater hardship from befalling the french jews. we believe we may give you our assurance that the christian denominations will give their unreserved approval to your effort, the difficulty of which they are well aware of. at the same time, however, we would ask you most earnestly to take even further measures, and as from now, to amend the law imposed on the french jews, so that, on the one hand, further injustices may be prevented, and on the other hand, the disastrous impression made on a large part of the civilised world by the law of last october, may be removed. the defeat suffered in the war, the painful consequences of which we are now experiencing, constitutes a further reason why france should seek to safeguard those values which, in the moral sphere, have gained it the respect and affection of christian nations." [ ] < > admiral darlan did not reply to this letter in writing. he told rev. boegner that he wanted to discuss the matter with him. rev. boegner relates: "in may ( ) i had a long meeting with him. he informed me that a new draft law was being studied, certain provisions of which would seem very severe to us, but there were others which would attenuate their effect. his sole care was to save those jews who had been established in france for several generations. regarding the others, who had recently immigrated, his one wish was that they should leave the country." [ ] on may , , it was decreed that every jew who had reached the age of six must wear the yellow star. the council of the protestant federation, under the chairmanship of rev. bertrand (in the occupied zone) decided to express the feelings of the churches in the occupied zone directly to the chief of state, marshal petain. their letter read as follows: "the council of the protestant federation of france, assembled in paris, takes the liberty of addressing itself with respectful confidence to the french chief of state to express to him the painful impression made upon its affiliated churches by the new measures taken by the occupation authorities with respect to the jews. the decree of may th, compelling our compatriots of the jewish race to wear a distinctive badge, has in fact deeply moved thousands of protestants in the occupied zone. our president, rev. marc boegner, has already had the honour of informing you, as well as admiral darlan of the fleet, who is vice president of the council of ministers, of the unanimous desire of the protestants of france that the solution of the jewish question, the importance of which none of us can fail to recognize, shall be found in a spirit of justice and understanding. yet at present we are faced with a measure which far from contributing to the proper solution of this problem, seems to aggravate it further. socially and economically unworkable, it is designed to inflict uncalled for humiliation on frenchmen, many of whom have shed their blood fighting under our rag, by pretending to set them apart form the rest of the nation. it exposes six year old children to mischievous behaviour, easily liable to occur in the disturbed atmosphere prevailing among the population. finally, it compels converts to catholicism or protestantism to wear before other men, the visible sign of being jewish, whereas, before god, they have the honour to be acknowledged as christians. < > the churches of christ also cannot keep silent in view of the undeserved suffering imposed on frenchmen, and sometimes on christians, which ignores their dignity as men and as believers. the council of the protestant federation has therefore instructed me to convey to you our feelings of distress. it hopes that you may consider it as a sign of confidence and respect that it submits this expression of pain and distress to the heart of a great soldier who is the chief of state of france." [ ] the letter was handed over to marshal petain by rev. boegner. the subsequent conversation left him with the same impression as that on his previous meeting with the chief of state: deep emotion, complete impotence. in a circular letter dated june , , rev. bertrand informed the pastors in the occupied zone that the council of the federation had instructed him to write to marshal petain. after having quoted part of his letter to marshal petain, he reminded his colleagues that "the spiritual value of such interventions depends on careful avoidance of any allusion to political events or worldly ideologies, and on strict adherence to the sphere of thought and of christian action alone". rev. bertrand added: "in particular the ecumenical (oxford) conference of affirms that 'all men are by birthright children of god.' 'therefore, for a christian there can be no such thing as despising another race or a member of another race.' 'all races share alike in the concern of god.' 'the sin of man asserts itself in racial pride, racial hatred and persecutions, and in the exploitation of other races. the church is called upon by god to express itself unequivocally on this subject." [ ] perhaps more important than the protests sent to the french government, was a message issued by the national synod of the reformed church of france, in may, , which was read out publicly in all the local churches. this message included the following passage: "the church has been commanded by god to resist the attack of every doctrine and every ideology, every threat and every promise which seeks to assail the message of the bible, both old and new testaments. < > it must proclaim absolute sovereignty of god, who creates his own people for himself by calling to him men of every race, nation and language, in spite of the rights and privileges to which men may deem themselves to have a claim. it knows that all men were created equal, equal in perdition and equal in salvation, and that god's justice demands that every man shall be respected." [ ] b. mass deportations on july , , mass raids struck the stateless jews living in paris. in two days , of them, including , children, were rounded up by the french police. [ ] thereupon, the president of the protestant federation in the occupied zone, rev. bertrand, sent the following letter to mr. de brinon, general delegate of the french government to the occupation authorities: "when the german authorities made it incumbent upon the jews living in the occupied zone to wear a distinctive badge, the council of the protestant federation of france submitted a letter to the french chief of state which was well received by him and of which i enclose a copy. one would have thought that now the anti-jewish laws have reached their climax with this humiliating measure designed to place the jews apart from the rest of the nation and to single them out for the kind of malevolence, systematically meted out to them since the beginning of the occupation. however, the month of july has seen an increase of personal violence on a scale never before attained; and we have noted among the general population of paris a feeling of distress and disapproval which the present generation undoubtedly will never forget. the churches of jesus christ to whom god has entrusted the message of peace, love, and mutual respect among men, cannot keep silent in view of events which for many years have threatened any possibility of a normal relationship between two great nations. because frenchmen at present have no means of making their opinions and feelings known, it should not be inferred that they are indifferent onlookers at the extermination of a whole race, and at the undeserved martyrdom of its women and children. the men who profess to be working towards closer relations between the conqueror and the nations over which he exercises his authority, surely should be able to make the occupying forces understand that declarations of good will during these years cannot efface the effect of the cruelties we have witnessed. < > a christian church would be failing in its vocation were it to let the seeds of hatred be sown in this fashion without raising its voice in the name of him who gave his life to shatter all barriers between men. i leave it to your excellency to judge whether the appeal i have made to you to-day should be brought to the notice of the occupying authorities, and whether the voices of christians, who are solely concerned with seeking to alleviate suffering and hatred, ought to be ignored, rather than those of men who know no other response to violence than that of hatred. before concluding this letter i wish expressly to state that the message to marshal petain was the only subject of the deliberations of the council of the protestant federation, which has just ended its sessions and it is collectively responsible for it. with regard to the present letter, i take upon myself full responsibility for it, not only before the church and the french nation but also - eventually - before the german authorities." [ ] rev. boegner relates: "events succeeded one another precipitately. after the occupied zone came the turn of the so-called 'free zone'. we saw a new wave of horror unleashed in camp, town and village. our chaplains, together with the 'cimade' [ ] and the parish pastors, in the face of tremendous suffering, accomplished a task of christian love which was a powerful testimony to jesus christ. i supported their efforts to the best of my ability. but renewed appeals became necessary. i thought that at this tragic juncture the catholic church and the protestant churches should at least unite in making their appeals. i spoke of this to cardinal gerlier on august th. it was agreed that each of us should write an urgent letter to marshal petain. mine was sent on august th." [ ] the letter read as follows: "when you did me the honour of receiving me on june th, i placed in your hands a letter whereby the council of the protestant federation of france entrusted to your soldier's heart the pain and agitation caused in the protestant churches by measures taken in the occupied zone against the jews, and those christians whom the law has marked as jews. < > to-day it is my regrettable duty to write to you in the name of the same council in order to express the unspeakable sorrow felt in our church, in face of new measures ordered by the french government and directed against the foreign jews (baptised and unbaptised), and the ways and means of their execution. no frenchman can remain unmoved in view of the events occurring since august nd, in concentration and internment camps. as is known, the reply is that france is only returning to germany those jews whom the latter had sent in autumn . in truth, however, man and women who for political and religious reasons fled to france, and who know the terrible fate awaiting them, are now being deported or facing immediate deportation to germany. christianity has hitherto inspired nations, and especially france, with respect for the hallowed right of sanctuary. the christian churches, irrespective of their different confessions, would be disloyal to their original calling if they did not raise a protest against the abandonment of this principle. i am forced to add that in several places these 'deliveries' have occurred under such inhuman conditions that they shock the most hardened consciences, and brought tears to the eyes of witnesses: herded together in goods trucks, without the slightest hygienic precautions, foreigners intended for deportation were treated like cattle. the quakers, who were doing the utmost possible for those who suffer in our country, were refused permission to feed the deportees at lyons. the israelite consistorium was not allowed to give them foodstuffs. respect for the human personality which you intend to maintain in the constitution and which you want to grant to france has often been trodden underfoot. here, also, the churches see themselves obliged to protest against such a grave misunderstanding of undeniable duties. the council of the protestant federation appeals to your high authority to order the introduction of absolutely different methods in the treatment of foreigners of the jewish race, whether baptized or not, whose deportation has been admitted. the tenacious fidelity of france, especially during the tragic days which it has lived through in the past two years, towards its traditions of human generosity and noble-mindedness, remains one of the main grounds of respect which certain nations still have for us. as vice president of the world council of churches which includes all great christian churches, with the exception of the roman catholic church, i am compelled to inform you of the deep emotion felt in swiss, swedish, and american churches, in face of the events now occurring in france, and with which the entire world is acquainted. i beg you to dictate the indispensable measures in order that france may not inflict upon herself a moral defeat of unfathomable weight." [ ] some days later, the letter was broadcast over the american and british radio, and subsequently reproduced in the foreign press. < > the deportations continued. by september , , the vichy authorities had handed over , jews to the germans and another , had been arrested. [ ] on august , , rev. boegner sent the following letter to the chief of the government, laval: "authorized to speak on behalf of the protestant churches of the entire world, many of which have already asked for my intervention, and aware of the events of the past few days, i beg to urge you to give me your assurance that in no event shall foreigners be convicted in their own countries for political reasons, and those who have sought refuge in france, for similar reasons, be expelled to the occupied zone." [ ] he then had an interview with laval, who said that foreign jews must be handed over to the germans in order to save the french jews. "would you agree that we save their children?", asked rev. boegner "the children must remain with their parents", was the reply. laval then asked: "what would you do with the children?" rev. boegner. answered: "french families will adopt them". laval retorted: "no, not one must remain in france". rev. boegner than had an interview with the charge d'affaires of the united states, who promised him to cable to washington, to be authorized to tell laval that the united states would accept the children of deported parents. [ ] as the council of the federation of protestant churches in france could not be convened, rev. boegner then urgently called a gathering of the national council of the reformed church. it addressed to the faithful the following message, dated september , , which was read from nearly all the pulpits: < > "the national council of the reformed church of france, being convened for the first time since the application of measures against the jews, among whom are many christians, was informed of the demarches which its president had made, in writing and verbally, to the highest state authorities in the name of the federation of french protestants. the council associated itself fully with the president. without ignoring or belittling the extreme complexity of the situation with which the authorities of our country are faced and more than ever determined to exercise loyally - among the people - the spiritual vocation to which god has called her; although composed of people faithful to the old principle of abstaining from any intrusion into the sphere of politics, the reformed church of france cannot keep silent in face of the suffering of thousands of human beings who have received asylum on our soil. a christian church would lose its soul and the very reason for its existence, were it not to maintain - for the safeguard of the whole nation in the midst of which god has placed it - the divine law above human contingencies. that divine law does not permit families created by god to be broken up, children to be separated from their mothers, the right of human beings to asylum and pity to be disregarded; nor respect for human rights to be trodden upon, nor defenceless beings to be delivered to a tragic fate. whatever the problems may be which are beyond the scope of the church and which the church is not called upon to resolve, it is its duty to assert that they shall not be resolved by means which contravene the law of god. the gospel commands us to consider all men, without exception, as our brothers, for whom our saviour has died on the cross... how can the church ever forget that it was among the people from whom the jews are physically descended, that the saviour of the world was born? and how can it be anything but profoundly grieved - as a church which must affirm the unity of the body of christ - by measures which also effect non-aryan christians, who are members of our protestant parishes? in the face of these painful facts the church feels compelled to make heard the cry of its christian conscience, and to implore, in the name of god, those who exercise authority in the world, not to aid to the natural horrors of war - in itself a violation of christ's commandments - still worse violations which will in the most fearful manner hinder reconciliation between the nations, in a repentant and peaceful world, submissive to god. it calls upon the faithful to incline toward the distressed and the suffering with the compassion of the good samaritan, and to intercede ceaselessly with god on their behalf, for he alone can deliver us from evil by the grace he has revealed in jesus christ." [ ] < > everybody knowing the parable of the good samaritan [ ] must have fully understood that the last sentence of this message was a call to practical and effective acts of rescue, on behalf of those who had fallen "among thieves" and murderers. no public protests were issued by the french protestant churches after that of september , . on november , , the germans seized unoccupied france. the demarcation line had disappeared. the deportations continued. c. practical help it is difficult to assess the practical results of public messages such as the one mentioned above. they certainly made more impact than protests sent by churches to the authorities. s. lattes is of the following opinion: "also, as might have been expected, when the first anti-semitic measures were taken by the germans and the vichy government, many authoritative voices, catholic and protestant, were raised in demonstration of their sympathy towards the jews... these written manifestos had hardly any practical effect, but they were a display of true courage and by their distribution exercised a deep influence on the conscience of the french. they also afforded moral encouragement to the jewish victims." [ ] l. poliakov gives the following account of the results of the public appeal, made by rev. boegner in the name of his church, and he also gives an interesting analysis of what moved the ordinary protestant to help the jews: "a picturesque little town of , , chambon-sur-lignon lies at the foot of mont-lisieux, in the centre of a little plateau almost exclusively inhabited by huguenots. the word huguenot immediately calls to mind the thousands of victims of persecution who, escaping from france in the th century, settled in prussia, the netherlands and the united states. one section, however, instead of leaving their country, fled to the savage region of velay. protected by practically impassable ravines, they hid in the woods, and remained faithful to their religion. only in the th century were they able to resume their religious worship openly. this period of persecution has made them deeply pious, melancholic and austere; they are suspicious of any authority but unquestioningly follow their pastors. it is here that they have preserved almost intact the customs and virtues of the past centuries. < > immediately after the terrible raids of july , pastor boegner, president of the federation of protestant churches of france, issued an appeal to all this followers, asking them to do everything in their power to help the jews. the appeal was heeded. nearly every sunday the pastors of chambon, mazet and fay-le-froid, exhorted their congregations to renewed efforts. the country-people never tried to evade their responsibility. the persecutions which their own grand-parents had suffered were still alive in their memory. they provided food and lodging for the persecuted; in certain small hamlets in the area there was not a single farm which did not give shelter to a jewish family... on the evening, at the hotel may, i witnessed a spectacle typical of the whole region of chambon: a social worker arrived with several children whose parents had either been deported or were in hiding in marseille. they huddled together in fear, in a corner of the room. a couple of country people first came in. 'we should like a little girl of eight or ten,' explained the woman. little miriam is called. 'would you like to go with this uncle and auntie?' intimidated, the little girl does not answer, but she was muffled up in blankets and carried into the sledge; and so she left for a home where, until the end of the war, she would live a simple, healthy life with temporary foster parents. and as if by sleight of hand, all the other children were taken care of in the same way." [ ] perhaps france was the only occupied country where an official protestant organization rendered direct and practical help to the persecuted jews. the cimade [ ] was a protestant youth organization which sent teams of young protestants into the camps, in order to render relief to the internees. miss madeleine barot, general secretary of the cimade, states: "all racialism is inadmissable from the christian point of view. it was necessary to give tangible signs of this conviction, to alert public opinion, to protest to the responsible authorities, to mobilize the forces of < > protestantism, and, above all things, to help those who suffered most." [ ] the first relief team was installed in the camp of curs. it was partly justified to the police by the presence of a number of baptized internees, who were registered as protestants. "our work was labelled as 'protestant assistance', which was of a great help, though we ourselves did not even consider for one moment restricting our help to the protestants." [ ] thanks to the financial support of the ecumenical committee for aid to refugees, geneva, the number of rations to be distributed in gurs could be increased. [ ] in , teams were also placed in the caps at rivesaltes, brens, le recebedou, and nexon. in the spring of , the cimade opened four houses (at chambon-sur-lignon, tarascon, le tarn and marseilles) for the accommodation of old or sick people and women with little children, who were permitted to leave the concentration camp if an authorized organization took charge of them. the swedish church and the world council of churches rendered financial aid. [ ] the leaders of the cimade permanently kept in touch with the rev. marc boegner so that he, when he intervened with the vichy government, could make proposals which corresponded with the actual situation in the camps. [ ] after mass deportations had begun, the members of the cimade became more and more involved in "illegal" activities. the secretariat of the cimade at nimes provided false identity cards. "we set up a record by once producing fifty identity cards in one night." [ ] several members of the cimade were active as guides, bringing refugees through the mountains to safety in switzerland. "according to my estimations, we helped to evacuate about four hundred persons, from august, , until december, ." [ ] after the swiss government had ordered that refugees who had illegally entered into switzerland be returned to france [ ] the rev. m. boegner obtained in berne the agreement that non-aryans coming from france for whom he had given personal guarantee, would be admitted. [ ] < > yugoslavia on april , , yugoslavia concluded a treaty of friendship with moscow, and within hours belgrade was bombed by the german air force. yugoslavia was dismembered by the nazis. the north-eastern part, the backa basin, with , jews, came under hungarian annexation. old serbia, where , jews lived, came under german occupation. in croatia, with , jews, a puppet regime was established. the bulgarian-annexed territory of yugoslavia (serbian macedonia) contained between , to , jews. before the war, yugoslavia harboured some , jews. fifty-five thousand of them were murdered. [ ] the greatest non-roman catholic church in yugoslavia is the serbian orthodox church. much smaller churches are: the reformed christian church of yugoslavia and the slovak evangelical church of the augsburg confession in yugoslavia. none of these churches replied to my circular letter. the persecution of orthodox serbs matched the persecution of jews, both in cruelty and fanaticism. [ ] i hardly found any material about the attitude of the churches in yugoslavia; only the following quotations can be mentioned: "high orthodox and catholic circles were unanimous in condemning anti- jewish propaganda. early in , the serbian patriarch gavrilo, while visiting a synagogue near belgrade, deplored religious persecution, and the official catholic organ die donau condemned racialism. in october, the patriarch of sarajevo expressed to representatives of the jewish community his sympathy for their sufferings." [ ] "at the end of may ( ), some jews who were still living in zagreb under the protection of the archbishop, were seized one night and deported, before the churchman could intervene to save them." [ ] < > "contrary to what we know about the attitude of the catholic and protestant churches on the jewish question, we have only meagre knowledge of the aid and comfort rendered by the orthodox churches in nazi-subjugated europe. [ ] nazi persecution of the orthodox faith was not checked by the minor hesitation the nazis showed in their dealings with the other christian denominations. a few enlightening examples of a deeply humane attitude in some of the conquered countries rend the mist surrounding the tragedy into which these unhappy lands were thrust. thus it is known that the heads of the yugoslavian orthodox church bravely protested against the atrocities perpetrated on the jews and exhorted priests and people to abstain from participating in the outrage of nazis and ustasa (croation fascists) alike." [ ] greece a. salonika greece was overrun by the germans on april , ; the armistice was signed on april , . there were three separate occupation zones: italy was assigned the territory comprising "old greece", with athens as capital, and the ionian islands; bulgaria occupied western thrace and greek eastern macedonia; germany had a narrow belt of eastern thrace bordering on turkey, along with the salonika harbour and the island of crete. a puppet government, seated in athens, functioned in both italian and german zones. about , jews lived in the italian zone, but the number of jewish inhabitants in german dominated territory was over , . in march, , the jews of salonika were put in a concentration camp. from the middle of march, through may, deportation trains rolled from salonika to auschwitz. about , jews were deported. [ ] friedman is of the opinion that "the greek orthodox church, always a power in the political life of the country, used its considerable influence to oppose anti-jewish laws, and, later, to help rescue the victims. the humblest papas of remote villages as well as the highest dignitaries of the church enlisted in the crusade to help jews". [ ] < > it is doubtful, however, whether any church in any country had a "considerable influence" with the german occupying forces. the church did not, and probably could not, prevent the extermination of the great majority of the jews of greece. at the end of february, , two lawyers turned to genadius, bishop of salonika, and submitted to him a memorandum concerning the danger threatening the jews. bishop genadius immediately went to dr. merten, who was in charge of all civilian affairs in salonika, and protested, in the name of his christian faith, against the preparations for the transports. replying hypocritically, dr. merten stated: "i expected this step of yours, but all your efforts are in vain, for the orders are official and no intervention can change them". [ ] mr. moissis, a jewish lawyer in athens, commented: "the attitude of genadios, bishop of salonika, was excellent. he submitted a vehement protest to the military commander of the macedonian capital who had issued the order of deportation, in march, , in which bishop genadios characterized the order as inhuman and anti-christian. during the deportations, he secretly received chief rabbi koretz and other representatives of the jewish community, and it was at his residence that the meeting took place of rabbi koretz and the greek prime minister, john rallis, who had come to salonika especially, and solely, in order to save the jewish population." [ ] as soon as the measures against the jews started, desperate appeals were addressed to damaskinos, archbishop of athens and primate of all greece, by the jews of salonika, begging him to mediate with the representatives of the reich in order to prevent their extermination. [ ] greek delegations went to see the archbishop asking him to intervene. archbishop damaskinos, who shared the feelings of his followers, asked to see altenburg, the representative of the reich. he expressed to him the anguish of the greek people at his inhuman and anti-christian measure, and asked for his intervention to stop persecution. < > altenburg replied that the jewish question was of capital importance to national socialism; that it was dealt with by the central administration and that, consequently, he, personally, could do nothing on behalf of the jews of greece. actually, he shared the opinion that this measure should be taken, and should be applied to jews throughout greece. in spite of all protests, jews of greek nationality should be forced to go to poland, while those of other nationalities should be returned to their countries of origin. the archbishop asked: "why should jews of greece, who are of spanish nationality, go to spain, and those of italian nationality to italy, whereas, jews of greek nationality should be sent to poland rather than be allowed to stay in greece?" annoyed by this question, altenburg refused to answer, except to say that jews of greek nationality were sent to poland 'to work'. "if they are sent to poland 'to work', 'the archbishop asked, why are women, children and aged people also sent?" "because it is cruel to separate the families; if they are united they will have a better life", the representative of the reich replied. another strong appeal to the german representative, based on the claims of a humane and christian civilization, was made by the archbishop. altenburg vaguely replied that he would try to ease the strictness of the measure. the extermination of the jews of salonika, however, continued unabated; the anguish of the greeks increased. greek organizations from all the towns sent appeals to the archbishop of athens who received an incessant stream of protestations and appeals from the jewish organizations of larissa, chalkis, volos and verria, declaring their solidarity with the jews of salonika. the archbishop decided again, to convey this general concern to the german authorities. he invited the representatives of the chief intellectual institutions and of the scientific and professional organizations in the archbishopric, to join with him. under the auspices of the church, they addressed a strong protest to the greek prime minister, and to the representative of the reich. the memorandum sent to the prime minister was as follows: < > athens, march , . mr. constantine logotheropoulos, prime minister, in town. the greek people have recently learned, with great surprise and grief, that the german military occupation forces in salonika have begun the gradual expulsion of jews living in greece, and that the first groups of displaced jews are already en route to poland. the grief of the greek people is even deeper because: . according to the spirit of the armistice terms all greek citizens were to be treated equally by the occupation forces, irrespective of religion and race. . greek jews not only have been valuable contributors to the financial progress of the country, they generally have been loyal and have shown full understanding of their duties as greek citizens. they have shared in the common sacrifices on behalf of their greek mother country, being among the first to join in the struggle of the greek nation to defend its historical rights. . the well-known loyalty of the jews living in greece already rules out any claim that they participated in actions likely to endanger the security of the military forces of occupation. . in the conscience of the nation, the children of our common mother greece are regarded as being an integral part of the nation, entitled to enjoy all the privileges of the national community, independently of any religious or dogmatic differences. . our holy religion repudiates any racial or religious distinctions, supremacy or inferiority, stating that 'there is neither jew nor greek' (gal. , ), and condemns every tendency to create distinctions on grounds of racial or religious differences. . the sharing of a common fate, both in days of glory and in periods of national disaster, has produced unbreakable bonds between all greek citizens of every race. we are well aware of the deep opposition between the new germany and the jews, nor do we intend do defend or criticize international jewry and its activities in the sphere of the political and financial problems of the world. we are only interested in, and concerned with, the lives of , fellow-citizens. we deeply appreciate their noble feelings, brotherly disposition, progressiveness, economic activities, and, above all, their incontestable love for their country during the long periods we have lived together. as a proof of this last statement, we point to the great number of greek- jewish sacrifices offered, without complaint or hesitation, on the altar of duty for our common homeland. we are sure that the government and the people of greece are agreed on this matter. we are confident that you have already taken the necessary steps to plead with the occupation forces, to defer this painful measure of the expulsion of jews living in greece. we are hopeful that you already have pointed out to the highest authorities that such treatment of the greek jews - cruel in comparison with what happened to the jews of other nationalities - makes this measure even more unjust, and thus morally inadmissible. < > if they pretend that these measures are taken for security reasons, an adequate solution should be possible. preventive measures could be taken, such as the confinement of the males only (except aged men and children) in a place in the country, under the supervision of the occupation forces. thus, security will be protected even against imaginary dangers, and the jews of greece will not suffer the adversities of the expulsion. the greek people will be ready, if asked, to give their full guarantee for a measure taken on behalf of their brothers in distress. we hope the occupation forces will understand the senselessness of the persecution of greek jews, who are considered the most peaceful, loyal and productive elements in our country. if, however, the germans insist, against every hope, on their policy of expulsion, we think that the government, as the holder of the remaining political power in our country, should take a firm stand against these actions. it should be made clear that full responsibility for this injustice will lie with the foreigners. let no one forget that all acts committed during this difficult period, even those committed against our will and beyond our power, will one day be examined by our nation; it will ascertain the responsibility of everyone. on that day of national judgment, the moral responsibility of those in authority, who have failed to express by some courageous gesture the unanimous anguish and protest of the nation against all actions which are derogatory to our unity and pride, such as the expulsion of the jews, will weigh heavily. [ ] yours truly, damaskinos, archbishop of athens and primate of all greece. the memorandum was signed by the president of the greek academy; the rectors of the university and the polytechnic institute; the chairman of the association of writers, painters and artists; lawyers, surgeons, industrialists, and chambers of commerce. it should be noted that the memorandum mentions six reasons why the jews should not be deported; only one of them is strictly religious; four reasons stress that the jews were loyal citizens of greece and that they belonged to the nation. < > the archbishop and his friends did not intend "to defend or criticize international jewry and its activities in the sphere of the political and financial problems of the world". it is not clear whether they really meant this or tried to appeal to the mind of the addressee. at all events, the remark is regrettable. another memorandum was sent to the representative of the reich. it read as follows: athens, march , . to his excellency the representative of the reich for greece, mr. guenther altenburg, in town. excellency, the undersigned are not seeking at present to interfere in any way in the questions of general tactics of the german forces in our country or elsewhere, but simply to submit certain views, regarding a question which is keeping the entire greek population in suspense and anxiety; we are sure that you will examine these views in a spirit of benevolence and understanding. they concern the persecution of the greek jews of salonika, who have long been legally under the jurisdiction of our country. not only have they never given occasion for complaint, but on the contrary, they have always offered proof of earnest and sincere collaboration. in critical times, their acts of self-sacrifice and self-abnegation were apparent. we must add that the above mentioned jews have never acted against our interests, even in the smallest matters; on the contrary, they have always felt a sense of responsibility towards the greek majority. most of them belong to the poorer classes. it should be noted that greek jews have quite a different mentality to that of the jews living in germany and have no knowledge whatsoever of the language of poland where they are being sent to live. in addition to the above facts, we wish to add that during the long course of our history, ever since the era of alexander the great and his descendants, and through all the centuries of greek orthodoxy down to the present time, our relations with the jewish people have always been harmonious. we believe therefore that, in your high office as ruler of our country during the present war, you will not hesitate to accept our present request and decide, even if provisionally, to suspend the expulsion of greek jews from greece until the jewish question can be examined in the light of a special and detailed investigation. our present request is based upon the recent historical fact, that during the surrender of salonika and, later, that of the whole of greece, among the clauses of the protocol, the following is included: 'the occupation forces promise to protect the life, the honour and the properties of the population'. certainly this clause implies, that no persecution would be made against greek subjects, on the account of religion and race, and that consequently the theory relating to racial or religious discrimination would not be applied in greece. < > this was further confirmed later by a clear declaration made by general tsolakoglou, to whom the occupation forces had entrusted the presidency of this country, and who stated explicitly: "there is no jewish question in greece and there never will be." "all greeks occupied in peaceful work may rest assured that their honour, life and property are under protection of the occupation forces and of the government. excellency, some days ago the berlin radio transmitted an article of a german reporter, which was a real hymn to the traditional quality of hospitality of the greek people in all occasions, even in the cases of supposed enemies. what must be the anguish of these people, who have been infused by thousand years of christianity and its message of love of one's neighbour, when they see their brothers tom away from their homeland. especially, when, for many years they have embraced it with unlimited confidence and a spirit of irreproachable solidarity towards us. excellency, in the name of the lofty ideas of the greek spirit, and of the culture of your country, both of which have so powerfully influenced the whole world, we beg that the expulsion of our jewish fellow-citizens be halted as soon as possible. we assure you that the whole greek nation will sincerely appreciate a gesture of such historic importance. damaskinos. archbishop of athens and primate of all greece. (this memorandum was also signed by the leading citizens who had signed the memorandum sent to the prime minister). there are some dubious remarks in this memorandum: "it should be noted that greek jews have quite a different mentality to that of the jews living in germany", and "in the name of the lofty ideas of the greek spirit and of the culture of your country (germany)". that does not alter the fact that much in the memorandum is to be lauded. archbishop damaskinos did not cease his activities. he again saw altenburg asking for his intervention. following the formation of the new government of john rallis, he briefed the new prime minister and asked him to discuss fully the question with the commander-in-chief of east-europe, marshal loehr. at the same time he took the following steps: < > a. he requested the president of the international red cross in greece to ask the governments of the european countries, to interest themselves on behalf of the jews of greece, considering that their expulsion to poland would mean total extermination. b. he negotiated with the international red cross to supply food for the kitchen established for the jews of salonika who had been put into a concentration camp. he then asked the greek government to furnish the necessary technical means. in fact, the kitchen started operating immediately. the ministry of social welfare undertook its organization and the international red cross provided large supplies of food. c. he undertook, secretly, to send to salonika the contribution of the jews of athens to the jews of salonika. their contributions were sent by the archbishop to genadios, the bishop of salonika. thus far the biographer of archbishop damaskinos. comments on the attitude of church leaders and lower clergy are favourable: "monks, regardless of the great dangers or considerations of religion or faith, hid persecuted families and rendered secret but effective help to multitudes of unfortunate people, who could no longer subsist without employment, and thus had to leave their hiding place and give themselves up to the germans." [ ] "the heads of the orthodox church in greece defied the nazi edicts and exhorted their faithful followers to shun anti-semitic slogans and outrages. it is reported that in may alone, six hundred greek priests were arrested and lodged in concentration camps because they refused to obey a nazi order to preach anti-jewish sermons. much help and jewish rescue work go to the credit of the greek orthodox clergy." [ ] what happened in salonika enables us to realize that the attitude of church leaders frequently had a very limited influence on the population, even in greece. dr. nathan eck, the editor of the revised edition in hebrew of the book of michael molho and joseph nehama, has the following to say about the situation in salonika: "... the attitude of the non-jewish population in salonica to their jewish neighbours was not very friendly. < > many of them were former residents of turkey who, in , were transferred to greece on an exchange basis, and their economic and social status was similar to that of the jews. as a result of their feelings of hatred and competition, it was not easy to find anyone among the non-jews who would agree to endanger his life and the life of his family in order to hide jews in his home... the authors molho-nehama are wary of casting aspersions and blame on the general non-jewish population but remain satisfied with mere hints. here and there, there is a short remark which outweighs a host of express statements. for example, the following remark: 'it is likely that local factors (in salonica) were active in the implementation of the deportations in order to get rid of competitors who proved a burden to them in their commercial life' (part ii, p. ). indeed, as the authors point out, only seventy jews, most of them married to non-jews, succeeded in finding hiding places in salonica..." [ ] another comment: "the great bulk of the population, while not indifferent, played the role of an interested if shocked spectator. however, this situation began to change after archbishop theophilos damaskinos, who later became a regent, intervened forcefully on behalf of the jews threatened with deportation. the archbishop's vigorous protest about the action contemplated against the small jewish population of greece created a stir throughout the country." [ ] the attitude of the non-jewish population in salonika, where most of the jews were living, was lamentable. such information should prevent us from accepting stereotypes such as "the greek - or the dutch, or the french - population has done everything to save the jews". b athens and southern greece following the italian armistice, the germans took over the administration of athens and other parts of southern greece. general stroop, the "conqueror of the warsaw ghetto", arrived in athens on september , , and took over the function of higher ss leader. < > on october , , the jews were ordered to register. the seizure of the jews on the greek mainland was to be completed in three days, from march - . jews living on the greek islands were deported in june and jule, . more than sixty thousand jews out of the , who had been living in greece, were deported. [ ] the following is quoted from "the destruction of greek jewry, - ": "... on tuesday, september , , athens' chief rabbi, elia barzilai, was ordered to submit to the german authorities a list containing the names and addresses of all jews living in athens... a delegation led by rabbi barzilai paid a visit to the archbishop who declared that, to his deep regret, he did not see how he could do anything on behalf of the jews, despite his willingness to help them. the only alternative left was to go into hiding, or disappear, the archbishop said. when the rabbi requested permission for the jews to hide in the churches, the archbishop replied: 'willingly, but it is a mistake to think that there you will be safe. they will not hesitate to seize you. however, i could, with the help of the english, arrange a transfer to the middle-east for those jews who are prepared to go...'" [ ] at the instigation of archbishop damaskinos, priests preached in the churches that jews should be aided. he also intervened with the german authorities so that children younger than , as well as, persons married to parties of the greek orthodox faith, should be exempted from the strict anti-jewish regulations. [ ] according to moissis, the fact that more than , jews saved themselves was largely due to the efforts of the orthodox church under archbishop damaskinos. a few days proceeding the german attempt to corral the jewish population, the church issued a circular to all priests, parishes and convents, exhorting them to lend succour and safety to the victims of nazi barbarism. [ ] < > i have not succeeded in retrieving a copy of this circular, nor was mr. moissis able to give any additional information. he confirmed to me that archbishop damaskinos had done much for the rescue of the jews: "archbishop damaskinos knew my place of refuge, in the neighbourhood of athens, and sent me provisions every month. he did the same for other jews ...whose hiding place he knew." [ ] it seems unlikely that a circular letter was issued: a copy might easily have fallen into the hands of the persecutors. in those days one did not put such a message in writing but it was passed on orally. denmark a. the time of moderation germany occupied denmark on april , . the position of denmark under the german occupation was unique in many respects: the king had remained; the danish government continued to function until august, ; the germans were interested in keeping things as quiet as possible and granted to denmark a certain independence in internal affairs, and the attempt to deport and exterminate the jews of denmark started relatively late: september, . a total of , jews were living in denmark, a number of them refugees from germany and elsewhere. < > in december , participants in a conference of danish pastors [ ] considered the possibility of presenting a petition to parliament demanding that all members of parliament should vote against any racial legislation. but the proposal was withdrawn as it was considered undesirable to focus to much public attention on the question. [ ] the same question was discussed at another conference of pastors which met in the provincial town of askov. one of the participants wrote to rabbi friediger: "... for us it is not just a question of the jews and their rights; for the danes this first of all must be the question of the right of a small nation to exist, particularly as this is also a question of our whole national attitude and the basis of democracy: equality and human dignity." [ ] frederik torm, a professor of theology at the university of copenhagen, brought about a common decision of the theological faculty and of the students, declaring that, should persecution of the jews begin, they would voice their opposition vigorously and publicly. this internal decision was put into practice, in october, . [ ] the church press in denmark could publicly denounce anti-semitism at a time when the press in other countries had long since been completely silenced. the rev. johannes nordentoft, in one of his articles, called for an active war against the anti-semitic propaganda of the nazi press. he pointed out that "those who remain silent or disapprove by merely shrugging their shoulders become accomplices". [ ] an article in the church gazette of sonderbourg, edited by dean halfdan hoegsbro, stated: < > "hatred of the jews is prompted by the demand for a scapegoat... we will not lend our support to the introduction of anti-jewish laws; jew hatred is an infectious disease, to which the innate sense of justice of the danish people will not permit them to succumb. it is a disease that we shall cast out from our midst. shame upon us if we ever allow ourselves to fall victim to it." [ ] the skydebjerg-aavup church gazette, comparing the anti-jewish drive to that of medieval times, wrote: "our danish minds will not let themselves become infected by this disease... anti-jewish legislation is tantamount to lawlessness, and if we forsake justice, then we will be submitted to a degradation worse than war and suppression." [ ] in january, , the bishop of copenhagen, dr. fuglsang-damgaard, publicly warned against racial hatred. [ ] the pro-nazi press frequently attacked "the church's dogged opposition to attempts to initiate anti-jewish restrictions". [ ] the first occasion on which the danish bishops approached the authorities en bloc to protest on behalf of the church of denmark, was when they addressed a protest to the minister of justice containing the following paragraph: "... we draw to your attention the feeling of protest which is spreading in the church of denmark. this feeling of protest is due, above all, to the way in which justice is administered in these days. men are being arrested without the public being given any information about how the arrested persons are treated in prison. anti-semitic propaganda is being artificially incited. at the same time pastors receive warnings from the government that they must not comment on the persecution of the jews..." [ ] < > b. the deportation attempt; the protest in the summer of , disturbances occurred in several provincial towns. the germans took reprisals and the people reacted to this by proclaiming strikes. a german ultimatum was rejected by the danish government. thereupon martial law was proclaimed on august , . dr. werner best, the german envoy in copenhagen, received full powers as reich pleni- potentiary. the danish government had resigned. the day to day affairs of its ministries remained in the hands of the permanent department directors; the director of the danish foreign ministry, nils svenningsen, became the chief spokesman of the administration. the germans now planned the deportation of the jews in one night, october - . on september , however, a german in copenhagen, duckwitz, revealed this to danish friends of his, h.c. hansen and h. hedtoft, who warned henriques, the president of the jewish community. on the morning of september , the jewish congregations which met in their synagogues for the services of the jewish new year were warned. the raids took place as planned. in the night of october - , jews were captured in copenhagen and elsewhere in denmark. about others were arrested later on, most of them caught in flight. the great majority, however, succeeded in hiding themselves. the swedish government had publicly expressed its willingness to admit the danish jews into sweden. , jews were secretly moved to the beaches and then ferried by danish fisherman to safety. [ ] at the end of august, , the bishop of copenhagen, dr. fuglsang-damgaard, asked for an interview with the director of the foreign ministry, who declared that the jewish question had not been raised. nobody had been arrested because of race or religion. when the director had asked dr. best about this matter, he had answered: "the question has not been broached at all". [ ] < > dr. fuglsang-damgaard reported this in a letter to the pastors of his diocese, dated september , , adding that later developments would be followed attentively. "from our experience with the german habit of breaking promises, it was not thought wise to take dr. best's words too seriously. unfortunately however, his words perhaps did set our minds too much at rest." [ ] the churches, however, made necessary preparation in case persecution of the jews would begin. bishop fuglsang-damgaard convened with pastors belonging to the unofficial pastors' organisation p.u.f. [ ] and asked them to prepare a draft for a public protest, to be read out from the pulpits. it was ready a short time later. the bishop suggested some changes but there was hardly time to make them as events developed rapidly. on september , , some jewish houses in copenhagen were raided. bishop fuglsang-damgaard thus had another interview with the director of the foreign ministry, svenningsen. in a letter to the bishops, dated september , he informed them that: "... the raid did not indicate that they (the germans) would raise the jewish question, but that it was connected with a suspicion of certain persons. thereafter i asked the director of the department to inform the german authorities that their raising of the jewish question would be met by a joint protest by the church and the bishops. the director promised to inform the germans of this..." bishop fuglsang-damgaard relates: "the jewish community was in a very difficult situation. the chief-rabbi, dr. friediger was interned in the camp of horsercad, just as the time of the great feasts of the year was approaching. we did what we could to obtain his release, so that at least he could lead the services during the feasts. at the beginning of the fateful week (during the night of the first october) i paid a visit to the chairman of the jewish community organisation, the advocate of the supreme court, c.b. henriques. < > i shall never forget it. i came to express our heartfelt fellowship with his community and to say that we were remembering the jews in our prayers, not the least in those days when they celebrated their great feasts, and also in order to assure him that we would do what we could to help the interned to get their liberty again..." [ ] "on th september, about o'clock, the chairman of the jewish community organisation, advocate henriques, came to me and told me that it was almost sure that the jewish question would now be raised. there existed an order from hitler himself to raise it. the ships for the deportation were said to be in the harbour. i went at once to the department of religious affairs and asked for an interview with the director of the department who, however, at that time did not know anything about such imminent action. immediately after this i went to the department of foreign affairs and obtained an interview with the director. he told me that, according to information he had received from different sources, there could be no doubt that the situation was very serious. a meeting of the directors of the departments was to be held on the question at two o'clock...i returned to the ministry of religious affairs, in order to tell mr. thomsen, the director of the department, how serious the situation was, asking him to present a protest to the meeting and to inform the german authorities also about the contents of the protest." [ ] bishop fuglsang-damgaard then returned to his residence. the protest was written in the presence of his assistants in the office. he signed it on behalf of the bishops. "we were conscious that this was a decisive moment. we expected at the time, that the signature would cost me both my office and my freedom. the protest was sent by a messenger to the director of the department to whom personally it was handed. i went to the dean in order to arrange with him the things to be done if i should be arrested." [ ] all the bishops received the protest by express letter, with a request for their immediate support and with the appendix: "in case persecution of the jews should begin, this protest must be read in the churches, and i propose that the pastors commence the reading with the following sentence: 'on the th september of this year the bishops sent to the leading german authorities, through the directors of the departments, a letter with the following contents:...'" < > on saturday, october , , theological students despatched the protest to all the manses in bishop fuglsang-damgaard's diocese. on that same evening, the bishop again was advised by the ministry of religious affairs and the ministry of foreign affairs, to consider the consequences. "but there was nothing to reconsider. the matter had to be completed." [ ] the protest "wherever persecutions are undertaken for racial or religious reasons against the jews, it is the duty of the christian church to raise a protest against it for the following reasons: . because we shall never be able to forget that the lord of the church, jesus christ, was born in bethlehem, of the virgin mary into israel, the people of his possession, according to the promise of god. the history of the jewish people up to the birth of christ includes the preparation for the salvation which god has prepared in christ for all men. this is also expressed in the fact that the old testament is a part of our bible. . because a persecution of the jews is irreconcilable with the humanitarian concept of love of neighbours which follows from the message which the church of jesus christ is commissioned to proclaim. with christ there is no respect of persons, and he has taught us that every man is precious in the eyes of god. 'there is neither jew nor greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in christ jesus.' (gal. , ). . because it contradicts the sense of justice, inherent during centuries in our danish civilisation and which lives in the danish people. in accordance with the above principles, all danish citizens have equal rights and duties before the law and freedom of religion assured to them by the constitution. we understand by freedom of religion the right to exercise our faith in god according to vocation and conscience, in such a way that race and religion can never be in themselves a reason for depriving a man of his rights, freedom or property. despite different religious views we shall therefore struggle to ensure the continued guarantee to our jewish brothers and sisters of the same freedom which we ourselves treasure more than life. the leaders of the danish church are conscious of our responsibility to be law-abiding citizens; we do not needlessly revolt against those who exercise the functions of authority over us; but at the same time, we are obliged by our conscience to maintain the law and to protest against any violation of human rights. therefore, we desire to declare unambiguously our allegiance to the word that we must obey god rather than man." on behalf of the bishops: fuglsang-damgaard. [ ] < > what strikes us is that the public protest stressed the special relationship existing between christians and jews, while the second point of the protest states that "every man is precious in the eyes of god". the text mentioned (which also was quoted by many other churches in different lands) seems more applicable to the position of members of the church who are of jewish origin ("there is neither jew nor greek,... for ye are all one in christ jesus"). however, christians of jewish origin were not mentioned in the protest at all. this in itself was certainly fortunate, for reasons discussed in ch. . finally, the letter of protest states that "we must obey god rather than man". it must have been clear to every church goer that, in fact, the bishops were summoning him to active resistance against the german measures. in one of the churches in copenhagen the bishop began his sermon on that particular sunday by telling what had happened and unequivocally expressing his own view. finally, when the protest was read out to the congregation as a pastoral letter of the church leaders, all those who were present stood up in order to express their approval. [ ] a danish lutheran pastor informed me that whenever the danish bishops issue a public declaration, the faithful consider two questions: is what the bishops say right? what gave them the right to speak on my behalf? when, therefore, the congregation stood up when bishop fuglsang-damgaard read out the protest, this can be seen as expressing the congregation's opinion that he had rightly spoken on their behalf. no bishop nor pastor, to the best of my knowledge, directly suffered or was even arrested because of the public protest. in conclusion of this paragraph we record bishop fuglsang-damgaard's comment on the situation after the church had given its testimony: "the protest had been made and it was not repeated. a repetition would have meant a weakening of it. furthermore, it would not have been of any use. that was clear to everyone who knew the situation. what had now to be done was to bring help to those compatriots who were deported, persecuted or in hiding. < > the whole danish population understood this and all circles in our country came together to render this help. this was a time when there was no rest by day or by night; when it happened that a man in the street would come and give one , kroner; when a code-language developed in order to keep the mutual contact alive; when one felt an unspeakable happiness and gratitude whenever somebody was saved." [ ] c. after the rescue operation bishop fuglsang-damgaard and other church leaders also contributed to the sending of gift parcels to the jews who had been deported. on november , , the bishops jointly addressed dr. best through the ministry of foreign affairs in order to gain his support for this work. the appeal read as follows: "it is with deep sorrow and disappointment that we perceive through developing circumstances, that our appeal to the german authorities over the jewish question has not born fruit. but our interest in, and deep sympathy with, our deported countrymen is undiminished, and as there now seems to be a possibility that we can send support and aid in the form of food from this country, we wish to suggest to the danish church communities that they should send help to the interned jews, in the form of gift parcels, through the red cross. in our relationship with the community, we know that the christian conscience of our people and their conception of justice has suffered a painful wound, and how deep a need they feel to help. we would therefore be grateful to the director of the department of foreign affairs if he would inform dr. best of our attitude and point out to him that support from competent german representatives towards a good solution of this question would be met with deep satisfaction within church circles, the members of whom would, through this christian and humane activity, find a way to express their deep concern over this matter." [ ] the ministry of foreign affairs, the ministry of social affairs, the red cross and the pastors of copenhagen acted unanimously in this large-scale assistance to the danish jews in theresienstadt, an action which was successful beyond all expectation. of the jews who were deported to theresienstadt, all returned with the exception of who had died. < > in december, , bishop malmstrom prayed for the jews in a broadcast religious service. thereupon the german authorities demanded the right to make a preliminary censorship of broadcast services. bishop fuglsang-damgaard then sent a statement through the foreign ministry to the german authorities, in which he stated that if censorship was introduced, neither the sunday services nor the morning devotions would continue to be broadcast, and that the reason for this measure would be made public from all pulpits. a week later, the bishop was informed by the german authorities that "the incident was due to a misunderstanding". [ ] in february, , the bishops sent a letter to their congregations in which they requested prayer "for god's ancient chosen people, trusting that god will help where we see no way to do so." [ ] < > the crucial question, whether the church was influenced by general public opinion or whether it was the other way round, has been discussed in ch. . the satellite countries slovakia on the eve of the german invasion of czechoslovakia, on march , , slovakia declared its independence, and on march , the agreement of german protection was signed. following the first vienna award on november , , parts of former slovakian territory with about , jews were annexed by hungary, together with parts of sub carpathian ruthenia. after the occupation of all of carpatho-ruthenia containing , jews, by hungary, about , jews remained in "independent" slovakia. a catholic priest (dr. josef tiso) was head of the slovakian state. on april , , the first anti-jewish decree was enacted. a special department for jewish affairs was opened in the ministry of interior. it co-operated with the hlinka guard. the council of the evangelical (lutheran) pastors' union decided, in its session of november , , to send a memorandum to the president and the government of slovakia, regarding the hlinka youth organization and the hlinka guard. we quote the following: "we, as evangelical christians and as citizens, cannot agree with the following facts: the annulment of individual rights and freedom of certain people; the taking of steps against the jews without legal basis, by means of violence, for instance, that the men of the hlinka guard, during the night, dragged jews - women, mothers and children - out of their beds and transported them to concentration camps; illegally imposing of fines etc.; transgressions which are performed though they are contrary to the law and to christian ethics." [ ] < > the first deportation train left slovakia on march , . in august , the jewish population had been reduced to , . on august , , a rebellion broke out which was ruthlessly quelled. in the autumn of , , of the remainder of slovakian jewry were deported. in the whole of slovakia there remained not more than about , to , jews. [ ] the convent of (lutheran) bishops, under the chairmanship of dr. vladimir cobrda and dr. samuel stefan osusky, decided to issue a pastoral letter about the "jewish question", on may , . we quote the following: "... the evangelical (lutheran) church neither can nor wishes to interfere in the executive power of the competent government departments, whose duty it is to solve the problems. the church, however, is convinced that it is possible and thus also necessary to solve this problem in a just, humane and christian way, according to the christian principles which are based on the eternal laws of god and the teaching of christ. according to this teaching, all men are endowed with the right to live, to earn a honourable livelihood, and the right to family-life. it also protects the honour of the jews as human beings, so that not one of them should feel deprived because of his national, religious or racial attachments. the racial law however, which some people champion, is contrary to the christian faith, which accepts the biblical message that god is the creator of all things and of all mankind, 'from whom every family in heaven and on earth takes its name' (ephesians , ). 'he is the head, and on him the whole body depends. bonded and knit together by every constituent joint, the whole frame grows through the due activity of each part, and builds itself up in love' (ephesians , ). to our sorrow we have been compelled to witness deeds which cannot be justified. they are contrary to human feelings, to justice and to the law of god; they are in no way related to love. such things could not happen, if all would honour the declaration broadcast by the ministry of interior, that no harm would be done to the jews, that they would be treated in a humane and christian way, and that they should just have to work as the other citizens. < > the church cannot reconcile itself to these deeds which we have witnessed in many places. the church cannot but express its sorrow about them and reject them. if members of the evangelical church participated in these deeds, they must be severely condemned for this..." [ ] "the times" of august , , commented on this pastoral letter as follows: "the slovak lutheran church, under the leadership of the bishops dr. cobrda and dr. osusky, has taken the lead in the fight against nazism in slovakia. from the pulpits of all protestant churches in slovakia a pastoral letter was read on may . in this the bishops condemned an 'immature political ideology' modelled on nazi and fascist lines and emphasized loyalty to the gospel of christ. they also condemned the anti-jewish policy and defended the right of the church, to baptize proselytes from judaism on religious grounds. the pastoral letter, the first of its kind in this part of europe, has caused a profound sensation in central and south-eastern europe (particularly in hungary, where a substantial protestant congregation exists). nazi circles in slovakia are particularly aggrieved since the bishops in question are considered as leading authorities in church matters, even outside slovakia... roughly one sixth of the slovak population are protestants." we have discussed the matter of the so-called "mercy-baptisms" in chapter . suffice it here to mention that pastors in slovakia were in peril of their life if they dared to baptize jews, during the second world war. rumania in june, , the russians took back bess arabia and occupied northern bucovina. in august, hungary carved out for itself northern transylvania and the bulgarians occupied southern dobrudja. on september , general ion antonescu took over the government as conducator of rumania, and on october , , german troops arrived in rumania. at the beginning of , the fascist iron guard tried to overthrow general antonescu. the revolt was crushed, but members of the iron guard had murdered hundreds of jews in bucharest. < > in june, , germany invaded russia; rumania reconquered bucovina and bess arabia. on july , , rumanian soldiers murdered at least , jews in jassy. the rumanians deported an estimated , jews from dorohoi, bucovina and bess arabia to transnistria, in the soviet ukraine. by may, , about two-thirds of these jews had died. [ ] strong anti-semitic influences were manifest in the rumanian orthodox church. on august , , patriarch miron cristea had issued a statement calling upon the rumanian nation "to fight the jewish parasites". [ ] chief rabbi dr. safran relates his frantic efforts to try to avert the deportation of the jews in the districts of dorohoi, bucovina and bessarabia. it was decided that he should approach the head of the orthodox church, the old patriarch nicodemus. "... during the dramatic conversation i had with the patriarch, who was rather indifferent at the beginning pretending that it was all the affair of the government, he changed his attitude in view of my growing emotion which i was unable to hide from him. i spoke of the terrible responsibility he was taking upon his conscience in the eyes of the supreme judge, and ended by throwing myself at the feet of his pontifical seat. deeply moved, the patriarch lifted me up and promised to do his best. on taking my leave of him i sensed that he intended to ask for the support of the queen-mother." [ ] chief rabbi safran immediately took steps to get in touch with king michael and the queen-mother helena to prepare them for a possible appeal from the patriarch nicodemus. "the patriarch, on his part, first sought unsuccessfully, to intervene with antonescu; and then addressed himself to the king and the queen-mother. < > the queen-mother suggested that baron manfred von killinger, the german ambassador, should be invited to the palace for a meal during which a last appeal should be attempted. in the course of this dinner the queen-mother spoke fervently on behalf of the innocent victims, but he, in the presence of the king and the patriarch, responded with an obstinate, brutal refusal." these interventions of the queen-mother and the patriarch (who unfortunately was to disappoint dr. safran later on) nevertheless helped to make it possible for the rest of the jewish population of czernovitz to stay in the bucovinian capital. [ ] chief rabbi safran then heard of the arrival of the metropolitan of the bucovina, tot simedrea, in bucharest, whose anti-semitic feelings were known. nevertheless dr. safran called on him. "contrary to my expectations, mgr. simedrea revealed an understanding attitude. he told me of the feelings aroused in him by the sight of the jews of czernovitz being deported to the ghetto, during which he had seen a rumanian soldier carrying a sick old jewish women on his shoulders. he also had heard the heart-rendering cries of jewish mental patients who formed part of this tragic convoy. the metropolitan effectively intervened with the government of bucharest and on his return to czernovitz exerted pressure on the governor-general of the bucovina. these, together with other similar appeals, brought to an end the deportation of jews from the capital of this province." [ ] in the summer of , pressure was exerted on antonescu by the germans, to order the deportation of all jews of rumania. the germans obtained the consent of the rumanian government for this. trains were already prepared for the deportation. then a delegation of the jewish communities of south transylvania informed dr. safran that all technical steps for the operation had just been taken in their province. appeals to the authorities had been in vain. dr. safran relates: "one sole course remained to be tried - an appeal to metropolitan balan, head of the orthodox church of transylvania, well-known both for his anti-semitism and for the great influence he had with leading figures in the government, and with marshal antonescu in particular. < > following a brief consultation we gave up the original idea of my proceeding to sibiu, for fear of arousing the attention of the gestapo and the centre for jewish affairs. i accordingly adopted a most daring course. using the services of an intermediary, i begged the metropolitan to come to bucharest." in the meantime, metropolitan balan had come to the capital and informed dr. safran by telephone that he would be waiting for him at the house of general vaitoianu with whom he was staying. "our meeting took place in an extremely tense atmosphere. i assumed an accusing tone which could only have been inspired by despair. [ ] the metropolitan walked up and down the room without saying a word. finally he took up the telephone and called marshal antonescu with whom he asked for an urgent interview. the marshal was reported to be busy, but they agreed to have lunch together. in the meantime i communicated to mgr. balan the news that for several weeks the authorities in bucharest had been deporting not only jews, condemned without trial, of not having reported for compulsory labour, but also their parents and children. the metropolitan immediately telephoned the vice-premier, minister michael antonescu, and told him what he just had learned. the minister promised to look into the matter. as a result, after a few days there were no more deportations from bucharest. i accompanied the metropolitan to his car which was to take him to the dictator, pleading with him to use all the means in his power to obtain a favourable decision. my prayers followed him after he had left... three hours later the sonorous voice of the metropolitan told me over the telephone that the marshal had given in. the jews of south transylvania had been saved." [ ] there are other countries in which church leaders courageously and whole heartedly stood up for the jews and yet their interventions seldom had any result at all. in rumania, however, the intervention of the orthodox leaders seems to have been quite successful. it is typical of rumania that no public protests were issued. church leaders personally intervened. these interventions took place only after chief rabbi safran had implored the orthodox leaders to come to the rescue of the jews. < > it is difficult to ascertain what exactly moved these apparently reluctant saviours to take action. the change of heart with patriarch nicodemus seems to have come after dr. safran had spoken "of the terrible responsibility he was taking upon his conscience in the eyes of the supreme judge". metropolitan simedrea told dr. safran "of the feelings aroused in him by the sight of the jews of czernovitz being deported to the ghetto ". according to a report of matatias carp, there was in a jewish population in rumania of approximately , , of whom , were massacred. "among the victims, , lie on the conscience of the rumanian fascist government directly. [ ] there are two other non-roman catholic churches of some importance in rumania. the reformed church of rumania is the church of the hungarian national minority. i have not been able to find any particulars about the attitude of this church regarding anti-semitism. the evangelical (lutheran) church of the augsburg confession is mainly the church of the german immigrants. in spring , the national consistory of this church decided, on a motion of bishop staedel, that their church would join the "institute for research into the jewish influence upon german church life", founded in eisenach (germany). a study group was formed, which, in close contact with the eisenach institute, sought "to make the results of its scientific work fruitful for the life and future form of the lutheran church in rumania". at the first conference of the study group, at the beginning of march, , the following statement by bishop staedel was accepted as the guiding principle for the work as a whole: "we are deeply convinced that at this time of national revival, we are making it extremely difficult for a german to come to jesus christ if we present him with a continuous and detailed treatment of the old testament. in the two hours every week, which are meant to be devoted to bringing the message of the saviour to the german in his national character and community, we have absolutely no room for the national and messianic history of the israelite-jewish people. < > therefore we advocate the elimination of the old testament so far as possible from the religious life of the germans, and thus from the lutheran religious instruction." [ ] a statement made by the leader of the "scientific work" of the study group described the motives underlying its work as follows: "the decisive impulse has come to us from outside, from the political life of the german people. in the national-socialist revolution, however, this nation has confessed to a year-long guilt, for having failed to guard its god-given torch of the nordic aryan vision of life, allowing it to flicker and die out under the influence of foreign, especially jewish, intrigues. now this light will once again burn for the nation in all its purity. what wonder then that people are now coming to the church, demanding of it the same confession of guilt, even more insistently because the church has taken the bible of the jews into its own canon of scripture. thus it has consciously held open at least an aperture through which an essentially foreign spirit could infiltrate into our national life. [ ] bishop d. friedrich mueller, the present head of this church, replied to my circular letter and stated: "as soon as the alliance (between germany and rumania) came into force, the fascist government of rumania promulgated a law by which a 'german community in rumania' was constituted. par. of this law granted to the leader of this community the right, to issue decrees compulsory upon the rumanian citizens of german descent. thus supported, the 'leader of the community' succeeded in compelling dr. victor glondys, the bishop of the evangelical lutheran church in rumania, to resign, whereupon he appointed his political associate, wilhelm staedel, as the head of the church. even staedel did not give in to him completely but tried to follow the policy of the 'german christians'. [ ] in a admonition to my congregation i made a stand against both attempts. this led to several actions of persecution... by secret consultations we could win about per cent of our pastors for resistance and a clear christian preaching, based on the old as well as the new testament... i do not know of any case in which members of my church co-operated in the persecution of the jews. unfortunately there are no documentary proofs of this, because of the atmosphere of the time. during the fascist dictatorship in rumania censorship existed, which prevented publication of statements on behalf of the jews. < > i could not, for instance, publish my warning mentioned above nor send it by mail. copies of it had to be passed on from hand to hand. similarly, as a precaution, i had to destroy my archives during the persecution. i myself no longer have a copy." [ ] i requested dr. safran to comment on this letter. he replied: "concerning the attitude of the evangelical lutheran church in rumania towards my co-religionists in distress during the period of nazi oppression, i must tell you that we did not receive any help or comfort from this church in our terrible suffering, not even a token of human compassion. in , in order to request his intervention on our behalf, i intended to go to the metropolitan of the orthodox rumanian church, mgr. balan, whose residence was in sibiu, where also was the centre of the evangelical church. i was warned, however, that the members of this church living in sibiu were capable of betraying me to the gestapo - with which they maintained direct relations - in order to prevent me from approaching mgr. balan." [ ] the letter from bishop mueller seems to suggest that there existed a kind of "confessing church" in rumania. if this name is correct for the group mentioned by him, it should be added that the existence of this "confessing church in rumania" was not, contrary to what can be said about the confessing church in germany, a very manifest phenomenon. apparently its existence was not manifest to dr. safran. bishop staedel "tried to follow the policy of the german christians". he certainly matched them in anti-semitic heresies. bulgaria a. the preliminary phase bulgaria was part ally, part satellite of germany. in september, , it acquired southern dobrudja from roumania. in march, , the german army was admitted to bulgaria. the germans took macedonia from yugoslavia, thrace from greece, and handed them over to bulgaria. < > the number of jews in bulgaria at the end of amounted to , . approximately , more were added to the bulgarian power sphere in the newly won territories. [ ] the "law for the protection of the nation'; containing provisions for the definition, expropriation and concentration of the jews, was adopted by a majority of the parliament at the end of december , , and promulgated on january , . in august, , wearing the yellow star was made compulsory for the entire jewish population. at the same time belev was appointed as bulgarian commissioner for jewish affairs. on november , , the "holy synod of the bulgarian church" sent a letter of protest to the prime minister (filov), with a copy to the speaker of the parliament. the letter was signed by the deputy chairman of the holy synod, metropolitan neophyte. it read as follows: "the bulgarian church has always kept a faithful and watchful eye on the destiny of the bulgarian people throughout its existence. she has always had an unbroken link with its destiny, and shared in its wishes and longings, its joy and sorrow, its pain, its misfortunes and ideals. this concern of the bulgarian orthodox church for the bulgarian people was strongest in days of trial and danger. in such days she did everything in her power to prevent the nation from making big mistakes, as it was capable of doing, and to protect it from the dangers and calamities that threatened it. and whenever the warning voice of the national church was heeded our people was kept from major disasters. on the other hand, when it ignored the warning voice of the church, our people underwent danger and suffering. the bulgarian church follows with great satisfaction the efforts of our people and those of the bulgarian authorities to protect the people and the fatherland from dangers that lie in wait for them from different quarters. therefore, now too, the national church is very glad to note that the government is preparing a 'law for the protection of the nation', to protect our people and everything bulgarian from such dangers. the church considers it her duty, however, precisely for the benefit of the nation, to draw the attention of the competent authorities to several defects in the proposed law, which could have bad consequences, and which also touch the church as a divine institution, whose duty it is to watch over all her spiritual children and cause the will of god to rule in the cause of righteousness and mercy among human beings and the nations... < > let no account be taken of laws against the jews as a national minority, but let purposeful steps be taken against all the real dangers to the spiritual, cultural, economical, public and political life of the bulgarian people, from whatever direction these dangers come." [ ] it is typical of this letter that most of its contents could also have been written by any anti-fascist political, party, instead of by a church. early in , it became known that the "law for the protection of the nation" was going to be ratified. metropolitan stephan then called for a plenary session of the holy synod of the bulgarian church, which passed a resolution agreeing to send a letter of protest to the prime minister and to the minister of foreign affairs, in which it was pointed out that: "... the principle of racialism which is the basic idea on which the above mentioned law is founded, has no justification from the point of view of the teachings of jesus... the principle of racialism which encourages persecution and denies the rights of people, merely because of their race, in this case the jewish race, has no justification, and therefore one cannot base the 'law for the protection of the nation' on the principle of racialism. one cannot turn the 'law for the protection of the nation' into a means of oppression and persecution of the jewish minority in the land." [ ] on september , , the metropolitan of sofia, stephan, preached a sermon, probably in preparation of the "feast of the exaltation of the honourable and life-giving cross". this feast of the orthodox church falls on september . the metropolitan declared that: "... god had punished the jews for the crucifixion of jesus in that he had expelled them from their country and had not given them a country of their own. and thus, god had determined the destiny of the jews. < > however, men had no right to exercise cruelty towards the jews and to persecute them. especially christians ought to see their brothers in jews who had accepted the christian religion and to support them in every possible way. he stressed several times in his sermon that truly it is in god's hands to punish twice and three times, but it is forbidden for christians to do such a thing." [ ] apparently there existed a brand of "theological" anti-semitism in the church of bulgaria. fortunately, it is difficult to state that "god had punished the jews ... and had not given them a country of their own", since, in , the state of israel came into being. perhaps we may consider it an encouraging fact that people who held such views of "theological" anti-semitism, nevertheless have such an excellent record when practical help to the persecuted was proved necessary. this consideration, however, should not be used to exempt church leaders from their duty to educate the faithful in a more biblical and thus more humane spirit than that of metropolitan stephan's sermon, in . b. the attempt to deport the jews in january, , eichmann's representative dannecker arrived in bulgaria. on february , , he concluded a written agreement with the bulgarian commissioner for jewish affairs, belev, which provided for the deportation of , jews from macedonia, , from thrace and , from old bulgaria. in march, deportations from the occupied greek and yugoslavian territories started. , jews were deported from these regions. [ ] there were personal interventions by church leaders, and an official protest from the synod of the bulgarian orthodox church was issued, on behalf of the bulgarian jews who were threatened with deportation. < > abraham alphasy, who was then head of the jewish community of sofia, relates: "... at that time i went, as the chairman of the jewish congregation, to metropolitan stephan, a man with a highly-developed sense of justice, who was a faithful friend of the jews. when i informed him about the preparations to deport the group of jews to germany and requested his intervention, he asked me from whom i had received this information. i replied that it was from a reliable source but for obvious reasons i could not reveal it. then he immediately dressed and went to the palace of king boris. the king, who guessed for what reason the metropolitan had come, sent a message informing him that he was ill and could not receive him. the metropolitan intimated, as he himself told me, that he would not leave the palace before he had seen the king. finally, the king was compelled to receive him. the metropolitan requested him to cancel the order to deliver the jews to the germans. the metropolitan told him that, in the event that they would assault the jews in order to send them to germany, he would give instructions to open the gates of the churches and monasteries. they would give the jews shelter. 'in this situation the king was compelled to promise to do as requested,' the metropolitan told me..." [ ] we quote the following from the testimony of joseph geron, who served as head of the jewish community in sofia, and afterwards became the chairman of the union of jewish congregations in bulgaria: "... continuing, the witness gave details about united action with the head of the church in sofia, metropolitan stephan, by whom he was received three times. dr. kalmi, one of the leaders of jewry, kept in touch with the general secretary of the holy synod, the body authorized to direct religious affairs in bulgaria. thanks to these contacts a meeting between the king and representatives of the church took place concerning the rescue of the jews... during his first meeting with the head of the church in sofia, the metropolitan stephan, he had said to him among other things: 'cannot the bulgarian church do something similar to what the catholic church and the pope himself are doing for the jews, with an action for their rescue?' to this stephan answered that the bulgarian church would follow the example of the catholic church and would do, and allow to be done, everything possible on behalf of the jews..." [ ] < > in march, , metropolitan stephan called for a plenary session of the holy synod which was held april , . he informed all the metropolitans of the danger that was threatening bulgarian jewry. the metropolitans unanimously decided to send a letter of protest to the prime minister, filov, and to the minister of the interior and of religions. the letter read as follows: the law for the protection of the nation "the idea of passing a law for the protection of the nation which would annul dangers to our people and our state, on which the national, spiritual and moral unity of the bulgarian people is founded, was accepted by our holy orthodox church, which is the eternal guardian of the destiny of the bulgarian people, and which knows better than others, from bitter historical experience, what it would mean to our people to be divided by false religious, national and economic teaching, and to be exploited by any minority. the need to restrain such disintegrating political and religious-sectarian ideas, has always existed in our country, as it also exists now. to-day, too, when the new destiny of our people is being decided, it is more than ever necessary to limit, with the help of the law, disintegrating factors in our land and, to harness them to the building of the healthy spiritual powers of our people and, to guarantee economic opportunities for every bulgarian. however, already when this law for the protection of the nation was made, the holy synod of our church gave warning and begged that it should not be only based on the existing foundations and concepts, because in that case it would not meet the great objective standing before it: to safeguard against disintegrating influences and, to unite the bulgarian people in a spiritual entity. the law for the protection of the nation was created with the express purpose of limiting the jewish minority; the main concept of the law is based on racialism. at that time the holy synod informed the government, that the principle of racialism cannot be justified from the point of view of the christian doctrine, being contrary to the fundamental message of the christian church, in which all who believe in jesus christ are men and women of equal worth. 'there is neither jew nor greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in christ jesus' (gal. , ). the principle of racialism, according to which certain members of the community can be persecuted, restricted and deprived of their rights only because they belong to a certain race, in this case the jewish race, cannot be justified from the standpoint of christian ethics. therefore the church emphatically demands that the law for the protection of the nation shall not be based mainly on the principles of racialism, but on those of spiritual wholeness and the protection of our people, so that it may safeguard them from those disintegrating influences which affect spiritual and religious values, and also from economic financial exploitation. < > they did not listen to the voice of our holy synod. we now see, that the law for the protection of the nation, nearly two years after its promulgation, instead of meeting its great task of safeguarding the nation from damaging and disintegrating influences, and uniting its creative, healthy, spiritual and economic powers into a spiritual and moral unity, has turned into a means of restricting and persecuting the jewish minority in our country." christians of jewish origin "many times our holy synod has requested in writing the honourable government, from the promulgation of the law until to-day, to ease the restricting passages of the law against christians of jewish origin, and against the jews in general. until now both the written requests and the interventions of the holy synod have remained unanswered. neither has any alleviation in the fate of the jewish minority been granted. the christians of jewish origin are still forced to wear the star with the six points, the symbol of the jewish religion, and they pay taxes to the jewish consistory; in fact this is a gross profanation of our holy orthodox religion, in as much as they have been baptized and received into the church, some of them long before there was any word at all about the law for the protection of the nation. in spite of our repeated requests to exempt them - what insults they have to bear as christians - there has been no alleviation whatsoever." the jewish minority "neither has there been any easing in the situation of the jewish minority as a whole. quite the contrary, restrictions are increasing daily. it has gone so far that these citizens of our country are deprived of the most elementary rights, and the department for jewish affairs is free to do with them as it wishes; sending them to camps and deporting them from the country. our people, with soul and conscience, mind and conviction, cannot tolerate injustice, cruelty and violence against anybody. it cannot accept what is being done now to the jewish minority. its human and christian conscience is perplexed. the holy synod has also received requests from different quarters - from leading citizens who are outstanding bulgarians, from well-known businessmen who love their fatherland, from bulgarian mothers - to demand righteous and a humane treatment of the jewish minority in the country. the holy synod of the bulgarian church cannot ignore its divine command and its holy duty. it must, according to the teaching of the gospel concerning love of one's neighbour, raise a compassionate and defending voice in aid of the suffering sand wronged people; it must beg, guide and convince, so that the measures in general against the jews may cease or at least be eased. god's law, which transcends all human laws, definitely obliges us not to be indifferent in the face of the sufferings of innocent people, of whatever race. the majority of our people also place their relationship with the suffering jewish minority on this biblical and humane foundation. < > understandably our holy synod, as we have already stressed in another letter to the honourable government, does not deny the right of the bulgarian authorities to preserve the security of the state and to take all steps to safeguard this security; to persecute, to restrict, to punish. but the holy synod is charged with the divine duty to remind the government that these steps must be taken with justice and in a humane spirit, so that they may surely attain their aim and be effective and lasting for the protection of the state. until now, a historical line of justice and integrity has been the sure means for the protection of our people and our state. on these eternal foundations we also base our national and righteous demands, side along our hopes. the bulgarian people as a whole has always, until now, been just and tolerant. our nation, although it has suffered more than all the nations, does not love, nor tolerate, violence and cruelty we have this name and by it we are known amongst the other nations. we have realized our national aspirations, precisely because we knew they were just; and we wanted justice, both for ourselves and for others. may we bulgarians, who have longed so much for a fair and decent attitude towards ourselves, now forsake our strongest weapon? the bulgarian orthodox church fears that, if we destroy the eternal foundation - the right to live as free men and the divine commandment to be just - there no longer will be left to us, as a small people, any other strong support for our existence. the bulgarian state must, therefore, abide by these truths, and apply them to all its subjects, who are guiltless (except for the fact that they were born in bulgaria, but not of bulgarian parents). a divine command and divine justice cannot be disregarded. the holy synod, meeting in the special session of april , of this year, has decided - after considering its deep concern for the honour and future of the bulgarian people, and its responsibility before god - to inform you that the bulgarian orthodox church, as a national and divine institution, cannot agree to principles such as racialism, in which it is possible to foment hatred and to indulge in violence and cruelty. it cannot accept the principle that any race be deprived of the human right to live, since this right is in accordance with the fundamental principles of christian religion and morality. the bulgarian orthodox church is of the opinion that she cannot deny help and protection to the persecuted and oppressed. if she were to refuse such help, she would be unfaithful to herself. in this case our holy church was asked for help, by the jews as well as by christian bulgarians, in order to improve the fate of the jews in general. the church does not deny and even especially stresses the duty and the right of the honourable government to take the necessary steps to protect the people and the state from all dangers. however, she must stress the duty of the state to abide by the principles of justice and the christian gospel." three requests "in consideration, therefore, the holy synod has decided to request you urgently: < > . not to deprive the christians of jewish origin and the jews of our country in general of the elementary rights of human beings and of citizens; not to deprive them of the right to live in the country and of the possibility to work and to live as human beings. . the restricting decrees regarding the jews must be both eased and not be enforced too strictly. . to cancel the unjustifiable obligation whereby christians of jewish origin wear both the christian cross and the jewish star, and whereby they pay taxes to the jewish community. the bulgarian church considers herself especially obliged to raise her voice for the protection of the christians of jewish origin, who have cut themselves off from the jewish community and who have been received into the bosom of the bulgarian church. she cannot accept that these christians wear the symbol of the jewish religion and that they pay taxes to the jewish religious community, or that they be deported from their fatherland. in this case the church cannot help but recall to mind the words of our lord: 'and with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again' (matthew , ), and with concern raise her voice in warning. we pray that god's blessing may be upon you, and fervently praying in the name of jesus, we remain,..." [ ] unfortunately, this protest complained that "christians of jewish origin are still forced to wear the star with the six points", stating that "this is a gross profanation of our holy orthodox religion". it also defended the jews in general, stating that "the principle of racialism cannot be justified from the point of view of the christian doctrine, being contrary to the fundamental message of the christian church." however, much of the argumentation was still national, rather than religious. typical is the expression: "the holy synod,... after considering its deep concern for the honour and future of the bulgarian people, and its responsibility before god... (in that order!). absence of sound theology as regards the position of the jewish people, combined with national considerations, is especially dangerous when one considers that (contrary to the case in bulgaria) the national interest does not require to stand up for the persecuted jews. < > after meetings had been held between the metropolitan stephan and jewish businessmen, it was deemed essential to bring about a meeting between king boris and the holy synod. however, the meeting did not take place immediately. this moved the metropolitan of vidin, neophyte, the chairman of the holy synod, to appeal to members of his flock (and intentionally, wide publicity was given to this letter) expressing opposition to the anti-jewish measures. the metropolitan stephan, for his part, preached in the churches of sofia, condemning the anti-semitic policy of the government and thus defending the jews of his town. "in that period, nobody in bulgaria could compare with the higher clergy in courage. as a result of this outcry, the government was compelled to arrange an audience between the king, the cabinet and the higher clergy. the meeting took place on april , , in the royal palace in sofia. king boris, the metropolitan stephan, neophyte, kyril, the prime minister filov and others participated in the discussions in which the clergy defended the jews with great courage." [ ] in may, , the commissioner for jewish affairs, belev, submitted to king boris two alternate plans: one for the deportation of all bulgarian jews to poland, the other for their evacuation to the country. the king chose the latter. the expulsion order was published on may . [ ] the jews expelled from the cities were housed with jewish families in the country and in schools. they were never deported from bulgaria. on may , instructions concerning the deportations from sofia began to be received by the jews. rabbis daniel ben zion and dr. hanael, together with the lawyer adolf chaymov and mr. menachem moshonov, decided to go to metropolitan stephan, who had called for them, in order to beg his intervention for the cancellation of the deportation decision. mr. moshonow relates: < > "... we went to the metropolitan at , a.m. he wanted to know what we were doing and we told him everything in detail. he received us early and apparently was greatly concerned about our situation, because he was still in his dressing gown. after he had listened to us, he calmed us and promised to continue to do everything in his power to prevent the deportation of the jews from the country. metropolitan stephan added that at the ceremony in honour of the feast of the saints kyril and methodius, which was taking place on that same day, may , , he would meet the king and would speak to him again about that same matter. he seemed to be very moved and full of hope. he stressed anew that at one of his last meetings with the king, the latter, in the presence of the ecclesiastical high official kyril, had specifically stated that the jews would not be deported from bulgaria. when we parted from the metropolitan, he reassured us saying: 'go and calm your brethren, tell them from me that the king has promised, and a king's word is not reversed'." [ ] contrary to the situation in rumania, the church leaders in bulgaria could indeed claim to express the feelings of "the majority of our people", [ ] when they stood up for the jews. moreover, the great majority of the bulgarians belonged to the orthodox church. seldom, however, can a church leader afford to address his king as metropolitan stephan addressed king boris, in the telephone conversation which is related by solomon mashiach. his visits to metropolitan stephan probably took place on may and , . < > "i went to the residence of prelate stephan. he gave me a kind welcome and ordered that we should not be disturbed. he locked the door and i began to tell him our troubles. after he had listened to me with emotion and attention for nearly half an hour, he said: 'this i cannot permit as long as i live. there are many among the jewish people who have rescued bulgaria; they sacrificed much on behalf of the nation. i shall speak with the king immediately. i wish you to hear our conversation.' the prelate took the telephone and was connected with the king. after an exchange of words of no interest as far as the jews are concerned, the prelate said: 'boris, my son, i am not at all satisfied about you. one hears lately of many things done to our israelite brethren. think very hard [ ]; it is unworthy of you and of the bulgarian people.' the king asked: 'but what - what did you hear and from whom?' 'things have come to my knowledge which i would rather not believe. they are a disgrace and shame to you and to the bulgarian people. i cannot explain them to you by telephone. if you wish, come to me, or i shall come to you at once, to see with my own eyes what your reaction will be.' the king began to stammer and to excuse himself, saying that he could not meet stephan on that day. he then made an appointment with him for the next day. i whispered to prelate stephan: 'that will be too late'. then the prelate said to him: 'boris, let it not be too late. pull yourself together, my son.' 'it will not be too late, i promise you. to-morrow we shall see one another.' thus ended the first conversation. prelate stephan said to me: 'come to-morrow morning, between and . he is trying to give me the slip but i shall not permit him to bring such a disgrace, even if i would lose my head..." "next morning i again went to the metropolitan stephan to hear the outcome. he immediately took the telephone and was connected with the palace. the king's councillor (dr. neshev, if i am not mistaken) replied. he said that the king had been urgently called away and had not intimated where he was going or when he would return. metropolitan stephan got very angry and said: 'tell me where the little king is, you milksop. tell others that you do not know, but beware if you continue to be stubborn'. dr. neshev apologized, saying he had been instructed not to reveal that the king was in his palace krichim. he begged the metropolitan not to divulge this information, as it would cause him trouble. metropolitan stephan promised to say nothing, but he asked dr. neshev: 'did he expressly instruct you that you should not even reveal his whereabouts to me'? dr. neshev replied in the affirmative." < > "metropolitan stephan was very angry and said to me that the king would regret his deed very much. 'at one time i saved his father's head and to him i gave the throne; now this is his reward to me.' in a great perturbed state of mind he took the telephone and spoke to the king in krichim palace. i heard, word for word, the following: 'boris, you forget yourself. you elude me and hide. you know that for me there are no secrets under the sun. you know that at one time i saved your father's head and your throne. but it is doubtful whether i, after these acts of yours, shall be able to save your head. give the matter serious thought and uproot this demoniac influence from your heart.' he then put down the receiver. afterwards the telephone began to ring. i said to metropolitan stephan: 'they are calling you'. he replied: 'i know; he wants to speak to me over the telephone but i shall not answer him unless he will come personally to apologize to me. you will see that he will not dare to cause you evil.'..." [ ] the last recorded activity of metropolitan stephan on behalf of the jews is a telegram sent to the king, in which was written: 'do not persecute, so that you may not be persecuted. with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again. i know, boris, that from heaven god will keep watch over your actions.'" [ ] another outstanding leader of the bulgarian orthodox church who intervened on behalf of the jews was the metropolitan of plovdiv, kyril. belev had ordered the internment of the "influential jews" in several cities. on march , , some of the jews in plovdiv were arrested. early in the morning of that day, kyril sent a telegram to the king and called upon the representatives of the regime, to inform the government that from that very moment, because of the action against the jews, he (kyril) had ceased to be a loyal citizen and would act according to the dictates of his conscience. [ ] < > leviev relates another incident in which metropolitan kyril was the hero: "it is fitting to bear in mind, as a token of the personal courage of metropolitan kyril, the date of may , . early in the morning, when it was still dark, he was awakened by a jewish boy, who had been sent to inform the metropolitan that during that night large groups of jews had again been arrested. the metropolitan went to the jewish quarter, where many jews were gathered in a square; rabbi samuel, who was wholly dedicated to his people, was at their head, giving them courage. the appearance of the metropolitan was received by the jews with relief and hope. the metropolitan immediately went to the district office where he only found kolev, the deputy district officer, of whom he demanded particulars about the extent and the meaning of the arrests. kyril draw his attention to the dangerous consequences which might result from the confusion, created in the mind of the public, and who were not likely to remain inactive in the face of renewed injustice and violence. it was explained to him that about , jews had been arrested because a group of five jewish youngsters had joined the underground movement. the metropolitan demanded that they set the arrested jews free; otherwise great public disturbances would occur. after having obtained a promise in this respect, he went to the police station, where the arrested people were held, and encouraged them. he met with the police commander and with his assistants, and pointed out to them that the entire public was following with attention the fate of the arrested jews. the arrested people were set free at the end of that day." [ ] it appears that an important factor influencing church leaders in bulgaria to act was their genuine concern. thus they were easily accessible whenever their help was needed. it seems to be a small feature in the over-all picture, but it is significant: kyril got up early in the morning when it was still dark and rushed to the rescue of the arrested jews in plovdiv; stephan received jewish leaders when he was still in his dressing gown. jewish leaders in israel as well as jews in bulgaria who now live under a communist government, have expressed their appreciation of the help rendered by the church in bulgaria. we quote the following from the testimony of joseph geron, who served as head of the jewish community in sofia, and afterwards became the chairman of the union of jewish congregations in bulgaria: < > "... the witness stressed the fact that the bulgarian church, on many occasions and at different periods, revealed understanding and sympathy for the jews, and took important actions for their rescue... concerning the bulgarian church, her attitude to the jews was always very correct, but during the events which accompanied jewish life under the rule of prime minister filov, the church revealed an attitude of open sympathy, and exercised strong moral pressure on all the decisive factors in jewish affairs... what then were the factors that, directly and indirectly, helped in the rescue of the jews of bulgaria? one may answer that there were collective and individual factors. among the former, the orthodox bulgarian church, with its leaders stephan, neophyte and paisly, take the first place..." [ ] of course, in bulgaria just as in other countries there were many factors helping to influence the outcome. king boris and the cabinet were in a position to withstand german pressure to some extent if they wished so. the victories of the soviet armies made their mark on the minds of the people. it appears, however, that the activities of the leaders of the orthodox church were an important contribution to the positive outcome. all the jews of bulgaria survived. yet, there remains one nagging question: did the orthodox church of bulgaria try to render any aid to the more than , jews who were deported from the greek and yugoslavian territories occupied by bulgarian troops? it seems that they did not, but perhaps there was no time to intervene. [ ] hungary a. the preliminary phase in november, , hungary annexed some slovakian districts and part of sub carpathian ruthenia. in march, , the remainder of the latter territory was annexed. in august, , hungary occupied northern transylvania. in april, , part of yugoslavia was occupied. in its enlarged state, hungary had a jewish population of , within its borders. [ ] < > on june , , germany invaded russia and the hungarians joined forces with the germans. on august , the third anti-jewish law was enacted. [ ] this law defined who was to be considered a jew, according to the well-known principles of the nuremberg laws. "bishop ravasz, the leading speaker of the representatives of the reformed church, after having delivered his address of refusal, read a solemn declaration signed by all the bishops, and by four general elders, in which the signatories protested against the passage of the law and disclaimed all responsibility for its passage." [ ] i have tried to obtain a copy of bishop ravasz's address of refusal and of the declaration mentioned above. dr. elek mathe, of the reformed church of hungary, replied to my request: "unfortunately there is no available copy of the address referred to in your letter...; even less, newspaper cuttings, for the simple reason that at that time the daily press was under strict government control and the text of such an address could not be printed. [ ] in the summer of , the hungarian government ordered an inquiry into the citizenship of all the jewish residents of northern hungary. , jews unable to give satisfactory proof of their citizenship were deported to galicia, where a systematic extermination was carried out by the german troops. "baroness edith weisz called on bishop ravasz, and asked for his intervention. the bishop requested an audience with the regent, and appearing before him, informed him of the situation and asked that the minister of interior be instructed to give due regard to humanitarian viewpoints. < > bishop ravasz then called on francis kereszres-fischer, minister of the interior, who himself later on was carried away by the germans, warning him that after the conclusion of the war an account would have to be given before world protestantism, of the fate meted out to the jews. he requested the adoption of such measures as would enable him to appear before any foreign church body in future days, with a clear conscience regarding these matters. an end was put to all abuses and the lives of many persons were saved." [ ] bishop ravasz thus tried to do something on behalf of non-hungarian jews, this in contrast to the tendency of those in other lands who rendered resistance only when jews of their own nationality were deported. from march, , to march, , kallay was prime minister. his cabinet withstood german pressure to deport the jews. b. mass deportations on march , , regent horthy was "invited" to a conference with hitler, who informed him of the imminent occupation of hungary by german troops. horthy had to agree to kallay's dismissal. the aerodromes of budapest were seized by a german task force. a new government was appointed under sztojay. the arrow cross leader, laszlo baky, was appointed undersecretary of state in the ministry of interior, and laszlo endre administrative under-secretary and expert on jewish affairs. veesenmayer was appointed as ambassador to hungary and as plenipotentiary of the german reich. eichmann came to budapest at the end of march. on march , , it was decreed that all jews must wear the yellow star. concentration of all the jews took place at a rapid pace. in may, the first deportation trains left for auschwitz. at the end of june, , jews had been deported. on july , , the total number was , . the evacuation of the jews of budapest was planned for july. < > concerted pressure was exerted on regent horthy to stop the deportations. switzerland and sweden made urgent requests. the turkish and spanish governments also intervened. the papal nuncio was, according to sztojay, calling "several times" a day. on july , sztojay informed veesenmayer that the regent had given the order that the deportations should stop. in fact, the stoppage occurred in the middle of july and it lasted until october. on april , , bishop laszlo ravasz addressed a letter of protest to the minister of the interior. in this document bishop ravasz did not object to the stigmatization of the jews, but to the regulations that required members of the reformed church to wear the star of david. [ ] at the same time he called on ambrozy, the regent's chef de cabinet, and asked to be granted an audience with the regent. he was informed that "the regent regards himself a prisoner and will not receive anyone". subsequently bishop ravasz called on the minister of interior, who asked him to return at p.m. the same day. "jaross, who kept the bishop waiting till p.m., agreed, after a heated argument, to exempt certain church dignitaries and persons of jewish origin who had contracted mixed marriages." [ ] on april , the general assembly of the reformed church addressed a petition to the prime minister, urging him to be mindful of the claims of humanitarian thinking, and demanding the extension of granting exemptions. "all the activities carried on by the churches in these days, centred around the jewish question. however, as the government was but a mere tool in the hands of the nazi regime, expressly antagonistic toward the churches, it paid little regard to the action of the churches. the results reached accordingly were rather meagre. yet, meagre as they were, they meant the saving of many lives. the most important result was the exemption secured for members of mixed marriages. this one measure alone meant exemption from the wearing of the yellow star and its fearful consequences for several thousand families < > the churches already at that time demanded the formation of a body authorised to grant exemptions whenever individual merits made the granting of the same justified. this demand, although not granted in its original form, led later on the recognition of the regent's right to grant exemption, through which channel some twenty thousand persons were given exemption. [ ] under the influence of the news reaching the capital, bishop ravasz asked the regent - a protestant - for an audience, which was granted on april , . "he entreated the regent to abstain from any action in connection with the jewish question, for which at some future date he might have to bear the responsibility, pointing out that the blame for cruelties, should these occur, would be laid at his door and that he would render himself liable to trial for same. 'the desperadoes,' said the bishop, 'will not fail to make an attempt to have their own accounts paid out of the moral capital of others'. horthy reassured the bishop." [ ] a few days later, however, baron zsigmond perenyi, president of the upper house, called upon bishop ravasz and informed him of his sad experiences in northern hungary. on april , bishop ravasz was again received in audience by the regent, to whom he passed on the information gathered by perenyi. horthy's answer was as follows: "only a few hundred thousands jews were scheduled to leave the country with the labour battalions. no harm will befall them, not a hair of their heads will be touched. they will enjoy the same treatment as the nearly hundred thousand hungarian labourers employed abroad?..." the regent admitted that complaints had been received from nyiregyhaza, whereupon he had sent for the minister of interior, jaross, and had asked for an investigation to be instituted. jaross had charged his two under- secretaries with the investigation, and had since reported that a stop had been put to the scandalous treatment. [ ] on may , , bishop ravasz called on prime minister sztojay and protested against the atrocities committed against the jews. < > "he presented the petition of the reformed assembly referring to the horrors which occurred during the concentration of the jews at marosvisihely, kolozsvir, kassa and nagybanya. the prime minister seemed to have been informed about the situation and declared that he condemned the brutalities, stating that he had given instructions for the separation to be carried out drastically, but humanely. "the jews are a race", he said, "and thus the regulation of the jewish problem is not a question of religion, but of race". [ ] on may , , the assembly of the reformed church sent a letter to prime minister sztojay in which two matters were emphasized. first, it recalled the promises which the prime minister had made regarding amelioration of the cruel measures and, second, it protested against the segregation of the jews which had already begun. "we are compelled to declare that we most resolutely disapprove the segregation of persons classified as jews. we are of the opinion that the measures adopted by christian society in times past in this direction, must not be repeated... the second thing which we have to mention is as yet an anxious presentiment. signs are not lacking to show that, besides segregation, the deportation of the jews beyond the country's boundaries is also in preparation. we have to call your excellency's attention to the tragic developments which mark the conclusion of jewish deportations in other countries, and we beg your excellency to do all that can be done in order to impede such happenings and to avert responsibility for such acts from the royal government and from the whole nation." [ ] bishop ravasz then tried to join forces with the roman catholic church and informed the chairman of the holy cross society (which was charged with the protection and care of catholics of jewish origin) of his willingness to make the introductory steps for a united action. on june , , he sent a letter to the primate, justinian serkdi, saying that he had already prepared the draft for a memorandum (of which a copy was included) to be sent to the government, as "a final earnest warning" before the churches should "voice their solemn declaration in protest, in the presence of the country and the world". no reply from primate seredi, however, was received. [ ] < > as nothing could be learned from the press, the authorities of the church sent a young pastor to kassa, the largest ghetto. he returned from his trip of inspection, reporting that, notwithstanding the protestations and promises of the prime minister, the deportation of jews had begun. therefore pastors were dispatched to carry the text of the memorandum that had been prepared, to the nine bishops, in order to obtain their consent. after they had signed it, a deputation presented it to the prime minister, on june , . its text was as follows: "in our memorandum of may we mentioned, with foreboding, that there was a possibility of the deportation of the hungarian jews to an unknown destination. since then information has reached us, according to which jews have been crossing the frontier in sealed wagons day after day, disappearing from our sight, bound for an unknown destination. each of these wagons contained about to persons of different sex, age and social standing, of both israelite and christian faith. the persons deported, as well as, their relatives are convinced that this journey is leading to final destruction. the solution of the jewish question is a political task. we now are not dealing with politics. the execution of this solution is a great work of administration. we are not experts on that. but the moment the solution of the jewish question challenges the eternal laws of god, we are in duty bound to raise our voice, condemning, but at the same time imploring, the head of the responsible government. we cannot act otherwise. we have been commanded by god to preach his eternal gospel, to give evidence of the unalterable laws of his moral order for this generation, whether people like it or not. although humble and sinful men, we, in the bondage of faith and obedience to this heavenly command, possess the right to give evidence of the word of god and to condemn every action which outrages human dignity, justice or charity, and which loads upon the head of our people the horrible responsibility of innocently shed blood. as bishops of the two protestant churches we protest against devout members of our congregations being punished merely for being considered jews from a racial point of view. they are being punished for a jewish mentality from which they, and in many cases their ancestors, have solemnly disconnected themselves. their lives, as regards christian spirit and morality, are not considered in the least. < > finally we, as hungarians and as clergymen, repeatedly implore your excellency to put an end to the cruelties, even disapproved of by yourself, and to enforce the declaration made by a prominent member of your cabinet, protesting against the very idea of a senseless and cruel destruction of the jews. we do not wish to aggravate your excellency's political position; we even wish to promote the solution of the great task you have taken upon yourself. for this reason, for the time being, we do not carry our protest before the hungarian public, although this course will incur for us the reproach and accusation of the leading bodies of the christian churches. should, however, our intervention prove ineffective, we will be obliged to testify before the congregations of our church and the protestants of the world, that we did not suppress the message of god. as a last attempt we appeal, through the kindness of your hungarian heart and the christian feelings of your excellency, to the leniency of the royal hungarian government. we desire that this, the most painful manifestation in our whole history hitherto, should become the case of the government." [ ] the bishops were afraid of "the reproach and accusation of the leading bodies of the christian churches", in the event of remaining silent. apparently the anticipated verdict of churches in other countries, and of the world council of churches, was one of the factors which urged action. the churches made a clear stand in this memorandum, though certainly not everything in it is of prophetic power. the deputation submitting this memorandum, which in its way was a kind of ultimatum, supported it by word of mouth. prime minister sztojay answered bluntly: "the two secretaries of state of the ministry of interior have reported that, except in certain cases, no atrocities have been committed. germany has need of man power, and the jews are being taken there for labour purposes." in their reply, the members of the protestant deputation pointed out to the prime minister that deported babies, pregnant women and old people were certainly of no use for that purpose. sztojay's answer to this was that the authorities did not want the jews working abroad to feel anxious about the families they had left behind, nor the families to worry as to the fate of the deported jewish men. < > the deputation proposed that the churches be permitted to care for children whose parents had been selected for such "labour purposes". the prime minister consented to this request, but asked that it be submitted in writing. the deputation immediately composed and handed over the written request. it was never answered. [ ] a confidential report sent by the hungarian protestants to the secretary of the world council of churches, geneva, states: "... not a single line on all this has been published, either in the ecclesiastical or in the daily press; for when the first memorandum was personally handed over, the government made it a condition that the whole intervention be handled with the utmost discretion and no press-comments whatsoever were to be made: in this case the government were willing on their part to do everything possible; if press-comments were made it would appear as though the government, considering the echoes in the press, had taken alleviating i.e. modifying measures in their sudden fear. the date to answer the last memorandum expires to-morrow and if no adequate essential measures are taken by then, uniform sermons and a strongly worded pastoral letter will be read from every pulpit on next sunday." [ ] no answer came to the memorandum. thus bishops ravasz and kapi decided to address an open declaration to the congregations and to the protestant christianity of the world: "we request all our brethren, the pastors belonging to our communions, that they read the following message to the congregations at the conclusion of next sunday's morning service: to all congregations of the hungarian reformed church and of the hungarian lutheran church, grace unto you and peace from god our father, and the lord jesus christ. brethren in christ! the undersigned bishops of the hungarian reformed church and of the hungarian lutheran church address you and inform you, in the presence of god, of the steps taken before the royal hungarian government in the name of the protestant churches. < > we notify the congregations that the two protestant churches, after several proposals both by word of mouth and in writing, on june st presented to the royal hungarian prime minister a solemn memorandum of request and protest. this memorandum pointed out the more than regrettable events accompanying the concentration and deportation of jews, whether christian or not. after having stated that the solution of the jewish question violates eternal divine laws, the memorandum continued its proposals as follows: 'we have been commanded by god to preach his eternal gospel, to give evidence of the unalterable laws of his moral order in this generation, whether people like it or not. although humble and sinful men, we, in the bondage of faith and obedience to this heavenly command, possess the right to give evidence of the word of god and to condemn every action which outrages human dignity, justice or charity, and which loads upon the head of our people the horrible responsibility of innocently shed blood.' at the same time we beseeched the royal hungarian government to put an end to the cruelties which were also condemned by members of the cabinet, and to enforce those declarations that protested against the very suggestion of the destruction of the jews, while at the same time they issued orders that the jews should be treated humanely. we were deeply afflicted when we were forced to admit that our entreaties had been in vain. we, the bishops of the two protestant churches, considered it to be our duty to inform our faithful, as well as, every member of our congregation and the universal community of christ's holy church of these events. we summon the congregations to repentance and the entire hungarian nation to penitence under the mighty hand of god. pray to him and beseech him to turn his mercy and his supporting grace towards our hungarian nation." your loving brethren in christ: the last sunday in june, . [ ] the proclamation was lithographed and, as a necessary precaution, put into differently coloured envelopes. it was intended to post it to the two thousand clergymen in the country from different provincial post offices. at this juncture, the minister of religion and education sent word by telephone that a pastoral letter of the primate, addressed to the bishops and priests of the roman catholic church, had been intercepted and that the government wished to have a conference with the churches. on july , , the minister visited bishop ravasz, who was ill. "the minister declared that the prime minister had promised the abolition of atrocities, the cessation of further deportations and that the isolation of the jews would be carried out in a humane manner. 'that,' he said, 'was the agreement with the catholic church'. < > he could not at that time produce it in writing, but that was the text and essential contents of the agreement with the catholics. at great length he persuaded and threatened the sick bishop that if they persisted in protesting in public, the church would be 'overwhelmed', or the government might resign, thereby paving the way for the coming into power of the arrow cross party. if, however, they came to an agreement, the lives of , budapest jews would be saved." [ ] bishop ravasz believed the minister's statement regarding the agreement with the primate, but he insisted that the clergy should, at any event, be allowed to read out a short note in the reformed churches. this note was immediately drafted. it reads as follows: "reverend pastor! we request that you read the following announcement at the conclusion of next sunday's morning service [july, ]: 'the bishops of the reformed church of hungary and the evangelical (lutheran) church of hungary wish to inform the congregations that in connection with the jewish question, and particularly in the case of baptised jews, they have repeatedly intervened with the competent government authorities. their endeavours in this respect are continuing'." [ ] it is difficult to answer the question whether it was the right decision to cancel the public proclamation of the pastoral letter form all the pulpits. dr. mathe wrote to me: "... this circular [the pastoral letter] reached all the pastors, and they undoubtedly communicated its contents to most of their parishioners." [ ] the deportations were stopped. the archbishop of canterbury addressed "the christian people of hungary" through the b.b.c., in july, . he begged them "to do your utmost, even taking great personal risks, in order to save some if you can". [ ] this appeal may have had more direct, practical effects than the short note that was read out from the pulpits. < > c. the terror at the end on october , , regent horthy was arrested by the germans and the new nazi-dominated regime of szalasi was installed. on october , , jewish men were rounded up. by the end of october, , jewish men and women had been seized. the majority of them were marched off to austria, without food. all who fainted and fell, were killed on the spot. the , jews who had remained in budapest were herded into a ghetto where they were exposed to raids by german and hungarian nazis, and to the bombardments of the russian guns. on december , , the russians stormed budapest. on january , , the ghetto was liberated by the red army. the fighting for the buda citadel continued until february , . after szalasi's reign of terror had begun, bishop ravasz intervened in the name of the protestant churches. he demanded the fulfilment of five points. three of them were in connection with the jews: ... c. humane methods in the treatment of jews. revocation of the order which, in cases of mixed marriages, empowered the non-jewish party to obtain a divorce, and declared as jewish the party that failed to comply with this regulation. d. the cessation of the deportations. e. security for the lives of the jews. on november , , the deputy prime minister replied in the name of the government. he informed then that szalasi had succeeded in obtaining the fuehrer's permission to grant the following points: "no alteration to be made in the legal status of mixed marriages, the jews to be separated from the rest of the population of budapest, and the labour service companies to be directed towards the german frontier, because it was to be feared that they might commit atrocities in the case of a russian occupation. when carrying out these measures, however, the principle of humanity would be respected." [ ] < > on november , , bishop ravasz again wrote to the roman catholic primate proposing united action. "the primate, tired and very ill, replied that he had already intervened with szalasi and that he did not feel like repeating the intervention in the company of others." [ ] on dec. , , the bishops of the reformed and lutheran churches presented a note to the so-called "leader of the nation". "it follows from the prophetic office of christ's church that the servant of the church should always raise his voice when men's acts gravely violate god's laws", wrote bishop ravasz. the letter stressed, that "the treatment meted out mocks god's eternal laws which prescribe humane treatment even toward one's enemies, and brings down god's anger on the head of the nation. this treatment casts a dark blot on the name of the magyar nation which, for a thousand years, had been known to the world for its generosity and chivalry." [ ] a pastoral letter issued in december, , called on the pastors to pray at the services for "the scattered flock of israel, the homeless and the persecuted." [ ] on may , , the hungarian reformed church declared that "in deep humility she confesses her guilt and offence against god's honour... she had not laboured in time to warn the people and the rulers, when they embarked on a course contrary to god's laws, and she had not strongly taken her stand on the side of the innocent persecuted human beings." [ ] < > the neutral countries switzerland a. press censorship switzerland remained neutral throughout the second world war, but it was surrounded by the axis powers and to a great extent economically dependent on them. the swiss government tried to avoid offending the germans, and thus the press was forbidden to make foreign propaganda or to publish stories about atrocities committed by the warring parties, "of which the objective correctness could not be verified". even in june, , the press censorship issued the following order: "there recently appeared several articles about jews and polish clergy, without mentioning their source of information. it is understandable that our conscience should be moved by all such inhuman treatment, but yet we must strictly obey the instructions of the press emergency law, which stipulates that it is our duty to suppress rumours and foreign propaganda." [ ] thus censorship imposed silence on the press concerning reports of "bloody murders of hostages and persecution of jews". the first time, however, that, to the best of my knowledge, church leaders in switzerland spoke out about the persecution of the jews during the second world war, they did so in a protest against censorship of the press. on october , , the following petition was presented by the "social study committee of the swiss reformed pastors union" to the swiss federation of churches: < > . we take the liberty of drawing the attention of the swiss federation of churches, which is the spokesman of the swiss churches to the federal authorities, to the alarming position of the evangelical reformed church. . the press-censor has repeatedly taken severe measures against men who, as representatives of the evangelical church, have raised their voices to inform public opinion. these measures have aroused deep and widespread concern in many circles to whose notice they have come, despite the ban on the publication of such matters, and have led to the opinion that the evangelical church is no longer allowed to pronounce the truth entrusted to its care... . we especially bear in mind the silence imposed on us by our censorship concerning the injustice of the bloody murders of hostages and the persecution of jews. when mentioning this subject, we should certainly not shout about it from the roof tops, but under no circumstances should our sense of justice and injustice be blunted within our national conscience. otherwise we shall invoke god's heavy punishment on our country. therefore, we take exception to the reproach levied at us by some, that such intrepid talk of injustice by a foreign nation, is a misjudgement. . the apprehension we bring to your notice particularly gains alarming weight by the fact that we, as evangelical and democratic citizens of switzerland, have to look on while un-christian and undemocratic ideologies and deeds cross our borders unhindered in the form of many foreign newspapers and illustrated periodicals, which are thus able to exert their influence on young and old. does not this give rise to the impression that our highest authorities do not sufficiently recognize the danger of a moral and spiritual capitulation on our part, or consider it to be of only secondary importance? we therefore request the federation of churches: a. that it remonstrate with the highest responsible authorities of our country and draw their attention to the deep concern and alarm which these measures by our censorship have aroused in large circles of our evangelical church. b. that it publicly voice its opinion on the matter and unequivocally make known its stand, with the full weight of its authority. c. that it emphatically take a stand on behalf of all persons in our church, whose freedom of speech is endangered or impaired, and that it encourage our church authorities and synods to make use of their divinely authorized right of freedom of speech. [ ] on november , , a conference of the "swiss protestant relief society for the confessing church in germany" was held at wipkingen near zurich. it was attended by churchmen from all parts of switzerland. a resolution regarding the censorship of ecclesiastical publications was presented and unanimously adopted. we quote from this resolution the following: < > "the undersigned reformed swiss pastors have taken note of the following facts: that the department for press and radio of the army has imposed preliminary censorship on the periodical neue wege, and thus has prevented its further publication; ... that the same office has demanded of the swiss press that they refrain henceforth from taking any stand on the execution of hostages by a foreign power;... they herewith publicly protest against these measures, as they are concessions to the spirit and methods of a policy incompatible with the reformed confession and pernicious to the swiss federation. they herewith publicly declare that they are determined to continue to fulfil their duty, to declare the truth to our people, the suppression of which is attempted by these measures." one hundred pastors signed this "protest and declaration", which was submitted to the federal government and to the army commanders. [ ] the same conference adopted the following resolution on "the jewish problem": "the conference meeting to-day at zurich-wipkingen sends to the committee of the swiss protestant church federation the urgent request that it should take action so that all the reformed churches in switzerland may make a public statement on the jewish problem. not only the most recent deportations of the jews, whose number and character are particularly frightful, but also certain announcements which have appeared even in the swiss press, make it a duty for the church, for the sake of its own members, to proclaim before the whole world: . that the church, to which the gospel of the mercy of god is entrusted, calls its members to pray for the suffering jewish people and to do everything they can to alleviate this suffering. . that the church, to which the message of the creation of man in the image of god is entrusted, condemns as a revolt against the will of god as creator the violence which is done to the image of god in persecuting a race and humiliating it. . that the church, to which the message of the revelation of god in the people of israel is entrusted, knows itself, as the church of jesus christ, to be bound up in a special way with the fate of the jewish nation. because 'salvation comes of the jews' (st. john , ), anti-semitism is incompatible with membership in the christian church." [ ] < > on august , , a meeting was held of the "young church", attended by about , young people. supreme court justice dr. m. wolff, who in his capacity as president of the synod conveyed the greetings of the church of zurich, declared: "switzerland is in extremely danger. one speaks of a new order in europe, but this order is characterised by attacks on other nations; by the murdering of hostages and the persecution of jews. this new order means a denial of the christian faith... the best contribution the church of switzerland can render to-day is, to be a true church, faithfully proclaiming the word of god. its freedom to preach must therefore be preserved unrestrictedly. we shall be grateful for a state church, so long as the state recognizes the church's right to exercise its function as watchman. zwingli has unequivocally insisted on this. unfortunately, the church's function as watchman is now being threatened by press censorship. the state must not demand that the church should refrain from clearly distinguishing between right and wrong. the church must now fight for its right to raise its voice against the rejection of poor refugees; in a clear "yes" to jesus christ, and in a clear "no" to the dark powers of this world." [ ] on october , , dr. wollf said in his opening address to the synod of zurich: "... it is therefore not surprising that, when a clearer profession resulted through the awakening of the church in recent years, its freedom of speech was often denied by political coercion, and the church was told that it had no right to interfere in government matters. ... the gospel knows nothing about neutrality of opinion and nothing of a policy of false silence, advocated currently by higher circles." [ ] b. anti-semitism within and outside switzerland in several declarations anti-semitism within, as well side, switzerland was denounced unequivocally, but the name of germany was seldom mentioned. in may, , the synodal council of bern published the following declaration: < > "deeply concerned by the fact that hatred of the jews is being stirred up both openly and secretly also in our country, the council of the evangelical federation of churches has requested the cantonal church authorities to use their good offices so that our attitude as evangelical christians towards the jewish question be maintained against all such plots. our attitude towards jewry is not based on economical or racial problems. it is not even a matter of conducting oneself humanely and decently; the question has a far deeper significance and only can be understood correctly and answered in the light of biblical teaching. therefore above all it is essential, that we reach a christian understanding of the jewish question; only then shall we be able to overcome, on the basis of a deeper understanding, the common prejudices and slogans; and especially, the latent disparaging attitude towards the jews. wherever anti-jewish attitudes appear within a congregation, we must not remain passive; we have an obligation to emphasize the evangelical stand on this matter, and to admonish and counsel. above all, we should not slacken in our intercession on behalf of the people of israel." [ ] in june, , a similar declaration was issued by the council of pastors in geneva: "our church cannot keep silent in face of anti-semitic propaganda which is in danger of becoming stronger in our own country. at a time when the jews elsewhere are the victims of plunder and persecution, the church must define her spiritual position. . the apostolic message which declares that there is no longer jew nor greek in jesus christ forbids us to make any distinction in the community of the baptized. a jew attached to the christian church by his conversion and baptism is a member of it on exactly the same basis as every other faithful christian. . christendom has denied the spirit of her lord every time she has maltreated or persecuted the descendants of those for whose pardon jesus prayed to the father. our obligation is to deal with all men in justice and charity on the grounds that they are indeed our brothers. . the race from which came the prophets and the apostles, and to which jesus christ belonged, deserves our respect. we owe jews a debt of gratitude, and if christians pray to god for the conversion of the chosen people they must also implore divine mercy for persecuted israel; they must sympathize with the grief which they are suffering; they must suffer in sympathy the injustices which jews once more are suffering. strong in the convictions of our evangelical faith we invite members of our churches to resist all efforts to introduce in our country anti-semitic racialism which is condemned by the spirit of our master and by all teaching which is derived from the holy scriptures. [ ] < > on september , , the assembly of the swiss pastors' union, meeting at liestal, adopted the following resolution: "we confess on the basis of the holy scripture that the hope of the church through the grace and faithfulness of god in jesus christ is indissolubly bound up with the hope for the jews. we therefore declare that all anti-semitism is irreconcilable with confession of jesus christ. it is the holy duty of every christian to help the tortured jews by intercession and active love." [ ] that warnings against anti-semitic influences in switzerland were not superfluous, was shown in the report concerning the fund drive for aid to refugees, which was held in october-november, . the report stated: "... the reasons for the diverse reactions to our fundraising appeals in the german and the french-speaking parts of switzerland, are of a complex nature. from an inquiry made by the cantonal committees we learn that the press in general took a stand against aid to refugees. an article by pierre grellet, the bern correspondent of the 'gazette de lausanne', published in november, had a distinct undercurrent of anti-semitic feeling, characteristic of his attitude. there were also other expressions of anti-semitism in the press. in contrast to the german-speaking press which protested against the turning away of refugees from our borders, this action triggered no particular reactions in the french-speaking press. [ ] c the admission of refugees like the government of the netherlands, the swiss government had already closed the swiss borders before the war. < > the church council of canton zurich stated, in : "it pains us that consideration for so many unemployed citizens in our own nation prevents us from offering a protecting asylum to the suffering refugees, who, like wild game, are chased from country to country." [ ] in the summer of , mass raids took place in france and many jewish refugees tried to find asylum and safety in switzerland. they often crossed the french-swiss frontier "illegally". on august , , the border police were instructed to send back civilian refugees from france who had entered into switzerland illegally, with the exception of political refugees. "refugees for racial reasons only, for instance jews," were not considered political refugees. [ ] the federation of the protestant churches as well as other organizations turned to the federal authorities. [ ] their protests were not ineffectual. on august , federal councillor von steiger ordered that in special cases rejection should be waved. on august , a meeting was convened with the "swiss central office for refugee aid", where all the institutions for refugee aid were represented. the "central office" informed the press of the result of this partly tumultuous meeting on the same day: "foreign refugees, who had entered switzerland before th august, , and register with the police, will be sent back only if, after careful investigation, they must for important reasons be considered undesirable." [ ] < > on august , , at the meeting of the "young church" which has been mentioned before [ ], rev. w. luthi said: "sin separates us from god. what has happened in the case of the refugee problem comes under the same heading. even though we understand that events may be motivated by political considerations, our conscience is burdened by such events in three ways. first, because the rejection of the poorest of the refugees was not an act of humanity. second, because any claim to humanitarianism becomes hypocritical. and third, because it was an act of ingratitude towards god, who has so graciously protected our own country. now we may well fear that, after what has happened, god will no longer be for us, but against us." the morning session ended with words of greetings by the rev. hans roduner, who thanked the authorities for their consent "to revoke the painful measures in force against the refugees". he called upon the young church to make great sacrifices for the refugees and ensure the support of fifty of them. the reply of federal councillor von steiger, who spoke in the afternoon, was typical of the government point of view: "of course the federal councillor would like to help all the refugees. however, when thousands of victims of a shipwreck cry out for help, the one in command of a small and fully occupied lifeboat, that is limited in capacity and provisions, must seem heartless if he cannot take them all into his boat. nevertheless, it is humane to give warning against false hopes, and at least try to save those already aboard. as regards the measures adopted concerning the refugee problem, federal councillor von steiger is prepared to accept full responsibility." [ ] since september , , the following categories of refugees were admitted: a. obviously ill persons and pregnant women. b. refugees over years old; married couples if at least one of them was over years. < > c. children under the age of travelling alone. d. parents with children under years. e. refugees who claimed and could prove that they had close relatives in switzerland or, otherwise, close relations with switzerland (residence for a long time). however, french jews without exception had to be deported "as they were in no danger in their own country". in doubtful cases (when it was not clear whether a refugee came under one of the categories mentioned, or when deportation appeared to be exceptionally severe) the police department had to be contacted by telephone. it was ascertained that , persons had entered switzerland illegally during september. [ ] on october , , in his opening address to the synod of zurich, dr. wollf said: "... the dominant spirit, in no way identical with the sentiments of the people, has become despondent and even pitiable. its exponents, who can be found not only in the federal council but also in the parliament, pay homage to the opinion that expediency, craftiness and a so-called realistic policy are greater importance to our salvation than the spirit of the gospel and of freedom and of truth. the misery of the dominant spirit has become evident in recent months in the shameless treatment of the refugees. we must not pass over in silence the disgrace and shame we have brought upon ourselves when, because of cold political calculations, we returned to misery and threat of death, those refugees who believed they had found within our borders a refuge from danger... it is not the beauties of our country nor our safe existence, which make switzerland worthy of our defence and devotion, but the fact that it is the centre of freedom and justice. the declaration of the federal council and the three coalition parties, contained no sign of their having grasped the challenge of the hour. [ ] in contrast to this, it may be said that the reformed church, and, in particular, the executive committee of the swiss federation of evangelical churches, has in no uncertain manner fought for recognition of the demands of our christian conscience. these have found their most impressive formulation by the president of our federation of churches: < > 'god, through his commandments in the old and new testament, has placed us unequivocally on the side of the weak, the oppressed and the destitute, no matter what their race or nationality. confession of faith in jesus christ is, for the christian, almost always also related to recognition of our responsibility to our suffering brothers. the least of his brethren to-day are the oppressed refugees in their physical and mental distress. christ will either find us on their side or on the side of his persecutors.' the mitigations, now granted by the authorities, may be accepted as revoking their heartless orders. but this is not a lasting or definite solution. the fight for an honourable and humane conduct must continue. protests alone will not suffice. indignation is shallow if it is unaccompanied by the will to act. the members of the church, as well as its critics, justly demand that it put up a determined stand on behalf of the outcasts. generous contributions to the refugee fund, and willingness to accept refugees in our homes, must now furnish proof that our nation wishes its ancient christian traditions to be upheld. each one of us should do his part to atone for our guilt in this matter. injustice, force and inhumanity triumph around our borders. these terrible events can no longer allow us only to consider expediency. the only truly realistic policy is the one which accepts god as the highest reality, and considers him more important than all calculations of worldly wisdom, which only lead us astray." [ ] in the months october and november, , a general collection for the aid to refugees was held. because of political considerations on the part of the authorities concerned, the planned -minute broadcasts could not take place. nevertheless, the general management of the broadcasting services agreed to broadcast short appeals under the slogan "contribute towards an asylum for the homeless". [ ] the "swiss central office for aid to refugees" stated: "if, however, the result of the fundraising is disappointing, all is lost. not only will the organizations have no more money, but our opponents who even now are urging the complete closing of our borders, will then say to the federal government: 'close the doors, let nobody in. the swiss people do not want them...'" [ ] many church leaders publicly recommended this collection. prof. karl bart did so in the following words: < > "there are reasons for and against aid to refugees as currently suggested to us swiss. the reasons for are: the christian reason. 'in as much as ye have done it unto one of these least, ye have done it unto me.' the refugees are our concern: not because they are valuable or agreeable human beings, but because in all the world they are to-day the lowest and the most miserable people, and as such they, with their inseparable companion the saviour, knock on our door. they are our concern, not in spite of their being jews but just because they are jews, and as such are the saviour's brethren in the flesh. (i suggest that this first reason is the strongest and may well be the one decisive and effective reason in this matter). the swiss reason. the refugees (whether they are aware of it or not) do us a great honour, in looking upon our country and seeking it out as the last refuge of justice and mercy. many of the great and dreadful things which occurred in our time will be forgotten. after centuries, however, it will still be asked, whether switzerland proved true to its name as the free switzerland in these days, or renounced it. the question whether the lest that we swiss are capable of and have, can be preserved throughout the present crisis, will be decided only by opening our hearts and hands to these refugees, or by turning our backs upon them. the humane reason. we see in these refugees the fate we have miraculously been spared. it is quite true that we also are not too well off to-day. it is, however, equally true that we are well enough off to be in a condition exactly opposite to these unfortunate fellow-creatures: well-fed and even rich. can we bear this, without wanting to help them to the best of our ability? would it not be disgraceful, even to let our lips suggest any reasons at all against offering such aid?" [ ] in december, , , refugees were admitted and sent back. at the end of december, the number of immigrants and refugees amounted to , . of the refugees, , had entered switzerland illegally between august , , and dec. , . this development led the department of police to propose to the federal council that new decrees, more stringent than the preceding ones, be issued for the whole of the swiss border. apparently the order of sept. , , that being a jew was no reason for admittance, mostly was not observed. [ ] < > the decree of dec. , , ordered that foreigners arrested whilst crossing the border or in the region of the border (up till kilometres) must be turned back immediately. exemption would be granted to the categories a, b and c mentioned in the decree of sept. , . [ ] "further, parents with children not over six years old; or if at least one of their children is not older than six; refugees who can prove that they have a spouse, parents or children in switzerland; or when at least one of a married couple has been born in switzerland. [ ] the "report of the swiss protestant relief society" comments: "we are grateful that a delegation of the federation of churches also remonstrated with the federal government in the matter. no substantial amendments to the decree were obtained, but in practice the attitude of the authorities was more obliging than the wording of the decree leads one to assume. the possibilities of providing asylum, and the readiness of the authorities to grant it, are in no small measure dependent on the willingness of the swiss people to make sacrifices for the refugees. we therefore emphatically insisted that the congregations of the evangelical church should take upon themselves the financial responsibility for the upkeep of as many refugees as possible, and so to fulfil towards individual refugees christ's commandment of love. [ ] in the first seven months of , , refugees were sent back and , admitted. "its is impossible to determine, how many jews were among those admitted; apparently they made up the vast majority." [ ] on may , , the synod of the evangelical-reformed church of the city of basel adopted the following resolution: "the synod, deeply concerned by the information received regarding instruction given by the authorities to the border guards and the dreadful horrors still being undergone by refugees wanting to cross our borders, charges the church council to urge the executive committee of the federation of churches to remonstrate afresh with the responsible authorities on behalf of the refugees according to the church's responsibility to be a protector, and desires that the congregation, through the 'church messenger', be kept suitably informed of the synod's negotiations concerning the refugee and asylum problem. [ ] < > in october, , the church council of zurich addressed the following message "to the reformed people of zurich": "... we are able only through rumours to gain a vague impression of the dreadful reality. and because it is beyond the powers of our imagination, we are in danger of closing our hearts and trying to suppress any awareness of the fact that daily, hourly, indeed every single moment, thousands suffer, bleed, starve, despair, die. we also let ourselves be misled by a falsely understood neutrality, which freezes our feelings towards the distress of foreigners, or causes in us a moral apathy towards injustice and inhumanity, sometimes even making us adopt the catchwords and evil slogans of anti-semitism and racial hatred, and persuading us to accept ideals which are hostile to the gospel of love to god and to ones neighbour... all humane people are haunted by descriptions of the sufferings to which members of the jewish people have been exposed during these past four years of war, this following centuries of being slandered, ridiculed, beaten and persecuted throughout the christian era! expelled from home and work, forcibly separated, children tom from the arms of their mothers, mothers from the arms of their children, anew they are uprooted just when they had supposed they had found a protecting refuge. they have been tossed towards an uncertain destiny, which all too often only spelled destruction, misery, starvation, beatings, despair and death. indeed, no other nation has been so overwhelmed by storms of persecution and deluged by sufferings, as has been the people of israel. who as a christian, or as a swiss, can fail to be oppressed by the distress of the jewish people, or to be confronted by questions unsolvable by the words guilt and atonement, because we have certainly sufficient cause to ask questions about our own guilt in this matter and to apply to ourselves christ's word: 'except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish.' such an admission can result only in one thing: the emergence of a deep sympathy and a desire to help wherever and however we can, to grant refuge to the homeless, to shelter the exposed, to feed the hungry, to clothe the naked, to visit the imprisoned, to support the weak, to comfort the mourning; in accordance with the example of the good samaritan and the teaching and promise of our master: 'in as much as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me'..." [ ] in november, , the "social study committee of the swiss union of reformed pastors" published the following statement: < > "... with shame and sorrow we see this purposeful turning away from christ in a monstrous effort to exterminate entire races and peoples. the christian conscience cries out against this. we therefore appeal to all those in responsible positions in the world, to save what still may be saved. we demand that the swiss government which maintains diplomatic relations with all governments in the world, devise with them and with the international red cross, a plan of rescue. in the name of jesus we demand that our authorities put a stop to the driving back of refugees to their death, until final measures are taken, and to grant them a safe, christian asylum. our thanks go to the people of switzerland for their cordial hospitality, even though it is hampered by authority!..." [ ] in my opinion this is the sharpest protest against the official refugee policy of the swiss government that was ever published during the second world war. at the end of , it was ordered not to send jewish refugees back if they objected. thus jews who fled italy after its occupation by the germans, were to be admitted; however, in the case of a real 'run' one might have to stop admitting them for some time. [ ] it is, in my opinion, undeniable that the protests of the churches and church" leaders contributed to alleviating the measures against the refugees and their ultimate cancellation in practice. in the meantime, unspeakable sufferings had been inflicted on refugees who had been sent back and fell into the hands of their mortal enemies. d. aid to refugees we already mentioned some of the activities of the "swiss protestant relief society for the confessing church in germany", [ ] for instance the annual conference held on november , , and its participation in the general collection for aid to refugees, held during october-november, . in order to show the spirit in which this refugee work was done, we record the following letter which was sent by the executive council of the society to the swiss-israelite union of congregations, on june , : < > "you have ordered a call to an assembly of mourning, for next sunday, th june, . you will then recall the horrible decrees to which jews in europe are subjected, and the unspeakable hardship and oppression under which people nowadays suffer and die. together with you we are deeply shocked at the mass murder that has engulfed european jewry. only with dread and horror can one read of the number deported from germany, france, the netherlands, rumania and greece. we fight against allowing suffering to become a familiar routine, and against blunting of concern on the part of our people of switzerland at such distress. to us these dry figures represent human beings, who have lived, suffered and died. their mass graves and their ashes will, till the coming day of the lord, be a shocking accusation against a europe which forgot god. as christians we cannot let the assembly of mourning of the swiss-israelite union of congregations pass without a cordial word of sympathy and participation. deeply moved, we shall join our thoughts with yours in intercession. we know that each murder and every act of violence is rooted in the godless thinking of godless minds. the unkind word and the unappreciative gesture are signs of poisoning of the minds. the fact that this poisoning could assume such terrible proportions in 'christian' europe, where especially the jewish people are victimised, shames us and gives us cause for severe self-accusation. so little have we christians understood jesus christ and so far apart from him have we lived, that godless thinking was able to create this insane racial hatred and merciless cruelty in our midst, raging as a demon against the jews. on your day of mourning we join hands with you in sympathy and sorrow. at the same time we confess our guilt before god and mankind. we regret every word of contempt, we christians ever uttered against jews. we regret that we have shamed jesus christ by our self-righteousness and our hardness of heart. we regret that we christians were not more loyal to our master and thus failed courageously to struggle, in time, against every expression of anti-semitism. on this day of your mourning we implore the almighty for his mercy, for the sake of jesus christ, with the publican's prayer of penitence: 'god be merciful to us sinners'. on your day of mourning we pray that god's mercy may be upon you, and the deep consolation of his promise from the precious old testament, which also has comforted us again and again: 'and i will cause the captivity of judah and the captivity of israel to return, and will build them, as at first. and i will cleanse them from all their iniquity, whereby they have sinned against me. and it shall be to me a name of joy, a praise and an honour before all the nations of the earth, which shall hear all the good that i do unto them: and they shall fear and tremble for all the goodness and for all the prosperity hat i procure to it' (jeremiah , - ). < > 'the lord thath sent me to bring good tidings, to heal the broken-hearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives and the opening of the prison to them that are bound; to proclaim the acceptable year of the lord, and the day of vengeance of our god; to comfort all that mourn' (isaiah , - ). 'yea, though i walk through the valley of the shadow of death, i fear no evil; for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me' (psalm , ). 'for the mountains shall depart, and the hills be removed; but my kindness shall not depart from thee, neither shall the covenant of my peace be removed, saith the lord that hath mercy on thee' (isaiah , )." [ ] strong powers in switzerland objected to the admission of refugees. therefore the "protestant relief society" undertook action in two different but interdependent fields: influencing public opinion, and rendering practical aid. books and pamphlets were published and distributed. [ ] rev. paul vogt was appointed 'refugee pastor', and was later joined by two other ministers. they launched the "place of refuge operation", [ ] asking members of the church to provide places in their homes to jewish refugees who were unable to work: pregnant women, mothers with little children; people ill, invalided or old. another way to help for the local churches was to pay the maintenance ( franc per month) of a refugee being cared for in one of the houses of the homes of the society. [ ] "help was not just rendered to protestant refugees; the majority of them were jewish... we are convinced that we may not exploit the difficult situation of our proteges by trying to convert them. rather, we respect the religious conviction of the jews, whose care has been entrusted to us. < > therefore two refugee homes were opened for observant jews;... one accommodating refugees, the other . plans for a third refugee home were prepared. in order to reunite married couples and families, houses were rented in which a total of persons were accommodated. up till the end of , persons were helped and places for another persons were in preparation." [ ] on october , , refugees who were unable to work were accommodated by the protestant 'place of refuge operation'. of them were jewish, protestant, catholic (mixed marriage) and without religion. one hundred and seventy-nine places, especially for children, were reported to the committee for aid to children. [ ] far be it for us to belittle the efforts of rev. paul vogt and others, who did what they could. yet the number of refugees who were helped is small in relation to the terrible need that existed. moreover, in switzerland, people did not risk their lives or freedom by taking in a jewish refugee, as happened in many other countries. e. the deportation of the hungarian jews on july , , the following circular letter was sent by prof. karl barth, prof. emil brunner, dr. w.a. visser 't hooft and rev. paul vogt to pastors in switzerland: "we send to you, enclosed, two messages from hungary and a covering letter dated june , , which came from reliable sources and reached switzerland through diplomatic channels. the messages have shocked us deeply. out of a sense of responsibility we feel it our duty to convey these messages to you. we do not doubt that you will read them and let them circulate within your own group. they are also known to the competent authorities." [ ] there followed a wave of public protests. we quote some of them. [ ] < > on july , , the church council of the canton zurich urged that the following message be read from every pulpit: "the present day truly has revealed enough frightful things, but in the last weeks one piece of news has reached us which far exceeds anything that we have heard for years. reliable witnesses inform us of terrible persecution of the jews in hungary. in a few weeks between three and four hundred thousand people have been sacrificed, and who knows how many more there will be. many are dying of exhaustion or hunger, but the majority meet their death by gas. in one single place, at birkenau, four crematoria are in use, in which every day six thousand people can be gassed and burned and incinerated. hitherto hungary had more than a million jews. a number of towns already have been cleared of jews. persecution is said to be impending in the capital, if it has not already begun. we do not know what can have induced the government to take these dreadful measures and at whose door the responsibility for this dreadful deed must lie. what can we do? it is not for us to pass self-righteous judgment on the acts of other peoples, for we are not guilt-free. it does not lie in our power to order the cessation of atrocities. the swiss protestant church federation addressed an urgent request to the federal council and to the international red cross that they would do everything possible to rescue the jews still living in hungary. we invite congregations to make solemn intercession for all those who must tread this dark road simply because they belong to another race. let us also pray for our sister-evangelical church in hungary, that strength and guidance be granted to her at a time when her people is taking upon itself such a terrible load of guilt. let the word of the psalmist be our prayer: 'keep not thou silence, o god: hold not thy peace, and be not still, o god'." [ ] the council of the evangelical church of canton glarus, on july , issued a circular letter to all local ministers, drawing attention to the horrible reports of the extermination of hungarian jewry and stressing that, in all probability, reality would prove even more horrible than those reports implied. after having mentioned the appeals made by the federation of churches to the federal council and the international red cross, the circular letter continued: < > "we fully realise that at present we are incapable of stopping the demonic powers by any human means. only god can do that, and we invoke his aid. we request you to inform your congregation of these horrors in a fitting manner, and in your prayers to intercede with god on behalf of those that are threatened. finally, the church council hereby issues a call to leave all vengeance and retaliation to him who has proclaimed: 'vengeance is mine, saith the lord'." [ ] at about the same time, the following proclamation was issued by the council of the synod of bern: "added to the untold miseries that the jews have had already to suffer in various countries, the terrible mass murders of the jews in hungary which, according to reliable information were carried out recently, surpass all imagination and defy any description. the inhuman removal of people of all ages who, solely on account of their racial origin, no longer are considered fit to exist, is a monstrosity unparalleled in history, as well as a grievous sin and guilt before god. as christians who have received light and life, salvation and mercy from jesus christ, we feel a painful indignation in the face of such methods of extermination. we declare that such destruction of our fellow-men was conceived by a spirit and will which came from below, and which will bring a curse and doom on humanity. a deep sympathy unites us with the countless victims. we thank our brethren of the faith in hungary for their courage in standing up, in time, against these monstrosities in spite of great difficulties, and we urge them to continue to do everything in their power to stop these horrible mass murders. we call on christians in our own country to fight all hatred and thirst for revenge among people of different origin and race, and to resist all prejudices and offensive slogans wherever they may appear. let us not tire of intercession on behalf of the ancient people of the covenant, of israel." [ ] in august, , the following circular letter was published by the church council of canton graubunden: "ecclesiastical and other proclamations and directives draw our attention to the fate of hungarian jewry. no pen is able to describe, no soul can sense, and no christian mind can imagine what is being done to these unfortunate people. the human mind is powerless to grasp the horrors, day by day enacted with cool determination and limitless hate. shocked cries, objections and protests, to those in authority have remained ineffective. brotherly help to those threatened by death is not possible. < > only one thing remains to the christian, of which he cannot be deprived: prayer. dear brethren, prepare the people, before offering your public prayers, by referring to the sufferings of the jewish people of whom the son of god was born. tell openly from the pulpits how many hundreds of thousands are being exterminated in gas chambers and crematoriums, while further multitudes tremble in desperation, because the hour is at hand when they too will be herded like cattle, deported and slaughtered. tell how human dignity is degraded, how man's rights are trampled upon, so that all christian feelings have received a deadly wound. remember in your prayers at church the unfortunate who are persecuted, urging all members of your congregations likewise to remember them in their prayers at home in solitude. the prayer of the merciful heart availeth much. through it god's presence may become real in distant gas chambers; consolation and indestructible faith may shine in their horror-stricken eyes and upon their deadly-pale faces. such prayer may also have the power to reawaken petrified consciences, and to paralyse the hands engaged in deadly tasks. the prayer should be said in repentance over unbrotherly words also spoken in our country about jews now and in the past..." [ ] sweden the political situation of sweden was comparable to that of switzerland: each country tried to preserve its neutrality, was afraid of a german attack, and sometimes gave in to german demands. yet sweden expressed its willingness to receive all the jews from denmark, whilst switzerland closed its borders. we should, however, bear in mind that to switzerland, owing to its geographical position, the challenge of the refugee problem was much greater than to sweden. the swedish church denounced the persecution of the jews more sharply than did the swiss churches. apparently swedish church leaders were not afraid of offending germany. but in sweden there was no press censorship, as was the case in switzerland. on november , , manfred bjorkquist was consecrated first bishop of stockholm. along with the bishops of the swedish church, there were also present representatives of the church of denmark and the church of finland. the quisling minister for church affairs in norway sent an indignant letter to archbishop eidem, because he had not been invited to send a representative to the consecration. dagens nyheter, commenting on this report, wrote: < > "what happened in norway recently is sufficient explanation, if it is confirmed that sweden's archbishop did not reply to the letter. archbishop eidem's warning at lutzen on november th against national self-sufficiency and arrogance provides an adequate answer. when now for the first time we see these things happening near at hand we are aghast at this self-sufficiency and arrogance; this complete contempt for human values." [ ] the last sentence refers to the deportation of the jews of norway. on the first sunday in advent, , the following proclamation was issued by the swedish bishops: "hatred blinds and hardens. hatred leads to destruction. hatred is the most frightful and monstrous of the dark powers which now are dominating an unhappy earth. jesus christ condemns hatred in all its forms without exception. his words and deeds, his life and death, all mean an absolute judgment upon hatred. whatever stands in contradiction with the royal command of love, which is the sum of the will of god, is sin, sin against the living god. men may trample upon the commandments of the all-highest. but god almighty lives. and whoever turns away from him has deserted the springs of life and is walking in the way of death. if we really want to be christians, we must in all seriousness take up the fight against hatred, against all hatred. we must be strictest towards ourselves, so that we may not leave the smallest room in our heart for the evil spirit of hatred. so far as our voice reaches, we must, each in his own circle, stand up for love in word and deed, and fight hatred and the deeds of hatred. with horror and dismay we have learned in the last two days how an un-christian racial hatred, which has spread over many lands in the world like a mortal pestilence, has now expressed itself in shocking acts of violence in our immediate neighbourhood, on our scandinavian peninsula. human beings are being subjected to the greatest sufferings, not because they have been legally convicted of misdeeds - they have not even been accused of such things by regular legal procedure - but solely because they belong by descent to a certain race. < > we have been deeply moved to hear the courageous christian admonitions which our oppressed norwegian sister-church has directed to those in power in their country, not to rebel against the clear word of god by doing deeds of violence in blind racial hatred. everything that lies in our power to assist the poor people affected by this hatred is being done. that is our elementary duty as christians and as human beings. but even if we cannot do much to help the unfortunate, we can and must bear them and their needs upon our hearts. we bishops of the swedish church call all our fellow-christians in sweden, in the name of god, to include these our tortured brethren of the race of israel in our faithful and constant intercessions, and to make daily prayers to our father in heaven for the many who are suffering violence and disaster at this time." [ ] at a service of intercession in goteborg cathedral on the first sunday in advent, dean nysted said: "everything we have heard of the nameless sufferings of the jewish people in past times dwindles to nothing in comparison with the fate that has overtaken them in recent years. we have read with disgust of the slave hunts of former times and the cargoes of slaves which were carried like cattle to america. who could have dreamt anything so frightful as that such a ship would sail along our coasts last week, laden with men, women and children, who have no other fate to expect than that of the slaves or cattle for slaughter, and that not because of any crime of which they have been convicted but because they are of jewish descent. the church of sweden must not keep silent when such a thing happens at our frontiers. if we were to keep silent, the stones would cry out. we are shocked to the depths of our hearts when we think of the sufferings of these unhappy people. we tremble at the dragon's teeth of hatred which are senselessly being sown... what harvest must grow from such seed? we stand powerless. what is being prepared for the jews who have remained in norway? can our authorities do anything to save them? we implore them to consider this question seriously and without delay." [ ] in a broadcast sermon, bishop aukn of strangnas commented upon the events of the time: "violence is triumphing, and the commandments which form the bases of our human common life are remorselessly being trampled upon. every day brings new pictures of horror. recently we received the news that the frightful plague of racial persecution has descended upon our scandinavia... there are probably no limits to the depths to which people who are blinded by hatred may sink. < > but at the same time a wonderful thing is happening: in the midst of this darkness we are witnessing a bold and firm steadfastness which remains unmoved even when it leads to persecution and martyrdom. such events have opened the eyes of many people who were subject to the prejudice that we have only to reckon with material factors and the resources of outward force. they bear witness to the power of the holy spirit, to the power of christ, which works in secret and is unconquerable. if we in our swedish church are able to begin the new church year as a free church in a free country, that lays upon us a great responsibility: to stand up in unshakable faithfulness for the holiness of the laws of god, when the most elementary demands of justice are trampled upon." [ ] at a meeting of protest, held in stockholm on the same sunday, dr. natanael beskow said: "here we are not concerned with neutrality or politics, but with humanity or inhumanity. nothing of that kind must ever happen in sweden. indifference in face of a crime is in itself a crime." the meeting passed the following resolution: "in the name of christianity and democracy, humanity and justice, we protest against the mass deportations of jewish citizens from our nearest neighbour country, not for crimes committed but because of their race. we do this for the sake or our northern community, but we are angry and distressed that northern men have been able to commit this deed of shame. we protest in the name of international law, for without security in law all human order collapses, whether it be called old or new." [ ] svenska morgonbladet reported that it had received expressions of sorrow and sympathy from the leaders of various church congregations. bishop john cullberg said at strangnas: "after what happened earlier in norway, the latest telegrams about the persecution of jews are not surprising. but we are profoundly shocked. the norwegian church has, through its statements, already interpreted the christian conscience's protest against these atrocities. it must be loudly proclaimed that we in sweden support this protest. < > with bleeding hearts, we think of the martyrs. and what should we say of their tormentors? all we can say is: 'father, forgive them, for they know not what they do'." [ ] although leading men within the swedish free churches already at an early stage had separately expressed their feelings in the press regarding the persecution of the jews in norway, the free churches' co-operation committee wished to emphasize their mutual standpoint: "god is the father of all, and all men are called to receive the advantage of the adoption of sons, independent of race and birth. racial persecution is thus a sin and a rebellion against god. the jew is our neighbour, and we wish to love him as ourselves. facing what is happening in norway, we feel grief and distress. we are onlookers at a situation where our neighbour is being treated as something sub-human. we cannot remain silent witnesses to this we wish that our deeds could bring help, to undo what has been done. our hope is that god will turn evil to good. we wish to join in the appeal of the bishops of the swedish church, in the name of god, for intercessions for our tortured brethren of the race of israel, and to make daily prayers to our father in heaven for the many who are suffering violence and disaster at this time." [ ] under the subject heading "christian gathering", a meeting was held on december , at hedvig's church at norrkoping. this meeting was arranged by clergymen. speakers were vicar thysell, pastor einitz genitz and vicar knut ericson. we quote the following from vicar thysell's address: "the information concerning , jews driven from their homes, robbed of their property and transferred to germany to meet a most cruel fate, has shaken us thoroughly and deeply. those jews were loyal norwegian citizens: they had done nothing wrong. they were punished because they were jews, without trial or verdict. < > the people of norway were the first to speak up and protest through their church. the brave and strong words from norwegian church leaders, themselves oppressed and persecuted, have moved us profoundly. now we, too, must speak. there are occasions when it would be denying truth to remain silent. we bear a special responsibility towards god and humanity when such things are happening around us. we swedes are best able to represent the world's conscience in this case, and we feel that we also owe our norwegian brethren a clear and unequivocal declaration on our stand. we also have another responsibility in this case, one that lies even nearer to us: our responsibility towards the jewish brethren, who belong to our own people. the contamination of anti-semitism has also reached our own country. infamous and false propaganda is being spread from plague centres within our own borders. we have hitherto belittled this danger. now we see to where it is leading. it is time for us to wake up! we must also at this hour think of the mass persecution of jews which is taking place in other countries. from available information it appears that the anti-semitic wave is still rising. the threat now also concerns half-jews. our taking a stand might seem meaningless to all of these. we cannot stop violence. it may, however, in a secret way, bring a ray of consolation and hope into despairing hearts. we have named our meeting 'christian gathering'. that our consciences react to the outrage which is happening, is the result of the spiritual values of life which we have received from christ and the prophets of israel - from the very people who are now being persecuted in so many countries. on those basic values rests our nordic judicial culture. we pride ourselves on sweden being a constitutional state. here no one can be sentenced and punished except on the basis of justice. here, right is not equal to might. above the power of the state stand those eternal truths of our relation to god and each other, which have been revealed to us and which, in our consciences, appear as indefeasible values of life. arnulf overland says: 'some things are greater than you. there are mountains with snow. there are dearer things than your life; you shall fight for it'. the dearest thing we have are those values of life that christ gives us. the persecution of the jews is not the only proof - but the most horrible of all - of a denial of these values of life. we are here to-day to confess our belief in these eternal foundations for human society, which god himself has laid. we believe in god, our lord jesus christ, and our father, who has called us all, independent of race and all other differences, to receive the adoption of sons and to live in communion with him and each other. we wish to adhere to this christian evaluation of man. and we reject as hostile to god and anti-christian that brutal conception of man, and that contempt of mankind, which forge the acts of violence in anti-semitism. we regard the brotherhood of humanity as holy, and brotherly action as our goal. we feel it our obligation to act towards our jewish brethren in accordance with jesus' rule of life: 'all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them'. < > do we seriously mean them to be our confession of faith? do we dare uphold it, as our norwegian brethren have done, even if our faith should be tried as gold is tried in fire? whatever happens, we need not fear, if we follow jesus christ, the eternal king. the weapons of iniquity are doomed annihilation. christ stands on the side of the persecuted. his spirit, the spirit of truth, righteousness and love, is strongest of all. the day of freedom shall again dawn for the persecuted and oppressed." [ ] it is remarkable that earlier deportations of jews in countries such as germany, france and the netherlands, did not prompt the swedish church leaders to raise their voices, though the number of deportees was much greater than that of the jews deported from norway. it seems likely that what was happening in western europe was less known in sweden than what was happening in norway. moreover, human beings generally are more moved by cruelties committed on their doorstep, than by what happens further away. the proclamation of the swedish bishops expressed "horror and dismay" because "an un-christian racial hatred... has now expressed itself... in our immediate neighbourhood, on our own scandinavian peninsula". as far as we know, the swedish church did not issue a protest against the persecution of the danish jews. in fact, events in denmark took place so rapidly that a protest would hardly have done any good. the pressure of the swedish archbishop (and others) on the swedish government to make public their willingness to receive all danish jews, was important. it appears that this step, indirectly, saved many lives. dr. leni yahil relates the following: "the swedish foreign office contacted richert, the swedish envoy in berlin, on the same day, september [ ], and again on the next day, september , in order to plan with him the appeal to the german foreign office. it was decided that richert would ask the germans whether there was a basis to the rumours about an impending deportation of the jews from denmark, and that he would stress the fact that such a deportation would cause great indignation in sweden. moreover, he was to propose that all danish jews be transferred to sweden and concentrated there in a camp and that the swedish government would be responsible that 'they would not be able to undertake any activity that might be harmful to germany'. < > it became evident that the swedes did not intend to take any further action. [niels] bohr, ebbe munk and their friends, however, were of a different opinion. as we know from entries in ebbe munk's diary and from his letters to christmas moeller in london, it was the danish group with the active support of prominent swedish circles which brought about the publication by the swedish government of the appeal to the germans. on october , the day following on the night of the persecution in denmark, bohr had an interview with the foreign secretary, guenther. it seems that already on the preceding day the danes had tried to persuade the swedes to publish their appeal to the germans in the hope that such a publication might prevent the deportation. since this had not been done, bohr requested the swedish foreign secretary to repeat his appeal to the germans and to propose to them that the boats on which the jews were concentrated, be directed to sweden instead of to germany. guenther proposed this to the german ambassador thomsen, who called on him at o'clock in the evening on that day. a reply to this proposal was never received. through kammerherr von kruse, the danish ambassador in stockholm, and with the active support of prof. stefan hurvitz, an audience with the king of sweden was arranged for bohr, in the afternoon of the same day. during this audience bohr proposed to the king that the swedish appeal to germany be published. the king did not reply, but at the end of the audience the foreign secretary was called in. that same evening the swedish radio broadcasted an announcement about the steps taken by sweden in berlin. the announcement stressed that the swedish ambassador, on behalf of his government, had declared that sweden was willing to receive all the danish jews. we know that this announcement encouraged the jews as well as their danish helpers to organize the mass escape. in his letter to christmas moeller, dated october , munk told that the swedish government only agreed to publish the announcement, after the arch- bishop, professors and other prominent persons had declared that they were prepared to sign an open letter to the government about the subject." [ ] the king of sweden was present when, in may, , archbishop eidem delivered his opening address to the general assembly, to which , parish-delegates and guests from all over the country had come. archbishop eidem said: "... our christian conscience must keep constantly on the alert in the face of all that is happening in the world around us. might is not right. power is not justice. torture is not permissible in any circumstances. innocent people must not be made in any way responsible or punished for the acts of others. houses and entire communities must not be purposely destroyed in order to intimidate or cripple an enemy. < > people of a particular racial and national group, such as the unhappy people of the jews, must not be persecuted and martyred because of their membership in that race or national group. all such actions are not only barbarism but sin... it is indeed no wonder that a frightful harvest of hatred and vengefulness is growing from the sowing of such seeds on our poor earth. as christians we are called to take up the fight against hatred in every shape and form in this world, which now seems to be a free field for unleashed evil forces; and we must conduct this fight first of all in our own hearts, but each man also in the place where he lives. and we must not grow tired or weary in this fight." [ ] it would be interesting to know how far the king was influenced by this stand of his archbishop when, shortly afterwards, he appealed to regent horthy on behalf of the hungarian jews. it is my impression that the church of sweden also undertook steps on behalf of the jews about which we know nothing, and perhaps never shall. concerning two steps, we do know at least something. firstly, the secretary of the church of sweden's committee for foreign affairs, rev. johansson, communicated to me: "it is true that archbishop eidem paid a visit to hitler himself, but no details are officially known". [ ] secondly, the german ambassador in slovakia, ludin, informed the german foreign office in a letter dated january , , that the archbishop of uppsala had addressed the slovak prime minister (tiso) with a plea for the transfer of "the unfortunate jewish brethren" to neutral territories. [ ] we have, however, not succeeded in retrieving a copy of archbishop eidem's letter. < > countries at war with germany great britain a. the first period few voices were publicly raised in england during the years and . in , the battle of britain apparently occupied the national attention so much that people tended to forget everything else. if any statements made by ecclesiastical leaders were issued in (except the statement of the church of schotland, mentioned below), i have failed to find them. the beckley social service lecture is delivered annually in connection with the methodist conference in great britain. its purpose is to review certain major problems in the field of social service from the point of christian responsibility. in the year the rev. w. w. simpson, now secretary of the council of christians and jews, was invited to deal with the refugee problem and the fight against anti-semitism. his lecture was published in book-form. [ ] in may , the general assembly of the church of scotland issued the following statement: "the general assembly deplore the continued persecution of jewish minorities in central europe, and deeply regret that the situation has worsened in hungary. the general assembly warmly appreciate the vigorous protest against the new anti-jewish legislation made by the hungarian reformed church, and assure the committee and the missionaries themselves of their sympathy with all endeavours to minister relief and comfort and hope to suffering jews, so far as it may be in their power to do so." [ ] < > i regret that i have not succeeded in finding any confirmation of the "vigorous protests" made by the hungarian reformed church. in may , the assembly anew expressed: "their deep sympathy with the jewish people in their tragic sorrow, and, realising the gravity and intricacy of the problem, approve the settling up of a sub-committee to survey the whole situation, and they resolve to appoint six members ad hoc to assist in this survey." [ ] this expression of sympathy was repeated in may, , whilst the general assembly also warned "their faithful people against the growing menace of anti-semitism." [ ] we record the statements issued by the presbyterian church of ireland during the second world war in this chapter, as most of the members of this church live in the northern part of ireland which is under the sovereignty of great britain. in june, , the assembly of the presbyterian church of ireland issued the following "resolution anent the jewish people": "that the following resolution, adopted at a recent conference in connection with the presbyterian alliance, be given the warm approval of the general assembly: 'that this conference of representatives of the presbyterian churches of great britain and ireland, held at edinburgh on the th day of january, , having considered the position of the jews in the problem of post-war reconstruction, deplores any denial to persons of jewish descent of the right of equal treatment before the law and of other rights due to their status as ordinary citizens, and urges that all governments shall take immediate steps to restore to the full status of human dignity such jewish people as have been deprived of it, and, in particular, that all legislation unjustly diminishing the rights of jews, as such, shall be repealed at an early date; recognising also that liberty of conscience is an essential part of civil liberty, and that a free exchange of religious convictions is a necessary condition of all understanding between races and nations, the conference urges on all governments the recognition of the unfettered right of every individual to free choice in religious faith and to the public profession and preaching of it so long as these rights do not run counter to public law and order. the conference urges his majesty's government, in conjunction with other allied and friendly nations, to provide for some scheme of emigration for jews who cannot find a home in europe." [ ] < > b. mass massacres. the fate of the refugees on june , , reports of the massacre of jews in poland were broadcast by the b.b.c. the chief rabbi, dr. hertz, based a special sunday evening broadcast on the reports. on july , , the archbishop of canterbury inveighed, on the european service of the b.b.c., against "so terrible a violation of human and divine law." [ ] on october , , the bishop of chichester spoke in the upper house of the convocation of canterbury: "the torture and the ceaseless and systematic deportation of the jews form some of the darkest chapters in the tragic history even of that people, and the latest report which has reached this country tells of the deportation, in terrible circumstances, of thousands of jewish refugees from vichy france, where they had thought they were safe from the oppressor, to occupied france and thence to eastern galicia, leaving behind them between five thousand and eight thousand children of whom many are now orphans, while large numbers do not know their parents or their own names, and all are waiting for the charity of britain, or america or switzerland to give them sanctuary." [ ] also in october, the archbishop of canterbury sent the following message to the jewish bulletin: "the situation of the jews is unique, and yet has lasted for many centuries. they are a people conscious of close and real unity, and yet they have no motherland. other people have survived and maintained their identity when there was no national state to which they could be loyal; but there was always a homeland inhabited by the people who remembered their days of independence and hoped for its restoration. for the jews there has been no such a homeland. their eyes might turn to palestine; but though there were jews among the population there, they did not form the bulk of it. the jews as a people have been homeless. they have lived among the other peoples of the earth, and they have been loyal citizens of the nations which have made them welcome. but if their hosts turn against them they have no remedy. in earlier periods this has happened from time to time. in our day it has happened on a scale without parallel. their sufferings are appalling and entirely undeserved. it should be our aim to assist them in all ways in our power; for their need is desperate. < > but there is more in their claim than a plea for sympathy. one of the tests of a people's civilisation is its capacity to treat well a defined minority. to fail in this is to revert to the ethics of the wolf-pack; and to succeed is the evidence of moral stability. in the case of the jews our task is the easier because the moral principles which we profess are largely drawn from that sacred literature which we share with them. we should be standing together in loyalty to those principles against all who repudiate or ignore them. anti-semitism is evidence of a barbarous outlook and a religious apostasy." [ ] in the same month, the free church federal council sent a letter to the chief rabbi, dr. hertz, expressing "the deep feelings of indignation and sympathy with which the free churches of this country regard the cruel persecution from which the jewish race is suffering through the tyranny exercised by the axis powers". the message continued: "we assure you of our continued prayers to almighty god that its sufferings may speedily be brought to an end, and that all peoples may once again enjoy freedom of worship, preaching and teaching according to conviction without incurring civil disability or penalty in any form." [ ] on october , , an audience of , assembled in the albert hall to voice their protest against "the ruthless policy of extermination decreed by the nazis and their satellites against the jewish population in all territories under their sway". the archbishop of canterbury was in the chair. "speaking about the deportations from france, the archbishop mentioned the fact that children from two years upwards are now also being deported. 'there is something familiar about that,' he said, 'but when the earlier nazis massacred the innocent of bethlehem it was on those of two years and less that destruction fell; and that in a smaller number.'... the archbishop concluded by saying that: "he was grateful for this opportunity to share in the effort to express our horror at what has been and is being done, our deep sympathy with the sufferers, our claim that our own government should do whatever is possible for their relief, and our steadfast resolution to do all and bear all that may be necessary to end this affliction." < > dr. i. s. whale, moderator of the free church federal council, speaking in the name of the free church, declared that anti-semitism in all its forms was "an outrage against that sanctity of law which is one of the most precious gifts of ancient israel to modern christianity". bishop matthew spoke on behalf of the roman catholic church. the following resolution, moved by the archbishop of canterbury, was unanimously adopted: "this meeting, representative of british public opinion and of the united nations fighting in the cause of freedom, places on record its profound indignation at the unparallel atrocities which have been and are being committed daily by the german government and its satellites against the unarmed citizens of countries under the nazi yoke. it records its horror at the deliberate policy of extermination which the nazis have declared against the jews wherever they are to be found, and extends its profound sympathy to the families of the unhappy victims of a systematic terror carried out by wholesale massacre, the murder of innocent hostages, the inhuman separation of children from their parents and other unspeakable cruelties and atrocities. this meeting expresses its heartfelt admiration for the heroism and gallantry of the fighting forces of the united nations now leading us to victory, and desires to convey its deep sense of gratitude to those people in the occupied territories who, despite the terror, have done so much to help and succour their jewish fellow-victims." [ ] on november , , the archbishop of canterbury, inaugurating a new parliamentary session, drew once more the attention to the extermination of the jews, that "horror which is going on almost at our door". contrasting "what is still our standard of living" with the ordeals of the afflicted, "packed in cattle trucks... sixty in each...given little food" so that "on one occasion they all died of starvation", he inquired "whether it is thought possible that we may be able to do something to bring relief to these sufferers". he mentioned as a shining example "the amazing generosity" of the swiss whose "frontier has been technically closed but actually open" and suggested that britain should give aid to the swiss in support of refugees who can make their way there. he also recommended the granting of visas to those able to reach britain: < > "i hope that we should not in such a case waste our time in considering whether we have done as much or more than other nations for people who are in this kind of distress; the only question which really matters is whether we have done all we can... again i hope we shall not waste time by considering whether these people fall into the categories drawn up to regulate such matters. categories are nothing but administrative headings, and can be altered, if we wish, to include some who do not fall under them..." [ ] the archbishop of canterbury again urged the government, in a letter to "the times" [ ], to admit to britain "any refugee who might succeed in escaping". c. retribution for the persecutors; intercession for the persecuted at the beginning of december, , the archbishop of york delivered a speech in the house of lords. the archbishop said: "men, women and children are being ruthlessly put to death by massacre, poison, gas, electrocution, or being sent long journeys to unknown destinations in bitterly cold weather without food or drink. children that die on the way are cast out from the open trucks to the side of the railway. such is hitler's new order." the archbishop called upon the government "...to state solemnly that when the hour of deliverance comes, retribution will be dealt out not only on the cold-blooded and cowardly brutes who order these massacres, but also on the thousands of underlings who appear joyfully to be carrying them out." [ ] the "solemn statement" requested by the archbishop of york (and many others) was published on december , , simultaneously in london, washington and moscow, with the assent and support of all the allied governments and of the british dominions. the text was as follows: < > "the attention of the governments of belgium, czechoslovakia, greece, luxembourg, the netherlands, norway, poland, the united states of america, the united kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, the union of the soviet socialist republics, and yugoslavia, and of the french national committee, has been drawn to numerous reports from europe that the german authorities, not content with denying to persons of jewish race in all the territories over which their barbarous rule has been extended the most elementary human rights, are now carrying into effect hitler's oft repeated intention to exterminate the jewish people in europe. from all the occupied countries jews are being transported, in conditions of appalling horror and brutality, to eastern europe. in poland, which has been made the principal nazi slaughterhouse, the ghettos established by the german invaders are being systematically emptied of all jews except a few highly skilled workers required for war industries. none of those taken away are ever heard of again. the able-bodied are slowly worked to death in labour camps. the infirm are left to die of exposure and starvation or are deliberately massacred in mass executions. the number of victims of these bloody cruelties is reckoned in many hundreds of thousands of entirely innocent men, women and children. the above-mentioned governments and the french national committee condemn in the strongest possible terms this bestial policy of cold-blooded extermination. they declare that such events can only strengthen the resolve of all freedom-loving peoples to overthrow the barbarous hilarity tyranny. they reaffirm their solemn resolution to ensure that those responsible for these crimes shall not escape retribution, and to press on with the necessary practical measures to this end." [ ] the bishop of london, dr. fisher (later on to be the archbishop of canterbury) voiced in the house of lords "the whole hearted support for the statement which is forthcoming from christian circles". referring to the appeal made by the archbishop of york, the bishop said: "it would be a satisfaction to the archbishop and others if it were made clear that retribution will be exacted not only from those who devised and ordered these proceedings, but also in due degree of responsibility from those who carried out joyfully and gladly the orders which were given to them. the deeds were so repugnant to the laws of god and to every human instinct of decency that whoever took a share must receive due retribution for them. he hoped that it would be made clear that we and all our allies would offer free asylum gladly to all who could escape." the bishop also urged that: < > "neutral countries should be encouraged to grant sanctuary to refugees by a guarantee that for every jewish refugee from nazi tyranny they would receive, the united nations would undertake to share in the cost of maintenance and would make possible the resettlement after the war of refugees in a permanent and abiding home." [ ] at the end of january, , the archbishops of canterbury, york and wales issued, "in the name of the bishops of the three provinces", a statement in which they again stressed the two main points in the bishop of london's speech in the house of lords in december, , namely: support of the declaration made by the allied governments that "those responsible for these crimes shall not escape retribution and the demand to provide a sanctuary for the victims. the "appeal to the government" reads as follows: "the bishops of england and wales have been profoundly stirred by the declaration made in both houses of parliament on behalf of his majesty's government on december th, , describing the barbarous and inhuman treatment to which the jews are being subjected in german-occupied europe. they note that the number of victims of this policy of cold-blooded extermination is already reckoned in hundreds of thousands of entirely innocent men, women and children. they note further that the extermination already carried out is part of the carrying into effect of hitler's oft-repeated intention to exterminate the jewish people in europe, which means in effect the extermination of some six million persons in the territories over which hitler's rule has been extended. the bishops of england and wales declare that the sufferings of these millions of jews and their condemnation, failing immediate rescue, to a cruel and certain death, constitute an appeal to humanity which it is impossible to resist. they believe that it is the duty of civilised nations, whether neutral or allied, to exert themselves to the utmost possible extent to provide a sanctuary for these victims. they therefore urge the government of the united kingdom to give a lead to the world by declaring its readiness, in consultation with the dominion governments, to co-operate with the governments of the united and neutral nations in finding an immediate refuge in territories within the british empire as well as elsewhere for all persons threatened with massacre who can escape from axis lands, or for those who have already escaped to neighbouring neutral countries and can make room for other refugees to take their place." [ ] < > that not everyone agreed with the demand for retribution becomes evident from a speech given by the archbishop of york at a city meeting in leeds, on march , . the archbishop had been told that he was unchristian in asking for retribution. objections were evidently made to the archbishop's request that "refugees from this horror can find a refuge wherever the british flag flies". apparently there was the feeling that there might be spies amongst the refugees; that the territories under the british flag would be flooded by a mass immigration of jewish refugees, and that this would create insurmountable problems after the war. the archbishop said the following: "...the persecution of the jews is, however, unique in its horror. it has the characteristics which make it stand by itself in the long history of cruelty and tyranny. it is a deliberate policy of extermination directed against, not a nation, but a whole race. neither their nation, nor their profession, nor their character will save jews from this sweeping sentence. they are doomed without trial, without crime, without the possibility of defence, simply because they belong to the race from which the prophets came, and of which our lord and his disciples were members. they are condemned to death to satisfy the blood lust of a cruel and wicked megalomaniac who by fraud and violence now holds the greater part of europe in his grasp... what can be done? . let the german people know what is being done in their name. . let the german people also be told solemnly and repeatedly that sure retribution awaits not only the master criminals who have ordered these horrors, but also their brutal underlings who are carrying them out, often apparently with zest. i have been told that i am un-christian in asking for retribution. have those who thus criticise never read that the christ said that rather than a man should offend one of these little ones it were better that a millstone should be hanged about his neck and he be cast into the sea. i ask for this broadcasting of the allies' determination to punish, in the hope that it may stay the hands of at any rate some of the criminals. fear is sometimes effective when mercy makes no appeal. . we must make it plain that refugees from this horror can find a refuge wherever the british flag flies. every precaution will have to be taken against spies. and the refuge will only be promised for the period of the terror. few will be able to reach our shores. but give them this hope of refuge. . support the government in the efforts they are now making, with other allied powers and the neutrals, to help the jews now in danger and to provide succour for their refugees. < > we must do all we can in the name of christianity and humanity to save at any rate a remnant from these foul murderers. victory is the only sure road to their deliverance. the war becomes increasingly a crusade not only to preserve freedom and justice, but also to overthrow and shatter cruelty and tyranny in their most savage and hateful forms." [ ] at the end of , a statement was issued by the archbishop of canterbury and the moderator of the free church federal council, urging that special intercessions be offered in all churches on the first sunday of the new year: "we do not doubt that in all congregations prayer is throughout this time being offered for the jews of germany and the occupied countries, who are suffering so terrible an affliction and over whom the threat of extermination is hanging. it is a bitter grief that our nation can do so little to help, but short of victory in the war there is no way in which we can ourselves effect anything comparable with the need, and the massacre goes on day by day. we should be united in constant prayer to almighty god that this monstrous evil may be checked and the jews delivered from their tormentors; and as a focus for such united prayer we urge that special intercessions be offered in all churches on the first sunday of the new year." [ ] seven "representative german lutheran pastors in england" commented, in a letter published in "the times", as follows: "on the first sunday of the new year when the gospel appointed to read in all german lutheran churches is the story of the murder of the innocent (st. matthew , - ), we ministers of the german lutheran church in england feel in duty bound to call our congregations to solemn prayer and intercession for the jewish people in their unparalleled sufferings. it was the anti-jewish legislation as applied to the ministry which brought the lutheran church in germany to its first witness against idolatry and barbarism and caused it to become a 'confessing church'. some of us wish that the protest then made had been stronger, more general, more frequent; but it is not for us who now live in safety to criticise those who under fire have done their utmost not to bow to baal. while they are silenced by the terrors of persecution, we know that they would want and expect us to speak on their behalf and in the name of all who confess themselves christians in germany. < > in fellowship with them and in solidarity with the people of whom christ our lord was born, in solemn protest and deep repentance we recall the words of the old testament: 'open thy mouth, judge righteously and plead the cause of the poor and needy'. (prov. , - )." [ ] d. practical steps demanded; the bermuda conference many times church leaders in great britain demanded that their government should take practical steps for the rescue of the jews of europe. some of their statements on this subject have already been recorded in the preceding paragraph. in a letter to "the times", the bishop of chichester recommended that germany should be officially requested to let jews emigrate to neutral countries. [ ] in parliament, an all-party committee of members of both houses was formed to prod the government into action. its first meeting, on january , , was addressed by the archbishop of canterbury. [ ] on february , , at the annual meeting of the council of christians and jews, the archbishop of canterbury referred to "the deep concern felt by all sections of the british public at the reports of mass extermination of jews and others at the hand of the nazis". he outlined "the steps which he had taken as one of the joint presidents of the council, and in association with the leaders of the other sections of the christian community, in the hope of securing some measure of relief to the victims of this persecution." [ ] on march , , the archbishop of canterbury presented the following resolution to the house of lords: "to move to resolve, that, in view of the massacres and starvation of jews and others in enemy and enemy occupied countries, this house desires to assure his majesty's government of its fullest support for immediate measures, on the largest and most generous scale compatible with the requirements of military operations and security, for providing help and temporary asylum to persons in danger of massacre who are able to leave enemy and enemy-occupied countries." < > the archbishop said: "...we are wisely advised not to limit our attention in this connection to the sufferers of any one race, and we must remember that there are citizens of many countries who are subject to just the same kind of monstrous persecution, and even massacre. none the less, there has been a concentration of this fury against the jews, and it is inevitable that we should give special attention to what is being carried through, and still further plotted against them... "we are told that the only real solution is rapid victory. no doubt it is true that if we could win the war in the course of a few weeks we could still deliver multitudes of those who are now doomed to death. but we dare not look for such results, and we know that what we can do will be but little in comparison with the need. my whole plea on behalf of those for whom i am speaking is that whether what we can do be large or little it should at least be all we can do." the archbishop then told of the deportation of jews from moravia, germany, rumania, and holland, and of the slaughter of jews in poland. he continued: "i believe that part of our difficulty in arousing ourselves and our fellow- countrymen to the degree of indignation that it would seem to merit is the fact that the imagination recoils before it. it is impossible to hold such things at all before the mind. but we are all agreed in this house on the main purpose of this motion, to offer our utmost support to the government in all they can do; but with all sympathy for members of his majesty's government, i am sure they will forgive some of us who wonder whether quite everything possible has really already been done." the archbishop recalled "the solemn statement of the united nations made public on december ", and contrasted "the solemnity of the words then used, and the reception accorded to them, with the very meagre action that had actually followed". "it is the delays in the whole matter while these horrors go on daily that make some of us wonder whether it may not be possible to speed up a little. one must admit that some of the arguments hitherto advanced as justifying the comparative inaction seem quite disproportionate to the scale of the evil confronting us. as reasons for no further action, "the great part that has been taken by this country and other countries in the relief of the refugees" was pointed out. < > "that, of course, would be relevant if the people in the other lands were suffering great discomfort or great privation, but when what you are confronted with is wholesale massacre, it seemed to most of us not only irrelevant but grotesquely irrelevant." the secretary of state for the colonies had given a promise with regard to the admission of jews to palestine, on february , but on february no attempt to move these persons had yet taken place. the archbishop made a plea that action should be taken as promptly as possible to carry out the promises given by the colonial secretary. he also urged, "that we should revive the scheme of visas for entry into this country". "we want to suggest the granting of blocks of visas to the consuls in spain and portugal and perhaps in turkey to be used at their discretion. we know of course that the german government will not give exit permits. what matters is that we should open our doors irrespective of the question whether the german door is open or shut, so that all who can may come... it is of the greatest importance to give relief to those neutral countries because there is at present a steady stream or perhaps more accurately a steady trickle of refugees from france both into spain and into switzerland. the numbers that those countries, already suffering a good deal in shortage of food and with their standard of life so far below our own, will be able to receive are of course limited. if we can open the door at the other side and bring away from spain and portugal and (if transport is available but probably it would not) from switzerland and also from turkey those who are able to make their escape there, we shall render it far more probable that the channels through which that trickle percolates will not be blocked... then, once more, it is urged, that we should offer help to european neutrals, to encourage them to admit new refugees, in the form of guarantees from the united nations to relieve them of a stipulated proportion of refugees after the victory, or, if possible, sooner; that we should offer direct financial aid... there is one point i would raise more tentatively... it is that through some neutral power an offer should directly be made to the german government to receive jews in territories of the british empire and, so far as they agree, of the other allied nations on a scheme of so many each month. very likely it would be refused, and then hitler's guilt would stand out all the more evidently. if the offer were accepted there would of course be difficulties enough, but it would be the business of the germans to overcome these so far as concerns the conveyance of the refugees to the ports, and efforts could be made to secure help from sweden and other neutral countries for shipping from the ports... some of us have wondered how far the possibility has been considered of receiving any considerable number, particularly of children, in eire and whether the government of eire have been consulted about this... < > "it is said that there is a danger of anti-semitic feeling in this country. no doubt that feeling exists in some degree, and no doubt it could very easily be fanned into flame, but i am quite sure it exists at present only in comparatively small patches. it is very local when it exists at all, and therefore it receives a degree of attention beyond what it deserves. but if the government were to decide that it was wise and practicable to put in action any of the proposals that i have laid before your lordships, it would be very easy for the government, by skilful use of the wireless, to win the sympathy and confidence of the people for their proposals, especially if a large number of those who were brought out were children and were being delivered from almost certain death... the whole matter is so big and other claims are so urgent that we want further to make the proposition that there shall be appointed someone of high standing for whom this should be a primary responsibility... my chief protest is against procrastination of any kind. it was three months ago that the solemn declaration of the united nations was made and now we are confronted with a proposal for an exploratory conference at ottawa. that sounds as if it involves much more delay. it took five weeks from december for our government to approach the united states, and then six weeks for the government of the united states to reply, and when they did reply they suggested a meeting of representatives of the government for preliminary exploration. the jews are being slaughtered at the rate of tens of thousands a day on many days, but there is a proposal for a preliminary exploration to be made with a view of referring the whole matter after that to the inter-governmental committee on refugees. my lords, let us at least urge that when that conference meets it should not meet for exploration only but for decision. we know that what we can do is small compared with the magnitude of the problem, but we cannot rest so long as there is any sense among us that we are not doing all that might be done. we have discussed the matter on the footing that we are not responsible for this great evil, that the burden lies on others, but it is always true that the obligations of decent men are decided for them by contingencies which they did not themselves create and very largely by action of wicked men. the priest and the levite in the parable [ ] were not in the least responsible for the traveller's wounds as he lay there by the roadside and no doubt they had many other pressing things to attend to, but they stand as the picture of those who are condemned for neglecting the opportunity of showing responsibility. we at this moment have upon us a tremendous responsibility. we stand at the bar of history, of humanity and of god. i beg to move." [ ] < > after the archbishop of canterbury had spoken, lord rochester spoke "as a methodist layman": '...no one can preach the gospel of jesus christ and remain indifferent to social institutions which contradict that teaching. wherever the churches find practices which are contrary to christian doctrine, whether they be such diabolical and horrifying practices as these we are more especially considering this afternoon, or others, it is no more than their bounden duty to denounce them... we are concerned with all persecuted minorities, but the christian necessarily feels an intimate responsibility in regard to the jews, since christ 'according to the flesh' came out of israel. almost every page of the new testament shows how close was the association between religious judaism and the first followers of christ... 'i must needs be that offences come; but woe to that man by whom the offence cometh.' [ ] and woe to us if we leave any stone unturned in seeking to aid and succour those of our fellow human beings who are suffering this cruel nazi stumbling- block of offence. the nazis have indeed debased themselves even unto hell, but let us remember' the high and lofty one that inhabiteth eternity,' as we recall those words in the th chapter of isaiah: 'cast ye up, cast ye up, prepare the way, take up the stumbling-block out of the way of my people'. [ ] i support the motion of the most reverend primate, and i would urge the redoubling of our efforts to succour 'one of the least of these', as we recall the latter part of the th chapter of st. matthew." [ ] it is remarkable that, contrary to what one might have expected, it was the archbishop who made the practical suggestions and the "methodist layman" who cited texts from the bible. it is a pity that one expression in the archbishop's motion ("immediate measures, on the largest and most generous scale compatible with the requirements of military operations and security") provided the government with an excuse to do practically nothing. in order to understand the archbishop's words, one should, however, try to realize how manifold were "the requirements of military operations and security" in those days. < > obviously the archbishop was well-informed about the persecutions on the continent of europe. he had received (as he himself stated in his speech) reports from the world jewish congress, geneva, and from the board of deputies of british jews. dr. riegner, of the world jewish congress, sent an aide-memoire to the british ambassador in bern "on behalf of the secretariats of the world council of churches and of the jewish congress". the covering letter, dated march , , stated: "we should also appreciate it if his majesty's government would see fit to pass on the main contents of this aide-memoire to the archbishop of canterbury and the british section of the world jewish congress". [ ] but if the aide-memoire was passed on, it must have come too late for the meeting in the house of lords. the speech of the archbishop in the house of lords deserves careful study. it sheds an important light on the attitude of the government regarding the jewish refugees. the archbishop mentioned the proposal for an exploratory conference at ottawa. the country (canada) in whose capital the conference was to be held, however, had not been informed, and thus the conference was held at bermuda, on - april, . the statement issued at the end of its deliberations merely promised recommendations - which were not disclosed - and the setting up of an inter-governmental organization to handle the problem in the future. the verdict on the allied governments that "history will record the bermuda conference as a monument of moral callousness and inertia" is not too severe. [ ] the british council of churches, made up of the official representatives of the church of england, the church of scotland and the free churches, met in london on april th and th under the presidency of the archbishop of canterbury. the following resolution was passed on anti-semitism: < > "the british council of churches warmly welcomes the statements made by the leaders of many christian churches expressing fellow-feeling with the jewish people in the trials through which they are passing and the desire to aid them in every practicable way. in particular the council notes with admiration and thankfulness the statements on this subject which have issued from christian leaders in enemy-occupied countries. the council affirms that anti-semitism of any kind is contrary to natural justice, incompatible with the christian doctrine of man and a denial of the gospel. malicious gossip and irresponsible charges against jews, no less than active persecution, are incompatible with christian standards of behaviour. the council welcomes the decision to hold in bermuda a conference in which the british and american governments will seek jointly to find practical ways of rendering immediate and continuing assistance to jews and other imperilled people. the council considers that every possible step ought to be taken to rescue from massacre the jews in enemy and enemy occupied territories. it is convinced that both christian and jewish people in this country would give strong support to a lead from his majesty's government in offering sanctuary in great britain for a considerable number of children and adults, additional to those received before september, , and would be ready to make sacrifices so as to provide hospitality for them during the war. the council further asks that the bermuda conference will suggest measures for rendering the requisite material assistance for the maintenance of refugees who reach neutral countries, and will give assurance to those countries of readiness to cooperate in plans for post-war settlement of the refugees in other parts of the world." [ ] in may, , the general assembly of the church of scotland stated: "the general assembly protest anew against the atrocious persecution of the jews in nazi-occupied countries, and in the name of christ condemns the inhumanity and sacrilege of anti-semitic policy. they warmly approve of the steps taken by the government to assist refugees, and respectfully urge it to continue and extend its efforts as far as possible. they assure the jewish people of their deep sympathy in their grievous distress, and earnestly commend them to the prayerful concern and compassion of the church." [ ] the assembly of the baptist union of great britain and ireland passed the following resolution (also in may, ): "they call upon his majesty's government to promote, in concert with the governments of the united states of america and other associated nations, effective measures for enabling jews and other victims of german brutality to escape and find refuge. < > in their view the strong abhorrence and detestation of the persecutors, which are felt throughout the civilised world, and of their purpose of exterminating the jews, should be followed by energetic action, not only to bring to justice in due course the instigators and perpetrators of the massacres, but to give immediate aid, welcome and asylum in this and other free countries to those in peril, even though some risk to our own country may be involved. to this end they ask that restrictions regarding age, country of origin or means of support should not be put in the way to liberty and safety. they ask the churches to show and inculcate a friendly and helpful attitude to such refugees, to pray for the deliverance of those who cannot escape beyond the reach of their barbarous enemies, and to resist as un-christian all tendencies to anti-semitism. [ ] on june , , the general assembly of the presbyterian church in ireland adopted the following resolution: "the general assembly has learned with great satisfaction that his majesty's government is prepared to collaborate with the united states of america in providing asylum for as many victims of german hate as can escape or be rescued from the danger which threatens them, and to consult with the dominion governments and the governments of neutral countries with regard to united action, so that as many of the threatened people as ever possible may be helped. in view of the tremendous urgency of the situation, the general assembly requests his majesty's government to carry out their promises to provide immediate and effective relief for those in such dire peril." [ ] churches and church leaders had, as quoted so far, expressed their desire and hope that the government would take practical steps for aiding refugees. the bishop of chichester, however, expressed his disappointment in a letter to the editor of "the times": "the foreign secretary is about to make a statement in the house of commons on the result of the bermuda conference, and the policy of his majesty's government with regard to refugees. it will be almost exactly five months after the declaration of december , condemning the wholesale massacre of the jews by the nazis 'in the strongest possible terms'. it is a historic moment in the record of our dealings with the persecuted and the oppressed. it is quite certain that if the british and american governments were determined to achieve a programme of rescue in some way commensurate with the vastness of the need, they could do it. nor can there be any doubt about the response which would be given in britain to a clear lead based on the principles of humanity. < > there are difficulties. but so far as shipping is concerned, these should be greatly reduced as a result of the victories in north africa. the need of a big camp to which those now in neutral countries could be sent must be patent to everybody. and the case for a revision of the regulations to allow many more to enter the united kingdom is overwhelming. the guilt of 'this bestial policy of cold-blooded extermination' lies with the nazis. but can we escape blame if, having it in our power to do something to save the victims, we fail to take the necessary action, and to take it swiftly?" [ ] a few days later the bishop of chichester published the following letter in "the times": "in the house of commons on wednesday mr. peake referred to my letter printed in your issue of may . his principal charge was 'that the bishop made no attempt to indicate what was the programme of rescue which he suggested'. he added that he had searched hansard for the house of lords ever since december , but had failed to find any speech by myself on the subject. i was present at the debate opened by the archbishop of canterbury on march and was prepared to speak. but owing to the number of speakers, representing all shades of opinion, on that occasion i, with others, stood down. it is not, however, true to say that i have made no suggestions as to a programme of rescue. in a letter in your columns on december , , i referred to the suggestion made by sir neill malcolm in his letter of december , and made further suggestions, such as the obtaining of facilities from the protecting power for the transportation of nazi victims from germany and german occupied territories to the nearest frontier, with a view to entry into places of refuge; a guaranteeing to neutral governments willing to give sanctuary to such victims of an evacuation of as many as possible after the war; and the establishment of reception areas in lands outside europe. i am also a member of the parliamentary committee, and i support the -point programme for immediate rescue measures drawn up by the national committee for rescue from nazi terror, and widely published. i am glad to hear of the extension of categories of individuals eligible for visas, which forms a portion of the first of these points. i entirely agree that a programme of rescue must be a programme of victory. but this is not inconsistent with a determination by the government to do everything possible for temporary sanctuary. there is a great difference between the spirit of a government which says, 'we are resolved to do everything in our power, we wish we could do more, but such and such steps shall be taken at once in spite of all the difficulties', and the pessimistic attitude which simply repeats, 'we are filled with burning indignation at the horrors perpetrated by the nazis against these people. we are determined to punish the guilty when the war is over. but for the present these people are beyond possibility of rescue." [ ] < > on july , , the bishop of chichester strongly supported the plea for urgent government action in a speech in the house of lords which was very critical of official policy and action. he contended that: "...in the matter of the systematic mass murder of the jews in the nazi- occupied territories of europe, which was the reason why the bermuda conference was called, there has been a deterioration in the determination to grapple with the problem." after quoting earlier promises made on behalf of the government, he criticized the achievement of this conference. "...on april - the bermuda conference took place. it began in a spirit of pessimism. its official pronouncement at the end said that the delegates 'had examined the refugee problem in all its aspects'. the jews were not mentioned. agreed confidential recommendations were made which were designed to lead to the relief of a substantial number of refugees of all races and nationalities. not a word was said about 'temporary asylum'..." particularly the bishop emphasized the obligation to give priority to the persecuted jews, and the responsibility of both neutral countries and of the allied governments to find temporary asylum for hitler's victims. "... it is in the face of this systematic murder, especially in the last twelve months, that i and so many others plead with the government to act in a new way. with the appeal of the stricken people ringing in our ears, we would be false to our tradition if we failed to do everything we can." [ ] e. towards the end as far as we know, few statements were issued during the last period of the war. significant was the archbishop of canterbury's warning, on dec. , , that "the sufferings of the jews be kept in full view of all people so that the spirit of indignation and compassion in them will not die out". < > "it is one of the most terrible consequences of war that the sensitiveness of people tends to become hardened, "dr.temple said. "we could hardly live these days if we felt the volume of suffering of others in the world as acutely as we felt in peacetime". "there is a great moral danger in the paralysis of feeling that is liable to be brought about. it is most important for our own moral health and vigor that we express horror at the persecution of the jews." dr. temple said the persecution of jews on the continent, and particularly in poland, "almost baffles imagination and leaves one horrified at the power of the evil that can show itself in human nature." [ ] another warning came from the general assembly of the church of scotland (may, ): "the general assembly express their profound sorrow at the lamentable condition of the jews in europe, and in the name of christ renew their reprobation of the inhuman atrocities committed against them. they assure the jews of their deep concern and sympathy, commend them to the brotherly offices and prayerful compassion of all christian men and women, and warn the members of the church of scotland against the growing danger of anti-jewish prejudice and propaganda. they respectfully urge the government to continue to offer every facility to enable refugees to escape from the tyranny and oppression of nazism." [ ] in june, , the archbishop of canterbury, presiding at a meeting of the council of christians and jews, denounced the continued persecution and attempted extermination of the jews by the germans, whose activities he described as "one of the most hideous of the elements even in the recent german record". dr. temple moved a resolution expressing concern at the increasing peril to the jewish communities involved in the extension of nazi domination in central and south eastern europe, coupled with satisfaction at the steps taken in north africa and southern italy to remove all discriminatory legislation against jews and other victims of nazi intolerance. he and many others, he said, had been disappointed that there had not been a greater willingness shown on the part of the authorities to help those who were trying to escape from german-dominated countries... [ ] < > on july , , the archbishop of canterbury addressed the following message to hungary through the b.b.c.: "i am eager to speak to the christian people of hungary, so far as i can do so, because of news sent to me through one of the most reliable of ecclesiastical neutral sources - and what i hear from that source only confirms what is reported also through other channels. the report is that a wholesale round-up of hungarian jews is taking place under orders from the german government, and that those who are carried off have little chance of survival. according to this report, the jews are being deported daily. already the eastern provinces have been cleared of jews. now the process is beginning in the western districts including the capital. the conditions of travel are such that on arrival many already are dead; others are killed and cremated at auschwitz. if the christians of hungary know the facts i am perfectly confident that they are also doing everything they can to save these doomed people by hiding them and helping them to escape. but it may be that inside hungary the facts are concealed. it is for this reason that i feel bound to tell you of them, and beg you to do your utmost, even taking great personal risks, in order to save some if you can. then you will earn in very special degree the words of approval and thanks: 'in as much as ye did it unto one of these my brethren ye did unto me' (matthew, , ). i speak as a christian who cannot help to christians who can. for the honour of our common christianity i implore you to do your utmost." [ ] the united states a. the time of america's "neutrality" it would have been possible to record the statements in this paragraph under "the neutral countries". the united states officially entered into the war in december, . japan attacked pearl harbour on dec. and hitler declared war upon the united states, on dec. , . until that time, it was at least pretended that the united states was neutral and the spirit of isolationism was still strong. before , strong statements against anti-semitism were issued by protestant churches in the u.s.a., especially by the federal council of churches. after hitler's declaration of war, however, the statements took on an additional clarity: "anybody spreading anti-semitism is helping hitler just as much as if he were a paid agent of the reich." [ ] anti-semitism became "treason against god, treason against the country." [ ] < > on the evening of december , , a mass meeting was held at madison square garden, new york, for the purpose of registering a protest against the treatment of the jews in poland and other areas under the nazi regime. the meeting was attended by , people. expressing the sympathy of christians, dr. samuel mccrea cavert, general secretary of the federal council of churches, pointed out, that christians as well as jews were suffering in poland and other parts of europe and that "christians have a direct stake in what is happening". in conclusion, he said: "out of the calamity in europe, there emerges one by-product for which we may be thankful - the new sense of fellowship between jew and christian in america. nothing so quickly unites men as a cry of desperate human need. i do not believe there has ever been a time when christian hearts in america beat in such sympathy for their jewish neighbours. there are differences of religious conviction between jew and christian - at one point a momentous difference - but we share together the priceless spiritual heritage of israel. as his holiness pope pius xi truly and nobly said, 'spiritually we are all semites'." [ ] the united church of christ issued the following statement in : "one of the most disturbing currents in america to-day is anti-semitism. under the cover of an attack upon the jews a covert attack is being made on christianity. the manipulators of anti- jewish propaganda are not concerned with the alleged evils they denounce; but they are concerned to destroy the teachings of the bible - that god, the lord and creator of all men, is a holy god - and the prophetic morality of the old testament. they attack under cover of anti-semitism god the lord who is not bound to any nation but is lord of all nations. they attack justice, righteousness, mercy and the divine command for holiness. they attack the law which christians and jews alike acknowledge as god's requirement. twentieth century anti-semitism reveals its true character in its demand on the church to surrender the old testament and to deny that the god of abraham, of moses and the prophets is the father of jesus christ. < > anti-semitism is flatly contradictory to the express teaching of st. paul. in romans , st. paul reminds the gentile christians, just as we need to be reminded today, that israel is the stem on which gentile christians have been grafted. 'you owe,' he wrote, 'your position to faith. you should feel awed instead of uplifted.' and again, 'so far as the gospel goes, they (the jews) are enemies of god, which is to your advantage; but so far as the election goes, they are beloved for their father's sake. for god never goes back upon his gifts and call.' st. paul discovered in anti-semitism a pride which needed to be rebuked. 'you owe your position to faith'; that means, not something we have by right of possession, not something we can take for granted, not any kind of inherent superiority at all. faith is the gift of god. moreover, god has not repudiated israel. they are still beloved. anti-semitism is not only one form of human pride; it is repudiation of the declared purpose of god. we recommend that general synod declare its condemnation of anti-semitism and urge upon the members of the church in the name of christ the duty to serve in love the brothers of christ according to the flesh." [ ] the federal council of churches of christ in the united states published the following resolution, in december, : "we express as christians our sympathy with the jewish people in this hour of calamity for so many of their group in europe. we deplore the existence of anti-semitism in america and declare our opposition to it because it is contrary to the spirit and teachings of christ. we call upon his followers to create christian attitudes toward the jews. this should be a matter of primary concern for every christian church in every community." [ ] on september , , the executive committee of the federal council adopted the following statement: "on many previous occasions we have expressed our abhorrence of the religious and racial intolerance which afflicts our world today. we have especially emphasized our opposition to unjust and unchristian attacks upon the jews. in so doing we have been whole-heartedly supported by similar utterances officially made by the highest governing bodies of the great dominations which cooperate in the federal council of churches. < > recent evidences of anti-jewish prejudice in our own country compel us to speak again a word of solemn warning to the nation. divisiveness on religious or racial grounds is a portentous menace to american democracy. if one group be made the target of attack today, the same spirit of intolerance may be visited on another group to-morrow and the rights and liberties of every group thus be put in jeopardy. we condemn anti-semitism as un-american. our nation is a free fellowship of many racial and cultural stocks. it is our historic glory that they have been able to live together in mutual respect, each rejoicing in the rich contribution which the others have made to the common good. anti-semitism is an insidious evil which, if allowed to develop, would poison the springs of our national life. even more strongly we condemn anti-semitism as un-christian. as christians we gratefully acknowledge our ethical and spiritual indebtedness to the people of israel. no true christian can be anti-semitic in thought, word or deed without being untrue to his own christian inheritance. in behalf of the christian churches which comprise the federal council we voice our renewed determination to unite in combating every tendency to anti-semitism in our country. we recognize that a special responsibility rests upon us who belong to the numerically strongest group, to be staunch advocates of the rights of minorities." [ ] in , the following "manifesto to our brethren and fellow citizens of jewish race and blood" was signed by one hundred and seventy protestant ministers representing one hundred and sixty-six churches and twenty-four denominations in the city of new york: "with genuine anguish of heart we behold how in many places across the world today cruel forces of oppression and persecution are being released upon men and women and children of jewish race and blood. with profound concern we note from time to time within our own beloved nation the manifestation of a spirit of anti-semitism. the conscience of protestant christendom, as recorded at the great ecumenical conference held at oxford, england, during july of , expressed itself in no uncertain terms when with unanimous voice it affirmed that 'against all racial pride, racial hatred and persecution and the exploitation of other races in all their forms, the church is called by god to set its face implacably and to utter its words unequivocally both within and without its borders. there is a special need at this time that the church throughout the world brings every resource at its command against the sin of anti-semitism.' with this pronouncement we are in complete accord of heart. therefore, we would disavow any words or action promoted by the spirit of anti-semitism, which emanate from sources that purport to be christian. such words and actions label themselves unchristian. < > we call upon our christian brethren to guard their hearts, their minds, their lips, their hands from emotions, thoughts, words or deeds that partake of 'the sin of anti-semitism'. to that end we command to them the quest for 'the fullness of christ' within their lives. we call upon our fellow citizens to remember that anti-semitism is a threat to democracy and a denial of the fundamental principles upon which this nation is founded. we extend to our brethren and fellow citizens of jewish race and blood our solemn assurance that by the constraint of our deepest christian conviction we shall oppose unceasingly 'the sin of anti-semitism' and we shall strive continuously for the realization of that brotherhood which humanity needs, democracy requires and christianity demands." [ ] b. at war with germany. co-operation with jewish leaders the executive of the federal council addressed the following "message for race relations sunday" (febr. , ) to its members: "for all the law is fulfilled in one word even this: thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." gal. , . let us translate this pattern into a social program. our pronouncements must now be supported by our practices. where attacks are made upon jews or the sinister spirit of anti-semitism appears, we must protest in the name of christ and the church... where any racial minority within our borders is exploited or barred from equal opportunity, we christians must take a stand for the sake of our faith. we must, furthermore, create a genuine fellowship that will prevent the development to such injustice towards any group. our love for the church requires that it be pre-eminently the abode of fellowship. the church, by reason of its origin in the universal christ, must be a brotherhood of all peoples, remembering that in him there is neither jew nor greek, barbarian, scythian, bond nor free. therefore, let every follower of christ search in his own soul to see if any enemies of brotherhood are lurking there. let him examine his own daily relationships. let us all in this awful and creative hour march resolutely forward, not faithless nor fearful, but confident in the future when democracy and brotherhood are one. "if a man say i love god and hateth his brother whom he hath seen, how can he love god whom he hath not seen." john , . [ ] < > in september and october, , the general secretary of the federal council, dr. samuel mccrea cavert, visited france and switzerland. the director of the world jewish congress at geneva, dr. gerhart m. riegner, stated: "with regard to our knowledge of the nazi plan of total extermination of european jewry, i wish to state that the first report on this plan reached me in the last days of july and i communicated it to rabbi wise in new york and mr. silverman in london during the first days of august (through diplomatic channels). dr. wise received the message during the last days of august and asked mr. cavert to use his visit to geneva at the beginning of september to find out from us whether deportation really meant extermination. after having spoken to one of us - i believe to prof. guggenheim - he confirmed this in a cable to the united states." [ ] on dec. , , at the great biennial assembly of the federal council, the following resolution on anti-semitism was adopted: "the reports which are reaching us concerning the incredible cruelties towards the jews in nazi occupied countries, particularly poland, stir the christian people of america to the deepest sympathy and indignation. it is impossible to avoid a conclusion that something like a policy of deliberate extermination of the jews in europe is being carried out. the violence and inhumanity which nazi leaders have publicly avowed toward all jews are apparently now coming to a climax in a virtual massacre. we are resolved to do our full part in establishing conditions in which such treatment of the jews shall end. the feelings of the jewish community throughout the world have recently been expressed in a period of mourning, fasting and prayer. we associate ourselves with our jewish fellow-citizens in their hour of tragic sorrow, and unite our prayers with theirs. we confess our own ineffectiveness in combating the influences which beget anti-semitism in our own country, and urge our constituencies to intensify their efforts in behalf of friendly relations with the jews. we urge that all plans for reconstruction in europe shall include measures designed to secure full justice for the jews and a safe and respected place for them in western civilisation. for those who, after the war, will have to emigrate from the war-ridden lands of europe, immigration opportunities should be created in this and other lands. we recommend that the officers of the federal council transmit this action to the jewish leaders in person." [ ] < > on dec. , , the synagogue council of america published a new year message it had addressed to the rev. dr. samuel mccrea cavert, secretary of the federal council of the churches of christ in america, and to mgr. michael j. ready, general secretary of the national catholic welfare conference. the message was signed by dr. israel goldstein, president of the council. "american jews," the message said, "share with their christian brothers the sense of having been privileged to bear burdens not only in answering the call of our nation's defence needs, but also in heeding the call of human needs overseas. "to the jews of hitler-ridden europe the year has been the most catastrophic in their tragedy-laden history. helpless women, aged and children, and defenceless men have been slaughtered wholesale and a whole people has been marked for extermination. among no other people is such a toll being taken. if the executioner's hand is not soon stayed, all the jews whom it can reach will perish." the message said the greeting was "preferred to you and to the great body of christians whom you represent", and expressed hope for an allied victory and a just peace in . [ ] on january , , the heads of the six jewish organizations which comprised the synagogue council of america, under the chairmanship of rabbi israel goldstein, met in conference with official representatives of the federal council of the churches of christ in america. the purpose of the meeting was to afford an opportunity to discuss together what the christian churches could do to assist the jews of europe. desiring to express its sympathy in something more than resolutions, the federal council arranged for the conference with the jewish leaders. several fruitful suggestions emerged as to ways in which the churches might help to develop stronger support for the needs of refugees from europe, a measure of relief in the form of food for at least some of the jews in europe, and a safe and respected place for jews in the post-war world. [ ] c. practical steps demanded; the bermuda conference < > "on march , , a great demonstration, one of the largest ever held in the united states, took place in madison square garden at the initiative of the congress and under the joint auspices of the american jewish congress, the american federation of labour, the cio, and the church peace union. twenty-two thousand people crowded into the great hall, while , stood outside throughout the evening listening to the proceedings through amplifiers. the demonstration was addressed by dr. chaim weizmann, dr. stephen s. wise, governor thomas e. dewey, mayor fiorello h. laguardia, senator robert f. wagner, william green, and others. the british section transmitted cable messages from the archbishop of canterbury and the late cardinal hinsley, whose last public utterance it was before his death a week later. the meeting laid down a -point program for the rescue of european jewry prepared by world jewish congress experts. the effect was immediate. on the following day, undersecretary of state sumner welles declared that a note had already been sent to great britain on february offering the cooperation of the united states in organizing an intergovern- mental meeting for study of methods to save 'political refugees' in europe. the meeting came to be known as the bermuda refugee conference..." [ ] on march , , the executive committee of the federal council of churches of christ in america appealed to the governments of the united states and great britain "to consider offering financial assistance to jewish refugees who have escaped to neutral countries from nazi held territory, and the possible establishment of temporary places of asylum for those evacuated from europe". the committee urged that the proposals be considered at the forthcoming conference in toronto of representatives of the two governments on the jewish problem. the suggestion was part of a three-point program calling for a report by the council's department of research and education on the treatment of jews under the nazi regime and setting aside may for observance in churches as a "day of compassion" for the jews in europe. the committee's action was a sequel to the adoption at the council's biennial meeting in cleveland in december of a statement setting forth the organization's determination "to do our full part in establishing conditions" in which harsh treatment of jews should end. the proposals outlined by the committee for consideration of the british and american representatives at toronto were: < > "to offer financial assistance for the support of refugees that neutral governments (for example, switzerland, or sweden, spain, portugal and turkey) may receive from areas under nazi control, as a result either of infiltration across their borders or of negotiations with the axis powers, with the expectation that, after the war, such refugees would be repatriated in their own countries. "to provide places of temporary asylum to which refugees whom it may be possible to evacuate from european countries may be removed, these refugees to be supported in camps for the duration of the war, with the understanding that they will then be repatriated in their own country or be provided with permanent homes in other ways." at the same time the committee urged christians throughout the country "to give their moral support to whatever measures afford promise of rescuing european jews whose lives are in jeopardy." the committee invited all christians to "join in united intercession on may for the victims of racial and religious persecution as a special occasion for the expression of christian sollicitude." [ ] the practical steps proposed by the executive committee of the federal council to the governments of the united states and great britain were similar to the steps proposed by the archbishop of canterbury in the house of lords at about the same time, [ ] and to the aide-memoire sent by the secretariats of the world council of churches and of the world jewish congress (geneva), to the american and british governments. [ ] not withstanding all this, the bermuda conference became "a monument of moral callousness and inertia". [ ] d. different churches speaking on different occasions the following is a chronological record of statements made by churches or church leaders in the united states from may, , until the end of the second world war. henry st. george tucker, presiding bishop of the protestant episcopal church and president of the federal council of churches, in a statement on the observance by the council of a "day of compassion" for persecuted european jews, said that there had been found a "rising tide of concern among christians" over their fate. < > dr. tucker said it was the first time christian churches had set aside a specific day for a "united expression of their sympathy with a suffering and persecuted jewry". "what is happening to the jews on the continent of europe is so horrible that we are in danger of assuming that it is exaggerated," he said, and cited a recent survey by the council of evidence that he said indicated that under the nazis a policy of deliberate extermination of jews was carried out. "the survey shows that the actual facts are probably more, rather than less, terrible than the reports," he continued. "the christian people of america vigorously protest against this brutal and cruel persecution. but protest is not enough." two remedial measures have been set forth by the council: first financial assistance for support of refugees reaching neutral countries from nazi- occupied areas, and second, provision of temporary asylum to which refugees evacuated from european countries may be removed. [ ] on october , , american religious leaders denounced "the recent acts of terror in denmark" and expressed sympathy for the jews in that country. the rev. dr. p.o. bessel, president of the augustan synod, minneapolis, said that the synod was shocked at the german barbarism in denmark, but was happy about sweden's firm stand in offering refuge to the persecuted jews. the rev. dr. samuel mccrea cavert, general secretary of the federal council, said that "the american churches have been thrilled by the news that the danish church has refused to be cowed into silence in the face of the nazi attack upon jews in denmark". [ ] the following article in "the new york herald tribune" shows how strong anti-semitic influences in the united states were, in : bishop oxnam assails beating of jewish boys bishop g. bromley oxnam, of the boston area of the methodist church, denounced today the alleged beating of jewish boys as an apparent expression of incipient fascism and, in a statement, demanded, "who is flooding the nation with anti-semitic literature, and why?" < > declaring that "the beating of jewish boys is not the work of hoodlums," bishop oxnam expressed hope that jews, catholics and protestants could unite "in demanding that these beatings stop and that steps be taken to discover and destroy the dangerous forces that lie back of them." the bishop's statement followed the placing of charges before governor leveratt saltonstall that jews had been made the victims of ruffians over a period of months in the boston area. the governor, acting upon a petition of which bishop oxnam was one of the signers, has appointed five prominent citizens of various faiths to an advisory committee on anti-semitism. "the beating of jewish boys must stop," the statement said. "the beaters must be apprehended and punished. the beating of any boys by gangs is bad enough at any time. the beating of boys of a particular race is worse. but the real menace lies in the apparent fact that these beatings are an expression of incipient fascism, that they follow a similar pattern, and that, in one case, at least, the beaters wore black shirts. "who is flooding the nation with anti-semitic literature, and why? who finances these movements? why is it that the anti-semitic leaders now under federal indictment have attacked such religious organizations as the federal council of churches of christ in america, the methodist church and other protestant religious bodies? why has franco, the fascist dictator of spain, been extolled? bishop oxnam, in an interview with "the boston traveller", said that the recent outbreaks of racial violence in the dorchester, roxbury and mattapan districts of boston follow a pattern. "i was in germany when these things began there. it is the same pattern in which organized gangs beat up a scapegoat race whether they be jews or any one else," he asserted. he asserted that fascism is prevalent in brooklyn now, and predicted that it would show itself in detroit and sections of the pacific coast before long. "i think brooklyn, new york and boston are currently the most difficult centres, however," he added. [ ] in dec., , a senate resolution proposed the creation of a special commission "to bring about the rescue of the surviving jews of europe". eight protestant leaders sent "a christmas appeal for speedy adoption of the resolution" to vice president henry a. wallace, senate majority and minority leaders and members of the house and senate committees involved. asserting that "more than , , european jews have been slaughtered by the nazis, the message added that "we cannot approach christmastide without declaring that too many of us have been found wanting in the will to rescue these suffering people." < > "let no possible sanctuary be closed, whether in america or elsewhere," the appeal said. "let each door of refuge be kept open. this is the christian way." the message was signed by bishop william t. manning (protestant episcopal); archbishop athenagoras (greek orthodox); bishop william j. mcconnell (methodist), and others. [ ] on jan. , , fifteen hundred persons attended a rally against anti-semitism at carnegie hall. dr.henry smith leiper of the federal council of churches of christ in america, chairman of the meeting, asserted that anti-semitism was "treason against god, treason against the country". "anybody spreading such slander," he said, "is helping hitler just as much as if he were a paid agent of the reich." dr. leiper and several others spoke out against what they said was the desire on the part of many to approach the problem of anti-semitism with too much caution. dr. leiper said that exactly this idea prevailed in germany in , but did not halt the rise of fascism. [ ] the biennial convention of the united lutheran church in america adopted, on oct. , , the following resolution: "recognizing that the jewish problem has been made one of the central elements in the present assault on civilization, the united lutheran church in america, viewing with concern the manifestations of a rising tide of anti-semitism in american life, begs its members to consider their jewish brethren in the spirit of luther, who spoke kindly things of them as 'blood brothers of our lord', to use every available means to assure the jewish people of their communities of the efforts of our church for the preservation of their rights, and to offer prayers on their behalf." [ ] we do not record all the statements issued by protestant churches in the united states over the years - . the presbyterian church in the u.s.a. and the united presbyterian church in north america issued a statement in ; the american baptist convention, the assembly of the presbyterian church in the u.s.a. and the general synod of the united church of christ issued a statement in . most of these statements condemned anti-semitic and anti-negro prejudices. < > e. the churches in the u.s.a. that kept silent three important protestant denominations in the united states did not speak out unequivocally against anti-semitism and the persecution and extermination of the jews: the southern baptist convention, the lutheran church - missouri synod, and the american lutheran church. [ ] john g. mager comments: "... it might have been felt that since a large proportion of the membership of the synod was of german origin or descent, it would have made for ecclesiastical suicide if the official organ of the synod made pronouncements against a country to which many were bound by ties of blood, culture and sentiment..." [ ] it must be borne in mind that the lutheran churches in denmark, norway, sweden and slovakia clearly expressed their horror at german anti-semitism, and they did so under much more difficult circumstances. this should dissuade us from wrong platitudes such as: "lutherans tend to be anti-semitic". recently it has been suggested that "the causal chain that links christian belief and faith to secular anti-semitism begins with orthodoxy - commitment to a literal interpretation of traditional christian dogma". [ ] my knowledge of the situation of churches in america is limited. therefore i would not venture to suggest that there is a causal chain between the orthodoxy of a church in america and its failure to denounce anti-semitism. moreover, in other countries, like the netherlands for example, such a connection does not appear to exist. < > it is noteworthy, however, that the three great protestant churches in the united states mentioned above, which failed to issue a clear statement against anti-semitism, were not members of the federal council. moreover, the southern baptist convention and the lutheran church (missouri synod) are not members of the world council of churches, to this day. these churches apparently did not feel challenged by the protest issued by the assembly of the church of england, in , as was the federal council; [ ] they did not receive the information provided by the general secretariat of the world council of churches, geneva, during the war. [ ] ecclesiastical isolationism is very dangerous indeed, especially in a time of crisis. they were probably afraid of watering down their own principles by co-operating with other churches and this lack of co-operation and communication probably contributed to the fact that they did not fulfil the word of the bible: "open thy mouth for the dumb in the cause of all such as are appointed to destruction. open thy mouth, judge righteously, and plead the cause of the poor and the needy". (prov. , - ). the world council of churches the war years were the testing time of the world council. contacts with great britain and the united states were relatively frequent until the end of , when the whole of france was occupied by the germans. since it proved impossible to hold fully representative meetings, the provisional committee met and continued to meet in three groups - one in geneva under the leadership of dr. boegner (later of dr. koechlin), one in great britain under archbishop temple, and one in new york under dr. john r. mott. < > the fact that the world council had offices in new york, london, and geneva, proved a blessing, for each office had its area of contacts with churches which the other could not reach. [ ] when the second world war broke out, the world council of churches was still "in process of formation", and it had not as yet an adequate apparatus at its disposal. but the general secretary, dr. visser 't hooft, and the director of the department for refugees, dr. freudenberg, had their contacts with the world jewish congress in geneva, and with church leaders in germany and the occupied countries. they could thus pass on valuable information to the churches in the free world, and stir them to action. a. letters sent to the international red cross on october , , dr. visser 't hooft sent the following memorandum to the president of the mixed relief committee of the international red cross, prof. dr. karl burckhardt: memorandum on the situation in poland i. "we have received some information about the situation in the general government of poland from a reliable and objective observer who has been travelling there during recent weeks. according to him, there exists a great difference between city and country. in the large cities, especially in warsaw, the polish and, to a greater extent the jewish population, is suffering famine. typhus is spreading in and outside the ghetto of warsaw. our spokesman heard of , cases in the ghetto alone. the mortality of infants less than three years old is amounting to %... we know of only one modest relief activity: american poles have, in co-operation with american mennonites, the german red cross, the polish and the american relief committee (hoover), organized a soup-kitchen, where they weekly distribute to the distressed population of warsaw, fish purchased in danzig for dm. , . this feeding, which is merely a drop in the ocean, reaches poles as well as jews. moreover, a despatch of medicine from the united states is expected to arrive in lisbon one of these days. ii. the greatest wave of deportations of german jews and christians of jewish origin to poland has been going on since the middle of october. seven thousand jews were deported from berlin to litzmannstadt on the nights of october / and / . , jews of the rhineland are already there, or are en route. , are to be transported from prague. deportations from vienna have already been going on for some time. a number of jews from breslau is believed to be engaged in labour in the bohemian riesengebirge. < > according to our spokesman, the able-bodied men who have been deported to poland are constructing roads behind the eastern front whilst the able-bodied women are employed in ammunition factories. in litzmannstadt hut camps are said to be provided as temporary lodging, but we have no particulars about this. the deportees were allowed to take only a handbag and rm. with them. sufficient protection against the cold will be out of the question. one may assume that these measures are the beginning of the complete deportation of the jews and christians of jewish origin from the reich and the protectorate. this concerns people the majority of whom, owing to their mental powers having been overcharged for many years, will be unfit to cope with these new hard measures. iii. in view of its christian responsibility the provisional ecumenical council of the churches cannot heedlessly close its eyes to this misery of the refugees in poland. as it practically can no longer carry out its own relief work, it feels all the more its duty to intervene with the competent bodies towards quick relief action. the jewish organizations, generally speaking, are no longer in a position to undertake effective steps on behalf of their co-religionists. the jewish question touches the centre of the christian message: neglect of the church to raise its warning and protective voice here, and do all in its power to help, would be disobeying its god. it is, therefore, the duty of the christian churches, and especially of their ecumenical representative, the provisional ecumenical council, to intervene on behalf of the persecuted. iv. therefore the provisional ecumenical council of the churches appeals to the competent bodies of the red cross with the request to pay special attention to the situation in warthegau and the general government of poland. we urge that the red cross speedily send a delegate, if possible a medical man, to the regions in question. this delegate would have to investigate, especially in the large polish cities, the most urgent needs of the polish as well as of the jewish population, thus ascertaining the medical, sanitary and clothing requirements. such a survey should include not only the warthegau (especially litzmannstadt) but also the region of lublin where the jews from germany, austria and bohemia who were deported in the winter of / are said to be living. we hardly know anything about their fate but it is most certainly very critical. the provisional ecumenical council is prepared to request urgent support from its member churches, especially those in the united states, for a relief action organised by the international red cross." [ ] < > dr. visser 't hooft stated in the covering letter that he had also sent a copy to the president of the red cross, dr. huber, and that he would be grateful for a speedy reply. on june , , the secretary of the ecumenical commission for refugees, dr. a. freudenberg, sent the following letter to the mixed relief committee of the international red cross: "an absolutely reliable correspondent requests us, to communicate to the organizations of the red cross the following: 'a serious lack of restoratives, digitalis etc. is prevalent in the jewish ghettos in the east, especially in the camps of yzbica and piaski near lublin, and also in riga, wilna, kowno, warsaw and lodz. many people who had been admitted to the hospitals because of diminishing strength and under-nourishment or other reasons, must now perish there owing to a lack of these restoratives. they could be saved if one could supply them with strengthening food. i have been implored to inform the international red cross about this, so that it may render aid wherever possible.' this information, indicating that the deportees and the polish jews are suffering terribly from famine, has been confirmed by others as most of them are destitute, numerous cries of distress have reached us both directly and indirectly. therefore we join in the request of our correspondent, and implore the organizations of the international red cross to continue to relieve the fate of these unfortunate people in every possible way." [ ] on december , , dr. visser 't hooft again wrote to the president of the mixed relief committee of the international red cross, prof. dr. karl burckhardt. the letter reads as follows: "we refer to our letter of th october, , in which we submitted to you a memorandum concerning the persecution and the misery of the jews in poland. since then the situation has deteriorated in an alarming way. no doubt you have been informed of the mass executions of which the polish jews and the jews in poland deported from the european countries, are the victims. to the information that has reached other organizations, we can add the contents of a message received from a very distinguished german personality whose reliability we can guarantee. the message informs us that at one place in poland, , jews - men, women and children - are being shot every day. these executions are made in three groups, each of , persons, and this has already been going on for weeks. < > in our memorandum of th october, , we remarked that the jewish question touches the centre of the christian message. therefore we feel compelled to raise our voice anew on behalf of these people who are being threatened with extermination. we therefore permit ourselves to renew our suggestions of last year, that the international committee of the red cross take urgent steps to send delegates to the areas in question. there is reason to hope that such steps, even if they do not directly have the desired result, would encourage certain circles in germany to combat the mass executions more energetically. though from the letters received from theresienstadt in bohemia it is not possible to ascertain the real conditions existing in this reception centre, we would be grateful if the requested action could also include that city." [ ] the letter mentions "certain circles in germany". these were groups of resistance with which the secretariat of the world council of churches was in contact, especially the "kreisau circle" and dietrich bonhoeffer with his friends. [ ] b. co-operation with the world jewish congress a unique aspect of the activities of the world council of churches regarding the persecution of the jews was the close co-operation between dr. visser 't hooft and dr. freudenberg on the one hand, and the director of the world jewish congress at geneva, dr. g. m. riegner. dr. riegner stated: "... my correspondence with dr. freudenberg starts already in november, , and during certain periods we have been in nearly daily contact". [ ] in the same letter to dr. visser 't hooft, dr. riegner wrote: < > "i remember that you and the world council have also played an important part in convincing the swiss authorities of the deadly danger threatening the jews in all occupied countries and trying to obtain from them a more liberal attitude in admitting refugees. i remember distinctly, though i do not find any trace in writing, that i have put at your disposal several times very detailed information and reports which you have been good enough to communicate on behalf of the world council of churches to the swiss authorities. if i am not mistaken, at least on one occasion you have personally intervened with federal councillor von steiger in such matter." dr. riegner commented on this point as follows: "i am still convinced that these interventions of the world council have been at certain moments of great value. in the course of the discussions which i had during the last year with either dr. visser 't hooft or dr. freudenberg, i became convinced that these representations have most probably been made by dr. alfons koechlin, (base]), the former head of the protestant federation of switzerland and one of the presidents of the provisional world council at that time. dr. koechlin, of course, received the material from dr. visser 't hooft and dr. freudenberg." [ ] jews and christians also co-operated together in breaking the wall of silence. the secretary of the federal council of churches of christ in the united states, dr. mccrea cavert, visited dr. visser 't hooft in sept., . dr. riegner reports about this visit: "with regard to our knowledge of the nazi plan of total extermination of european jewry, i wish to state that the first report on this plan reached me in the last days of july i and i communicated it to rabbi wise in new york and mr. silverman in london during the first days of august (through diplomatic channels). dr. wise received the message during the last days of august and asked mr. cavert to use his visit to geneva at the beginning of september to find out from us whether deportation really meant extermination. after having spoken to us - i believe to prof. guggenheim - he confirmed this in a cable to the united states." [ ] in the same letter to dr. visser 't hooft, dr. riegner stated: "some of the very forceful speeches by dr. bell and other dignitaries of the anglican church in the house of lords were based on reports which we have communicated to them." < > a telegram was sent by dr. visser 't hooft to the archbishop of canterbury and to the federal council of churches in the united states. its contents were as follows: . berlin jews brought to assembling centres some hundreds shot. total evacuation berlin in execution. similar news other regions prove extermination campaign at climax. please back allied rescue efforts suggest rapid proposals exchange against german civilians and guarantees of re-emigration money food supply enabling european neutrals to grant transitory asylum. [ ] on march , , dr. visser 't hooft and dr. freudenberg sent a telegram to the bishop of chichester, dr. bell: most anxious destiny , hungarian jews among whom numerous christians stop suggest you contact mr. silverman world jewish congress, i harley street w.i. and support suggestions cabled by riegner to silverman stop suggest also interest church of scotland. [ ] we know of another joint approach made by the secretariats of the world council of churches and the world jewish congress. the following aide-memoire was sent to the governments of the united states and great britain, and to the high commissioner for refugees of the league of nations: aide-memoire < > the secretariats of the world council of churches and of the world jewish congress have taken note with great satisfaction of the aide-memoires exchanged between the governments of the united states of america and great britain on the present situation of refugees in europe, and of their decision to meet at ottawa with a view to a preliminary exploration of ways and means for combined action by the representatives of their governments. [ ] having studied the suggestions and proposals contained in the aide-memoires of the two governments, the secretariats of the world council of churches and of the world jewish congress beg to express their views on the above-mentioned topic. while welcoming most warmly the determination of the allied governments to bring help to the persecuted people of all races, nationalities and religions, fleeing from axis terror, they wish to emphasise that the most urgent and acute problem which requires immediate action, is the situation of the jewish communities under direct or indirect nazi control. the secretariats of the world council of churches and of the world jewish congress have in their possession most reliable reports indicating that the campaign of deliberate extermination of the jews organised by the nazi officials in nearly all countries of europe under their control, is now at its climax. they therefore beg to call the attention of the allied governments to the absolute necessity of organising without delay a rescue action for the persecuted jewish communities on the following lines: . measures of immediate rescue should have priority over the study of post-war arrangements. . the rescue action should enable the neutral states to grant temporary asylum to the jews who would reach their frontiers. for this purpose a definite guarantee by the governments of the united states of america and great britain, and possibly by other allied governments including the british dominions, should be given to the neutral states, that all refugees entering their territories would be enabled to be repatriated or to re-emigrate as soon as possible after the end of the war. in view of the special characteristics of the jewish problem, in view of the attitude adopted in the past by many european governments, and furthermore, in view of the present attitude of absolute political neutrality adopted during the hostilities by the neutral countries, it may be stated that the giving of assurance for the prompt repatriation of refugees upon the termination of hostilities, would in the present circumstances not be considered as a sufficient guarantee by the neutral states. only explicit and comprehensive guarantees of remigration of the refugees, given by the anglo-saxon powers as a reinforcement of any assurances of repatriation which may be given by the allied governments in exile, can lead the neutral countries to adopt a more liberal and understanding attitude towards the jewish refugees. < > these guarantees should provide for the granting of facilities concerning the supply of food and funds for the maintenance of refugees during their stay in the neutral countries. . a scheme for exchange of jews in germany and the territories under german control for german civilians in north and south america, palestine, and other countries, should be pressed forward by all possible means. we should like to stress the fact that the number of nationals of axis countries living in allied countries - particularly in north and south america - exceeds by far the number of nationals of allied countries living in axis countries. we feel that in spite of the great difficulties which we do not underestimate, a workable scheme of exchanging jews for germans would constitute an important method of rescuing a considerable number of persecuted people from the countries under nazi control. in view of the immediate urgency of the situation, the admission of jews to the scheme of exchange should be granted en bloc to the greatest possible number, as conditions no longer allow time-wasting and in many cases fruitless individual investigations. this scheme might include war-time security measures. concrete proposals should be submitted without delay to the governments representing allied interests in germany by the governments of the united states and great britain. the international red cross committee may also be approached by the allied governments and asked for support in this matter. [ ] dr. riegner sent this aide-memoire to the british ambassador in switzerland "on behalf of the secretariats of the world council of churches and of the world jewish congress". dr. visser 't hooft forwarded it to the ambassador of the united states, requesting in his covering letter, dated march , , that the aide-memoire should be forwarded to the american government, to the federation of churches of christ in the u.s.a., and to the american branch of the world jewish congress. he also stated that he had sent a copy to mr. allan welsh dulles with whom he had "quite recently had the pleasure of discussing the matter". mr.dulles was the representative of the "office of strategic services" of the american government, at bern. the sending of this aide-memoire was, i think, the first time in history that an important organization of churches officially approached governments, jointly with an important jewish organization. < > c. aid to refugees in , the provisional committee of the world council of churches was formed. its first ordinary session took place at saint-germain (near paris), in january, . it was at this meeting that the bishop of chichester, george bell, unequivocally proposed that the council create a special department to deal with refugee problems. he himself had been a pioneer in this work. he felt that "the time had come to aid the entire mass of non-aryans". he meant not only the non-aryan members of the church but also the others, albeit there being a special responsibility towards members of the christian church. [ ] soon afterwards dr. adolf freudenberg was appointed the first secretary of this new department for aid to refugees. the ecumenical commission for refugees rendered aid to refugees in the camps of france at the end of . it was also engaged in first aid to the people in the camp of gurs. later on, france remained the main field of activities. "the christian aid included christians as well as jews. there was co-operation with jewish organizations in many respects. thus, for instance, the commission for refugees could act as the intermediary for financial aid to jewish families and children who were in hiding in belgium, holland, hungary and other countries." [ ] the churches in three countries rendered financial aid: first and foremost switzerland, but also sweden and the united states. "switzerland donated sw. fr. , in ; the united states donated only sw. fr. , and sweden sw. fr. , . the united states soon realized the importance of the aid to refugees and in the following year the churches in the united states donated sw. fr. , and later sw. fr. , . obviously they really did understand the significance of this work. i think that this was also due to the fact that dr. cavert (the then general secretary of the federal council of the churches of christ in the u.s.a.) visited us. later on i myself went to the united states and was able to explain to them the importance of the matter." [ ] < > when, in the summer of , lava began to hand over the jews of the unoccupied area of france to the germans, members of the french protestant youth organization cimade brought many refugees to the swiss frontier. switzerland, however, was not willing to grant asylum to them. the ecumenical commission for refugees, "closely co-operating with other organizations", succeeded in assuring the admission of "many hundreds" of these refugees. [ ] another endeavour to save lives failed. the committee had, with the help of american christians, succeeded in obtaining entrance visas into the united states for , jewish children from france, but the occupation of southern france by the germans foiled this plan. [ ] dr. visser 't hooft was personally active in an "illegal" organization which helped dutch jews to pass through france to switzerland. he helped its leader, jean weidner, with money from a collection for this purpose amongst dutchmen living in switzerland. [ ] the former secretary of the jewish committee of coordination in switzerland, mr. h. h. gans, relates the following incident as regarding to the granting of passports and certificates of citizenship granted by south-american governments to jews in french concentration camps: "...we had declared... that the beneficiaries would not try to use their new 'citizenship' after the war. but probably owing to their fear of an invasion of new citizens after the war, some countries dared not postpone the nullification until after the war... the spanish ambassador immediately passed on this fatal message (to the germans) and 'south-americans' were deported from vitel. the world congress informed me at night. consternation was great. < > i contacted dr. t. lewenstein [the then chief-rabbi of zurich and dr. visser 't hooft. together we sent a telegram to the queen. there was an immediate reaction: her majesty's ambassador at buenos aires was ordered to intervene. very shortly after this, an entirely favourable result was obtained." [ ] mr. gans also stated that once he paid a large amount of money on behalf of persons hidden in holland, through the kind offices of dr. visser 't hooft. from holland came the confirmation: "the organization thanks you very much for the money transferred from switzerland." [ ] the testimony of mr. gans also speaks of the matter of sending gift parcels to the jews in concentration camps: "no parcels could have been sent and no other help could have been rendered, if we had not been supported continuously by dr. visser 't hooft, general secretary of the world council of churches, geneva... his contribution to the dutch resistance movement will certainly be described by others. suffice it here to point out the general importance of the presence of such a man in switzerland, and the fact that busy though he was, he never refused to see me whenever i asked for an interview, and that happened almost every day. no detail of our relief work was unimportant to him." [ ] it appears that neither dr. visser 't hooft nor dr. freudenberg were formalistic in their activities. they understood, in contrast to so many in and outside occupied europe, that "illegal" acts were, in those special circumstances, morally justified. thus money was "illegally" transmitted to jews in hiding; and refugees were supported who had entered into switzerland "illegally." what has been said about church leaders in bulgaria, can be applied to dr. visser 't hooft and dr. freudenberg: they were gravely concerned, and thus they were available whenever their help was requested. in june, , the ecumenical commission for aid to refugees published the following statement: < > the fate of the jews in hungary "the ecumenical commission for refugees exists in order to give material and spiritual aid to refugees of all faiths. its main task is therefore to relieve the suffering of the refugees rather than to protest against the treatment meted out to them. but there are situations in which the only aid we can give is in the form of a solemn and public protest. to-day this is the case. trustworthy reports state that so far some four hundred thousand hungarian jews are deported in inhuman conditions and, in so far as they have not died on the way, brought to the camp of auschwitz in upper silesia where, during the past two years, many hundreds of thousands of jews have been systematically put to death. christians cannot remain silent before this crime. we appeal to our hungarian christian brethren to raise their voice with us to do all they can to stop this horrible sin. we appeal to christians of all countries to unite in prayer that god may have mercy on the people of israel." [ ] territories in which the churches remained silent the heading of this chapter must be regarded with some reservation, firstly because i may have failed to find statements which were issued, and secondly because even the admission by a church that it did not speak out, cannot always be trusted. in fact, i have in my possession a letter from the official representative of an important church in europe, stating that his church had not publicly protested against the persecution of jews; yet later on much material was found proving that it had done so. it is notable that the churches which, as far as we know, kept silent, were minority churches, with the exception of the lutheran church of finland which was, however, not directly confronted with the challenge of the persecution of the jews. a. austria < > on march , , german troops entered austria; it was then absorbed by the german reich. the jews in austria were subjected to all the horrors which the jews in germany suffered. the legend that austria was the first victim of hitlerian aggression, to which official endorsement was given by the victorious allies, is slow to die. in fact, the people in austria were more national-socialist than in germany proper: the frenzy with which the "aggressor" hitler was received by the viennese is proof enough of this. many of the leaders of the third reich were austrians, as for instance seyss-inquart, kaltenbrunner, globocnik and rauter. hitler himself originally came from austria. little is known about the attitude of the protestants in austria with respect to anti-semitism during the war. [ ] in , the general synod of the lutheran church adopted a "message to the congregations on jews and christians". the message stated that: "...unfortunately, however, the christian conscience of our people has not been strong enough to withstand a hatred based on racial differences. this is an alarming sign of the demonic powers of darkness to which we have been exposed and which have not been sufficiently resisted by our church. because the church was entrusted with the word of reconciliation and the message of peace, its guilt is much greater than that of all other groups. we must acknowledge and confess this guilt. the miracle of god's forgiveness makes our repentance possible..." [ ] b. belgium professor w. lutjeharms, who teaches church history at brussels, communicated to me why, in his view, the protestant churches did not publicly protest against the persecution of the jews during the war. part of the reasons he advances are, in my opinion, also applicable to minority churches in other lands. < > . the protestants comprise less than half percent of the total population. . the protestants nowhere formed a sufficiently concentrated group among the population. . the protestants in those days had very few representatives in cultural and political circles. . the protestant voice was not heard outside its own group before ; hardly at all over the radio and certainly not through daily newspapers. . the protestant churches represented a distinctly foreign flavour: many pastors and members were foreigners. . an official public protest would neither have impressed the authorities nor the population. the protestants could only act effectively on the personal level. in this respect pastors as well as lay members time and again risked their lives, to help jews as much as they could. there remains the question, why the small protestant churches in belgium undertook official and public steps in , and not, for instance, in the years and . it is possible that such steps were undertaken, but that they were not sufficiently published, and thus forgotten (cf. above, point ). at least , jews were deported from belgium. individual protestants have rescued jews [ ] but these activities are outside the scope of our subject. c. the protectorate czechoslovakia was deprived of sudetenland in the munich pact of september , . on march , , slovakia declared its independence. on march , , german forces occupied prague; czechia as the protectorate of bohemia and moravia became part of the german reich. < > an estimated number of , jews were deported, and perished. apparently no church in bohemia-moravia publicly protested. it is true, of course, that there hardly was any address to which they could send a protest, except the government in berlin which would probably have paid even less attention than it paid to the protests of the "confessing church", the members of which were germans and not czechs. however, a public protest, read out from the pulpits, could have stirred up the members of the czech churches and would have encouraged them to help the jews. in a letter to me, dated november , , it was stated by dr. viktor hhjek, chairman of the synod of the evangelical church of czech brethren: "individual members of our church have tried to help jewish families in different ways and have indeed helped them. this has always been dangerous, and the persons involved suffered often from the german occupying force. but the pressure of this force was so heavy that it was out of the question to undertake anything publicly and officially." [ ] the synod of the evangelical church of the czech brethren recognized, in , that "our church did not have enough courage or power to withstand the fury of the enemies of christ directed against the jews." [ ] d. poland < > the atrocities committed against the jews in poland are beyond description. at the end of , , , jews lived in poland; of these , , were murdered. [ ] moreover, most of the jews arrested by the germans, in other occupied countries and in the german reich itself, were deported to poland and perished there. thus it was in poland that the vast majority of the six million was murdered. there is little to relate about the reactions of the non-catholic churches in poland; there hardly exist such churches at all. i received two replies to my circular letter; the first is from dr. andrzej wantula, bishop of the evangelical lutheran church. i quote the following from his letter: "during the war, our church was liquidated by the germans and the majority of the pastors imprisoned, the remainder working in a newly founded german church. our church, therefore, could not carry out any activities. individual pastors privately have helped the jews. i myself, in my former parish, have tried to relieve the position of the jews and partly succeeded in this. these, however, are individual cases, which are outside the scope of your interest." the second reply came from the executive of the small "polish-catholic church". [ ] i quote the following: "our polish-catholic church was exposed to many persecutions, under the national-socialist domination during the second world war. however, we protested many times, against the persecution of the jews, also publicly whenever this was possible. in addition to material help, we provided the persecuted jews with baptismal certificates, enabling them to obtain ration cards and identity cards. in this way they were protected from further persecution. we cannot, unfortunately, send you any proofs, e.g. documents, letters or photostats concerning our activities, as all the material was destroyed during the war." it is difficult for me to believe that the polish-catholic church has "protested many times and publicly", if one is to understand that these protests were made in writing, and officially sent to the german authorities. but perhaps pastors of this church expressed their protest in their sermons, and if this is so, it was at least something, especially in poland. < > the activities and attitude of the head of the greek-catholic church in galicia, the metropolitan andrew sheptitsky, whose church is united with rome, is outside the scope of our subject and is thus not related here. [ ] e. finland finland refused to give up her , jews. "we are an honest people," declared witting, the finnish foreign minister. "we would much rather die with the jews than give them up." [ ] i received the following reply to my circular letter: "...finland was never actually occupied by the german army, with the exception of the northern region... finland remained a sovereign country and it was, as far as i know, the only country within the german sphere of influence where jews were protected against german claims. it seems to be very difficult to ascertain whether the church had any direct involvement in this. it must remain, therefore, more or less an academic question, since nothing actually happened, in spite of the hesitation of the government during some critical days." [ ] f. italy there are hardly any non-roman catholic churches in italy. best-known is the waldensian church. the waldenses themselves have been severely persecuted throughout the centuries. the right of free worship was granted to them by the constitution of . this "pre-reformation protestant community" has , members. official declarations against anti-semitism of such a small minority church could hardly expected, though the majority of the waldenses had been strongly anti-fascist. [ ] < > g. russia the orthodox church was the established church in russia, until . under the communist regime many church leaders were imprisoned or murdered; many church buildings were closed, some turned into museums. the constitution of allows the church freedom of worship, but not of propaganda. printing of bibles was not permitted. anti-religious propaganda, however, was systematically carried out. in the wake of the german invasion (june, ), the patriarch of moscow declared himself loyal to the russian cause and to the soviet government. anti-religious measures were relaxed to some degree. as far as we know, no public declaration against anti-semitism was issued by the orthodox church, nor by any of the smaller christian communities in russia. [ ] it is estimated that , , jews perished in the nazi- occupied part of russia. in conclusion i have tried to give the answers to some questions related to our subject, but there remain many unanswered questions. it is beyond the scope of this investigation, to analyse the influence of luther's attitude towards the jews upon the german protestants. suffice it to say, that many anti-semites quoted from luther's brochure "concerning the jews and their lies" ( ), and not from his earlier: "jesus was born a jew". ( ) the anti-jewish sermons of st. chrysostom, preached at constantinople at about the turn of the th century, are well-known. we have not investigated as to how far these sermons had an influence upon the eastern churches in our time. < > another question: what exactly was the influence of the lutheran conception of the "two dominions" through which god rules this world (the spiritual one, or the church, and the secular one, or the "worldly authorities") on the attitude of the lutheran churches towards the persecuted jews? why did the lutheran churches in denmark, norway, slovakia and sweden denounce anti- semitism whilst the record of the lutheran churches in america is poor in this respect? the people, according to luther, have not the right to resist the authorities; only princes have. was there a notable difference between the lutheran churches and the churches of calvinist origin regarding their attitude towards the "ungodly government" of hitler in the th century, just as such a difference is said to have existed in the th century? what about possible differences between continental and anglo-saxon protestants regarding their theological conception of the jews, between protestant churches in the west and orthodox churches in eastern europe, between non-roman catholic churches and the church of rome? how far did the conception of st. paul about the people of israel, as expounded in romans - , encourage the churches to stand up for the jews, or how far did the opinion that the church has "replaced" israel as the people of the covenant, prevent churches from taking action? we have hardly touched on practical questions such as the dilemma of whether "to speak or to save" ("reden oder retten"). it would be easy to make up a much longer list of unanswered questions, but it is difficult to establish facts even though they happened in our lifetime, and it is even more difficult to interpret them correctly. i can only hope that the documentation provided by this book will stimulate others to further study and investigation. i hope that i have succeeded to some extent in showing how complicated the situation was, and how careful we ought to be if we try to answer the question, how far christian leaders and churches fulfilled or failed to fulfil, the commandment which they profess to consider divine: "thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself". < > however, i do not suggest that to understand all is to pardon all. to me, dr. visser 't hooft's conclusion seems to be well-balanced: "we may conclude this section by pointing out that while many christians failed in their duty to resist in word and deed the inhuman racialism of national socialism, there were a not inconsiderable number of church leaders and simple church members who rendered a clear witness to the reality of the christian faith. the christians who were involved in the struggle know better than anyone how often the churches and they themselves failed to do what ought have to be done. thus the churches in germany spoke not only for themselves, but for others who had been in a similar situation when after the war they confessed publicly their sense of guilt in this respect." [ ] it is difficult to draw conclusions. mostly generalizations are dangerous. i myself have the impression that public opinion tends to overrate the practical help rendered by individual christians. only a minority of professing christians willingly risked their lives in order to help and save their jewish neighbours. the bible condemns such a lack of self-sacrificing love. when, however, human beings judge, particularly if they are people who themselves did not have to undergo the test, they should remember the jewish saying: "judge not thy neighbour until thou art come in his situation." [ ] on the other hand, public opinion possibly tends to underestimate the official activities of churches against anti-semitism, because they are not generally known. the attitude of the churches with regard to the persecution of jews under hitler's reign of terror was far from uniform. the picture is neither completely black, nor purely white. white and black are mingled. thus the name chosen for this publication is "the grey book". the darkness of the holocaust was so great that one can hardly comprehend it. it is understandable that there are people who tend to ignore the lights that were so small, far too small. but "the greater the darkness, the brighter the light, be it no more than that of a small candle." [ ] < > in cases where church leaders or individual christians did risk their lives, they should remember the words of their lord: "is the master grateful to the servant for carrying out his orders? so with you: when you have carried out your orders, you should say, 'we are servants and deserve no credit; we have only done our duty'."(luke , - ). on march , , the archbishop of canterbury declared in the house of lords: "we stand at the bar of history, of humanity and of god". it is appropriate to conclude this book with the words of ecclesiastes ( , - ): "let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: fear god, and keep his commandments: for this is the whole duty of man. for god shall bring every work into judgment, with every secret thing, whether it be good, or whether it be evil." < > appendix i declarations against anti-semitism issued after the second world war much has been spoken against anti-semitism by non-roman catholic churches and church leaders, after the second world war. we only mention the most important declarations and statements. on april , , the national brethren council (reichsbruderrat) of the evangelical church in germany, meeting at darmstadt, issued the following "message concerning the jewish question". "...it may rightly be said that after what has happened, after all that we allowed to happen in silence, we have no authority to speak now. we are distressed about what happened in the past, and about the fact that we did not make any joint statement about it. we have not forgotten that a number of pastors and churches did speak out, and suffered for doing so; we thank god for it, and we thank them. we thank all who, in our own country and abroad, have helped us with old and new insights into the word of god, and who have taken action by setting up warning signs. today when retribution is meted out to us for what we did to the jews, there is increasing danger that we may take refuge from god's judgment in a new way of anti-semitism, thus conjuring up all the old evils once again. in this perilous situation and amid this temptation god's word speaks to us and helps us to find the right attitude to the jews. it is under pressure of this word that we speak, because we are filled with anxiety about the future and burdened by the past, and because we feel obliged to express our gratitude to all those individual people who spoke out, took action and suffered doing so... it was a disastrous mistake when the churches of our time adopted the secular attitude of mere humanity, emancipation and anti-semitism towards the jewish question. there was bound to be a bitter retribution for the fact that anti-semitism rose and flourished not only among the people (who still seemed to be a christian nation), not only among the intelligentsia, and in governmental and military circles, but also among christian leaders. < > and when finally this radical anti-semitism, based on racial hatred, destroyed our nation and our churches from within, and released all its brutal force from without, there existed no power to resist it - because the churches had forgotten what israel really is, and no longer loved the jews. christian circles washed their hands of all responsibility, justifying themselves by saying that there was a curse on the jewish people. christians no longer believed that the promise concerning the jews still held good; they no longer preached it, nor showed it in their attitude to the jews. in this way we christians helped to bring about all the injustice and suffering inflicted upon the jews in our country. this is what the word of god teaches us, so that we recognize with shame and grief what a great wrong we have done to israel, and how deep our guilt is. as a church we have failed to be the witness of salvation for israel. now we have to face the judgments of god which are coming upon us one after the other, so that we may bow beneath the mighty hand of god in sincere repentance, both as a church and as a nation..." [ ] on april , , the synod of the evangelical church in germany, meeting at berlin-weissensee, issued a "message of guilt towards israel", from which we quote the following: "...we declare that by dereliction of duty and in keeping silent we also are guilty of the crimes committed by people of our nation towards the jews... we pray all christians to rid themselves of all anti-semitism whatsoever, to resist it earnestly where it raises its head again, and to meet jews and jewish christians in a brotherly spirit. we pray the christian congregations, to care for jewish cemeteries in their territory if nobody is in charge of them." [ ] on january , , the executive of the united evangelical church of germany issued the following declaration: "the executive of the united evangelical lutheran church of germany most sharply condemns the expressions of anti-semitism which have stirred the public in the last weeks. moral condemnation of the crimes committed by germans against the jews cannot be evaded, though it is difficult to explain the motives of this wave (of anti-semitism) which encompasses many lands. the reaction of the public must not be limited to declarations of sympathy towards jewish fellow citizens but must aim at uncovering their own failures. it is especially important, to break the silence which frequently is maintained here between the older and younger generation, and to help our young people to come to their own clear judgment of the history of the third reich and what led up to it." [ ] < > on february , , the synod of the evangelical church in germany, meeting at berlin-spandau, published the following resolution, after the synagogue of cologne was daubed with swastikas: "the fact that the honour of our jewish neighbours has been offended, fills us with horror and shame. we express our solidarity with those who have been offended and insulted... we are guilty towards youth, to whom we have failed to teach and to bear the witness we owe them. it is not surprising, therefore, that the evil spirit increases its influence, again and again, among our youth. however, anew we must realize and attest: the hatred of the jews which breaks out, again and again, is public godlessness... therefore, let parents and educators break the widely-spread, painful silence, in our country about co-responsibility for the fate of the jews. let them resist everything that seduces the young generation into hatred of the jews... therefore, stand up for the payment of reparations. keep in mind, however, that true repentance is more essential than financial compensation, which only can mean little to people who lost most of their relatives by acts of violence... therefore, pray for god's peace upon israel. pray for the peace of israel amongst the nations, on the borders of its state and amongst us." [ ] during the trial of eichmann, the synod of the evangelical church in germany stated (berlin-spandau, febr. , ): "...all surviving germans who at the age of discrimination witnessed the atrocities of the annihilation of the jews, and even those who helped their jewish compatriots under oppression, must confess before god, to have become accessories to the deeds by lack of alert and self-denying love..." [ ] after several years of discussion on the subject of the relationship of the church to the jewish people, the th german evangelical kirchentag, , set aside one work-group to deal specifically with this subject. work-group vi of the kirchentag produced the statement which follows, and it was adopted as the official report of the assembly: < > "jews and christians are insolubly linked with each other. the denial of this link brought forth the hostility to jews within christendom. it became one of the main causes of the persecution of jewry. jesus of nazareth is betrayed wherever members of the jewish people among whom he was born are despised as jews. every hostility towards jews is godlessness and leads to self-destruction. the present trial in jerusalem concerns us all. we evangelical christians in germany recognise that we are involved in it by reason of our guilt. because of the need for fresh thought and conversion, we call upon the german public to make the following points their own: . parents and educators should break their silence when meeting the young generation. they should confess their own failure and bring to light the origins of the crimes so that we all may learn how to face the present together. in the present world political situation, throwing off our own failure onto others must threaten not only one section of mankind but all life. . the inhumanity of compulsory systems of command where men can argue that criminal orders must be obeyed, is calculated to warn us against the inhuman potentialities of the modern organisation of state and society. we must be ready to take upon us political responsibility even in spite of risks. those who were concerned in the preparation and implementation of persecution should resign from high office. . where jews live amongst us, it is our duty to promote their well-being as best as we can. likewise everything must be done by us germans which serves the reconstruction and peace of the state of israel and its arab neighbours. compensation claims by victims of racial persecution should be settled with special urgency and generosity. the material compensation must be matched by a rebirth of the spirit. in germany, the so-called jewish question is today above all a question concerning the future of the germans. . as against the wrong doctrine preached for centuries that god has cast away the jewish people, we once again affirm the word of the apostle: 'god hath not cast away his people, which he foreknew' (romans , )..." [ ] on march , , the synod of the evangelical church in germany issued the following declaration on the trials of nazi criminals: "...only ignorance can speak of 'soiling one's own nest' when in fact the cleaning of a badly soiled nest is at stake. nor is it in any way profitable to try to hide behind the wrongs committed by other nations against members of our people during the war. the mass murder of jews and other ethnic groups, with which the german name is connected, is not thereby erased... < > even the citizen who had no direct share in the crimes, nay, even he who did not know of them, has a share in the guilt because he was indifferent towards the perversion of all moral standards and all notions of right and wrong among our people. nor can we exempt ourselves and our congregations from this guilt. for where all christians were called upon to uphold the gospel entrusted to us, to make public affirmation of the everlasting dominion of god in all spheres of our lives, and, thus armed, to protect the victims of the regime, especially the jews living amongst us, only few had the insight and the courage to resist. forced into this humiliating position, we cannot pretend to be unconcerned with the trials now pending, nor can we turn our gaze away from the crimes now being revealed. it was the folly of our entire nation, and the omissions of us christians, that enabled those crimes to be perpetrated. there is nothing here that can be condoned, and we must resist all temptations to indulge in self-justification. rather is it our duty to follow the defendants now as they stand before god and his judgment." [ ] in , the evangelical kirchentag of german speaking switzerland adopted the following resolution: "israel and the church belong together. god has chosen them both and formed a covenant with them - first with israel, then with the church. the church has been grafted onto the stem of god's people. hence: if one member suffers, all the other members suffer with it. we confess our guilt with regard to israel, that we swiss people did not suffer with the jews either, thus betraying our fellowship with god's ancient people. our hope rests in the fact that we know our sins are forgiven. but for us forgiveness must mean active repentance. let us make atonement through action. as swiss people and christians let us recognize the following tasks as our next step, and transform them into action: . we urge all christians, both individually and collectively, to take part in assisting the jews and promoting mutual contact and mutual respect. . we regard it as our christian duty to oppose all forms of discrimination against jewish people, and we expect the same attitude from all our fellow-christians. . short, inexpensive instructive booklets are needed as soon as possible, so that christians can remedy their ignorance of jewish history. . we recognize a sub-conscious anti-semitism here in switzerland too, with devastating and far-reaching effects. we urge the church to devote more attention to this question. (parish evenings, evenings for parents, evenings for mothers, instruction to religious teachers, training of religious teachers). . the intercession for israel, which exists in most liturgies, should be made an integral part of the worship-service." [ ] < > on february , , the archbishop of sweden sent a circular letter to the ministers of the diocese, from which we quote the following: 'on various occasions accusations have been made against the church of sweden for anti-semitism. this is especially directed towards the way in which the passion-history is created. from abroad many appalling examples are known in which 'the jews' are described as a deicide people, as referring not only to the mob in front of the palace of pilate which wanted jesus to be crucified but to the whole people and the generations after them. in the swedish tradition of preaching and teaching this is completely unaccepted. any feeling of revenge and hatred against romans and jews is repudiated and it is emphasized that it is our own sin which has brought jesus to the cross... the gospel is against all racial and group discrimination. each person shall be judged on his own merits according to what he himself is and does. there is no graduation of the value of man; all are called to be children of god and are therefore our brothers and sisters, and christ died for all. after all, god alone is the judge, but never we ourselves." [ ] on march , , the following statement was issued by the archbishop of canterbury: "it is always wrong when people try to lay blame upon the jews for the crucifixion of jesus christ. in the event the roman governor was no less responsible for what happened. the important fact, however, is that the crucifixion was the clash between the love of god and the sinfulness and selfishness of the whole human race. those who crucified christ are in the true mind of the christian church representatives of the whole human race, and it is for no one to point a finger of resentment at those who brought jesus to his death, but rather to see the crucifixion as the divine judgment upon all humanity for choosing the ways of sin rather than the love of god. we all must see ourselves judged by the crucifixion of christ." [ ] the general assembly of the church of scotland adopted a statement against anti-semitism nearly every year. here follow some examples. < > "the general assembly express their renewed sympathy with the jews in their present circumstances and assure them of the church's friendly interest in all that pertains to their future welfare and in particular commend the active steps, which are being taken to restrain anti-semitism and promote better understanding between christian and jew." [ ] "the general assembly, aware of the growth of anti-semitic feeling, condemn anew this attitude as un-christian and contrary to the mind of our lord; call upon their faithful people to guard against this grave danger; assure the jewish people of their deep sympathy in the present uncertainties and remember especially the many jews in the displaced persons camps in europe still awaiting some scheme for their settlement in other lands." [ ] "the general assembly view with concern the renewed outbreaks of anti-semitism in various countries, renew their condemnation of this evil thing and call upon their faithful people to be on the alert to oppose any signs of it in this country." [ ] "the general assembly express their concern that the threats of annihilation directed against the state of israel still continue. they express profound sympathy with the state of israel in the crisis with which she is confronted and earnestly hope that the united nations will now direct all possible efforts towards a just and lasting settlement between israel and the arab states, so that israel's future will no longer be in jeopardy." [ ] "the general assembly, in view of the horrors recalled by the eichmann trial, remind the church - especially the youth of the church - of the deadly danger of anti-semitism, which has in the past so cruelly wounded the brotherhood of the human family." [ ] many protestant churches in the united states publicly registered their opposition to anti-semitism. we only quote the following resolution, adopted by the national council of churches of christ in the united states of america, on june , : "the general board of the national council of the churches of christ in the u.s.a., recognizing the ever-present danger of anti-semitism, renews the call to the churches and the community to recognize (in the words of the first assembly of the world council of churches) 'anti-semitism, no matter what its origin, as absolutely irreconcilable with the profession and practice of the christian faith'. < > the spiritual heritage of jews and christians should draw us to each other in obedience to the one father and in continuing dialogue; the historic schism in our relations carries with it the need for constant vigilance lest dialogue deteriorate into conflict. we confess that sometimes as christians we have given away to anti-semitism. we have even used the events of the crucifixion to condemn the jewish people, whereas (in the words of the third assembly of the world council of churches) 'the historic events which led to the crucifixion should not be presented as to fasten upon the jewish people of today responsibilities which belong to our corporate humanity and not to one race or community'. the general board urges that the members of its constituent communions seek that true dialogue with the religious bodies of the jewish community through which differences in faith can be explored within the mutual life of the one family of god - separated, but seeking from god the gift of renewed unity - knowing that in the meantime god can help us to find our god-given unity in the common service of human need." [ ] in , the world council of churches held its first assembly, at amsterdam. churches in forty-four countries were represented by official delegates. a report on "the christian approach to the jews" was heard by assembly, and its deliberations were commended to all member churches "for their serious consideration and appropriate action". we quote the following: introduction ... we cannot forget that we meet in a land from which , jews were taken to be murdered. nor can we forget that we meet only five years after the extermination of million jews. to the jews our god has bound us in a special solidarity linking our destinies together in his design. we call upon all our churches to make this concern their own as we share with them the results of our too brief wrestling with it."... . barriers to be overcome "...we must acknowledge in all humility that too often we have failed to manifest christian love towards our jewish neighbours, or even a resolute will for common social justice. we have failed to fight with all our strength the age-old disorder of man which anti-semitism represents. < > the churches in the past have helped to foster an image of the jews as the sole enemies of christ, which has contributed to anti-semitism in the secular world. in many lands virulent anti-semitism still threatens and in other lands the jews are subjected to many indignities. we call upon all the churches we represent to denounce anti-semitism, no matter what its origin, as absolutely irreconcilable with the profession and practice of the christian faith. anti-semitism is sin against god and man...". [ ] in , the world council of churches held its third assembly, at new delhi. churches were represented by more than a thousand official participants. the following resolution on anti-semitism was adopted: "the third assembly recalls the following words which were addressed to the churches by the first assembly of the world council of churches in : 'we call upon all the churches we represent to denounce anti-semitism, no matter what its origin, as absolutely irreconcilable with the profession and practice of the christian faith. anti-semitism is sin against god and man. only as we give convincing evidence to our jewish neighbours that we seek for them the common rights and dignities which god wills for his children, can we come to such a meeting with them as would make it possible to share with them the best which god has given us in christ.' the assembly renews this plea in view of the fact that situations continue to exist in which the jews are subject to discrimination and even persecution. the assembly urges its member churches to do all in their power to resist every form of anti-semitism. in christian teaching the historic events which led to the crucifixion should not be so represented as to fasten upon the jewish people of today responsibi- lities which belong to our corporate humanity and not to one race or community. jews were the first to accept jesus and jews are not the only ones who do not yet recognize him." [ ] in , a consultation on "the church and the jewish people" under the auspices of the lutheran world federation was held at legumkloster, denmark. the following statement was adopted: iii. the church and anti-semitism < > "anti-semitism is an estrangement of man from his fellowmen. as such it stems from human prejudice and is a denial of the dignity and equality of men. but anti-semitism is primarily a denial of the image of god in the jew; it represents a demonic form of rebellion against the god of abraham, isaac, and jacob; and a rejection of jesus the jew, directed upon his people. 'christian' anti-semitism is spiritual suicide. this phenomenon presents a unique question to the christian church, especially in light of the long terrible history of christian culpability for anti- semitism. no christian can exempt himself from involvement in this guilt. as lutherans, we confess our own peculiar guilt, and we lament with shame the responsibility which our church and her people bear for this sin. we can only ask god's pardon and that of the jewish people. there is no ultimate defeat of anti-semitism short of a return to the living god in the power of his grace and through the forgiveness of jesus christ our lord. at the same time, we must pledge ourselves to work in concert with others at practical measures for overcoming manifestations of this evil within and without the church and for reconciling christians with jews. towards this end, we urge the lutheran world federation and its member churches: . to examine their publications for possible anti-semitic references, and to remove and oppose false generalisations about jews. especially reprehensible are the notions that jews, rather than all mankind, are responsible for the death of jesus christ, and that god has for this reason rejected his covenant people. such examination and reformation must also be directed to pastoral practice and preaching references. this is our simple duty under the commandment common to jews and christians: 'thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour'. . to oppose and work to prevent all national and international manifestations of anti-semitism, and in all our work acknowledge our great debt of gratitude to those jewish people who have been instruments of the holy spirit in giving us the old and new testaments and in bringing into the world jesus christ our lord. . to call upon our congregations and people to know and to love their jewish neighbours as themselves; to fight against discrimination or persecution of jews in their communities; to develop mutual understanding; and to make common cause with the jewish people in matters of spiritual and social concern, especially in fostering human rights..." [ ] an international conference of christians and jews was held at seelisberg, in , and attended by sixty-five persons from nineteen different countries. they adopted the following "address to the churches", which became widely known as "the ten points of seelisberg": < > . remember that one god speaks to us all through the old and the new testaments. . remember that jesus was born of a jewish mother of the seed of david and the people of israel, and that his everlasting love and forgiveness embrace his own people and the whole world. . remember that the first disciples, the apostles, and the first martyrs were jews. . remember that the fundamental commandment of christianity, to love god and one's neighbour, proclaimed already in the old testament and confirmed by jesus, is binding upon both christians and jews in all human relationships, without any exception. . avoid disparaging biblical or post-biblical judaism with the object of extolling christianity. . avoid using the word jews in the exclusive sense of the enemies of jesus, and the words the enemies of jesus to designate the whole jewish people. . avoid presenting the passion in such a way as to bring the odium of the killing of jesus upon jews alone. in fact, it was not all the jews who demanded the death of jesus. it not the jews alone who were responsible, for the cross which saves us all reveals that it is for the sins of us all that christ died. remind all christian parents and teachers of the grave responsibility which they assume, particularly when they present the passion story in a crude manner. by so doing they run the risk of implanting an aversion in the conscious or subconscious minds of their children or hearers, intentionally or unintentionally. psychologically speaking, in the case of simple minds, moved by a passionate love and compassion for the crucified saviour, the horror which they feel quite naturally towards the persecutors of jesus will easily be turned into an undiscriminating hatred of the jews of all times, including those of our days. . avoid referring to the scriptural curses, or the cry of a raging mob: his blood be upon us and upon our children, without remembering that this cry should not count against the infinitely more weighty words of our lord: father, forgive them, for they do not know what they do. . avoid promoting the superstitious notion that the jewish people is reprobate, accursed, reserved for a destiny of suffering. . avoid speaking of the jews as if the first members of the church had not been jews. [ ] < > appendix ii some particulars about the churches mentioned [ ] austria the protestant churches in austria are minority churches. the (lutheran) evangelical church of the augsburg confession has , members; the reformed church of austria has , baptized members. belgium the protestant churches in belgium are minority churches, together comprising less than half percent of the population. the total number is less than , . bulgaria the orthodox church in bulgaria claims a number of six million members, being the vast majority of the population. there is no other christian community of any numerical importance in bulgaria. < > czechoslovakia the largest non-roman catholic churches in bohemia and moravia are: the evangelical church of czech brethren ( , baptized members), the czechoslovak church, and the evangelical church of the augsburg confession in silesia ( , members). there are two protestant churches in slovakia: the reformed church of slovakia ( , baptized members) and the evangelical (lutheran) church in slovakia ( , members). denmark the vast majority of the people of denmark belong to the lutheran church, which has , , members. finland the vast majority of the population of finland belongs to the finnish evangelical lutheran church, which has , , members. france the protestants in france are a small minority, numbering altogether not more than , souls. members of the protestant federation of france are: the reformed church of france ( , ), the reformed church of alsace and lorraine ( , ), the lutheran church of alsace and lorraine ( , ) and the evangelical lutheran church of france ( , ). germany the vast majority of the protestants of germany belonged to one of the landeskirchen (lutheran, reformed or uniate), of which the largest was the church of the old prussian union, with million members. in all, there were forty-five million germans who were, nominally at least, members of the protestant church. great britain and ireland the main non-roman catholic churches in england are: the church of england, claiming , , members and million adherents ( ); the methodist church ( , members and , , adherents in ); the congregational union of england and wales ( , members in ); the baptist union of great britain and ireland ( , members in ) and the presbyterian church of england, having , communicants. < > there are four free presbyterian churches in scotland, as well as baptist, episcopal, congregational and methodist churches. the church of scotland is by far the largest church, having , , communicants. the political partition of ireland did not divide any of the churches. most of the non-roman catholic churches were represented in the united council of christian churches in ireland. the (episcopalian) church of ireland has , members. the presbyterian church in ireland has , communicants and , baptized members. the methodist church has approximately , communicants and , baptized members. greece the vast majority of the population of greece belongs to the (orthodox) church of greece, which has an estimated , , members. hungary according to the census, there were in hungary , , catholics, , , calvinists (reformed church of hungary), and , lutherans (hungarian evangelical church). italy the waldensian church has , members. other non-roman catholic communities are the methodist and baptist churches. their total membership amounts to about , per cent of the population. the netherlands the dutch reformed church has , , baptized members. the reformed churches in the netherlands had , members in . the evangelical lutheran church has , members. the other churches mentioned are of about the same size, or smaller. < > norway the (lutheran) church of norway has , , members, being , per cent of the population. poland out of a population of , , there are a , protestants. , of them belong to the evangelical lutheran church in poland. smaller communities are the evangelical-reformed church ( , members); the baptist church ( , members) and the united gospel church ( , members). rumania the vast majority of the population of rumania belongs to the rumanian orthodox church, which has an estimated , , members. the reformed church of rumania is the church of the hungarian national minority; it has , baptized members. the evangelical church of the augsburg confession is mainly the church of german immigrants; it has , members. russia before , the orthodox church of russia claimed a membership of , , . estimates about the present situation - "perhaps - , , " - are unreliable. smaller communities are the union of evangelical christian baptists of u.s.s.r. and the lutheran churches in former estonia ( , ), latvia ( , ), and lithuania ( , ). sweden the vast majority of the population of sweden belongs to the (lutheran) church of sweden, which claims , , members. switzerland the protestant churches of switzerland are cantonal churches, distinct and independent from one another. in most of the cantonal churches, the legislative body is the synod and the executive organ the synodal council. < > the federation of the protestant churches of switzerland at first consisted only of national churches, but it soon admitted the free evangelical churches, the methodist church and the "evangelische gemeinschaft". the federation has , , baptized members. the united states the following are some of the greatest churches affiliated to the federal council of churches of christ in america in the year with their membership for the years ending in - . northern baptist convention , , national baptist convention , , congregational christian churches , , disciples of christ , , protestant episcopal church , , united lutheran church (consultative) , , the methodist church , , presbyterian church in the u.s.a. , , the total membership was , , the federal council of churches united with other national inter- denominational organizations, to form the national council of churches, in . its member churches have a total membership of about million persons. the most important protestant denominations which are not members of the national council of churches are: southern baptist convention (present membership , , ); the lutheran church-missouri synod (present membership , , ); the american lutheran church (present membership , , ). yugoslavia the greatest non-roman catholic church is the serbian orthodox church which has about , , members. other churches are: the reformed christian church of yugoslavia ( , members) and the slovak evangelical church of the augsburg confession in yugoslavia. the world council of churches < > the world council of churches is a fellowship of more than churches of protestant, anglican, orthodox and old catholic confessions. it includes in its membership churches in more than countries. in , the orthodox church of russia also joined the world council of churches. a number of large churches, however, are not world council members. these include the roman catholic church, the southern baptist convention (u.s.a.), the lutheran church - missouri synod, and the majority of pentecostal churches. many of these churches regularly send observers to the world council meetings and there were five roman catholic observers at the world council's third assembly at new delhi in . < > bibliography reference works braham, randolph l. the hungarian jewish catastrophe: a selected and annotated bibliography. new york, . diehn, otto. bibliographie zur geschichte des kirchenkampfes, - . goettingen, ; 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"conversation entre le dr. visser 't hooft, le dr. freudenberg et le dr. barot, concernant les activites cimade-wcc pendant la guerre". dec. , . archives of the world council of churches, geneva; mimeographed; in french. dagens nyheter (swedish daily). the ecumenical review. a quarterly published by the world council of churches, geneva. federal council bulletin. monthly of the federal council of churches of christ in the u.s.a. glasgow herald. hervormd nederland (dutch protestant weekly). international christian press & information service (i.c.p.i.s.), bulletin published by the world council of churches, geneva. the interpreter (quarterly published by the london diocesan council for christian-jewish understanding). the jewish chronicle (weekly), london. the jewish review, new york. kristen gemenskap (swedish protestant magazine). the life of faith (protestant weekly), london. liverpool post. manchester guardian. narodno delo (newspaper), sofia. the new york herald tribune. < > the new york times. quarterly newsletter from the world council of churches' committee on the church and the jewish people; geneva. "rapport van de commissie van onderzoek inzake het verstrekken van pakketten door het rode kruis en andere instanties aan nederlandse politieke gevangenen in het buitenland gedurende de bezettingstijd alsmede inzake het evacueren van nederlandse gevangenen kort voor en na het einde van de oorlog" ('s-gravenhage, ; in dutch). reformiertes kirchenblatt fur osterreich (protestant monthly), vienna. reports and recommandations of the international conference of christians and jews, seelisberg, . (london, ). schweiz. evang. pressedienst (e.p.d.), protestant bulletin, zurich. "schweiz. sammlung fur die fluechtlingshilfe, oct. nov. "; report published by the "schweiz. zentralstelle fur fluchtlingshilfe". the spiritual issues of the war, bulletin published by the religious division of the ministry of information, london. de standaard (dutch protestant daily), amsterdam. the times, london. de waarheid (dutch communist daily), amsterdam. the wiener library bulletin, london. yad vashem bulletin, jerusalem. yad vashem studies, jerusalem. de zwarte soldaat (dutch nazi paper). < > footnotes for the grey book by johan m. snoek ============================================= page i the struggle of the dutch church for the maintenance of the commandments of god in the life of the state, documents collected and edited by w.a. visser 't hooft, london, , p. (henceforth: visser 't hooft). page ii kirche im kampf, dokumente des widerstandes und des aufbaus der evangelischen kirche in deutschland von bis , herausgegeben von h. hermelink, tubingen-stuttgart, , p. ff. on the historiographical use of the term "political messianism" in this context, cf. j.l. talmon, the unique and the universal - some historical reflections, london , chap. iv: mission and testimony - the universal significance of modem anti-semitism, p. ff. page iii kirchliches jahrbuch fur die evangelische kirche in deutschland - , hrsg. von joachim beckmann, gutersloh , p. f., quoted according to: der nationalsozialismus, dokumente - , herausgegeben, eingeleitet und dargestellt von walther hofer, frankfurt a/m, (henceforth: hofer), p. . visser 't hooft, pp. , - . this reference to the first of the ten commandments by the church in its struggle against the totalitarian and pseudo-messianic character of the nazi regime already appeared in: wort der bekenntnissynode der evangelischen kirche der altpreussischen union an die gemeinden, / march in berlin-dahlem; par. : the first commandment reads: 'i am the lord god. thou shalt have no other gods besides me. 'we obey this commandment alone having faith in jesus christ who was crucified and resurrected for us. the new religion is a revolt against the first commandment." cf. hofer, p. . page v visser 't hooft, p. . page vi heinrich schmidt, apokalyptisches wetterleuchten, ein beitrag der evangelischen kirche zum kampf im 'dritten reich', munchen, , p. . this source also appears in: friedrich zipfel, kirchenkampf in deutschland - - religionsverfolgung und selbstbehauptung der kirchen in der national-sozialistischen zeit, berlin i , p. . hofer, p. . on the origin of the term: "metapolitics" cf. constantin frantz: "offener brief an richard wagner", bayreuther blaetter, jahrgang , no. (june ), op. . cf.: peter viereck, metapolitics - the roots of the nazi mind, n.y. ( ), p. . visser 't hooft, p. . page vii see in this volume pp. - . cf. visser 't hooft, p. . page viii these sources of modem anti-semitism have recently been treated in: shmuel ettinger, "the critique of judaism in the teachings of the 'young hegelians' as one of the roots of modem anti-semitism", lecture given at the academia scientiarum israelitica, jerusalem, (in press, hebrew). ibid: "the roots of modern anti-semitism", (hebrew) molad, jerusalem, new series vol. (xxv), no. ( ) jan.-march, , p. ff. on the theoretical relationship between theological criticism and racial theory, cf. nathan rotenstreich, judaism and jewish rights, (hebrew), tel-aviv, , chaps, , , , . ibid. "for and against emancipation: the bruno bauer controversy", in leo beck institute, year book iv, london, , p. ff. cf. also: eleonore sterling, er ist wie du - aus der fruehgeschichte des anti-semitismus in deutschland ( - ), munchen , pp. for sources on modern anti-semitism in the critique of positivistic religion by the deists and rationalists in france, cf. arthur hertzberg, the french enlightenment and the jews, n.y.-phil. , pp. ludwig feuerbach, das wesen der religion, dreissig vorlesungen, ( ), dritte vorlesung, leipzig, , p. . page ix friedrich nietzsche, gesammelte werke, gesamtausgabe, kroner, leipzig, vol. vii, p. : ... das christenthum ist ein aufstand alles am-boden-kriechenden gegen das, was hoehe hat; das evangelium der niedrigen macht niedrig...". alexander bein, der moderne anti-semitismus und seine bedeutung fur die judenfrage, vierteljahreshefte fur zeitgeschichte, stuttgart, , pp. / . moritz freystadt, der christenspiegel von anti-marr, ein offenes sendeschreiben an die modernen judenfeinde, e anlage, koenigsberg , pp. , , , , . page x wilhelm marr, streifzuege durch das koncilium von trient - voltaire frei nach erzaehlt, hamburg, otto meissner verlag, , pp. / . in this work marr emphasizes the fact that the criticism of christianity was for the most part directed against the catholics who were called by the spokesmen of german nationalism in the period of bismarck 'ultramontanists.' at the same time he claims: "we... reject christianity as well as judaism... we reject... all religions...". cf. p. . marr, like most of the fathers of antisemitic ideology, is not consistent in his antisemitic arguments or in his anti-christian motives. different views are held at different times, and contradictory views are expressed at the same time. thus, marr sometimes does not oppose christianity but seems to be a proponent of "practical christianity" with an eye to the social policy of bismarck in the 's of the last century, or as a proponent of "christian-german realism. thus, we also note an anti-christian sentiment directed not so much against protestantism as against catholicism. the anti-catholic attitude of the fathers of racial anti-semitism was part of the national awakening in the days of the second reich, an awakening that was based to a considerable extent on the tradition of protestant sovereignty. of the many sources of anticatholic anti-semitism from the first days of this movement the propaganda of ottomar beta is typical, as we find in his book which he dedicated to bismarck, "juda-jesuitismus, where, among other things, he says: "the arrogant assumption of infallibility of the jewish descendents in rome is nothing more than an ultramontanist firework to divert the eyes of the germanic peoples from the more ominous capitalistic infallibility of their racial brethren in wordly garb... the source appears in the anti-semitic collection: antisemiten-spiegel - die antisemiten im lichte des christenthums, des rechtes und der moral, danzig, , (a.s. further), p. . page xi walter holsten, adolf stoecker als symptom seiner zeit - anti-semitismus in der evangelischen kirche des e jahrhunderts? the article appears in: christen und juden - ihr gegenueber vom apostel- konzil bis heute, herausgegeben von wolf-dieter marsch und karl thieme, mainz/goettingen , p. ff. on this ambivalent character of anti-semitism, cf. the words of a. stoecker to the german kaiser, . . : "...im ubrigen habe ich in allen meiner reden gegen das judentum offen erklaert, dass ich nicht die juden angreife, sondern nur dies frivole, gottlose, wucherische, betruegerische judenthum, das in der tat das unglueck unseres volkes ist...". this source is found in: dietrich von oertzen, adolf stoecker - lebensbild und zeitgeschichte, berlin , vo . , p. . cf. also: paul w. massing, vorgeschichte des politischen anti-semitismus, frankfurt a/m, , (p. massing: further) p. . page xii adolf stoecker, christlich-sozial; reden und aufsaetze, , p. f. cf. also p. massing, p. / , note . according to the second edition of the addresses and works of a. stoecker of the year , p. massing quotes the entire document which concludes with the words: "... a return to more of germanic law and economic life, a return to christian faith - this will be our slogan." page xiii r. seeberg, reden und aufsaetze von adolf stoecker, leipzig , p. / . cf. also the above essay of walther holsten, p. . above, note , p. . page xiv eugen duhring, wert des lebens, . auflage, , p. : "... paradoxe lehre von der umkehrung oder kreuzigung aller fleischregungen...". eugen doehring, die parteien in der judenfrage, separat-ausgabe von hefte , des ersten bandes der schweitznerischen internationalen monatschrift, leipzig , verlag theodor fritsch, p. ff. page xv a.s. danzig, , p. fl. cf. also: these sources in a pamphlet issued by the "verein zur abwehr des anti-semitismus", which also issued the "antisemitenspiegel. the name of this pamphlet is: "antisemitisches christenthum und christlicher anti-semitismus", flugblatt no , p. / (year not given). the anti-intellectual meaning of this doctrine that seeks to relegate the image of jesus to the mythology of racial anti-semitism was pointed out by several writers already during the second reich. cf. the many publications of the "verein zur abwehr des anti-semitismus," beginning in , and in condensed form: antisemiten-spiegel, berlin- frankfurt a/m, , p. ff. on the historical background of the anti-intellectual character of racial doctrines and on the influence of anti-intellectualism on this interpreta- tion that would transplant jesus from his jewish origin and make him a member of the aryan race, cf.: fritz stern, the politics of cultural despair - a study in the rise of the german ideology, berkeley and los angelos, , pp. / : to divorce christianity and judaism even at this late stage would be a recognition of an unambiguous historical truth and of jesus' own intent...". cf. pp. , , , , , . page xvi + xvii from the journal "hammer", published in: a.s. berlin-frankfurt a/m, , p. . ibid. p. . the anti-christian meaning of modem anti-semitism and its historical sources have recently been noted by salo w. baron in: deutsche und juden, beitraege, etc., frankfurt a/m, , p. / : "...it is unmistakable how the resistance against everything that judaism and christianity stand for has increased since the 's of the th century, and it is no exaggeration to say that this development prepared the ground for the nazi assumption of power...". i have dealt with this question at length in the last chapter of my book, cf. uneital, christians and jews in the second reich ( - ), chap. v: "christian and anti-christian anti-semitism", (hebrew), in press, the magnes press, the hebrew university, jerusalem. on the anti-christian elements in racial anti-semitism, cf. also: edward h. flannery, the anguish of the jews, n.y. london, , p. ff. see also: hermann greive, theologie und ideologie - katholizismus und judentum in deutschland und oesterreich ( - ), heidelberg, . in this book the author stresses that a clear-cut distinction between christian anti-semitism or "kirchlicher anti-judaismus" and racial anti- semitism or "rassenanti-semitismus" is not warranted. his conclusion is: "...dass anti-juedische vorurteile im katholizismus der diskutierten periode auf breitester basis nachgewiesen werden koennen... die anfaenglich vielfach nicht unerhebliche verschiedenheit in der judenfeindlichen argumentation zumindest der tonangebenden kreise in katholizismus und auf voelkisch-antikirchlicher seite wich im laufe der zeit immer weiter reichenden vermittlungstheorien zwischen den sozial, kulturell und religioes orientierten und den voelkisch-rassischen anti-semitismus..."; p. / . a similar conclusion that stresses the direct connection between the theological and historical anti-jewishness of christianity and modem anti-semitism is reached by: a. roy eckardt, elder and younger brothers -the encounter of jews and christians, n.y., , chap. , the enigma, , p. : "there can be little serious doubt that christendom's traditional antipathy to the jews is the major historical root of anti-semitism in the western world. historically speaking, anti-semitism derives from 'the conflict of the church and the synagogue.' here is the crime of christendom. such distinguished and authoritative historians as james parkes and jules isaac have chronicled this fact definitely...". this thesis, about the historical continuation between the anti-jewish attitude in christianity and modern anti-semitism rests not only on the theological attitude of christianity but also on the legal history of the persecution of jews by christians, beginning in the forth century. this is treated by: james parkes, the conflict of the church and the synagogue - a study in the origins of anti-semitism, cleveland, n.y., phil., , appendix i, p. ff. a similar historiographical approach is taken by raul hilberg who has drawn up a comparative list of canonical and nazi .anti-jewish measures, in his book: the destruction of the european jews, chicago, , pp. - . the list also appears in the above mentioned book of a. roy eckhardt, p. - , where he draws the same conclusion, namely, that the nazis "...did not discard the past; they built upon it...". and he adds to this quotation from hilberg: "this fact makes ludicrous any unqualified claim that the nazis were the enemies of christendom." page xviii cf. the works of e. flannery, james parkes, a. roy eckhardt, marsch-thieme; cf. above, and also: karl thieme, der religioese aspekt der judenfeindschaft (judentum und christentum), in: "judentum - schicksal, wesen und gegenwart", hrsg. von franz boehm und walter dirks, unter mitarbeit von walter gottschalk, wiesbaden , vol. ii, p. it. see also: "judenfeindschaft. darstellungen und analysen," hrsg. von karl thieme, frankfurt a/m. hamburg, , ff. cf. especially the work of: ernst ludwig ehrlich, "judenfeindschaft in deutschland von der roemerherrschaft, bis zum zeitalter der totalitaet," p. ff. also: w.p. eckert und e.l. ehrlich, "judenhass - schuld der christen?", essen, , pp. page xix cf. the study of: willehad paul eckert: "beatus simonius - aus den akten des trienter judenprozesses", in the above collection, note , edited by w.p. eckert and by e.l. ehrlich, p. ff; also in the same collection the work of: kurt hruby, verhangnisvolle legenden und ihre bekaempfung, p. ff. page xxi haim hillel ben-sasson, jewish-christian disputation in the setting of humanism and reformation in the german empire, h.t.r., ( ), pp. - . salo w. baron, modern nationalism and religion, n.y., phil. ( ), , ch. v.: protestant individualism, p. ff. cf. especially salo w. baron, medieval heritage and modern realities in protestant-jewish lielations, diogenes spring , no. , p. ff. "der ungekuendigte bund", hrsg. von dietrich goldschmidt und hans joachim kraus, stuttgart, , p. . ibid., p. . page xxii visser 't hooft, pp. / . ibid., p. . page xxiii ibid. a striking and instructive example to such a different approach has been given by the bishops of denmark, in their protest against the persecution of the jews, oct. . see below in this volume, on p. . cf. "the israel digest", x / , jerusalem, , , , p. . a german translation in freiburger rundbrief, vol. xx, , no. - , dec. , pp. / . as to the historical background of this document, cf. leni yahil, test of a democracy - the rescue of danish jewry in world war ii, jerusalem, , pp. , , , . world council of churches - division of studies, commission on faith and order in cooperation with the committee on the church and the jewish people: "the relationship of the church to the jewish people, collection of statements", geneva, july , p. ff. page xxiv ibid., p. - ibid,. p. ibid., p. ibid., p. ibid., p. footnotes from preface ---------------------- page much has been published about the subject of "christian" anti-semitism. some literature: jules isaac, the teaching of contempt (new york, ); james parkes, anti-semitism (quadrangle books, ); malcolm hay, europe and the jews, the pressure of christendom on the people of israel for years (second printing, boston, ; this book was first published as "the foot of pride", in ); karl thieme (ed.), judenfeindschaft (in german; fischer bucherei kg, ); e. flannery, the anguish of the jews (new york, ). page thus a protestant minister from switzerland who now lives in israel, in the jerusahlem post, sept. , . the speaker of the israeli parliament, mr.kadish luz, made a similar statement in the session of the parliament on april , . the yad vashem martyrs and heroes memorial authority, jerusalem, was established by law in , the yad vashem act assigned to "yad vashem" the task "to collect, investigate and publish all evidence regarding the catastrophe and its heroic aspects and to inculcate its lesson upon our people". page cf. dr. leny yahil, historians of the holocaust; a plea for a new approach (in: the wiener library bulletin, / , vol. xxii, pp. - ). dr. visser 't hooft and dr.a.freudenberg, of the world council of churches, are preparing their memoirs. rev. armin boyens is preparing his thesis which will have a chapter on "the confessing church and the jews, - ". cf. eberhard bethge, dietrich bonhoeffer (gesammelte schriften, munich, ; in german), vol. i, p. (introduction). page cf. "la persecution des juifs en allemagne: attitude des eglises chretiennes" (geneva, ; in french), p. . see for the acts of individuals (christians and non-christians): philip friedman, their brothers keepers (new york, ); kurt r. grossman, die unbesungenen helden (berlin, ; in german); heinz leuner, when compassion was a crime (london, ); saul friedlaender, kurt gerstein ou l'ambiguite du bien (tournai, ; in french). footnotes part i ---------------- page see below, on p. . see below on p. - . see below, on p. . e.h. flannery, the anguish of the jews (new york, ), p. . page see below, p. . "unity in dispersion", a history of the world jewish congress (new york, pp. , .also see: dr. l. de jong, een sterfgeval in auschwitz (amsterdam, ; in dutch); an english translation will be published in yad vashem studies, vii (jerusalem, ), pp. - : "the netherlands and auschwitz." cf. flannery, op. cit., p. : "criticism of passivity or collaboration under the nazis must be tempered by an understanding of the confusion wrought by the insiduous methods of nazi propaganda and the paralysis of wills in the nazi terror, made all the more effective by its appeal to patriotic and anti-communist loyalties. resistance under the circumstances should not be entirely assessed from the comfortable perspective of the postwar era. page "unity in dispersion", pp. - . see below, p. . cf. h.c. touw, het verzet der hervormde kerk ('s gravenhage, ; in dutch), , p. - . page in february, , a general strike in amsterdam and other places in the netherlands was called as a protest against the deportations of jews. the germans proclaimed martial law and suppressed the strike by force. they proceeded to deport a total of amsterdam jews to the concentration camp of mauthausen, where they perished. cf. b.a. sijes, de februari-staking ('s-gravenhage, ; in dutch, with an english summary), passim. also see: h. knap, vreemdeling, bericht de spartanen (amsterdam, ), p. iii: "the technical conditions for massive actions of solidarity with the jews - if our people as a whole would have wanted them - were lacking." rolf hochhuth, the deputy (new york, ; third printing), p. . j.j. buskes, waar stond de kerk? (amsterdam, ; in dutch), p. . francois mauriac, quoted by hochhuth, op. cit., p. . knap, op. cit., passim. page see below, p . page see beyond, p. . cf., for instance, exodus , ; isaiah , - ; jeremiah , - ; ezekiel , ; hosea , - . page werner warmbrunn, the dutch under german occupation - (london, ), p. . see below, on p. . page jeremiah, amos and others. also see: i kings , - . see below, p. ff. see below, p. ff. see below, p. ff. page see below, on p. . see below, on p. . page jenoe levai, black book on the martyrdom of hungarian jewry (zurich, ), p. . page a.j. koejemans in de waarheid, sept. , . page touw, op. cit., i , p. cf. dr. j. presser, ondergang ('s-gravenhage, ; in dutch), , p. . for the protest, which was read from the pulpits in the roman catholic and protestant churches, see below, pp. - . page cf. h. leuner, when compassion was a crime (london, ), p. : "every possible means of propaganda and subtle psychology was used to separate germans and jews, to create an unbridgeable gulf between the members of the aryan master race and those belonging to the family of 'parasites'. w.a. visser 't hooft, the ecumenical movement and the racial problem (paris, ), p. . cf. the chapters - in this book. cf. ch. in this book. cf. ch. , p. cf. chapters - in this book. page "unity in dispersion", pp. - . page f. burgdoerfer, "die juden in deutschland und in der welt"; in: "forschungen zur judenfrage" (hamburg, ; in german), pp. - . cf. ch. , p. cf. ch. , p. page leuner, op. cit., p. . touw, op. cit., , p. . cf. w. a. visser 't hooft, the struggle of the dutch church for the maintenance of the commandments of god in the life of the state (london, ), p. : "when threats were of no avail the germans attempted to blackmail the churches. in this way the churches were brought into great conflicts of conscience. should they give up the open protests so that this or that group of church-members might be saved? or should they go forward, without regard for the consequences that might arise for others? these are difficult questions that no one can decide on the spur of the moment or looking at the situation from the outside." cf. also the opinion of a group of christians of jewish origin (p. in this book). abel j. herzberg, kroniek der jodenvervolging (arnhem-amsterdam, ; in dutch), p. . presser, op. cit., , p. . page cf. ch. , pp. . cf., however, pinchas e. lapide, the last three popes and the jews (london, ), p. : "at that time archbishop roncalli, the apostolic delegate to turkey and greece, received mr. ira hirschmann, a special emissary for the u.s. war refugee board... sent to interview yoel brand in connection with eichmann's 'blood for goods' deal. mr. hirschmann told roncalli of the plight of several thousand jews, including a number of children slated for deportation and death at auschwitz. the archbishop instantly made available thousands of 'baptismal certificates' for use for the doomed jews, without conditions, and thousands were saved from the nazi furnace." page quoted from a letter, dated october , , of dr. jan chabada, the present generalbischof of the evangelical lutheran church in slovakia, to me. cf. dr. l. rothkirchen, "vatican policy and the 'jewish problem' in 'independent' slovakia ( - )", in: "yad vashem studies" (jerusalem, ), vol. vi, p. : "...the protestant clergy... for the most part supporters of the pro-czechoslovak line, were prominent for their more adaptable approach, mainly in the furnishing of certificates of conversion to christianity. some protestant clergymen have even been charged with profitmaking motives and with granting hundreds of certificates of conversion within a day or two." also see: r. hilberg, the destruction of the european jews (chicago, ), p. : "from the ethnic german organ, the grenzbote, criticism was more vociferous. the baptisms were ternied a blasphemy, and the churchmen who engaged in them were accused of having monetary motives. two calvinist pastors, puspas and sedivy, were subsequently arrested, and sedivy was accused of having performed not fewer than baptisms." peter meyer (ed.), the jews in the soviet satellites (syracuse university press, ), p. . page yad vashem archives, no. (a summary of the evidence by the interviewer; in hebrew). michael molho and joseph nehama, the destruction of greek jewry, - (jerusalem, ; in hebrew), p. . ilias venezis, archbishop damaskinos (athens, ;) in greek), ch. . page buskes, op. cit., p. . j.j. buskes, hoera voor het leven (amsterdam, ), p. . romans , . footnotes part ii ------------------ page wolfgang scheffler, judenverfolgung im dritten reich (berlin-dahlem, ), p. . page ibid., p. . page ibid., pp. - . page ibid., p. . cf. bruno blau, the last days of german jewry in the third reich (in: yivo annual, vol. viii, , pp. - ). page an immense number of publications appeared about the church in germany during the third reich. we mention here: "die evangelische kirche in deutschland und die judenfrage", ausgewaehlte dokumente aus den jahren des kirchenkampfes bis (geneva, ); g.van norden, kirche in der krise (dusseldorf, ); w.jannasch, deutsche kirchendokumente (zurich, ); heinrich hermelink, kirche im kampf (stuttgart, ); guenther weisenbom, der lautlose aufstand (hamburg, ); wilhelm niemoeller, kampf und zeugnis der bekennenden kirche (bielefeld, ); wilhelm niemoeller, die evangelische kirche im dritten reich (bielefeld, ); renate maria heydenreich, versuch theologischer wiedergutmachung; in d. goldschmidt und h. j. kraus (ed.), der ungekundigte bund (stuttgart-berlin, . auflage, ), pp. - ; otto diehn, bibliographie zur geschichte des kirchenkampfes, - (gottingen, ); anton koch, vom widerstand der kirche (freiburg, ); friedrich zipfel, kirchenkampf in deutschland - (berlin, ); dr. joseph tenenbaum, for the sake of historical balance (in: yad vashem bulletin, no. , jerusalem, ); philip friedman, was there "another germany" during the nazi period? (in: yivo annual of jewish social studies, vol. x, new york, ). page cf. the "gesetz ueber die rechtsverhaltnisse der geistlichen und kirchen- beamten" (ekd und judenfrage, pp. ff.; heydenreich, op. cit., p. ). the full contents in: heydenreich, op. cit. ; ekd und judenfrage, passim. page hermelink, op. cit., pp. - . cf. the article of kurt meier, kristallnacht und kirche - die haltung der evangelischen kirche zur judenpolitik des faschismus (in: wissenschaftliche zeitschrift der karl-marx-universitat leipzig, . jahrgang, , pp. - ), p . . heydenreich, op. cit., p. . ibid., p. . page hermelink, op. cit., . meier, op. cit., p. . also see: wilhelm niemoeller, die bekennende kirche sagt hitler die wahrheit (bielefeld, passim). on august , , the memorandum was published as a "proclamation from the pulpit" in an amended form. cf. eberhard bethge, dietrich bonhoeffer (gesammelte schriften; munich, ), , p. (note). page cf. "die evangelische kirche und die judenfrage", pp. ff.; h.grueber, wemer sylten (berlin, ; in german); idem: an der stechbahn (berlin, ; in german); h.d. leuner, when compassion was a crime (london, ). pp. - . hermelink, op. cit., p. . cf. meier, op. cit., p. : "the reason that no joint protest was issued by the confessing church after the pogrom of november, . was that the confessing church as an organization was under strong pressure at the time. on june , , several members of the reich brethren council were arrested; on july , , also martin niemoeller. after that, the reich brethren council was hardly able to act. page die evangelische kirche und die judenfrage, p. . meier, op. cit., p. page cf. below, p. . cf. h.c. touw, het verzet der hervormde kerk (s'gravenhage, ; in dutch), pp. - . la persecution des juifs en allemagne, p. ; "de standaard" (protestant daily in the netherlands before the war), april , . cf. below, p. . "de standaard", april , . page ibid., may and , . ibid., may and , . ibid., may , . the addresses were published in the brochure "vrede over israel" (amsterdam, ; in dutch). also see: d. cohen, zwervend en dolend (haarlem, ; in dutch), pp. - . "dietschen stam". th.delleman, opdat wij niet vergeten (kampen, ; in dutch), pp. - , - . action was also taken against members of the "christian democratic union", a party of christian socialists. also see: werner warmbrunn, the dutch under german occupation - (london, ), p. . page ben van kaam, opstand der gezagsgetrouwen (wageningen, ; in dutch), p. . cohen, op. cit., p. . cf. for - at least - questionable comments in the protestant press on the events in germany: van kaam, op. cit., pp. - . also see the article "van eigen bodem" (in: "de standaard", dec. , ). "de standaard", nov. , . page ibid., november , . page le iiie reich et les juifs, pp. - . page ibid., p. . the nickname of the protestants in belgium and the netherlands, in the th century. it became their name of honour. le iiie reich et les juifs, pp. - . page le iiie reich et les juifs, pp. - . la persecution des juifs en allemagne, p. . le iiie reich et les juifs, p. . page ibid., pp. ff. ( x used) page "pour la dignite humaine" (brochure), pp. - . page archives of the protestant federation of france, paris. .ibid. page "journal de geneve", april , ; quoted in: la persecution des juifs en allemagne, p. . la persecution des juifs en allemagne, p. . page ibid., p. . cf. pp. - . page schweiz. evang. pressedienst (e.p.d.), zurich, nov. , . e.p.d., ibid., p. . e.p.d., dec. , . page professor aage bentsen, docent flemming hvidberg, professor johannes pedersen and professor frederik torm. the declaration was published in "berlingske tidende". dr.leni yahil, test of democracy, the rescue of danish jewry in world war ii (jerusalem, ; in hebrew, with a summary in english), pp. - . page cf. the article of dr. fuglsang-damgaard in: chr. refslund - m. schmidt (ed.),fem aar (copenhagen, ; in danish), ii, pp. - . church magazine "kristen gemenskap" (in swedish), , no. . page ibid., , no. . page ibid., , no. . page ibid., , no. . page ibid. the hungarian upper house had members, including representatives of the churches. cf. albert bereczky, hungarian protestantism and the persecution of the jews (budapest, ), p. . also see: hendrik fisch (ed.), kerestzteny egyhazfok felsohazi beszedi a zsidokerdesben (the speeches on the jewish question by christian church leaders in the upper house; budapest, ; in hungarian); and: "schweiz. evang. pressedienst" (zurich), march , , pp. - . page jeno levai, black book on the martyrdom of hungarian jewry (zurich, ), p. . rabbi hershkovits in my interview with him on march , . cf. bereczky, op. cit., pp. - . r.hilberg, the destruction of the european jews (chicago, ), p. . cf. "schweiz. evang. pressedienst", march , , p. : "special endeavours were made on behalf of the protestant jews, not because they belonged to the church but because it was easier to attain something for them." page "dimineata", bucharest, april , ; quoted in: "la persecution des juifs en allemagne", p. . other protests, statements and declarations: speech by the bishop of fulham ("the times", april , ). speech by the vicar of leeds (manchester guardian, april , ). speech by the bishop of liverpool (liverpool post, april , ). speech by the bishop of nottingham (manchester guardian, may , ). resolution of the council of the world evangelical alliance, british section; may , (dr.a.freudenberg, the church and the jewish question; geneva, ; p. ). resolution of the baptist union of scotland (glasgow herald, june , ). message from the bishop of durham; "j'accuse" (brochure, london), p. . letter from the bishop of chichester to "the times", may , . page freudenberg, op. cit., p. ibid., p. . page ibid., p. ibid., p. ibid., p. . page ibid., p. . cf. "le iiie reich et les juifs", pp. - . also see: "la persecution des juifs en allemagne", pp. - . page freudenberg, op. cit., p. . reports to the general assembly, , p. . see p. . page acts, proceedings and debates of the general assembly, , p. . reports to the general assembly, , p. . page freudenberg, op. cit., p. . from the "reports and minutes of the general assembly of the presbyterian church of england", . page the church assembly of the church of england usually meets for three sessions a year. it consists of the three houses of bishops, clergy and laity. at present there are members: bishops, clergymen and laymen. page "the times", november , . the full report in the brochure "the jews in germany", debate in the church assembly, nov. th, , london. cf. r.c.d. jasper, george bell bishop of chichester (london, ), passim. see above, on p. . jasper, op. cit., pp. - . page the diocesan conferences meet once a year or at most, twice. they are the local counterpart of the church assembly and consist of two houses, the chamber of clergy and the chamber of laity. the bishop is always the president of the diocesan conference. freudenberg, op. cit., p. . cf. jasper, op. cit., pp. - . also cf.: norman bentwich, they found refuge (london, ), pp. and . page minutes of the meetings of the church assembly (archives of church house, great smith street, westminster). page jasper, op. cit., pp. - . "reports and minutes of the general assembly", . freudenberg, op. cit., pp. - . page reports to the general assembly, , p. . acts, proceedings and debates of the general assembly, , p. . reports to the general assembly, , p. . page "the times", november , . minutes of the meetings of the church assembly (archives of church house, great smith street, westminster). see p. . page norman bentwich, they found refuge (london, ), p. . also see pp. - . freudenberg, op. cit., p. . page reports to the general assembly, , pp. - . see for the full text of dr.black's letter: the jewish chronicle, nov. , , p. . minutes of the conference of the methodist church in ireland, held in june, . keesing's contempary archives, march , ; -e. page keesing, march , ; -b. freudenberg, op. cit., p. . cf. "la persecution des juifs en allemagne", p. ; and: "le iiie reich et les juifs", p. . page freudenberg, op. cit., p. . page i see above, p. . ff. dr. charles s. macfarland, across the years (the macmillan co., ), p. . ibid., p. . page ibid., p. . the new york times, june , ; freudenberg, op. cit., pp. - . page freudenberg, op. cit., p. . federal council bulletin, october , p. . ibid., december , p. . page ibid., october , p. . ibid., december , p. ibid. page the new york times, jan. , . among the signers were: dr. samuel mccrea cavert, federal council of churches; the rt. rev. edwin h.hughes, bishop of washington area, methodist episcopal church; bishop charles mead, methodist episcopal church, kansas city. cf. arthur morse, while six million died (london, ), p. . the new york times, febr. , . cf. federal council bulletin, febr., , p. . morse, op. cit., p. . cf. arieh tartakower and kurt r.grossmann, the jewish refugee (new york, . ). p. : "one of the chief arguments raised against this bill was that the admittance of , refugee children to the united states from germany and the refusal to admit their parents would be against the laws of god, and therefore would be an opening wedge for a later request for the admission of about , adults, the parents of the children in question." page the new york times, march , . ibid., april , . page national council of churches, department of information. page freudenberg, op. cit., p. ; federal council bulletin, febr, , p. ff. the new york times, may , ibid., june , . page see above, p. . freudenberg, op. cit., p. . cf. "la persecution des juifs en allemagne", p. . the resolution had been requested by the dutch council (see above, p. ). freudenberg, op. cit., p. . page jasper, op. cit., p. . minutes, novi sad, , pp. - . cf. jasper, op. cit., p. . see above, p. . jasper, op. cit., p. . page "le christianisme social" (french protestant periodical), nov. - dec. , p. . page freudenberg, op. cit., p. . page ibid., pp. - . cf. for the oxford conference: "the churches survey their task" (the report of the conference of oxford, july , on church, community, and state; with and introduction by j.h.oldham), london, . also see: ruth rouse and stephen charles neil (ed.), a history of the ecumenical movement - (london, ) pp. - . the essential theme of the oxford conference, as was stated in the first announcement of it, was: "the life and death struggle between the christian faith and the secular and pagan tendencies of our time." page jasper, op. cit., pp. - . "the churches survey their task", pp. - . page ibid., pp. - . cf. pp. - (the report on the church and race). see p. . see p. . page freudenberg, op. cit., p. . a conference about the refugee problem, called by president roosevelt, was held at evian, in july, . it was attended by representatives of countries. page archives of the world council of churches, geneva. see above, on p. . ff. see above, on p. . freudenberg, op. cit., p. . "conversation entre le dr.visser 't hooft, le dr.freudenberg et le dr.barot, concernant les activites cimade-wcc pendant la guerre" (archives of the world council of churches, geneva; in french). footnotes part iii ------------------- page see for rev. grueber's activities: pp. - . max krakauer, lichter im dunkel (stuttgart, ; in german), passim. krakauer, op. cit., p. . page hermelink, op. cit., - . page ibid., p. - . cf. meier, op. cit., p. : "apparently wurm did not protest publicly, as he wanted to avoid providing amunition to the foreign press and thus provoking the national-socialist authorities, which would have blocked the way of sending petitions in writing to the government". hermelink, op. cit., pp. - . ibid., pp. - . see for the angry reply of dr. lammers: hermelink, op. cit., pp. - . the letter was dated march , . bishop wurm wrote another letter, dated febr. , , to reichsstatthalter murr, on behalf of the partners in mixed marriages (hermelink, op. cit., pp. - ). page "der ungekundigte bund", pp. - . the message was dated oct. , , and published by "the new york times, on august , . in the lutheran churches, the fifth commandment is: "thou shalt not kill. see below on p. . quoted by friedman, op. cit., p . heinrich grueber, dona nobis pacem (berlin, ; in german), p. . page "die evangelische kirche und die judenfrage", pp. , , and . see below, pp. - . page see above, on pp. (note i ) and (note i ) cf. p. (the fate of dr. weissler). guenter lewy, the catholic church and nazi germany (london, ), pp. - . page j.tenenbaum, race and reich (new york, ), p. . also see: jacob robinson, and the crooked shall be made straight (new york, ), p. ; hilberg, op. cit., p. . page the original test in: h.c. christie, den norske kirke i kamp (oslo, ; in norwegian), pp. - . an english translation in: bjarne hoye and trygve m. ager, "the fight of the norwegian church against nazism" (new york, ), pp. - . page see pp. - . "the spiritual issues of the war", no. , jan. , . christie, op. cit., p. . page dr. j. presser, ondergang ('s-gravenhage, ; two volumes; in dutch; an english edition is in preparation). also see: robinson, op. cit., pp. - ; hilberg, op. cit., pp. - ; abel j. herzberg, kroniek der jodenvervolging (arnhem-amsterdam, ; in dutch), passim. we shall write the name of this church in capitals, in order to prevent confusion with the "reformed churches in the netherlands". page "interkerkelijk overleg." cf. h.c. touw, het verzet der hervormde kerk ('s gravenhage, ; in dutch), , pp. - , - . cf. j.j. buskes, waar stond de kerk? (amsterdam, ; in dutch), pp. - . also see: touw, op. cit., i, pp. , , - ; delleman, op. cit., pp. - . touw, op. cit., , pp. - . buskes, op. cit., p. . pag a moving exception was n. h. de graaf. see for his protest: w. a. visser 't hooft, the struggle of the dutch church for the maintenance of the commandments of god in the life of the state (london, ), pp. - . a few days later mr. de graaf was arrested and sent to a concentration camp. he did not return. the full text in touw, op. cit., , pp. - . touw, op. cit., i, p. . ibid., , pp. - . an english translation of this and most of the other documents quoted in this chapter, in visser 't hooft, op. cit., passim. page visser 't hooft, op. cit., pp. - . cf. touw, op. cit., pp. - ; buskes, op. cit., pp. - ; delleman, op. cit., pp. , - . page touw, op. cit., , p. ; visser 't hooft, op. cit., pp. - . page cf. buskes, op. cit., pp. - ; touw, op. cit., , p. ; delleman, op. cit., pp. - . delleman, op. cit., pp. - , - . page quoted in "hitler's ten year war on the jews", p. . visser 't hooft, op. cit., pp. - ; touw, op. cit., , pp. - ; , pp. - ; delleman, pp. - . ibid. page touw, op. cit., , pp. - . visser 't hooft, op. cit., p. ; touw, op. cit., , p. . touw, op. cit., i, pp. - . page buskes, p. . touw, op. cit., , p. . page ibid., i, p. . louis de jong, jews and non jews in nazi-occupied holland (in: on the track of tyranny, ed. max beloff; london, ), pp. - . presser is of the opinion that the other protestant churches would not have read out the telegram from their pulpits, if they had known about the threat, but that they were not warned against doing so (presser, op. cit., , pp. - ). wielek (in: h. wielek, de oorlog die hitler won, amsterdam, ; p. ) is of the same opinion. the other churches, however, did know about the threat. cf. henberg, p. ; delleman, pp. - ; buskes, p. . also see the version of the german general commissioner schmidt, quoted in touw, , pp. - . delta, spring , vol. viii/no. (a review of arts, life and thought in the netherlands), pp. - . page touw, op. cit., , p. . ibid., , p. . page visser 't hooft, op. cit., pp. - . for practical results of this protest, see above, on p. . also see: l. de jong, de bezetting (amsterdam, ; in dutch), , pp. - . page visser 't hooft, op. cit., pp. - ; touw, op. cit., pp. - . touw, op. cit., , pp. - . "delta", p. . page touw, op. cit., pp. - . also see: pp. - . page visser 't hooft, op. cit., pp. - ; touw, op. cit., , p. ; , pp. - . page visser 't hooft, op. cit., p. . touw, op. cit., , pp. , . wielek, op. cit., p. . werner warmbrunn, the dutch under german occupation - (london, ), p. . ibid., p. . page j. j. buskes in the protestant weekly "hervormd nederland", may , . touw, op. cit., , p. . hilberg, op. cit., p. . cf. for the situation in france during the war: robert aron, l'histoire de vichy (paris, ; in french). hilberg, op. cit., p. . robinson, op. cit., p. . page tenenbaum, op. cit., p. . chief rabbi kaplan in l'arche, no. , april , p. . page l. poliakov, harvest of hatred (pocket edition, ), p. . cf. p. . cf. rev. boegner's letter to laval: "authorized to speak on behalf of the protestant churches of the entire world, many of which have already asked my intervention..." (p. ). "les eglises protestantes pendant la guerre et l'occupation; actes de l'assemblee generale du protestantisme francais reunie a nimes, du au octobre ." (paris, ; in french), p. . ibid., p. . page ibid., p. . page ibid., pp. - . page ibid., p. . page ibid., pp. - . the letter was submitted to marshal petain on june , . a copy of the letter is in the archives of the "rijksinstituut voor oorlogsdocumentatie", amsterdam; file: "de zwitserse weg". for the oxford conference, see pp. - . page cf. henri cadier in: la chretiente au creuset de l'epreuve, vol. , p. (geneva, ; in french). page cf. robinson, op. cit., p. ; hilberg, op. cit., pp. - . "les eglises protestantes...", pp. - . "cimade" (comite inter-mouvement aupres des evacues), the organization brought into being during the second world war by the protestant churches and the lay youth movements in france. "les eglises protestantes...", pp. - . page ibid., pp. - . page hilberg, op. cit., p. . "les eglises protestantes...", p. . ibid., pp. - . cf. p. in this book: "another endeavour to save lives failed. the ecumenical committee for refugees had, with the help of american christians, succeeded in obtaining entrance visas into the united states for , jewish children from france, but the occupation of southern france by the germans foiled this plan." also see: donald a. lowrie, the hunted children (new york, ), pp. - . page "les eglises protestantes...", pp. - . luke , - . page sami lattes, l'attitude de l'eglise en france a l'egard des juifs pendant la persecution (in: les juifs en europe, p. ). page l. poliakov, l'hostellerie des musiciens. quoted by david knout in: contribution a l'histoire de la resistance juive en france (paris, ), pp. - . c.i.m.a.d.e.: see above on p. (note ). emile c. fabre (ed.), les clandestins de dieu (paris, ; in french), p. . page ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. . cf., p. ff. "les clandestins de dieu," p. ; cf. p. . in this book. page particulars taken from tenenbaum, op. cit., pp. , . cf. edmond paris, genocide in satellite croatia, - (chicago, ). joseph schechtman in: "hitler's ten-year war on the jews", pp. - . ibid., p. . page see, however, the chapters in this book on greece, rumania and bulgaria. tenenbaum, op. cit., p. . hilberg, op. cit., p. ; tenenbaum, op. cit., pp. - . philip friedman, their brothers' keepers (new york, ), p. . page michael molho and joseph nehama, the destruction of greek jewry, - (jerusalem, ; in hebrew), p. . mr. moissis in a letter to me dated november , . the following particulars (unless other sources are mentioned) are taken from: ilias venezis, archbishop damaskinos (athens, ; in greek); chapter . page for the text of this memorandum in french, see: michael molho, in memoriam (salonika, ), i, pp. - . the text in hebrew in: molho-nehama, op. cit., pp. - . page molho-nehama, op. cit., p. . tenenbaum, op. cit., p. . page nathan eck, new light on the charges against the last chief rabbi of salonica (in: yad vashem bulletin no. , jerusalem; december, ), p. . cf. the "bericht eines aus athen gefluechteten" (general zionist archives, jerusalem, no. / ): "man muss gestehen, dass die einwohnerschaft von athen sich menschlicher betragen haben als diejenige aus saloniki. friedman, op. cit., p. . page molho-nehama, op. cit., p. . ibid., pp. - . cf. friedman, op. cit., p. : "leaders of the jewish community insisted that rabbi barzilai take refuge, a notion he rejected until archbishop damaskinos prevailed upon him to change his mind." "the situation of the jews in greece" (published by the world jewish congress, new york, ), p. . asscher moissis, la situation des communautes juives en grece (in: "les juifs en europe"), p. . quoted by tenenbaum, op. cit., p. . page mr moissis in his letter to me dated november , . another information from the same source: "after the germans had called the chief rabbi of volos, ordering him to take the necessary steps to facilitate the deportations, the latter went to the bishop of volos asking his advice and help. the bishop advised him to abstain from collaboration whatsoever, and helped him to go into hiding; the majority of the jewish population of volos followed suit and thus was saved from deportation to auschwitz." the pastors were followers of grundtvig ( - ), the teachings of whom in the opinion of mrs. yahil had a great influence on the views and attitude of christians in denmark during the german occupation. cf. dr. leni yahil, test of democracy, the rescue of danish jewry in world war ii (jerusalem, ; in hebrew, with a summary in english), p. . page yahil, op. cit., p. . cf. bishop fuglsang-damgaard in: "chr. refslund & m.schmidt (ed.), fern aar (copenhagen, ; in danish, p. : "our jews urgently requested [during the first years of the war] that as far as possible there should be silence about the jewish question". yahil, op. cit., p. . ibid. ibid., pp. - . the full text of the article in: "the spiritual issues of the war", no. , august , . page "christians protest persecution" (religious news service, "the national conference of christians and jews", new york), p. . boris shub (ed.), hitler's ten year war on the jews (new york, ), p. . yahil, op. cit., pp. - . "christians protest persecution", p. . harald sandbaek and n. j.rald (ed.), den danske kirche under besaettelsen (copenhagen, ; in danish), pp. - . cf. hugh martin (ed.), christian counter-attack (london, ), pp. - . page robinson, op. cit., pp. - ; yahil, op. cit., pp. - . fuglsang-damgaard, op. cit., p. ff. page ibid. cf. yahil, op. cit., p. : "not only svenningsen, however, was misled by best and believed in his promises that the jews were not in danger, but also bishop fuglsang-damgaard came to the congregation, on sept. th, at p.m., in order to reassure its leaders, telling them that he knew from very reliable sources that the rumours were without foundation. the danish resistance movement consisted of "study circles". in copenhagen such circles were organized on professional lines - architects, doctors, clergymen etc. the p.u.f. was the "study circle" of pastors. not less than % of all pastors belonged to it. (cf. yahil, op. cit., p. ). pag fuglsang-damgaard, op. cit., p. . ibid., pp. - . ibid., p. . pag ibid., pp. - . sandbaek and rald, op. cit., pp. - . cf. "fem aar", , pp. - . pag yahil, op. cit., p. . pag fuglsang-damgaard, op. cit., p. ibid., p. . page "international christian press & information service, geneva, no. , december, . "fem aar", , p. . page dr. samuel stefan osusky, sluzba narodu (bratislava, ; in slovakian), , pp. , . page cf. for the historical particulars: hilberg, op. cit., pp. - ; tenenbaum, op. cit., pp. - ; the article of dr. f. steiner, "la situation des juifs en slovaquie" (in: "les juifs en europe", pp. - ); and especially the comprehensive book of dr.livia rothkirchen, the destruction of slovak jewry (jerusalem, ), passim. page osusky, op. cit., pp. - . page cf. for the historical data: robinson, op. cit., pp. - ; hilberg, op. cit., pp. - ; tenebaum, op. cit., pp. - ; also see the comprehensive work of theodore lavi: "roumanian jewry in world war ii" (in hebrew; jerusalem, ), especially pp. - . "hitler's ten-year war on the jews", p. . dr.alexandre safran, l'oeuvre de sauvetage de la population juive accomplie pendant l'oppression nazie en roumanie (in: "les juifs en europe"; in french), p. . cf. lavie, op. cit., pp. - . page safran, op. cit., p. . ibid., p. . page dr. safran's secretary, israel lebanon, related about this meeting: "rabbi safran quoted texts from the old testament and dwelt on the relationship between judaism and christianity, etc." (lavie, op. cit., p. ). safran, op. cit., pp. - . page matatias carp, le martyre des juifs de roumanie (in: "les juifs en europe"), p. . page international press & information service, geneva, may , no. . ibid. for the "german christians", see above, on p. . page bishop mueller's letter to me, dated dec. , . dr. safran's letter to me, dated april , . page hilberg, op. cit., pp. - . page yad vashem archives, / - . on the original there is a marginal note in handwriting: "i have read and investigated and shall take into consideration the contents of the above. . . ." b. j. arditi, les juifs de bulgarie sous le regime nazi - (tel-aviv, ; in hebrew), pp. - . page ibid., p. . robinson, op. cit., p. ; hilberg, op. cit., pp. - . cf. "bulgarian atrocities in greek macedonia and thrace", a report of professors of the universities of athens and salonica (athens, ), p. : "the whole jewish population of eastern macedonia and western thrace, about , persons, were taken away in the night of the rd of march, ... three or four days later ...they were handed over to the germans." page yad vashem archives, / , pp. - (in hebrew). yad vashem archives, / (in hebrew). page misho leviev, nashata blagodarnost ("our gratitude", in bulgarian; sofia, ), pp. - . eleven metropolitans signed, according to their dioceses. page arditi, op. cit., p. . hilberg, op. cit., p. . page yad vashem archives, no. / (in hebrew). mr.moshonov was a goldsmith who supplied the king's palace with jewelry and had free access to the palace. also see: ely barouch, iz istoriata na bulgarskoto evrejstvo ("from the history of bulgarian jewry", tel aviv, ; in bulgarian), p. : iugo, 'the metropolitan began, 'and tell your people that the king solemnly promised before the prime minister and before me, that the jews of bulgaria will not be expelled from the country. go and transmit to them this information; reassure them and let they believe in the good principle that the lord never forgets his children. go in peace.'it was with those words that the metropolitan stephan received the delegation of rabbi daniel ben zion, rabbi asher hananel and menachem moshonov, on may , , when the jews of sofia were gathered together in the synagogue yutch-bunar in order to beseech mercy and salvation from god, as it had become known to them that bulgarian jewry would also be deported to be murdered in poland. cf. arditi, op. cit., pp. - . cf. p. in this chapter. page literally: "bake your head" page solomon samuel mashiach in his article "who saved us?", published in the newspaper "narodno delo (sofia, no. , july , ; in bulgarian). quoted by barouch, op. cit., pp. - . arditi, op. cit., p. . cf. matthew , . leviev, op. cit., p. . cf. arditi, op. cit., p. : "when the metropolitan kyril was convinced that the local authorities and the representatives of the government were not inclined to help the jews, he sent a telegram to the king, in which he declared that he would cease to be the king's loyal subject and that he would act as seemed right to him and according to the dictates of his conscience as a religious man, if the instructions for expulsion were not cancelled." page leviev, op. cit., pp. - . page testimony of joseph geron (in hebrew); yad vashem archives, no. / . cf. above, on p. (note ). page for the historical data in this chapter, see: robinson, op. cit., pp. - ; hilberg, op. cit., pp. - ; tenenbaum, op. cit., pp. - ; livia rothkirchen, the attitude of the vatican and the churches in hungary towards "the solution of the jewish question" (in: "ha ummah" (the nation), quarterly, jerusalem; in hebrew), , no. , pp. - . for the first and second anti-jewish law, see above, pp. - . albert bereczky, hungarian protestantism and the persecution of the jews (budapest, ), p. . also see: jeno levai, black book on the martyrdom of hungarian jewry (zurich, ), p. . dr. mathe's letter to me, dated aug. , . page bereczky, op. cit., pp. - . page levai, op. cit., pp. - ; bereczky, op. cit., p. . ibid. page bereczky, op. cit., p. ; cf. levai, op. cit p . levai, op. cit., p. ; cf. bereczky, op. cit., pp. - . levai, op. cit., p. ; cf. bereczky, op. cit., pp. - . page levai, op. cit., p. . bereczky, op. cit., p. . page ibid., pp. - ; levai, op. cit., - . page bereczky, op. cit., pp. - ; levai, op. cit., - . bishop ravasz and the lutheran bishop bela kapi had together prepared the draft. the protest was signed by all the bishops of the reformed and the lutheran churches (levai, pp. , ). page levai, op. cit., pp. - ; bereczky, op. cit., p. . archives of the world council of churches, geneva. the report was dated: budapest, june , . page levai, op. cit., pp. - ; bereczky, op. cit., pp. - . page levai, op. cit., p. ; berezcky, op. cit., pp. - . levai, op. cit., p. ; bereczky, op. cit., p. . dr. mathe's letter to me, dated aug. , . cf. p. . page levai, op. cit., pp. - ; bereczky, op. cit., pp. - . page levai, op. cit., p. ; cf. bereczky, op. cit., pp. - . bereczky, op. cit., p. . ibid. rothkirchen, "the attitude of the vatican...", p. . quoted from: erno munkhcsi, hogyan tortent' adatok es okmhyok a magyar zsidesag tragediej ahoz (budapest, ; in hungarian), p. . page for the press censorship in switzerland during the war, see: dr. carl ludwig, die fluchtlingspolitik der schweiz seit bis zur gegenwart (bericht an den bundesrat zuhanden der eidgenossischen rate, zu ), pp. , , , . page "schweiz. evang. pressedienst" (e.p.d.), nov. , . page e.p.d. , nov. , . cf. "international christian press & information service" (i.c.p.i.s.), geneva, nov., . also see: alfred a. hasler, das boot ist voll (zurich, ; second impression, in german), pp. - . e.p.d., nov. , ; cf. i.c.p.i.s., nov., . page e.p.d., sept. , . cf. hasler, op. cit., pp. - . e.p.d., oct. , . page ibid., may , . page ibid., july , . cf. "the spiritual issues of the war", aug. , . i.c.p.i.s., no. , oct. . cf. the report: "schweiz. sammlung fur die fluchtlingshilfe, oct.-nov. " (erstattet von der schweiz. zentralstelle fur fluchtlingshilfe), p. . page cf. above, on p. . ludwig. op. cit., pp. - . ibid., p. . cf. arieh tartakower and kurt r. grossmann, the jewish refugee (new york, ), p. : "thus the council of the federation of swiss protestant churches appealed to the federal authorities in august, , urging that the right of asylum be not denied to non-aryan refugees who recently arrived in switzerland, and that liberal methods be applied to those who may yet come. again, in september of that year, when the wave of deportations of jews from france, belgium, and holland reached its crest, the swiss national protestant church, in a pastoral letter concerning a nation-wide fast which was read from every pulpit, declared: '...we forsake our first love if we forget that our country must remain, as far as possible, a haven of refuge for the persecuted and refugees. to abandon this role is to betray our spiritual heritage, is 'to lose our soul in order to gain the world?. in particular, we cannot remain indifferent to the lot of the people of israel, in whose midst our saviour was born and who are today the object of measures whose cruelty and iniquity are the shame of our age...?" ludwig, op. cit., pp. - ; cf. e.p.d., august. , ; hasler, op. cit., pp. - . page see above, on p. . e.p.d., sept. , . cf. hasler, op. cit., pp. - . also see ludwig, op. cit., p. : "in autumn , when we had , - , refugees, it was declared that the lifeboat was fully occupied and the possibility of accepting refugees exhausted. at the end of the war switzerland harboured , refugees." cf. the reply of federal councillor von steiger (ludwig, op. cit., pp. - ). page ludwig, op. cit., pp. - . cf. ludwig, op. cit., pp. - . page e.p.d., oct. , . cf. the report "schweiz. sammlung fur die fluchtlingshilfe, oct.-nov. ", p. . ibid., p. . cf. hasler, op. cit., pp. - . alsosee: ludwig, op. cit., p. : "the result of the collection (about fr. , , .-) organized by the swiss central office for aid to refugees and vigorously supported by the 'young church', showed that a large proportion of the swiss people was moved by the fate of the refugees. page "schweiz. sammlung fur die fluchtlingshilfe...", p. . for another statement made by prof. karl bart, see hasler, op. cit., pp. - . ludwig, op. cit., pp. - . page see above, on pp. - . ludwig, op. cit., pp. - . "bericht des schweiz. kirchl. hilfskommittee fur evang. fluchtlinge uber das jahr ", p. . ludwig, op. cit., pp. - . e.p.d., june , . cf. ludwig, op. cit., p. . page ibid., oct. , . page ibid., nov. , . ludwig, op. cit., p. . schweizerisches evangelisches hilfswerk fur die bekennende kirche in deutschland. page e.p.d., june , . the following books were published : "judennot und christenglaube" (zurich, ); "soll ich meines bruders huter sein?" (zurich, ); "aus not und rettung" (edited by paul vogt, zurich, ). some of the brochures published were: "das heil kommt von den juden" (oktober, ); "thesen zu den nachkriegsfragen der fluchtlingshilfe"; "vergesst die evangelische freiplatzaktion nicht!" ( ); "nicht furchten ist der harnisch" (a circular letter sent monthly to regular supporters of the refugee aid); "fluchtlingshilfe als christliche diakonie" (by paul vogt, ). rev. vogt also pleaded the cause of the refugees in sermons and lectures (hasler, op. cit., pp. - , , - , ). "freiplatzaktion". "bericht des schweiz. kirchl. hilfskomitees fur evang. fluchtlinge uber das jahr ", passim. page ibid., pp. - . e.p.d. , oct. , . archives world council of churches, geneva (file ccjp). also see: e.p.d. , july , : "service of intercession and mourning for the persecuted jews in hungary"; e.p.d. , july i , : "circular letter of the church council of thurgau"; "the committee of the synod of waadtland, declaration about the persecution of the jews"; and e.p.d., july , : "a service of intercession at schaffhausen". page i.c.p.i.c., july , . cf. e.p.d., july , . the press department of the german foreign office circulated a confidential report ("the church council of zurich condemns the persecutions of the jews in hungary") dated july , . (randolph l.braham, the destruction of hungarian jewry, new york, ; , p. ). page e.p.d. july , . ibid. page ibid., aug. , . page "the spiritual issues of the war", december , , no. . page "international christian press and information service", dec. , , no. - . cf. "spiritual issues", dec. , , no. ; and "the new york times., febr. , . "international christian press and information service" (i.c.p.i.s.)., dec., , no. - ; "spiritual issues... ", dec. , . page i.c.p.i.s., dec., , no. - . ibid. page "spiritual issues...", dec. , . also see: "nordiska roster mot jude-forfoljelse och vald" (in swedish; documents and commentaries, edited by judisk tidskrift; stockholm, ), p. . "dagens nyheter", dec. , . the free churches' co-operation committee represents the missionary society, the baptist church and the methodist church in sweden. page "nordiska roster", pp. - . page dr. leni yahil, test of democracy (jerusalem, ; in hebrew, with a summary in english), pp. - . page i.c.p.i.s., may , no. . cf. eberhard bethge, dietrich bonhoeffer (muenchen, ), p. . livia rothkirchen, the destruction of slovak jewry (jerusalem, ), p. xlix. the full text: "ministerprasident tiso zeigte mich soeben mit der bemerkung, 'was seine einzelne leute denken', ein schreiben des protestantischen erzbischofs von uppsala an den slovakischen staatsprasidenten. der schreiber interveniert 'fur die armen judischen bruder' und bittet, da der slovakischen staat unter den derzeitigen verhiltnissen keine humane behandlung gewahrleisten konne, den in der slovakei konzentrierten juden den uebertritt auf ein neutrales gebiet zu ermoglichen." (files of the german foreign ministry, yw/aa-k- , inland , geheim, -k- ). page william simpson, jews and christians to-day (a study in jewish and christian relationships), london, . reports to the general assembly, , p. . page reports, , p. . reports, , p. . minutes of the assembly, thursday, june th, . page ernest hearst, the british and the slaughter of the jews-(i); in: the wiener library bulletin, vol. xxi, no. i , p. . jasper, op. cit., p. . page "the spiritual issues of the war" (bulletin published by the religious division of the ministry of information, london), no. , oct. , . cf. freudenberg, op. cit., p. . "the spiritual issues...", no. . page "the times", oct. , . this and the following articles from "the times" are taken from the "podro-collection" (in "the jewish historical archives", hebrew university, jerusalem). page hearst, op. cit., pp. - . the two archbishops of the church of england and twenty-four bishops (durham, london, winchester and the next twenty-one in order of appointment to a diocese) are members of the house of lords. jewish chronicle, dec. , . "the life of faith" (weekly), dec. , . page keesing's contempory archives, dec. - , , p. . page "spiritual issues...", no. , dec. , . "church of england newspaper london", jan. , . a similar statement was issued by the executive council of the world evangelical alliance (ibid., febr. , ). cf. "jewish chronicle", jan. , , p . page "spiritual issues...", no. , march , . cf. "the times", march , . "the times", dec. , . page "spiritual issues...", no. , jan. , . "jewish chronicle", jan. , . ibid., jan. , , p. . cf. p. : "derby demands sanctuary for persecuted", and: "mayor of huddersfield calls protest meeting". "jewish chronicle", febr. i , , pp. , . page cf. luke , - (the parable of the good samaritan). "parliamentary debates house of lords", vol. , no. , pp. - . page luke , . isaiah , . "parliamentary debates house of lords", vol. , no. , pp. - . page a copy of this letter is in the archives of the world council of churches, geneva. "unity in dispersion", pp. - . see for the bermuda conference: "the wiener library bulletin", vol. xv ( ), no. , pp. - . also see: morse, op. cit., pp. - ; tartakower and grossmann, op. cit., pp. - . page "spiritual issues...", no. , april , . reports to the general assembly, , p. . page "the assembly", may , p. . "minutes of the assembly", thursday, june th, . page "the times", may , . page "the times", may , . jasper, op. cit., pp. - . page "the new york times", dec. , . reports to the general assembly, , p. . the italics are mine. "the times", june , . page "the spiritual issues... ", july , . cf. r.l. braham, the destruction of hungarian jewry (new york, ), , p. . see p. . ibid. federal council bulletin, january, . page department of information of the national council of churches of christ in america. the statement was prepared by the commission on christian social action and adopted by the following action: "general synod approves section iv and declares its condemnation of anti-semitism. it urges upon the members of the church in the name of christ to regard our jewish brethren according to the standards of christian ethics." the new york times, dec. , . page federal council bulletin, october, , p. . page freudenberg, op. cit., p. . federal council bulletin, febr. , p. . page dr. riegner's letter to dr. visser 't hooft, april , (archives of the world council of churches, geneva). federal council bulletin, january, . the italics are mine. page the new york times, jan. , . federal council bulletin, february, . page "unity in dispersion", a history of the world jewish congress (new york, ), pp. - . the archbishop of canterbury described, in his message to the meeting, the nazi extermination of the jews as "the most appalling horror in recorded history" (morse, op. cit., p. ). page the new york times, march i , . cf. federal council bulletin, april, , p. . see above, on p. . see pp. - . see above, on p. . page the new york times, may , . also see the article "day of compassion praised by rabbis" (ibid., may , ). the new york times, oct. , . page new york herald tribune, nov. , . page the new york times, dec. , . ibid., jan. , . new york herald tribune, oct. , . page cf. alfred klausner in the monthly "american lutheran", febr. , p. : ...in the course of research through almost all lutheran publications in the thirties and forties i have found no direct condemnation of the persecution of the jews in germany. . ." in: "american lutheran", nov. , pp. . charles y. glock and rodney stark, christian beliefs and anti-semitism (new york, ), passim. page see above, p. . see pp. - page cf. w.a. visser 't hoofd, in: ruth rouse and stephen charles neill (ed.), a history of the ecumenical movement - (london, ), p. ff. page archives of the world council of churches, geneva. the original is in german. page ibid.; the original is in french. page ibid.; the original is in french. dr. visser 't hooft believes that no written reply was received from the international red cross, but he had several discussions with dr. burckhardt in which the latter told him what the red cross had tried to do unofficially (communication to me from dr. visser 't hooft). communication to me from dr. visser 't hooft. for the contacts with the "kreisau circle". see: g.van roon, neuordnung im widerstand (munich, ), pp. , , , , , - , , - . for the contacts with dietrich bonhoeffer, see: eberhard bethge, dietrich bonhoeffer (munich, ), pp. , , , , - , - , - , , , , and . dr. riegner's letter to dr. visser 't hooft, dated april , (archives of the world council of churches, geneva). page dr. riegner's letter to me, dated nov. , . dr. riegner to dr. visser 't hooft, april , . cf. arthur d. morse, while six million died (london, ), pp. - . page archives wcc, geneva. marginal note: "date? probably march, ". archives wcc, geneva. the contents of the telegram sent by dr. riegner to mr. silverman were as follows: "most anxious about destiny hungarian jewry the only important section european jewry still in existence because of recent political developments stop suggesting world wide appeal of anglo-saxon personalities non-jewish and jewish including chiefs of protestant catholic churches to hungarian people warning them not to admit application of policy of extermination of jews by german butchers or hungarian quislings and to help jews by all possible means in order to prevent their falling into hands of germans stop warning should insist upon fact that attitude hungarian people towards jews will be one of the most important tests of behaviour which allied nations will remember in peace settlement after war stop similar broadcasts should be made every night in hungarian language during the next weeks. geneva, march , ." (archives wcc, geneva). page for the results - or rather: the lack of results - of the bermuda conference, see above, p. . page archives wcc, geneva. page cf. "conversation entre le dr. visser 't hooft, le dr. freudenberg et le dr. barot, concernant les activitcs cimade-wcc pendant la guerre" (geneva, december , ; mimeographed; in french). dr. hans fraenkel, die kirche im krieg (unpublished manuscript; archives wcc, geneva), p. . dr. visser 't hooft in "conversation..." (see above, note ). page report on ecumenical refugee work since (archives wcc, geneva), p. . cf. above, on p. . oekumenischer ausschuss fur fluchtlingshilfe, jahresbericht (archives wcc, geneva), p. . cf. herbert ford, flee the captor (the story of the dutch-paris underground and its compassionate leader john henry weidner), nashville, . for the part played by dr. visser 't hooft, see: pp. , , , , - , , , , , , and . page "rapport van de commissie van onderzoek inzake het verstrekken van pakketten door het rode kruis en andere instanties aan nederlandse politieke gevangenen in het buitenland gedurende de bezettingstijd alsmede inzake het evacueren van nederlandse gevangenen kort voor en na het einde van de oorlog" (den haag, ; in dutch), p. . ibid., p. . ibid., p. - . page i.c.p.i.s. (intern. christian press and information service), geneva, no. , june .. the statement was also published in "jewish news", london, july , , p. ; and in "basler nachrichten", june , . page cf. karl stadler, das einsame gewissen (vienna, ; in german), pp. - . see for the persecutions in austria: herbert rosenkranz, "the anschluss and the tragedy of austrian jewry - "; (in: josef fraenkel (ed.), the jews of austria (london, ), pp. - . reformiertes kirchenblatt fur osterreich, march, , p. . page cf. betty garfinkels, les belges face a la persecution raciale - (bruxelles, ; in french), pp. - , . also see: fernand barth, presence de l'eglise (la belgique sous l'occupation), geneva, pp. , . page cf. the "jewish telegraphic agency" (zurich, july i, ): "a systematic campaign against the christian churches, attacking them for their attitude towards the jews, has been launched in the czech protectorate by the 'aryan society', according to the prague newspaper 'ceske slovo'. it is serious, the paper declares, that the clergy of all churches mostly keeps silent about the jews. the reason why the greater part of the clergy are not opposed to the jews is that there exist personal and dogmatic ritual relations between the church and jewry. the christian faith, the paper demands, must be purged of its jewish ingredients. baptisms of jews must be declared invalid and the old testament must be purged of everything smuggled into it by rabbi interpreters." archives of the world council of churches, geneva. the statement was dated dec. , . page tenenbaum, op. cit., p. . the "polish-catholic church" does not accept the authority of rome; it is a member of the world council of churches. page cf. philips friedman, ukranian-jewish relations during the nazi occupation (in: yivo annual of jewish social science, new york, / , vol. xii, pp. - ); also see: philips friedman, their brothers keepers, pp. - . robinson, op. cit., p. . the rev. esko rintala, secretary of the archbishop of finland, in his letter to me dated febr. , . some literature: giovanni miegge, l'eglise sous le joug fasciste (geneva, ; in french). einaudi (ed.), lettere do condanati a morte della resistenza italiana (torino, ; in italian); prearo, terra ribelle (torino, ; in italian); borgna, la resistenza nel pinerolese (pinerolo, ; in italian). page friedman mentions that, according to jewish survivors, ukrainian priests both rescued and helped jews. ukrainian baptists in volhynia helped the jews and in part also concealed them. cf. philip friedman, ukrainian- jewish relations during the nazi occupation (in: yivo annual of jewish social science, vol. xii, p. ). page w.a. visser 't hooft, the ecumenical movement and the racial problem, p. . ethics of the fathers, , . leuner, op. cit., p. . footnotes appendix i -------------------- page "the relationship of the church to the jewish people" (geneva, ; mimeographed); pp. - ; cf. heydenrich, op. cit., pp. - . heydenreich, op. cit., pp. - . cf. the comment of rev. niemoeller (ibid., pp. - ). page frank-wilkens, ordnungen und kundgebungen der vereinigten evangelisch- lutherischen kirche deutschlands (berlin/hamburg, ; second imprint), p. . heydenreich, op. cit., pp. - . prof. d. gollwitzer criticized this statement as being far too weak (ibid., pp. - ). heydenreich, op. cit., pp. - . page "the relationship of the church to the jewish people", pp. - . also see: "wiener library bulletin", xv, , no. , p. . page "wiener library bulletin", xvii, , no. , p. . "the relationship of the church to the jewish people", pp. - . page quarterly newsletter from the world council of churches' committee on the church and the jewish people, march , p. . the interpreter (published by the london diocesan council for christian- jewish understanding), august, , p. . page "reports to the general assembly", , p. . "reports", , p. . "reports", , p. . "reports", , p. . "reports", , p. . page "the relationship of the church to the jewish people," p. . page w.a. visser 't hooft (ed.), the first assembly of the world council of churches (london, ), pp. - . w.a. visser ?t hooft (ed.), the third assembly of the world council of churches (second impression; london, ), p. . cf. the interesting discussion which preceded the adoption of the resolution (pp. - ). page "the relationship of the church to the jewish people", pp. - . the total membership of the churches affiliated to the lutheran world federation is , , . page "reports and recommendations of the international conference of christians and jews, seelisberg, " (published by the intern. council of christians and jews), pp. - . in february, , the "international consultative committee of organisations for christian-jewish co-operation" was established. for the history of the "international council of christians and jews" see rev. w.w. simpson, co-operation between christians and jews, its possibilities and limitations; in: gote hedenquist (ed.), the church and the jewish people (london, ), pp. - . page the following publications were consulted: "the world alliance of reformed churches" (published by the world presbyterian alliance, geneva, ); "lutheran directory", supplement (published by the lutheran world federation, geneva); j. grundler, lexikon der christlichen kirchen und sekten (vienna, ; in german), vol. ; guy mayfield, the church of england (oxford, ); stephen neill, anglicanism (london, ); timothy ware, the orthodox church (pelican books, ); j. meyendorff, the orthodox church (london, ); ruth rouse and stephen charles neill (ed.), a history of the ecumenical movement - (london, ); figures about the churches in the united states were received from the department of information of the national council of churches of christ in the u.s.a. ***** end of footnotes ****** gjs, dec information about the author: john martinus snoek born , studied theology at the free university in amsterdam - . worked and lived with his family years in israel, ( - ) where he served for the church of scotland as minister in tiberias. from - he worked as secretary of the committee of the church and the jewish people with the world council of churches in geneva. publications: . in english the grey book. ( ) see pg e-book # . in dutch: the dutch churches en the jews - . ( ) isbn nugi . in dutch: sometimes, one has to show one's color ( ) both the grey book and the dutch churches - are prepared for gutenberg etext by his nephew ge j. snoek, errors and remarks please mail to: g.snoek @chello.nl. a guide for the religious instruction of jewish youth. proposed to teachers by isaac reggio, rabbi and professor, member of the oriental and leipsic, halle, etc., etc., etc. translated from the italian by m. h. picciotto. london: simpkin, marshall, and co., stationers'--hall court. mdccclv. london: printed by j. wertheimer and co. synopsis. notice by the translator. author's preface. chapter i. god. . his existence. cosmological argument. . first cause, necessary, eternal. . omnipotent, free, provident, omniscient, infallible. . all-wise, good, pure, immutable. . god. . psychological argument. . moral argument. chapter ii. man. . his faculties. . his destination. . intellect. . reason. . free will. . immortal soul. . double tendency. . contrast. . choice. . conscience. . feeling. chapter iii. natural religion. . idea of religion. . necessity for man. . faith. chapter iv. insufficiency of natural religion. . obstacles. . tardy development of reason. . ascendancy of sensuality. . want of opportunity. . social life. . internal anarchy. . limitation of human understanding. . uncertainty of human knowledge. . experience. . necessity of a revelation. chapter v. revealed religion. . its actuality. . its truth. . its fundamental principle. . relation between god and man. . divine plan. . essence of revelation. . lofty aspiration of man. . prophecy. . prediction of the future. chapter vi. objection and answer. . rationalism antagonistic to faith. . self-love in the physical world. . self-love in man. . heroism of man. . proceeding from love. . is the cause of faith. . is not the offspring of imagination . depends on the subjection of the sensual appetites. . furnishes evidence to faith. chapter vii. preliminary dispositions of revelation. . contingency in revelation. . its removal. . choice of a portion of mankind. . beginning from an individual. . election of that individual. chapter viii. patriarchal epoch. . abraham. . his virtues. . aim of his vocation. . covenant established with him. . circumcision. . abraham's progeny. . providential measures. chapter ix. sinaitic revelation. . egyptian bondage. moses. . preamble of the revelation. . modality of the revelation . decalogue. chapter x. the ten commandments. . first commandment, . second, . third, . fourth, . fifth, . sixth, seventh, and eighth, . ninth. . tenth. chapter xi. successive revelations. . their character. . their twofold direction. . their sanction. chapter xii. revealed notions respecting god. . knowledge of god. . opportunity of such a knowledge. . immediate relation between god and man. . love of god. . fear of god. . other duties towards god. chapter xiii. duties towards fellow-men. . justice. . negative duties. . positive duties. . other duties. . charity and benevolence. . duties toward the animate and inanimate nature. chapter xiv. duties towards one's-self. . fundamental rule. . sanctification. . duties towards the body. . other special obligations. chapter xv. judaism. . religious idea. . its vicissitudes among the jews. . mosaism. . prophetism. chapter xvi. conclusion. . action, creed, hopes. notice. the name of isaac reggio of goritz, is now a celebrity in the hebrew literary world. a man of vast mind, a profound scholar, a philosopher, and an elegant writer, his numerous works on theology, hermeneutics, philology, history, and literature, written in hebrew, in italian, and in german, have tended much to revive the taste for hebrew literature, and to reconcile modern education to the study of jewish antiquities. the present little book is one of his latest productions in the italian language. in a style at once concise and perspicuous, and with a form of reasoning suited to the scientific requirements of the times, he introduces the student to an enlarged view of religion, ascends with him to the heavenly source from which it emanated, and leads him, through the paths of virtue and love, to the comprehension and admiration of the objects contemplated by it. in short, he teaches--if i am permitted the expression--_the philosophy of religion_. i humbly, but firmly believe that, in the hands of able jewish teachers, this work will considerably assist them to infuse into religious instruction a little more spirituality, and to impart a more comprehensive view of religion, than the routine of former days deemed necessary, and that, by so doing, they will be better able to enlarge and satisfy the minds, improve the hearts, and generally advance the moral education of youth. notwithstanding the well-intentioned and beneficial efforts of many friends of education among the british jews, and the praiseworthy exertions of some excellent teachers, the education of the mass is, we must confess, still in a condition, in which the attainment of those objects has not ceased to be a desideratum. we may or may not be on a level with our neighbours, but we have very urgent and special calls of our own for self-improvement, we have a particular mission to fulfil, with its concomitant duties. such self-improvement and such duties are demanded by the spirit--not of _the age_, as is too commonly said and believed--but of an age which began thirty-two centuries ago, at the revelation on mount sinai--the spirit of judaism, of well-understood judaism. our age, with all its boasted and undeniable progress, is still, morally, far below the type designed by providence for humanity in the sinaitic dispensation, far behind the spirit which dictated and pervades the pages of the sacred volume, and which, when thoroughly understood and generally acted upon, must bring about the supreme reign of justice, charity, and universal love, and--as far as attainable--the ultimate perfection of mankind. it has appeared to me that these truths find a plain and logical exposition in this little work, and that its contents may not prove uninteresting even to the general reader. i also believe that a more correct apprehension of the true spirit and principles of judaism by our christian brethren, than is commonly arrived at, will have the twofold effect, of gradually leading to a larger measure of justice being dealt to the jew, and inducing the latter to a higher degree of self-respect. for these several reasons, i have volunteered to translate it for the use of the english public, while other versions are being prepared in germany and france. i trust that those to whose lot has fallen the honourable but arduous task of educating and informing young minds, and to whom it is more particularly addressed, will give it their earnest consideration, for the sake of whatever good they may cull from it, as a material in aid, while they are laying the foundations of virtue in the hearts of the rising generation. that the results may correspond to the intentions is the sincere wish of the translator. author's preface. to instructors. in the exercise of the sacred mission entrusted to you by providence--that of educating our youth to piety and religion--it must have frequently occurred to you, to wish that such an instruction could be imparted, not in the shape of dogmas demanding to be admitted without investigation, but as doctrines addressed to the intellect by proper demonstrations, and finding their way to the heart by stimulating its noblest feelings. the little book that i present to you is intended to satisfy, at least in part, that wish. you will not find in it a complete treatise on jewish theology, or a systematic catechism, but only the essential elements, which may serve to the future elaboration of both. you will find deposited in it the rough materials, which some abler hands will perhaps one day employ in constructing an edifice, in which our youth may find a safe refuge from the storms of doubt, unbelief, and irreligion. i have purposed to avoid all exuberant ornaments of style, all pompous parade of erudition, and contented myself with a plain diction, and a strict laconism. i have not quoted authors who preceded me in the same field; i have not called up for investigation what of valuable or defective could be found in them; in short, i have not instituted comparisons, scientific disquisitions, or critical examinations of the opinions of others. a series of aphorisms, simple, plain, unadorned, of easy understanding, drawn from no other source than the divine word, presented with the greatest possible perspicuity and precision, progressing in a regular chain of consequential propositions, and containing in few words the most important points of the israelitish creed--that is the form in which i have thought more proper to present to those, who are already versed in the bible and in hebrew literature, a skeleton of the vast religious science, in which they may perceive at a glance the principal characteristic of judaism, its various ramifications, subsidiary parts, and special tendencies; they may then easily discover and account for the multifarious phases, in which it manifested itself in the various epochs of the universal history of mankind. to supply the deficiencies, to adorn those naked propositions, to provide them with evidence deduced from the sacred text, to enlarge them with appropriate applications, to illustrate them with examples, in fine, to reduce the whole into such a catechistic form as will suit a sound system of instruction--such is the task which remains entrusted to your intelligence, and to your zeal. by employing the proffered materials with that discretion which is peculiar to your ministry, with that method which the tender minds of your pupils require, and with the love inspired by the sublimity and importance of the subject, yours will be the merit of having propagated the seeds of truth that will bring forth charity and universal edification; to me suffices the happiness of having, in some degree, contributed to so noble a work. a guide for the religious instruction of jewish youth. chapter i. i. whoever directs his mind to the contemplation of the objects that surround him, the aggregate of which is called the universe, will soon perceive, that the parts of which it is composed undergo continually various modifications and successive changes, every one of them exercising some influence on the others, and receiving from them some alteration. this state of mutual dependence, in which the parts of the universe stand in relation to each other, leads us necessarily to conclude, that none of them has within itself the reason or cause of its existence, but that all of them together depend upon a cause which is out of themselves, and through which they began to exist; the universe, then, has had a cause, an author. ii. this author of the universe, if he had not in himself the reason of his existence, must also have it in others, and these again in others. consequently, we must either suppose an endless progression of causes and effects, which is repugnant to reason, or arrive at last at a being existing by and of himself,--that is to say, one who owes not his existence to others, and has caused all other things to exist;--and in that case, the reason of his existence must be part of his _own_ essence and nature, and, consequently, inseparable from him and indestructible. the author of the universe is then a being necessary and eternal; and as to him all things owe their existence, it follows that through him they began to exist, and he created them from nought. iii. he, who could create all from nought, has a power without limits, and nothing is to him impossible; he, who has given existence to all things, has also ordained the laws to which they are subject; he, who has ordained at his will the laws of nature, has also the power of changing or suspending them at his will; and lastly, he, who caused all things to exist, can alone keep them in existence, governing and directing them with ceaseless providence; and such continual action implies, of necessity, that he should know everything, that nothing should be hidden from him, and that in him error should be impossible. the author of the universe is then omnipotent, free, all-provident, omniscient, and infallible. iv. again, whoever attentively contemplates the universe cannot help discovering, with admiration, in every part of it a stupendous art, a constant order, a systematic correspondence of means to ends, which demonstrate that all has been arranged on a predetermined plan and for a fixed purpose, to which all the particular dispositions developed in the course of the natural phenomena are exquisitely adapted. this order and this harmony--which manifest themselves, also, in all the progressive courses of nature--indicate a self-developing excellence, and a tendency to an ever-increasing perfectibility, such as can only emanate from a cause infinitely intelligent and good; and as such qualities cannot be attributed to a being corporeal, because limited and subject to changes, it follows that the author of the universe is all-wise and good, pure and immutable. v. now, this being, necessary and eternal, whom the contemplation of the universe alone reveals to us as the author of everything, as omnipotent, free, all-provident, omniscient, infallible, pure, immutable, all-wise, and good, is he whom we call god. vi. but our conviction of the existence of god need not be derived exclusively from the wonders of the universe; for every man can find in himself the evident proof of the existence of that supreme cause. in fact, man feels within himself that he thinks; and if he were even to doubt it, he could not deny that at least he doubts; and the doubt itself is already a thought. admitting that he possesses the faculty of thinking, he must admit that there is within himself a substance, a being, a something which thinks. but this being, who is conscious of his own thoughts, is also conscious that he exists not by himself, that he has not existed from all eternity, that he is subject to changes, that even the simple ideas, which compose his thoughts, are not produced by himself, but acquired through his senses from external objects; and, in short, that he depends upon various causes placed without himself, and undergoes vicissitudes, which it is not in his power to remove. therefore man has not within himself the reason of his own existence, but he must trace it to another, who is the author of it. now, this author cannot have received his own existence from another, if he is to be considered the primary cause; otherwise we should fall into a succession of causes and effects to infinity. then, the true author of our existence is one who exists by himself, and as such he is eternal, omnipotent, all-wise, etc., etc.; he is god. vii. another source, affording the proof of the existence of god, man finds in himself when his intellectual faculties have attained a certain degree of culture and maturity. he then knows himself to be a moral being; that is to say, a being who, placed between good and evil, can, of his own free will, adhere to the former and reject the latter, if he follows the dictates of his reason. then the moral sense awakens in his mind the idea of a supreme blessing, of a progressive and infallible moral perfection, of a future final accord between virtue and felicity, and their necessary co-existence. now, he cannot expect this supreme blessing from anything that surrounds him in nature, because he does not find in the latter the desired union of happiness with virtue, enjoyment with merit. he must, therefore, seek it in a supreme cause existing out of nature--in a cause which should contain in itself the type of the moral law, embrace the whole extent of that law with infinite intelligence, and act up to its dictates with a powerful will. this supreme cause is god. chapter ii. viii. man has many advantages and privileges over all other creatures. not only can he, like other animals, perceive through his senses all the surrounding objects, but he can compare with one another the perceptions received, associate them together, separate them, and form new ideas. he can know for what purposes things exist, investigate their causes and effects, discern between good and evil, between just and unjust; he alone can communicate his thoughts to others; he alone can speak. ix. everything produced by an intelligent author must be intended for some purpose--must have a _destination_. man, the noblest creature on earth, must also have a destination. we shall arrive at a clear knowledge of that destination, when we shall have considered the powers and capabilities possessed by him; for the means with which nature has endowed him, for the development of his activity, evidently point out the goal which that activity is designed to attain. x. now, the capabilities that we discover in man are the following:--besides a body constructed with wonderful skill, but weak, corruptible, mortal, man has within himself a vivifying principle, which substantiates in him the knowledge of things with the aid of the senses, renews in him perceptions once received, unites them, separates them, and forms out of them new ideas. this thinking principle is certainly different from the body, of which no part is apt to think, and is what we call the _soul_; the act itself of thinking proceeds from a faculty of the soul which we call _intellect_. xi. but the soul can also judge, conclude from causes to effects, distinguish between good and evil, between just and unjust, conceive an idea of things never perceived through the senses; it can recognise the supreme author of the universe, it can adore god. this faculty of the soul is called _reason_; intellect and reason are the principal or superior faculties of the human soul. xii. reason points out good as a thing desirable, and evil as a thing to be avoided; yet man feels within himself a desire or impulse towards all that is pleasurable to the senses, although reason may represent it to him as an evil. and, on the other hand, he is conscious of his perfect freedom of choosing good, however disagreeable to the senses, and of abhorring evil, however tempting it may appear; he has, then, the faculty of directing his action to one or other of these two courses; his soul is endowed with _free-will_. xiii. a being endowed with intellect, reason, and free-will cannot be composed of parts, because the operations proceeding from such faculties presuppose a comparison of various relations with each other, and a deduction of consequences from their principles; and these operations require such a unity and simplicity in their subject as are absolutely incompatible with the nature of matter, composed, as it is, of parts. the human soul is therefore a simple being, a _spirit_, and, as such, indestructible, _immortal_. xiv. man, then, unites in himself two natures, belongs to two classes of beings very different from one another, is a citizen of two worlds. in his body he is linked to the material world, undergoes all the vicissitudes of matter, is subject to the incentives of the senses, and is impelled to gratify the wants and cravings of physical enjoyment. as regards his soul, he enters into the sphere of intelligences, he feels himself attracted by the ideas of the beautiful, of the true, of the just; he participates in the condition of the spiritual beings, aspires to the immense, to the infinite; and is susceptible of an ever-increasing perfectibility, finding within himself the power of abhorring moral evil, viz., vice, and of cleaving to moral good, viz., virtue. xv. man has, therefore, within himself a germ of discord between the two principles of which he is constituted, a contrast between the exigencies of the body and those of the soul--between the appetites of the senses and the dictates of reason; and as this latter alone is competent to form a judgment on what he ought or ought not to do, it follows that reason alone should be consulted and obeyed in determining upon every action. xvi. now, by freely and spontaneously resolving to conform all the actions of his life to the dictates of reason, which commands him to be wise in his self-government, upright with others, and pious towards the supreme author, man will have worthily corresponded to the end for which he was created--he will have fulfilled his _destination_; for it is clearly the destination of man to make the best possible use of the sublime faculties with which his soul is endowed; and the best possible use he does make when he subordinates his inferior to his superior tendencies, the cravings of the body to those of the soul; in a word, when he obeys the dictates of reason. xvii. when man obeys the dictates of reason, an internal voice in his heart tells him that he has done right; he feels satisfied with himself, and is penetrated with a sense of true joy. when, on the contrary, he consciously infringes the laws of reason, he is not only deprived of that internal approbation, but an inextinguishable voice rises reproachful within his heart; he is no longer satisfied with himself, but feels uneasiness and perturbation. that internal voice, which judges man's actions, and generates happiness or sorrow, is what is called _conscience_. xviii. but the human soul, when it concentrates itself within, has also the faculty of feeling the sense of its own individuality, and perceiving that the state in which it is is its own. by virtue of this sense, which we may call feeling, the soul is led always to desire its own welfare, its own happiness; thence springs love or hatred, inclination or aversion towards an object, as this object seems apt to occasion pleasure or pain. but man, sooner or later, discovers that a true and permanent pleasure cannot be obtained through any of the physical enjoyments on earth, which he may not always be able to procure, or, when procured, leave after them weariness and disgust. he, consequently, cannot place in them his true happiness; and his internal sense tells him that there are other enjoyments of a purely spiritual nature, which alone can satisfy the highest aspirations of his soul. the exercise of his moral duties--which, through his freedom of action, lies always within his power, and by which alone he can tranquillise his conscience and fully delight in self-contentment--is that which offers to his soul true and permanent enjoyment; that alone is worth desiring. chapter iii. xix. on man governing himself morally well in life, it becomes manifest to him, on the one hand, that his conduct, being conformable to the end for which he was created, must also be agreeable to the will of the creator. on the other hand, that same internal sense, which prompts him to satisfy the demands of his own conscience, leads him, also, to elevate his mind towards god; and he feels at the bottom of his heart that he would be wanting in the principal element of his happiness if he referred not his every thought to the author of his existence. this twofold direction of the mind towards god is called _religion_, a word derived from the latin _religare_, for, as a moral being endowed with intelligence and freedom, man feels always a certain tendency to disengage himself from the physical order of terrestrial things, and to _link_ himself again to the supreme cause from whom he emanated. xx. all the peoples of antiquity exhibited, in their successive developments, the aptitude of the human soul to entertain religion within itself, nay, the necessity in which it finds itself to connect the exercise of moral duties or virtue with the supreme source of all morality. in fact, god, in his infinite wisdom and goodness, wills nothing but what is good; and in no better mode could man ever manifest his gratitude to the author of his existence, than by doing that which is agreeable to his will. hence it is, that whoever is true to his destination, is said to be true to god; and he who is virtuous is religious. there is, then, in the human soul a natural disposition to religiousness or piety; and the history of all ages testifies that no people ever existed, who, however rude and uncultivated, has not had some presentiment of the relations which bind the rational creature to its creator. man is born to religion.[ ] [note : these truths are now readily admitted by all well-thinking men. it was very easy, and very amusing, for the philosophy of the eighteenth century, to ridicule the ignorance and superstition of the ancients, and to denounce the modern peoples which followed in the same direction, though by different tracks. but the true philosophy of the present age, which has penetrated deeper into the recesses of the human heart, has arrived at the double conclusion, that a superior power has implanted therein certain elements which it is not in human power to remove; and that what is inherent in human nature cannot he combated, but must be wisely directed. hence, modern civilisation deals lees than preceding ages in abstractions; and in its intellectual development, accepts religion as a starting point in the laborious but open walk, which leads to human happiness,--the translator.] xxi. this need for man to be religious constitutes the basis of _faith_. as man is said to _know_ that which is proved to him by experience, or by the testimony of the senses, so he is said to _believe_ that which is to him a real want, although it cannot be demonstrated to him either by experience or by the evidence of the senses. _knowledge_ is based upon _objective_, and _belief_ upon _subjective_ proofs. the existence of god, the providence with which he governs the world, the immortality of the soul, the excellence of virtue, the just expectation of a final triumph of good, and of an improvement and future perfection of the human condition, are truths which have their foundations in man himself, that is, in the _nature_ of his soul; they originate in him, even without the concurrence of reflection, almost from an innate feeling of the heart, which impels him to admit them; they are founded on subjective proofs, and man _believes_ them as necessities of his own nature. these religious truths are therefore called _natural_, and their disciples are said to profess a _natural religion_. chapter iv. xxii. yet, notwithstanding the possibility for man to attain happiness by only following the voice of reason, experience has shown, in the most unmistakable manner, that natural religion is insufficient alone to guide mankind in the right path, to preserve him from error, and to regulate his life with constant conformity to his destination, under all circumstances and in all conjunctures. such insufficiency is caused by various obstacles, presented by the self-same nature of man, and the objects that surround him, and which prevent reason from exercising an absolute dominion over the heart, and naturally weaken its influence on human actions. xxiii. first among these obstacles, is the circumstance, that the intellectual faculties do not exhibit so much vigour in early youth as the animal or appetitive faculties. long before the force of reason has developed itself in the mind, the sensual tendencies have already grown giants in the heart, impelling man to desire ardently all that has the semblance of pleasure, however fugitive and deceitful. the will, which is in its full vigour even in a child, has already carried into effect most of these desires, and has thus produced such a habit of grasping impulsively, and without reflection, at everything that presents itself in the aspect of an enjoyment, that reason often arrives too late to destroy the ascendancy gained by the lust of the heart, and to claim its dominion over all man's actions. xxiv. besides, reason is sometimes in danger of losing its supremacy, even after having asserted it. instinct, which, in brutes, holds the place of free-will, confines their physical cravings within certain limits, and we never see an animal wallow in intemperance; but man, just because enjoying absolute freedom of will, may extend his desires beyond every limit, and so much strain and invigorate them as to succumb under their influence. therefore reason, whether from its tardy development, or from the unlimited ascendancy of sensuality, holds the reins of its power always with uncertainty, and is not ever certain of being obeyed. xxv. another obstacle is to be traced in the want of opportunity and time, or, in other words, in the little time that man can spare to devote to reflection, in the presence of the multifarious cravings of his body. these cravings, increased, no doubt, by luxury and an inclination, to superfluities, demand daily and hourly to be satisfied. he is, then, obliged to work unceasingly to earn or procure the means of satisfying his own physical wants, as well as, not unfrequently, those of a whole family. aliment, clothing, habitation, comfort, recreation, and other innumerable cares, real or artificial, require so much labour and exertion, that little or no time remains for the great majority of mankind to devote to the assiduous reflections and researches necessary to determine what duties reason imposes upon them to fulfil, and what actions to perform. xxvi. a third obstacle to the development of the moral force in man is the very social life which, by his own nature, he is called to enter. the safety of the social fabric demands that the property of each individual be distinct and acknowledged, and establishes a diversity of ranks, offices, honours, and positions, which ill agree with human cupidity. hence a conflict of desires, a collision of ambitions, a contest of interests, which at all times generate among men discords, machinations, frauds, usurpations, treachery, violence, and rapine. add the consequences of the pride and ambition, which each more or less entertains, to reach or surpass some others in power, wealth, or fame, whence many causes of disappointments and heartburnings, of hatreds and jealousies, of persecutions and calumnies, of acts of vengeance and injustice of every form, and it will be easily conceived how little, under the influence of _so_ many evil passions occasioned by social life, could populations, in the course of time, be disposed to submit willingly to the severe and exclusive regimen of reason. xxvii. independently of these external impediments, there exists a kind of internal anarchy in man, arising from the want of a force exercising the functions of an arbitrator between the mind and the heart, and inclining the latter to shape its decisions on the motives of the former. the truths, which he is frequently able to discover, satisfy his intellect without affecting his will, minister food to the mind, but operate not on the heart; in short, they establish a theory, but command not practice. hence it often happens that man sees right, approves it, and yet adheres to wrong. even after having gathered an abundant harvest from long studies and profound meditations, he still feels the need of a guide to direct his steps--of a means, available at all times, and competent to enable him to subordinate the appetitive to the intellectual faculties, and to cause the will to follow the judgments of the mind rather than those of the heart. xxviii. the inadequacy of natural religion alone becomes still more manifest, when we consider the weakness and limited extent of the human understanding. to meditate assiduously on an abstract object, which does not fall under the perception of the senses, is given only to a few individuals endowed with uncommon penetration. but by far the greater part of men, disinclined to submit to long and arduous researches, concerning what they ought or ought not to believe and to do, prefer living thoughtlessly; and when they even try to enter upon spiritual meditations, they soon feel discouraged, and, often distrusting their own powers, throw up the difficult task half way, to resume the course of a reckless mode of life. xxix. but even the few privileged beings, who believe themselves equal to the task, and plunge earnestly into spiritual researches, must confess to the insufficiency of the intellectual powers, and admit, that beside some few principles which they have succeeded in establishing, many doubts remain to be cleared, many questions to be solved, many objections to be overcome; and they must ultimately conclude, that reason by itself is unable to answer on all that interests man to admit or to deny, to seek or to avoid, to believe and to do, to hope and to fear. there is not, in this wide range of spiritual subjects, a proposition held by one as true, which has not been discarded by another as an error; and there is not a paradox or an absurdity that has not found some supporters, who maintained it as a truth. doubt and error, in abstract and metaphysical questions, are natural and inherent in mankind, so long as reason is their only luminary in the research. xxx. the experience of all ages teaches us that the obstacles above stated have always exercised their influence upon the development of the moral sense among men, by retarding, and sometimes even rendering impossible to them, a clear and sound conception of their destination, and a firm resolve to conform to it. all the nations of antiquity, which, left to themselves, never received from without any spiritual and religious instruction, could never rise from the slough of sensuality and superstition; they sank deep in idolatry, and ultimately adopted creeds and practices abominable and repugnant alike to the excellence of reason and the dignity of man. on the other hand, all the nations that totally or partly succeeded in extricating themselves from a state of brutality and barbarism, must acknowledge that not to the development of their intelligence alone they owe their regeneration, but to certain sublime doctrines--originated in causes quite extrinsical from human nature--which, having found their way to them through a concourse of favourable and apparently fortuitous circumstances, were more or less readily admitted, as notions gained from without, and by degrees ingrafted, under various modifications, on their own primitive ideas. xxxi. it being, then, almost impossible, or, at least, extremely difficult, for man to arrive, through the sole action of the faculties inherent in his nature, at his intended goal, to shape his course accordingly, and thus to lay the foundations of his future happiness, it was necessary that an intelligence far superior to his own should come to his assistance, communicate to him some fundamental truths concerning his present and future life, enlighten his intellect, guide his reason, invigorate his will in the paths of truth, justice, and righteousness, and thus facilitate to him the attainment of his sublime destination. it was necessary that god himself should instruct him in what was most important to know, manifest his will to him, and explicitly point out to him the way he was to follow, the obstructions he was to avoid, and the goal he had to reach. man, then, was in need of a _revelation_. chapter v. xxxii. this revelation was actually vouchsafed. it pleased the supreme being, through his infinite mercy, to manifest his will, and make known some great and precious truths, which men would have vainly attempted to discover with the unaided operation of their reason; he chose to undertake, to a certain extent, the education of mankind. from the beginning of the world god revealed himself to the first man; and he continued afterwards for many ages, as his eternal wisdom deemed proper, to communicate to such individuals as were the worthiest among mortals the instructions which were afterwards to work the salvation of all mankind. those instructions, which contain truths by far more comforting and sublime than any results which man could have arrived at through his own faculties alone, constitute the substance of revelation; and he who acknowledges their divine origin, and conforms to them the actions of his life, is called a professor of the _revealed religion_. xxxiii. that god has really revealed himself to some individuals of the human species is an historical fact, the truth of which is proved, like all truths of a similar order, by testimony and documents. but independently of the existing evidence, the possibility of such an act can be easily conceived by the human understanding, when we consider that everything is feasible to the omnipotence of the creator; and nothing is more consentaneous to his infinite goodness and wisdom, than the blessed purpose of granting to human frailty an assistance calculated to lead the noblest of creatures to the attainment of the exalted end for which he was created. to conceive, also, the precise modes and forms in which such a revelation is effected or conveyed, it was given only to those elect who were themselves the recipients, and who are called prophets. but we can arrive at the knowledge of the principal characteristics which constitute prophecy, after we shall have placed in a clear light the essence and the final object of revelation. xxxiv. all the revealed doctrines may be reduced to one fundamental principle, from which they originate, and on which rests the whole edifice of revelation. this principle may be expressed as follows:--besides the general relation of dependence existing indistinctly between all creatures and their creator, there is a relation more intimate and special between god and man--a relation of a spiritual and sentimental nature, arising from the circumstance of the latter being created in the image of god, by virtue of which man is not subject exclusively to the blind government of the physical laws of nature, but, almost independent of them, he walks under the immediate influence of his celestial father; this independence, however, cannot be accomplished before he has succeeded in subduing his sensual appetites, and has bent them to follow the divine direction. thus acting, he will not remain a passive spectator of the vicissitudes which accelerate or retard the fulfilment of that which the divine wisdom purposed as the final aim of the creation, but, through the immortal spirit transfused in him, he will feel impelled to take some active part in the great work of the ultimate universal perfection, and to associate his own will to the will of the creator. xxxv. the relation between god and man is a tie of love. god being goodness itself, this finds a more extensive field for its manifestation in the rational creature than in any other. on the other hand, man, possessed of a spiritual soul, is superior to matter, and is capable, more than the other terrestrial beings, of receiving within himself an abundance of the divine benevolence, which _diffuses itself throughout the universe in exact proportion to the various aptitudes of the recipients_. it is precisely in consequence of the understanding with which man is endowed, and of his aptitude to nourish love for the supreme being, that he has been elected, from among all terrestrial creatures, to enter into a more intimate relation with god, and to co-operate, in as much as lies in his power, to the accomplishment of the divine plan. xxxvi. the plan of the creator is immeasurably profound, and therefore inscrutable. nevertheless, in so far as it is permitted to the human mind to penetrate it, and as it has pleased the divine mercy to reveal it, we know with certainty that it is all directed to diffuse happiness and beatitude over all creatures, in proportion to their respective capabilities of participating in them, and to guide all beings towards that end, which, in the scheme of the universe, was pre-ordained by the infinite wisdom as _the best_. now, the inanimate portion of the creation progresses unconsciously in the way ordained by providence, obeys physical immutable laws, and is, therefore, only a means to a more exalted end. but the moral being, who has self-consciousness, resolves on action after deliberating upon what he thinks best, and carries out his resolve with free will; he is, then, himself the aim of his life. therefore, to lead this being towards his own destination, it was proper not to subject him to restraint under laws of necessity, otherwise the freedom of his will would have been destroyed; it was only necessary to enlighten him, to place before him some fundamental truths, capable of dispelling all doubts from his mind, and detaching him from errors and superstitions, and thus to offer him means and inducements sufficient to direct his attention and will towards the end designed by the divine wisdom. xxxvii. it is these truths, offered as means and inducements, that constitute the essence of revelation. through revelation, man was made acquainted that god created the universe out of nought, that he governs it with his wisdom, and can work every change which he deems suitable; that he created man in the divine image, that is, with an immortal soul, capable of receiving within itself the divine idea, of conceiving its sublimity, and carrying it into effect. through revelation, man learnt that god is one, omnipotent, holy, of infinite forbearance and mercy, and an inexhaustible source of pure love; that he created as a stock of all the human family a single individual (to proclaim thereby the principle of universal brotherhood and mutual love between all the members of that family); that he desires to be loved, worshipped, and served by it, with purity of heart, with elevation of spirit, and with unflinching constancy. through revelation, we are taught to use wisely the earthly gifts, and to turn their material enjoyment into a subject for edification and the glorification of god; to exercise right, justice, rectitude, charity, piety, and humility; we are also taught that god judges the human actions, punishes those who contravene his will, and is disposed to pardon the sins of those who feel a true repentance. and, lastly, through revelation, an invitation is tendered to man to elevate his mind to the creator, to imitate him, to approach him through self-sanctification; and a perspective is opened before his mind's eye of an interminable future of beatitude beyond the grave, as the ultimate goal of his longings, and a just reward to his virtuous conduct. xxxviii. when an individual, after long and serious meditations, and through a concourse of favourable circumstances, acquires a comprehension of this divine plan, and conceives it in its fullest extent and excellence, he will feel an irresistible attraction towards such a contemplation, and an ineffable admiration will seize all his mind; an internal intense desire will spring up in his heart to see it carried out, nay, to contribute himself to its accomplishment, since the first tendency is already engrafted on his very nature. in proportion as this desire extends its roots in the heart of that individual, so will he make it his exclusive pre-occupation, voluntarily sacrifice to it every worldly consideration, and so will he feel impelled to devote himself to promote, promulgate, and bring to universal knowledge those truths which, as stated, form the essence of revelation; his soul will become the receptacle of the divine idea, his tongue and all his body the organs of its fulfilment; his whole life will be an expression of the idea which pervades him; he will feel within himself an irresistible call to constitute himself, of his own authority, and without any regard to worldly powers, a preceptor to mankind, an adviser and censor of all, a supporter of right and virtue, a herald of truth, and a defender of the cause of god; he will defy every obstacle with unbending spirit, will employ all his powers, physical and moral, to the attainment of his aim; and sometimes he will end by becoming a martyr to his holy project. in short, his will becomes identical with the will of god. xxxix. such a man is a prophet. his mind elevated to the highest degree of intelligence, his heart bent constantly to love what is good, he has almost assumed a second nature, and he lives upon earth a purely spiritual life. of all that surrounds him, nothing is of any value in his eyes but that which may contribute to the accomplishment of the divine design; in all passing events he sees but as many dispositions of providence calculated to direct men to the path in which they are called to walk; the very thoughts which cross his mind, and the wishes which form themselves in his heart, he regards them not as the productions of his own soul, but as emanations from the spirit of god which dwells in him, and pervades all his being. such a mode of viewing things is, after all, not a mere effect of his imagination, but a true reflex of the influence that actuates this man, an influence springing from the fact already stated, that his will has identified itself with the will of god. hence the prophet is called a man inspired by god, for it is the divine spirit that pervades, agitates, and directs him; it is the divine spirit that found in him an instrument for its operation, an organ for its manifestation, a medium to carry out its high designs, a representative of god on earth, who shall recall men to their divine origin, and lead them on to their ultimate destination. xl. from the foregoing exposition of the characters of prophecy it will appear obvious, that those are greatly mistaken, who think that the exclusive or even the principal ministry of the prophet consists in foreseeing and foretelling future events. the prophet may occasionally find it necessary to his ends to predict some events, which he does by virtue of the divine spirit infused in him; but this is for him only an accessory means to the chief object, which is to propagate and promote among men divine knowledge and religious life. with an all-wise provision, god disposed that, as a rule, the future shall remain hidden from mortals, that they may exert themselves to render it propitious by their good actions; and if he sometimes permitted, as an exception, that it should be revealed to them through the dispensers of his word, it was not to gratify an idle curiosity, but to excite men to worthily conform their works to coming events. chapter vi. xli. the preliminary notions hitherto set forth are to be regarded as placed in the vestibule leading to the temple of revelation. now, before we cross the threshold, it may be well to meet at once an objection which will possibly be offered by modern incredulity. it is fashionably said, that rational man can admit nothing as true except that which is proved to him by logical demonstrations; and as for the acceptance of a revealed religion faith is a necessary element, and this must exclude (as commonly pretended) every kind of proof, therefore all reasoning is out of the question, and the very basis of that which is sought to be inculcated as a truth, renders it inadmissible. such an objection, however erroneous in reality, has too grave an appearance, and its consequences would be too lamentable, to permit us to disregard it. it becomes, therefore, indispensable, before entering the sanctuary of revelation, to remove the obstruction of such an error, even at the cost of a digression from our path, in order to consider the matter in its origin. xlii. one of the primary laws of existence in the physical world is self-love; that is, an instinct in every creature to procure its own good, even at the expense of others, so that the preservation of one is attended with the destruction of some others. all nature is in a perpetual struggle within itself, and every component part receives the elements of its own life and increment from the destruction of others. this we see repeatedly happen under our own eyes, as well in plants as in animals, and so evidently, that we need not here record instances to confirm it. it is through this contrast of individual interests, through this perpetual alternation of production and growth with decrease and destruction, that providence ordained the preservation of the world in its totality, while the individuals perish and the species remain. xliii. man also, considered only in his physical nature, is subject to the universal law of self-love; and until he has arrived at a correct appreciation of his moral nature and duties, he will allow himself to be impelled by that law to possess himself of all that he thinks suitable to his own advantage, regardless of the detriment of others, and even of their very existence; and so will, on the other hand, every one else, being in the same condition, act towards him. but the effects of unrestrained self-love are by far more mischievous in man than in the irrational animals, for the intelligence with which he is endowed affords him more means and artifices to accomplish his selfish views, so long as he is governed by these and not by nobler impulses. hence it happens also, that so long as a man lies under the fascination of self-love, society, of which he is called to become a member, places him in a condition, from which he looks upon his fellow-men as the natural enemies of his individual happiness; and he feels a propensity to throw obstacles, either by malice or violence, in the way of others, to prevent their attaining that which is denied to him. xliv. but we find, also, in man another principle diametrically opposed to self-love, which, proceeding from the noblest prerogatives of his soul, distinguishes him from the irrational creatures, and invites him to a career totally opposite to theirs. this principle, commonly called virtue, we shall express by the more comprehensive name of _heroism_. as by self-love man is inclined to sacrifice the welfare of others to his own, so by heroism he is led to sacrifice himself to the welfare of others. when we see a mother struggling to death, and with admirable self-devotion, against overpowering waves, or ferocious beasts, or devouring flames, to save her child from certain destruction, it would be stolidity and folly for us to bring into comparison with this act, the cares bestowed by a brute in feeding her young, since as soon as the latter has carried into effect the order of nature, she forsakes them, and, when grown, does not even recognise them; whereas the love of a mother endures beyond the grave. when a husband, bound with the indissoluble tie of affection to the woman of his heart, voluntarily sacrifices to her everything dearest in the world, and finds in her affection ample recompense for his direst privations, who would dare to attribute this to the physical sexual tendency common even to the brutes? a tendency, which, besides manifesting itself only at detached periods of time, disappears altogether in old age, whereas conjugal love runs beyond the confines of time. the same may be said of a friend, who would give his own life to save that of his beloved, of a generous warrior who risks everything for his country's sake, and of a host of others, who magnanimously devote themselves to the relief of suffering humanity; in short, of every one who feels himself moved by a superior force to cross over the boundaries of selfishness and sensuality, and to become a hero. xlv. in all these phenomena, a principle directly adverse to that of physical nature manifests itself. while in the latter, self-love is a necessary supreme law, in the spiritual life of man we see prevailing, as a foundation to morality, a voluntary sacrifice of self, offered on the altar of love. no pain or regret ever accompanies such an offering; on the contrary, a sensible man undertakes it with cheerfulness, as a manifestation of his exalted nature, and derives from its performance a purer joy than all other earthly enjoyments could afford him. but this love, which limits and conquers self-love, this love which so well testifies to the excellence of man, whence does it proceed? assuredly not from physical nature; this is, on the contrary, based upon a law which would destroy love. it must emanate, then, from a source, itself a prototype of moral perfection, a perpetual spring of the purest love; and this source is god. through the effects and impressions of this celestial love, man feels the need of approaching his creator, of finding in him the provident ruler of the human destinies, and of expecting from his kindness the future triumph of good, and an ultimate perfection of all things. god, providence, and the immortality of the soul, become then for him incontestable truths: and at such a knowledge he does not arrive by way of laborious instruction and logical demonstrations; but it springs up, as it were, in his inward feeling, which prompts him to regulate his life according to that sublime model of moral perfection; therefore, although reason furnishes not to him logical proofs of these truths, yet he finds the presentiment of them within his heart, he feels them, he accepts them with a force more sentimental than intellectual, he embraces them with enthusiasm, and can no longer detach himself from them; in short he _believes_ them. xlvi. thus, with the same confidence with which man admits as true, what is demonstrated to his reason by solid arguments,--and he is then said to be _convinced_,--does he likewise give his assent to the noble inspirations of his heart, not yet depraved by abject inclinations,--and he is then said to be _persuaded_. thus there are two kinds of truths, equally ascertained, and therefore equally admissible; the one proceeding from intellect and called rational truth, the other formed in the heart, and called moral truth. the source of the latter might also properly be called _good sense_, which in fact acts, in many circumstances of life, in lieu of pure reason. a man endowed with good sense, and who has not yet become a slave to sensual appetites, will not doubt for a moment, even without having ever been acquainted with the proofs, that lying, calumniating, blaspheming, false swearing, robbing, murdering, betraying friendship, country or honour, are culpable and abominable actions. other truths based on good sense are also the following: the faith we have in friendship, in the rectitude of those who administer justice, in the fidelity of a beloved object, in the tenderness of parents, in the excellence of virtue, and above all, in the wisdom, goodness, and providence of god; all these things we admit within our souls, not in consequence of a cold calculation of the intellect, but through an irresistible impulse of the heart, and in consequence of a sort of presentiment springing from the consciousness of our own noble spirituality, which develops itself and gains force, in proportion as we elevate ourselves above the material propensities to which we are subject as citizens of this earth. xlvii. those who, throwing themselves on a severe rationalism, will recognise nothing as true but what is demonstrated to them like mathematical theorems, will look upon the sentiments above referred to as delusions of the fancy, because they see them founded but upon feeling; but they who think so are manifestly in error. if faith in god, in his providence, and in the immortality of the human soul, were a mere product of the imagination, it would last only so long as the semblance, which had given it aliment, exists; and when man is awakened to the sense of realities and facts calculated to destroy the delusion, he would be seen to withdraw from the meshes of his error, and his reason triumphant would confess the former aberration of the mind; yet it happens not so. in the moment we are struck by some grave calamity, when we see fond hopes, long cherished, vanish in an instant, or when we are on the point of losing what is dearest to us, why is faith in god and in his providence not then weakened in the religious man? why, on the contrary, does he cling to it more and more? the reason is, because such a faith is not a cold theorem, against which some doubt may eventually arise, but a truth rooted in the love inherent in our nature; and consequently it acquires vigour with the growth of love, and its power cannot be extinguished but when we cease to love. so, also, the other impulses to heroism and to exalted moral action, by which we are induced to great sacrifices, or led to believe ourselves capable of accomplishing them, are produced in us by faith in an eternal source of pure love, by that faith which carries with itself the surety of a future life and a future kingdom founded upon love. therefore, in proportion as man succeeds in subduing his own passions, or as these grow faint by age or other causes, so his love grows more vigorous; and as earthly objects gradually disappear, so faith rises and shews itself all-pervading and invincible. xlviii. as a condition indispensable to the entertainment of faith, we have already insisted on the necessity of previously freeing the heart from the sway of the sensual appetites; and it is not without a grave reason, for therein precisely consists the secret of the solution of the great question agitated in all ages between the so-called rationalists and the supernaturalists. intellect and reason are rays from the divine wisdom, bestowed upon man to assist him to discern between true and false, between good and evil; but such a function is not exercised by those faculties with an absolute power over the human will; they, on the contrary, are subservient to such desires and passions as have acquired a preponderance in the heart; they are similar to those ministers of a prince who, in offering him advice, only aim at facilitating the attainment of their master's wishes; or to the known effects of a glass applied to a jaundiced eye. so long as man remains faithful to his moral duties, and desires nothing but what is good and honest, his intellect and reason always offer him valid arguments to confirm him in his purpose, and to augment his love of virtue; and then, also, the noblest dogmas of faith, god, providence, and immortality find easy access to his mind, and are harboured with joy. but if depraved propensities have corrupted his heart, so that his aspirations are in a wrong and base direction, then these same faculties become ministers to the predominant passion, and suggest to man sophisms, fallacies, and specious subtleties, whereby to disown that which he heretofore respected, to upset the edifice of his faith, to lull his conscience and quiet remorse, to excuse his weaknesses and break through every restraint, and thus to warrant every kind of fault and vice. hence it is that the knowledge and discernment of what is true or untrue, in the moral world, depends, in a considerable degree, upon the practice of good or evil; hence it is, that the judgments of the mind are modified by the inclinations of the heart, and that virtue opens the way to faith, and vice is the author of infidelity. xlix. from what we have hitherto briefly stated, it will appear sufficiently obvious that the dogmas of revealed religion, though based rather on the ground of faith than on that of philosophy and strict criticism, are yet, for an upright man, susceptible of a degree of evidence equal to that of any other demonstrable truth, inasmuch as they have their foundation in human nature itself, and can be rejected but by him who rebels against the noblest impulses of the heart, to give himself up to the sway of passions or inordinate appetites. one of the features, which most enhances the value of religion, is precisely this, that it is the product, not of transcendental devices of the mind, but of faith in god, itself springing from love, and that consequently, it is not originated by the intellect, but infused by a divine grace. thus we see every day, in our own experience, that the loftiest thoughts of virtue and heroism are not suggested to us by a long and laborious chain of syllogisms, but break upon us unexpectedly as inspirations of the heart; truly--considering the divine spirit dwelling within us, and which we have but to harbour carefully--they break upon us like inspirations of heaven. having, as we hope, satisfactorily disposed of the objection usually put forward by the so-called rationalists, we shall now proceed to relate the modes by which divine revelation historically came into actuality. chapter vii. l. the benefits which the eternal wisdom had determined to confer upon mankind through revelation, depended, however, on a condition without which, they could never have been realized. it was necessary that men, on their part, should be inclined to receive the bidding addressed to them, that they should direct their attention to the truths to be gradually promulgated to them for their own advantage; in short, that they should feel disposed to correspond to the divine intentions. it was no part of the plan of the divine wisdom that men should be in any way constrained, for that would have been depriving them of the precious gift of free will, and destroying their essence. but this very liberty, of action granted to man, rendered the realization of the divine thought doubtful; and it might have happened that a generation, sinking itself into complete corruption, would have lost every trace of the truths already revealed; and thence a necessity would have arisen for one or more repetitions of the communication, with equal uncertainty of permanent success. li. to avoid such a danger, it pleased the divine mercy to found upon earth a permanent institution of an exceptional, wonderful, almost preternatural character, through which the preservation of the principal doctrines, that form the substance of revealed religion, could be insured to mankind. as seeds of rare and precious plants are preserved with care, that the species may not perish, so the ruler of providence designed to establish among us a repository wherein to keep the germs of all that which concerns man's spiritual life; and he so ordained that they should be there jealously guarded, and with particular diligence cultivated, in order to bring about their slow and gradual, but sure propagation among all the individuals of the human family. this provision is a most luminous proof of the unbounded love and mercy of the divine artificer towards the rational creature, to whom a powerful assistance is thus offered to attain his noble destination, without in the least impairing his liberty of action. lii. such a provision consists in god having chosen a small portion of mankind to be a medium for, and co-operator in, the grand work, and having entrusted to it the special important mission of perpetually preserving within its pale, the principal dogmas of revealed religion; of keeping always alive on earth the remembrance of that relation which was established from the beginning of creation between the creator and the human family; and, in short, of contributing with all its might to the practical realization of the divine idea. the chosen few had consequently to propose to themselves, as the goal of their career, the defence of the sacred deposit entrusted to them from all attacks that might be directed by malice, ignorance or superstition; they had to promote the propagation of the notions of monotheism; of the divine origin of man, and of the duties incumbent upon him to practice justice, charity, rectitude, and piety; they had to protest incessantly against polytheism, and against all and every idolatrous and superstitious creed, as adverse and injurious to the development of the principles of revealed religion; they had to confirm these theories by making themselves the exemplars of a religious life, and by bearing witness to them, when necessary, by their own martyrdom; they had thus to become the effectual instruments to the gradual diffusion throughout the world of those elements of truth, of virtue and happiness, calculated to bring forth the ultimate and universal perfection of mankind. liii. in order that the individuals charged with such a grand mission should be competent effectually to fulfil it, it was necessary that they should themselves have been always free from the pernicious influence of the errors and corruption, which had already spread almost throughout the world; it was necessary that their minds should have remained unpolluted by the notions of the extravagant and degrading idolatries, which were in practice among almost all the ancient nations; and that their hearts should have remained untouched by the contagion of universal depravity. the soil to which any seed, however good, is to be committed, would never respond to the expectations of the husbandman, if it were not cleared from weeds and thistles. those individuals had, therefore, to be drawn aside from the general society of men; and from their infancy educated and prepared, so as to receive within their virgin souls the seeds that were afterwards to produce in them, and through them, the spiritual regeneration of all mankind. but here another difficulty presented itself; who would have undertaken the charge of watching over those individuals from their infancy, and keeping them in such an isolation, as to make them inaccessible to the general depravity? it was, then, necessary to begin by a single individual, whose descendants should receive from that stock the education capable of fitting them for their future mission. liv. the providential measure once decreed, of selecting an individual as guardian of the revealed truths, and making him the father of a posterity, whose duty was to preserve them and to make them fructify, it remained only to determine the selection of the person. and here it is obvious that not a capricious hazard, not an indulgent predilection, but only a strict justice and wise impartiality could determine the important choice. whoever would have aspired to such a glory--and everybody could have aspired to it--by no other means could he have attained it than his own merits. such a man must have, of his own accord and spontaneously, withdrawn himself from the general current of depravity; opposed, by his own impulse, the absurd ravings of his contemporaries; displayed a lively attachment to virtue, and a steady abhorrence of evil; cultivated, above all, justice, charity, and righteousness, in his every action; that man must have thrown off the subjection of the senses, and all cupidity of earthly things, and, almost assuming a second nature, have soared towards the eternal source of truth, the creator of the universe, offering as a sacrifice to him his own dearest personal interests, and, if required, his life itself. chapter viii. lv. such a man did appear on the stage of the world. it was the patriarch abraham. the rarest qualities of mind and heart concurred admirably to render him fit for the high mission. by the superiority of his intelligence, he arrived at the rejection of the captivating, but absurd, idolatrous opinions of his contemporaries, and at the recognition of a unique supreme cause of all things, omnipotent, all-wise and holy, that governs all with impartial justice and infinite mercy. the nobility of his sentiments led him to labour and exert himself in the diffusion of these holy notions wherever he found himself; and he was most sedulous in drawing the attention of men to that which most concerned their spiritual life. an unparalleled cordiality towards not only his own friends, but all who approached him; a self-abnegation, carried to the point of refusing the best deserved remuneration; a humility ready to waive any right of his own in order to support that of others; a hospitality full, generous, unasked; a continual exercise of charity and justice, which had become in him a second nature; in fine, a submission of all himself and his dearest to the will of god,--such was the character of that celebrated luminary of antiquity, of that man truly divine, of that exemplar of sublime virtue. lvi. although so many pre-eminent merits indisputably assigned to him the distinction we have pointed out, yet the divine wisdom decided to subject his constancy to various trials, with the view of making manifest to the world the excellence of that virtuous character, and the justice which dictated the choice. in the continual antagonism between the material and spiritual interests involved in the events of his agitated life, he had opportunities to display the noblest firmness in causing the latter to prevail. involuntary peregrinations, conflicts with foreign potentates, domestic discords, dangers, hazards, hopes deferred, and promises well nigh forgotten, became to him so many occasions for the exercise of the highest virtues: and last, the holy resignation with which he prepared to immolate his beloved son, thinking thereby to respond to a divine bidding, raised his glory to an unapproachable summit. if the other deeds of his edifying piety caused him to be appointed a herald of the true religion, this last heroic act brought down upon him the greatest blessing, in the shape of a promise, that even to his remotest posterity would be extended the mission of jealously preserving the revealed truths, and effectually cooperating in their propagation, so that through that posterity would be _blessed all the families of the earth._ lvii. abraham's vocation marks a luminous and highly interesting epoch in the history of humanity. it was the commencement of the execution of that plan of education of mankind, which, conceived since the beginning in the increate mind, came by means extraordinary, yet consistent with the natural course of earthly events, to diffuse itself gradually and to acquire a progressive force among the various ramifications of the human family. in that vocation we perceive the first threads of a wonderful tissue of events, as well in the physical as in the moral world, which went on preparing a slow but always progressive development of the human intelligence, and will go on to produce ultimately the full final accomplishment of the same primitive plan, so grandly conceived. in fact, in the very act of electing this patriarch, god revealed the ultimate object of the election by saying, that he chose him, in order that he might transmit to his latest posterity the obligation--which was to become characteristic of it--of exercising and promoting charity and justice, the two chief columns on which rests the edifice of human perfectibility, two conditions indispensable to the fulfilment of the divine idea, and therefore called _ways of the eternal_. lviii. abraham and his race having been called upon to perpetuate the idea of the relation existing between god and man, it was obviously necessary that such a relation should be fixed and established in a more precise mode in the individuals of that race than it was in any others; in other words, it was necessary to show clearly that the idea, which was to be promoted among others, was firmly seated, under permanent and concrete forms, in those who were called upon to propagate it. this permanency of the relation exhibited itself, then, to abraham and his posterity under the form of a _covenant_ between god and that family, whereby the contracting parties, as it were, promised and undertook to maintain certain conditions, upon which depended the subsistence of that relation. the mutual conditions established were, in substance, nothing else than the universal relations subsisting between god and every rational being, but expressed, with respect to abraham's, family, in more special and characteristic terms, viz., under a form in which god promised abraham that he would be particularly _his god_, his protector, guardian, and benefactor; and the abrahamites, on their part, bound themselves to recognise _him alone_ as the deity, to whom adoration and loyal obedience were due. thus the covenant, which had been formerly established in general terms with noah, as the representative of all mankind, was afterwards confirmed in more specific terms to the abrahamites, as those who were appointed to keep and to promote among mankind the fulfilment of the conditions of the said relation. considering the abrahamitic covenant in this point of view, all objections of unreasonable exclusiveness and unjust predilection, which have been sometimes urged, must disappear. the god of abraham is the god of the universe; and the descendants of abraham propose to themselves nothing more than the attainment of that same happiness to which every mortal can aspire. lix. in order that the idea of the contracted covenant might remain firmly impressed on all abraham's progeny, it was necessary to institute some external mark, which should continually recall it to the mind; for an idea being but an abstraction, it could not be very long retained in men's minds, without some symbol or visible sign capable of keeping its remembrance alive. it was also necessary that the adhesion of that progeny to the covenant should not begin to take effect in individuals in the adult age only, and as a result of one's own spontaneous reflexions, as had been the case with the first stock of that family, but that it should present itself as an accomplished fact, and, therefore, irrevocable and obligatory; so that every future offspring should bear from his birth an external indelible mark, characterising him as a follower of that principle, and qualifying him to enter into the pale of that association. by such means the preservation of the covenant was insured, and a beginning was made in the system of those external, symbolical, and commemorative acts, which were to be thereafter prescribed to all that race, when sufficiently increased to form an entire people distinct from others. this external mark, instituted before the birth of the elect progeny of the patriarch, is the _circumcision_. lx. before abraham's descendants attained that degree of maturity which would fit them to receive a revealed legislation, they had to pass through various stages of progressive material increment and intellectual development, and also to undergo several sad vicissitudes produced by the inevitable relations of contact with other nations. throughout all this period, which we may call preparatory, the divine wisdom was pleased to take that race by the hand, guiding its first steps, and watching in an extraordinary manner over its destinies, so as gradually to prepare it for the high mission for which it was designed. we, therefore, perceive, during that epoch, a continual intervention of the divinity in regulating the particular concerns of the patriarchs and their successors, and an incessant care to draw their attention to the future destiny of their grandchildren, and to their duty of preparing worthily for it. such a care manifested itself, particularly, in various providential measures, the objects of which evidently were to remove from them everything that might exercise over them a sinister influence; to enlighten them on the importance of their election, and to make them acquainted beforehand with the severe trials in store for them for several centuries, before they could deservedly reap the intended benefits. lxi. to this category of providential measures belongs the state of isolation and of precarious subsistence, in which, by the divine will, the first fathers had to live, in respect to their neighbours, in that same land which was yet promised to them as a perpetual inheritance; whereby they were brought to learn from the beginning that the great work, which their children were called upon to accomplish, was not absolutely dependent on the possession of a land under their own sovereignty, but rather on the religious doctrines to which they were to remain faithfully attached. to it belongs, also, the severance or removal of the elder branch of the first two families, which was too much inclined to material interests, to teach thereby that physical superiority is not at all requisite to the preservation of a covenant based entirely on spirituality. and, lastly, to the same category of measures belongs the decreed long servitude of the abrahamites in a strange land, in which, not only the door to social enjoyments would be shut against them, but a barbarous tyranny would also deprive them of the free exercise of acts which are an imprescriptible right of all mortals. through the instrumentality of such an oppression, the profound counsels of the eternal wisdom designed so to regulate the first education of that growing people, that, refined in the crucible of adversity, it should early learn to renounce the subjection of the senses, and turn its heart and soul to god, from whom alone it could hope salvation. it was only by depriving that people of all human support, and of all extraneous influences on its culture, that it could acquire a character, firm, independent, tenacious in the principles adopted, adverse to foreign notions, faithful to its vocation, and that its mind could be deeply impressed with the sentiment of a constant adoration of the supreme being, as its only deliverer, legislator, father, and sovereign. chapter ix. lxii. the descendants of the patriarchs, grown into a numerous people, were, then, obliged to undergo the severe trial of a long servitude in egypt, from which they could expect no rescue otherwise than by a recourse to the god of their fathers. if the privations of earthly enjoyments tended to strengthen their spirits and courage against adversity, and to direct their desires towards gratifications of a more elevated nature; if the repulsive conduct of their oppressors (by character hostile to all strangers, and by system constituted in different castes, each of which jealous of its own privileges) favoured in a great measure their isolation, and kept them from a pernicious contact and association, it was the prayer which they offered up from the bottom of their hearts to the supreme ruler of their destinies, whose covenant with their progenitors they remembered; it was that prayer that hastened the termination of so severe a discipline, and drew near the epoch of their glorification. a fit instrument only was wanted, through which the deliverance should be effected, an organ to communicate to the people the divine laws, a medium for the new solemn covenant which was to be proclaimed between god and israel. this elect from among all mortals--whose noble character, resplendent with all human virtues, was heightened by the true grandeur of an unexampled humility--was the holy legislator moses, the divine man, the faithful expounder of the will of god, the first link of the glorious chain connecting the human family with its maker. he was appointed to deliver miraculously the israelitish mass from the yoke of egypt, and to lead it to the skirts of a mountain, where the grand act of the revelation was to be accomplished. lxiii. before imparting that revelation, the divine wisdom vouchsafed to declare to the people at large, in brief but clear words, the ultimate object intended to be attained by such an institution, and the principal condition conducive to its realisation. therefore it was, that god began his communications by saying to israel, through moses, "_i have brought you unto me_" a concise and sublime sentence, which comprehends in itself the whole system of revealed religion, for the recognition of the intimate relation which brings the rational creature near to its creator, is the true goal of man's destination. he added that, to facilitate the attainment of that object, he had adopted the means of electing a small portion of mankind to be his missionaries ("_although_" said he, "_all the earth is mine_"); that he wished, therefore, to form of them _a sacerdotal kingdom_, that is, a class of persons, who, as priests of god, should watch over, conserve, and promote spiritual interests upon the earth; and that in consequence of the gravity of such a task, he required of them that they should become a _holy people_, that is, a people peculiarly devoted to self-sanctification--which substantially consists in imitating, in as far as human nature permits, the divine perfections, or virtues. lxiv. the awfully solemn act which succeeded this preliminary manifestation is the most portentous event to be found in the annals of the world. two millions of persons, ranged around the skirts of a mountain, witness a majestic supernatural vision; and amid thunder and lightning, dense vapour and blazing fire, the whole ground trembling and the mountain echoing, a sonorous voice from heaven descends on the terrified ears of the people, and carries distinctly and unmistakeably to humanity the high message of god. by the pomp and circumstance which attended the glorious scene of the first revelation, god was pleased to afford an incontestable evidence of the truth and divinity, not only of the doctrines which were then and there being revealed, but of those, also, that were to follow; the unimpeachable testimony of the senses of a vast multitude, brought to bear upon the first and fundamental communication, was capable of producing so full and lasting a conviction in the minds of the numerous hearers, as to remove for the future all doubt as to the divine origin of revelation. through an immediate sensible perception--which by its nature carries the most irrefragable certainty--israel, then, received from god himself the first dictates of a religion, of which that people was to become the professor, conservator, and propagator, in perpetuity; and equally convinced of the true mission of its leader, moses, it naturally accepted from the latter all subsequent instructions, as laws emanating from the same divine source. lxv. the word of god pronounced in that memorable instant, and known since under the name of decalogue, or ten commandments, could not, however, embrace the whole sum of religious truths that were intended to be revealed, because it would have been humanly impossible to the people to persist in that extraordinary state of intimate spiritual or prophetic relation with the deity, till the end of all the revelation. therefore, the decalogue exhibits only some fundamental points, which, from their importance, deserved to be more prominently impressed; it marks the outlines of the foundation upon which the edifice of revealed religion was afterwards to be raised. yet, although the promulgation of the entire divine code was a work reserved for the blessed legislator moses, the ten commandments present, nevertheless, a compendious but complete system of institutions, referring to all those social and religious subjects, which most interest mankind. in fact, the three relations of man towards his creator, his fellow-man, and himself, are traced in the decalogue in a masterly manner, classified according to their order, and elucidated by placing prominently forward one culminating point, which serves to determine their true character. such is the wise economy of all revealed laws, that generally avoiding abstractions, they select as a standard one special case of the most interesting, and leave it to thy care of the human understanding to generalize, and deduce from it universal theories.[ ] consequently, on analysing the ten emanations of the divine will, we must transfer mentally each of them to the class of duties to which it belongs, and consider it as intended to represent all that class. [note : the author has already informed us, that he confines himself, in this book, to the enunciation of principles, and leaves to teachers the task of demonstrating, developing, and applying them, in course of instruction. nevertheless, as this proposition recurs more than once in these pages, and contains a very important principle, it is perhaps desirable, for the general reader, to offer here an elucidation, by the following examples of its application. we are taught, "if thou meet thine enemy's ox or his ass going astray, thou shalt surely bring it back to him again" (exod. xxiii. ). we are to understand, that the lesson thereby conveyed, is not confined to the particular case named, but that we are commanded to cast off selfishness, and to extend our kindness and charity even to enemies, actively exerting ourselves for the assistance and benefit of others, whenever opportunities offer themselves in our every-day life. again, we are enjoined, "thou shalt not curse the deaf, nor put a stumbling-block before the blind" (lev, xix. ). we are clearly to conclude therefrom, that any net of treachery, in itself already detestable in the eyes of god, becomes doubly so when directed against the unconscious and the helpless; and a very wide range of treacherous actions would, therefore, come within the meaning of this prohibition. the paramount importance of this hermeneutical rule will be any apology for having dilated on a point, which must be already well known to biblical students.--the translator.] chapter x. lxvi. the first commandment, which regards the relations of man with god, lays down that the acknowledgment of the supreme being is the basis of all the revelation, and gives us to understand that such a conviction then began historically to manifest itself on earth, taking root first in the people of israel, whom therefore the deity addresses, saying, "i am the eternal, _thy_ god," signifying, "by _thee_ alone acknowledged hitherto." it also establishes the immutable eternity of the absolute being, conveyed in the etymology of the ineffable name; next, his indivisible unity, indicated in the word _el_, which denotes the sum of all the powers, and the aggregation of all the attributes, in one and the same essence. the same text proceeds then to arouse the feelings of gratitude, which must bind especially this people to the powerful hand that had delivered it from ignominious servitude: and this involves the obligation in the same people of devoting itself entirely to god, and subordinating all its tendencies to religious feeling. the last two words of this text allude to one of the great principles on which revealed religion rests, the eternal having thereby proclaimed, not only the individual equality of all the israelites before the law, but also the personal liberty of all men, which principle, being regulated according to the true idea of right, becomes the fundamental basis of civil society. lxvii. the worship of the only god, coupled with the absolute rejection of every form of idolatrous and superstitious creed, forms the subject of the second commandment, which completes the portion of the decalogue regarding the relations of man towards the creator. it severely prohibits every kind of idolatry, both that which substitutes for the true god false and imaginary beings, or even beings real but contingent and created, and that which would associate in his worship a veneration for others, under the title of mediators or protectors; it then interdicts the making of any image whatsoever, when intended to represent the infinite and incorporeal being, and bids us neither to pay to any such simulacra a religious respect or veneration, which is due to the true god alone, nor to practise such conventional acts, as, however insignificant in themselves, are yet held by idolaters as modes of worship. lastly, this commandment conveys the obligation to dissent from, and reject, every superstition and every error, requiring us to preserve pure and intemerate the adoration due to the supreme being, who, in this sense, is represented in this text as jealously watching over human actions, and a not indifferent spectator of good or evil; therefore a sure punisher of the guilty, and an eternal remunerator of him who faithfully adheres to his law. lxviii. as a transition from the duties towards god to those towards our fellow-men, the two succeeding precepts are opportunely placed, one of which concerns the act of invoking the divinity between men, and the other the mode of elevating men towards the divinity. in the multifarious contentions arising in social life, it sometimes occurs to have recourse to god, to convalidate an assertion, or to test a truth. now, in the act of attestation called oath, the third commandment prohibits with the greatest rigour anything that might offend the sanctity of the ineffable name of god, which is invoked by the deponent in attestation of the truth of his words. consequently the text declares, that if such a solemn invocation were made to confirm a thing, which is not wholly conformable to the intimate conviction and most scrupulous conscience of the swearer, the consequences would be a profanation of the name of god, and a scandalous immorality, to the detriment of society at large; for this could not subsist without an upright administration of justice; and the latter would be upset and trampled upon by perjury. in order to shew more prominently the gravity of this matter, and to protect society, an avenging god protests that he would never leave unpunished whomsoever should render himself guilty of the monstrous crime of perjury. lxix. from the moment when the work of creation was completed, the divine wisdom ordained that an intimate relation should subsist between man and his creator, and called that day holy and blessed on which so merciful an institution was inaugurated and began to come into operation. this relation, which, as we have already stated, forms the basis of revealed religion, tended to emancipate man from the sphere of materiality, and to render him conscious of his higher destination, and capable of accomplishing it. it was, therefore, natural that the people called upon to give the religious principle a durable consistency on earth, should keep a perpetual commemoration of that day which represented the bond subsisting between the divinity and humanity; it was proper that the day should not only and simply be remembered, but that it should, also, have some feature exercising a predominating influence over material life, by making this subordinate to the spiritual requirements. the fourth word of the decalogue prescribes, then, that the israelite should for ever remember the holy day of sabbath, as a representative of religion, and should, during that day, abstain, and cause all his dependants to abstain, from all manual labour and earthly occupation, that might distract him from the contemplation of heavenly subjects, which should exclusively occupy his mind on that day. lxx. among all man's duties towards his fellow-men, those of children towards their parents are assuredly the highest in degree, because without them the bonds which hold society together would be destroyed. these duties form the subject of the fifth commandment. to define their character in a single trait, a profound wisdom has selected the word _honour_, thereby pointing to a respect which arises, not from fear and terror, but from gratitude, love and submission. additional importance is given to this precept by the consideration, that the revealed religion could not have been preserved and made known to the latest posterity but by the instrumentality of an uninterrupted tradition from generation to generation; and the faith to be placed in such a tradition depended, to a great extent, on the respect in which parents would be held. the reward promised to him who observes this commandment, is in perfect and natural harmony with the observance itself; man's life will be prolonged and blessed by honouring the authors of it. lxxi. the three conditions most prominent in human society, viz., life, matrimony, and property, are referred to in the subsequent words, which form the sixth, seventh and eighth precepts of the decalogue. to concentrate in one word all that is to be observed regarding these essential elements of a social state, the sacred text confines itself to proclaiming, in an absolute mode, their _inviolability_, therefore adopting the negative or prohibitive form. it is desired to prevent and forbid every arbitrary act, and every unjust attempt, directed to deprive the legitimate possessor of, or to restrict and in any other way to disturb him in, the full, free, and exclusive enjoyment of his own. to respect the life, the conjugal bed, and the property of others, is to consolidate the bonds of society, to pay homage to the eternal principles of justice, upon the practice of which god willed that the preservation and prosperity of mankind should depend. lxxii. in order that our conduct towards our neighbours be strictly in accordance with justice, it is necessary, generally, that it should be based upon an honest and straightforward character of veracity, and that our outward demonstrations, in deeds and in words, should not be at variance with our inward convictions, respecting the merits or demerits of our fellow-men. falsehood, detraction, calumny, and other similar vices, injurious to the peace and reputation of others, as well as simulated friendship, and hypocrisy, may all be comprehended within the denomination of perfidy; and as an extreme and most distinct manifestation of perfidiousness is to be found in false testimony, hence the ninth commandment is addressed to this vice, and forbids the witnessing against our fellow-men anything that is not entirely and strictly conformable to the truth. it is easy and natural for us to step from this special prohibition to the spirit which dictated it, and to conclude that the precept is generally directed to remove from society all perfidy and wrong, as contrary to truth and justice. lxxiii. a certain involuntary or instinctive desire of that which is pleasing, is in human nature itself; but this vague and voluble feeling may, by deliberate reflection, convert itself into an act of free-will, and, eventually increasing in strength, become a vehement affection, an uncontrollable passion. now, so long as that feeling does not pass into an act of appropriating the thing desired, human law cannot deal with it; but divine law, which has for its object the internal perfection of man, steps in to regulate the movements of the heart, when they are accompanied by a deliberate will of possessing. therefore, the tenth and last commandment of the decalogue, which refers to man's duties towards himself, aims at the human will, and prescribes limits, within which the desires, tending to procure possession, should be confined, forbidding specially to covet that which belongs to others. it is not thereby intended to absolutely prevent the formation of a natural wish, but it is directed to confine it within just limits, that it may not expand and be transformed into a usurpation. chapter xi. lxxiv. the succeeding revelations, which were made to the blessed legislator moses, and by him collected into a body of statutes and rules, known under the title of pentateuch, bear the same relation to the decalogue as that of a finished edifice to the first outline which traced its limits and compartments--they are the elaboration of it, they branch into the same triple classification of duties which we have remarked in it, and present its development and completion. what in the decalogue appeared, as in nucleus, under the form of duties of man towards god, towards his fellow-man, and towards himself, is developed by those laws into detailed instructions, through which the people of israel was to learn the knowledge of god, to practise justice and charity, and to effect its own sanctification; three cardinal points, corresponding to the three classes of duties above mentioned, which embrace the whole sum and substance of revealed religion. we shall not, therefore, proceed to enumerate here, one by one, those multifarious laws,--a great part of which, being contingent on the existence of the temple and the possession of palestine, have now no practical application,--but we shall only treat of the three principles which form the bases of them all, viz., god, justice, and sanctification, leaving to the intelligence of those who sedulously investigate the single precepts, the easy task of tracing them to one or other of the said three categories. lxxv. to the elucidation of these three principles we must, however, premise two observations. in the first place, it is to be remarked, on the one hand, that although the human intellect can by itself (provided it be not overruled by the sway of sensual appetites) recognise summarily the excellence of such principles, and give them unreservedly its sanction, yet its perceptions with respect to their specialities remain very imperfect, for several reasons: first, because it finds itself unable to rebut and conquer one by one all the objections which the infidel may bring forward; secondly, in consequence of the doubts which its own limited powers sometimes suggest, impairing its own sense of the truth; and lastly, because wanting the knowledge of many details and circumstances, about which it can form no judgment, the intellect cannot construct a complete rationalistic system of moral theology. whereas, on the other hand, emanating as they do from the infinite wisdom and mercy of god, formulated in the shape of positive precepts, and corroborated by the portentous manner of their promulgation, those principles acquire an undisputed authority, remove every doubt, illumine the mind with unexpected sublime truths, satisfy the heart which finds them consentaneous with its own feelings, and are thus more apt to accomplish the objects towards which they are directed. and if there be among them some precept, of which we do not in our present time clearly perceive the true tendency, we accept it, nevertheless, with that filial confidence inspired by its divine origin; and, by analogy, we consider it as calculated to contribute to the promotion of our own weal. lxxvi. in the second place, it is necessary to distinguish, in the aggregate of this revelation, the universal theories applicable to, and concerning all mankind, from the special prescriptions obligatory only on those to whom they were addressed. generally, all the children of adam are bound to know god, to practise justice, and to procure their own sanctification; such duties are inherent in human nature itself, they correspond exactly to the destination of man, and none can exempt himself from them, without rebelling against nature and the sovereign author of it. consequently, the doctrines contained in the revealed law, in regard to these three points, apply to all rational beings, and everybody is called upon to participate in, and profit by, them; they are the inheritance of all mankind. but it was obvious that those, who were in the first instance selected to receive those dogmas, and to become their jealous conservators and perpetual propagators, should have some distinctive and peculiar devices, and be charged with observances, qualifying them for adepts to the ministry of such a sublime mission. hence it is, that among the precepts of universal appurtenance there are several which israel alone is bound to observe, and these consist partly of external acts to be performed, either at certain stated times, or at all times, partly of particular forms and rules to be followed, either in reference to one's self or to others, and to some external objects of animate or inanimate nature, and partly, in fine, they prescribe abstinence from certain things which to all others are left permissive. it will be easy to every attentive student to discern and point out the prescriptions of this class, as their very nature is sufficient to characterise them; we shall have, however, occasion to mention them, after we shall have endeavoured to place in a clear light the three principal articles of the revelation. chapter xii. lxxvii. immense efforts have been made by human reason to elevate itself to the conception of the deity, to demonstrate his existence, and to deduce with solid arguments his principal attributes. yet, even that quantum which human reason believes to have succeeded in establishing on this exalted subject, has always had to encounter in the fields of proud philosophy tenacious, or rather pertinacious, adversaries. whereas revelation, extricating man from the labyrinth of transcendental abstrusities, presents him at once with a well constructed system of theological science, which he has only to receive within his bosom, to lead a happy life on earth, and attain his true goal beyond the grave. the divine word informs us of god, as a pure spirit, eternal and immutable, incorporeal, absolute (that is, not dependent upon causes without himself), omniscient, omnipresent, omnipotent, all-perfect and therefore all-holy (that is, possessing all the attributes in the highest degree of perfection); one, because admitting not in himself distinctions of multiplicity, and sole, because beside him there is no god; creator of the universe from nought, therefore distinct from all things created (which we would call, if allowed the expression, _extramundane_); creator of man in his image, having endowed him with intelligence, liberty, and an immortal soul; provident and immediate[ ] to man, watching over his actions, punishing faults and rewarding merits, and pardoning him who truly repents of evil committed; he is a perpetual source of the purest love, hence a merciful father to all his creatures, unto whom he continually pours forth treasures of his kindness; he strengthens the weak, comforts the afflicted, enlightens the ignorant, protects the oppressed, and grants the prayer of those who trust in him; he governs human events according to his will, now causing human enterprises to succeed, anon to fail; always directing them to the ends contemplated by his infinite wisdom, for he is the all-wise, just, and faithful, whose promises are infallibly accomplished, and whose word subsists to eternity. he sometimes suspends the order of nature, and works miracles, whenever he deems it suitable to his high designs. he established a covenant with the abrahamitic race, and revealed to it his holy law, by this means to illuminate and bless all mankind. [note : this expression is here used to indicate the direct and special relation of god with man, and the direct government of mankind by god, without intermediate agencies, in contradistinction to the other terrestrial creatures, whose relation with the creator is only general, and which are governed through the medium of pre-established physical laws.--the translator.] lxxviii. although these notions do not complete the idea of the divinity, much less can they claim to define his essence--for to the very limited faculties of the human mind this will always remain inconceivable--yet they are sufficient to afford such an instruction on divine subjects as to satisfy the wants of humanity. with the guidance of the elements offered, and by a conscientious meditation on those divine attributes, man will be able to dispel the superstitious notions and the errors into which they have fallen, who have not consulted the divine word on such a subject; he will be able to sketch in his own mind an idea, however incomplete, of the sublime object of his adoration, and thus preserve himself from much that is evil. having been destined to live in society, and compelled to work in order to supply the multifarious wants of his body; always more or less struggling with the interests of his fellow men to secure a possession often disputed to him by malice, or violence; and evil example and ignorance and the sensual appetites being concurrently at work--man became naturally, in the course of time, too easy a prey to passions, vice and error; he was overpowered by materialism, and fell into sin. therefore, the idea revealed to him of a holy god, who watches over his destinies, who punishes the guilty, rewards the virtuous, and pardons the penitent, is the best balsam that could be administered, the best truth that could be taught to him; it saves him from error, removes him from sin, invites him to direct his view to heaven, restores him within the divine grace, and opens to him the prospect of an interminable beatitude. lxxix. among those attributes, however, one becomes prominent, from its importance; it is that which establishes an immediate relation, or communion, as subsisting between the creator and the rational creature; a fundamental point on which the whole religion hinges. the intimacy of such a relation manifested itself at the very beginning of the world by god having created man _in his image_, by which expression it is meant, that the divine maker bestowed some part of his perfections on the noblest creature on earth, endowing it with intelligence, free-will, and immortality; these high prerogatives conferred upon man, to a certain degree, a similitude with his maker, and from this similitude was naturally to follow a closer relation of mutual love, than exists between god and the other created things. such a relation assumed a more definite form when god took man under his special guardianship, whilst he left the government of inanimate nature to physical laws, unalterable and compulsory, which he had established in the first instant of creation. the stupendous connection was lastly completed, by god having communicated his will to men, and traced out to them the course they had to follow, in order to render themselves worthy of the great boon, and to attain the end destined for them. from all these circumstances it became evident that god is _immediate_ to man. lxxx. as, in general, all the revelation, has for its object to benefit humanity, so, in particular, when the divine word is directed to impart to us the knowledge of god, it intends to teach us the duties we are called upon to fulfil towards the author of our existence; duties which we could not well discharge if we were wanting in that knowledge. now, the first of these duties is to _love god_. such a noble feeling, which, as we have already stated, derives its origin from a relation of similitude between him who loves and the object beloved, cannot be kindled in us by effect of a mere command, as the motions of the heart are not produced by authority. therefore, while holy writ inculcates the love of god, it at the same time indicates to us the means whereby this sublime love will be promoted; and the means is _to walk in the ways of the eternal_. to understand the connection between the means and the end, we must consider the different degrees of which love is susceptible, and motives by which it is actuated. he who loves god because of great favours received, is apt to feel a diminution of attachment, or even indifference, on being overtaken by misfortune. he who loves him with a view to benefits in a future life, is also in danger of ceasing to love, if some doubts were to arise in his mind and to weaken his hopes. but when man loves god because he understands, and admires, and adores in him the aggregate of all perfections, and feels within himself the flame of a desire to approach the divine majesty, then his love is an inextinguishable love, for he abnegates his own self, and centres his motives exclusively in the object beloved. this kind of love, however, presupposes a uniformity of tendencies, which causes the one who loves to esteem and to endeavour to appropriate the qualities admired by him; and in this precisely consists the resemblance, which produces the true love. justice, faithfulness, righteousness, mercy, and many other divine attributes, which in the biblical language are called _the ways of the eternal_, cannot be fully and worthily appreciated, except by him who uses all his endeavours to adorn himself with such virtues, as far as his limited nature allows. and now we can understand, why he cannot truly love who walks not in his ways. lxxxi. another principal duty, issuing from the same revelation, is that which is commonly called _fear of god_, an expression very frequent in the sacred text, but which requires to be explained. the hebrew word used is susceptible of two different interpretations. it might apply to the fear of retribution, suggested by the reflection that an all-powerful god will not leave unpunished the transgressors of his commands; or the same word might signify the sense of reverence and unbounded veneration, with which the frail creature must feel almost overwhelmed when thinking of its exalted creator, who knows all, sees all, and governs all. the former originates in the intellect, the latter in the heart. it is obvious that the fear of punishment is not a sufficient restraint to deter man, at all times, from sin; for in the ebullition of impetuous passions, the intellect becomes offuscated and impeded in the exercise of its functions, or frequently is itself pressed into the service of the predominating passion. not so the awe and reverence inspired by the majesty of the supreme king of the universe. it pervades all the heart, disposes it to feelings of submission and obedience, convinces it that man is at all times in the presence of his maker, and thus prevents inordinate material appetites from bursting forth and rising forcibly to uncontrollable preponderance. hence it is that the fear of god, taken in the latter sense, is a powerful prop which supports the religious edifice, is the most effectual and valuable lesson we derive from the revelation of the divine attributes. lxxxii. from these two principal duties, spring, as corollaries, others of no less importance, which come, also, within the sphere of the first cardinal point of biblical revelation, the knowledge of god. he, who truly loves and fears god, will surely feel the necessity of placing in him exclusively all his trust, for he is convinced that there is no being in nature, besides god, that can offer an infallible support to human hopes. he will find in his heart an almost irrepressible impulse to praise the divine perfections, to extol his glory, to offer sincere homage to the sovereign of the universe, to worship and serve him with purity of heart, to thank him for favours received, to supplicate him for help, to confess to him sins committed, and to ask his pardon with contrite spirit. all these and other like acts of filial dependence and piety, find their expression in that elevated form of external worship called _prayer_, which, whether exercised publicly in appropriate and consecrated temples, or recited in the solitude of the domestic closet,[ ] whether strictly following an established formulary, or pouring out the impulsive feelings of the heart, is always an urgent want and an indispensable duty of every religious man. lastly, the true love and fear of god imply the obligation of avoiding, in all that pertains to divine worship, everything that might have the appearance of idolatry, of intrusion of intermediate powers, or of any superstition whatever; above all clearly emerges the duty of not abusing the holy name of god, either by uttering it on trivial occasions--which would tend to diminish the reverence due to him--or by profaning it with an invocation to a false testimony, whereby the detestable crime of perjury would be consummated. [note : public, as compared with private worship, has the undoubted advantage of being in itself a public homage to the omnipotence of god, and a solemn testimony of the dependence of man on him. true, solitary worship is often more likely to be attended with the requisite mental abstraction from all worldly objects, and intellectual elevation of the soul towards its divine source--a condition of mind indispensable to establish a true spiritual communion in prayer, and without which all our orisons and ritual ceremonies would be but mechanical and meaningless performances, a body without soul. it is this condition of the mind that, in talmudical style, is called [hebrew: het-nun-vav-kaf], as is well known, and that later ascetic writers termed [hebrew: tav-vav-dalet-dalet-vav-bet-het-he], from the circumstance that it is superinduced by solitary meditation. but whenever this condition is attained in a public service, then indeed is that service "divine," and humanity is exalted in its approach to the throne of mercy.--the translator.] chapter xiii. lxxxiii. on determining the duties of the individual towards his fellow-men, and towards all that surrounds him in nature, revelation did not think it proper to refer the motives to human intelligence, and to allow the bases of justice and benevolence to rest on human reason alone; but it said, "do what is right and just and good in the eyes of the eternal thy god; and refrain from all that is not such, because it pleases not thy god," whereby it wished to proclaim that the notions of just and unjust, of good and evil, of rights and duties, should be considered as emanating from, and prescribed by, the divine wisdom, and therefore obligatory only because agreeable to the divine will. in this also the revealed word purposed to come to the assistance of human frailty, and to render superfluous the abstrusities--as arbitrary as uncertain and controvertible--about which eminent philosophers tortured their brains, for many centuries, to fix, as they thought, the principles of the so-called _jure_ in its innumerable ramifications of natural and positive, public and private, civil and criminal, commercial, maritime, canonical, feudal, of police, of finance, of war, and what not, without ever yet arriving at a complete accord in their specialities; whereas all right obtains a solid and effective sanction when its origin is referred to god, who comprehending in himself the sum total of right, justice and moral good, and having communed with man to enjoin to him their exercise, willed that the carrying out of their dictates should be considered as an act of religion, of service rendered to him, and that violating the one or failing in the other, should be alike regarded as an offence committed towards him, which he will punish severely. god, then, is the source of right; he made man acquainted with it through his law, and committed to him its performance on earth after rules prescribed by his will. lxxxiv. in promulgating the duties of man towards his fellow-men, the holy scripture assumed sometimes the negative form, to forbid all that which may cause injury to others; and sometimes the positive form, enjoining the practice to be followed towards all. to the first class belong the following prohibitions, viz., of nourishing hatred, rancour, revenge; of calumniating, or in any way whatever damaging the reputations of others; of assailing their honour or good fame; of restraining or obstructing others in the exercise of their rights, or in the use and enjoyment of their properties; of practising deceptions, impositions, frauds, and all forms of insincerity, usury, extortions, and violence; of laying obstructions in the way of the weak or helpless; of giving false testimony; of speaking untruth; of reporting even truth, when it may lead to discord and strife; of occasioning danger; of offending decency and good manners; of causing scandal; of withholding wages or remuneration due; of keeping in pledge the clothing or implements of the poor; of using two weights and measures; of associating with the wicked; of breaking a pledge-word; of violating or assailing the conjugal happiness of others; of coveting anything that belongs to others; and other similar prohibitions recorded in the sacred code, which can be easily collected as pertaining to this class. moreover, it will not be unreasonable to complete this list by the addition of a few more particular actions, which, though not specifically mentioned, must yet be understood to be forbidden; for, as it is a constant rule in biblical exegesis to deduce general theories from single laws which appear to refer to particular cases, so must, by analogy, be comprised in an enunciated forbidden action all others of a similar nature, character, and tendency, as being understood in the former. lxxxv. the positive precepts concerning a man's conduct towards his fellow-men, are naturally enunciated in directions of a tendency precisely opposite to those expressed negatively; that is to say, it is _enjoined_ to practise the reverse of what has been forbidden. now, to begin with the more general prescriptions; it is enjoined, in the first place, to love one's fellow-men as one's own-self, all mankind, without any exception, being comprised in this expression, as we meet again the same injunction with regard to the _stranger_, whom we are commanded to love as ourselves; and scripture explained already what is to be understood by the word _stranger_, when it said: "thou also hast been a stranger in the land of egypt"; from which it is evident that the love inculcated extends even to adversaries and enemies. it is next commanded to respect in every individual the dignity of man, created in the image of god, which establishes the inviolability of person, and the equality of all before the law, so that there should be no privileged caste, no hereditary preeminence; desiring, on the contrary, that "under the protection of the same law and same right should dwell the native and the foreigner." the personal liberty of every member of the human family is also proclaimed, as it is with that intention that the decalogue has put prominently forward the circumstance of israel having been delivered from servitude; and if, on the one hand, the condition of the times, which had rendered the use of slavery natural and universal, did not then admit of its sudden and immediate extirpation; on the other, scripture designed to mitigate its acerbity by provident and humane laws, so as to make obvious the tendency to its future total, though gradual, extinction. to prevent pauperism, as well as to cure its evils, the rich were enjoined to lend money to those who needed it; and the law, starting from the presumption that the poor man would not, or at least should not, desire to borrow and incur a debt, unless being deprived of the necessaries of life, ordered that such a loan to the destitute brother be gratuitous, whilst in commercial transactions with foreign people it permitted the charge of some reasonable interest on loans of money, as an equivalent for the service rendered. lxxxvi. the administration of justice being, according to the revealed principles, a divine office, was naturally to be confided to persons carefully selected for their intelligence, probity, incorruptibility, and superiority to every human regard; these are therefore invested with a judicial representation of the divinity on earth, and are enjoined to proceed according to the rules of the strictest justice, without ever deferring either to the pitiable condition of the poor, or to the influence of the powerful. as a corollary to this system, every person is bound to appeal to these authorities in any emergency, and to refrain from taking the law into his own hands; even for the correction of the disorders of one's own child, the law requires a recourse to the constituted authority, not permitting the infliction of punishments of any kind, without the intervention of those appointed to administer justice. passing to the other observances, which grow out of the grand duty to be just to all, we are strictly commanded to respect the property, the rights and the honour of others, to be solicitous of their welfare, as much as of our own, to act honestly, sincerely and faithfully on every occasion, to fulfil our promises, to facilitate to others the success to which they are justly entitled, and to pardon our enemies. from the multifarious and varied ties which bind the individual to family and society, issue the special duties of husband and wife, of fathers, of children, of relations, as well as the regard due to misfortune, respect to the aged, the virtuous, the learned, the magistrates, and the authorities of the state, attachment to the country, and obedience and loyalty to the sovereign, who, in the language of the bible, is constituted by god to govern the destinies of the people committed to his or her care. all these duties, which branch off into many specialities, are either explicitly declared, or incontestably result, by analogies and sound hermeneutical deductions, from the various texts referring to such subjects. lxxxvii. but not to strict justice alone our conduct towards our fellow-men must conform itself; we are bound to act on the principles of the most generous benevolence and charity. those acts of a noble mind and a magnanimous heart, commonly called virtue, which are by moralists only _recommended_, as meritorious works, are by the divine law _enjoined_, as obligatory, in the most absolute sense. alms, for instance, are, in the mosaic law, a duty of the rich, and a right of the needy. god is the owner of the land; he gave it to the diligent to cultivate, and through his blessing their labours prosper; he assigned to the poor his dues on the cultivated soil, and ordered that to them should be left the total produce of every seventh year, the tithes of some other years, and the gleanings of the fields and vineyards. it was not thereby intended to render charity legal and compulsory, depriving it of its noblest attribute, which is spontaneity, but to show more conspicuously the importance attached to it, having otherwise left free all acts of kindness and mercy, to which the law does not fix any measure. to this class also belong the precepts, which make it a duty to give timely assistance to him who is about to succumb to fatigue and labour, to supply with provisions the discharged servant, to restore before sunset the clothing taken in pawn, to obviate danger in building a house, to put no obstructions before the blind, to grant every kind of relief to whomsoever stands in need, without exacting, or even expecting, any remuneration, to rescue those who are in danger, to defend the weak, to protect the widow and the orphan, to attend the sick, and to give sepulture to the dead. these and other similar prescriptions, which make of charity a duty, carry with them the great lesson, that justice must go always hand-in-hand with mercy, since the all-just god is also all-merciful, and he who satisfies not both alike, does not fully discharge his duties to society. lxxxviii. the mosaic dispensation, which considers the whole world as a grand unit, and tends to carry out the idea of moral good to its fullest extent, could not leave unnoticed the relations of man with beings of different species; therefore it also mentioned duties that we owe to the irrational creatures and inanimate beings. true, god granted to man a superiority, a dominion over all things created on earth, permitting him the use, and even the destruction, of them, whenever this is necessary to his own welfare, or conducive to his own advantage; but he wisely restricted such power within certain limits. mosaism regards the entire universe as a temple manifesting the glory of god, and directs us to admire in the single component parts the profound counsels and infinite wisdom of him who created and harmonized so many wonders. thus we are commanded, in the first place, to respect the laws of nature, as established by its supreme author from the creation, and not to do capriciously things that are in direct opposition to such laws. from this principle spring the various prohibitions to couple sexually different species of animals, to practise on them castration, to constrain simultaneously to joint labour beasts of unequal strength, to muzzle them while thrashing, and to use towards them any kind of cruelty. nay, it is enjoined that they, also, should participate in the general rest ordained for men on festivals. it is well for us to reflect how incomplete are as yet the modern institutions for the prevention of cruelty to animals, when compared with those of the ancient mosaic code. even the simultaneous sowing of heterogeneous species, and the ingrafting of plants, are considered as violations of the law of nature, which had established the distinctions. in the second place, in order that man, while using all things for his benefit, might not imagine that he is their absolute master, and should not forget the true owner, who conferred them upon him under various reservations, he was enjoined not to appropriate at the same time two things, one of which had been born or produced from the other; but in the act of converting to his own use some object or being, he should spare that which gave it birth, and not lay his hands upon both simultaneously. he is thus to learn to respect the causes while enjoying the effects; and from the secondary causes he will mentally ascend to the primitive one, which produced them all from nought. this is the sense and intention of the prohibitions of taking in a covey the mother with the young, of slaughtering a quadruped together with that which gave it birth, of cutting down a tree, were it even for the necessity of a siege, while we are enjoying its fruit. chapter xiv. lxxxix. the third class of duties comprises those which man has towards himself; and here the fundamental rule, from which they all emerge, sounds thus--"sanctify thyself, for i, the eternal, am holy," which, in other words, may be rendered as follows--"imitate god, for thou wast created in his image." as, however, this sanctification of self cannot possibly be effected without knowing and loving god, and without walking in his ways by practising justice and charity, it follows that this third article is the cardinal point, which virtually comprehends in itself the other two--it _is_ the ultimate object of all the revelation, which purposed nothing more or less than the perfection of man; to this grand end the whole scheme of revelation was designed. it is clear that, in regulating the precepts of sanctification, the revealed word had not alone to deal with the human soul, but to take into account the body also, without whose concurrence man cannot attain perfection. designed for a receptacle of an immortal spirit, and for an instrument to carry out the actions of life, the body must be preserved entire, pure, and inaccessible to all contamination that would be an obstacle to the high spiritual functions to be accomplished by its means. to ensure this inaccessibility, as far as possible, the divine law prescribed for all mankind a rule, which, though to the short understanding of many its character may not appear very clear, was deemed by the eternal wisdom as calculated to promote morality. previously to abraham's vocation, god forbade noah and his children to feed upon blood; and the scriptural declaration, that the soul of animals resides in their blood, seems to indicate that the motive of that prohibition is to prevent the human body being brutalised by absorbing within itself, and assimilating, a large amount of an inferior vitality, and thus causing the material propensities to preponderate in man. but even if the true reason of that prohibition remained unknown to us, this would not be the only instance of man being obliged to acknowledge his own ignorance, and to bow reverently before an explicit and rigorous commandment of god. xc. the principles inculcated by the mosaic code, for the preservation of the body, involve, primarily, the prohibition of attempting its existence, and, secondarily, that of cutting _off_ or injuring any part of it. suicide is, therefore, explicitly declared a crime; and several precepts are directed against mutilations, marks, and all sorts of deformations. the law does not permit voluntary macerations of the body, capricious abstinences from lawful things, multiplied or prolonged fasts, or subtractions from what is necessary to life. it, on the contrary, intends that bodily health should be cared for, that cleanliness and decency, in every respect, be regarded, a proper development of the physical faculties promoted, and an employment procured for them consonant with the superior requirements of man. it _is_ likewise due to the physiology of the human body, not to use any of its limbs in a manner contradictory to its organisation, to provide for the restoration of equilibrium or health eventually lost, to avoid risks of injuries or disorders, and to take advice of skilled men in cases of disease. but food, drink, recreation, physical enjoyment, and every other indulgence usually allowed to the advantage of the body, are required by the law to be moderated by certain rules of a moral standard, having in view more elevated ends than the mere gratification of earthly wants; so that even the most vulgar acts may, from the intentions which accompany them, acquire a certain religious importance. in short, the government of the body must be such as to favour, and not to hinder, the exercise of what concerns spiritual life. xci. passing to other moral requirements which come within the sphere of man's duties towards himself, it is unnecessary to demonstrate here how it is incumbent upon every man to choose a state in society adapted to his individual faculties and aptitude, to be industrious, sober and decorous, to fix on a well-regulated distribution of his time and work, to be economical without parsimony and liberal without prodigality, and generally to follow such rules of wisdom as tend to render life prosperous, and human conduct acceptable to society. all such rules are self-evident, and grow necessarily out of the general principle which demands of the functions of the body to subserve the attainment of self-sanctification. but we must now speak precisely of this sanctification, to point out briefly in what it consists. from the divine prescript, "sanctify yourselves because i am holy," we clearly conclude that the type of sanctification is to be sought, not in ourselves, but in god; therefore, to sanctify ourselves is to shape our own acts and will upon the known will of god; to be fully penetrated with the idea of him; to hold steadfastly to him; to take him for a guide in the walks of life; to make him the goal of our actions and the centre of our hopes; to devote our solicitude to the accomplishment of the high designs of his eternal wisdom; to perform whatever is agreeable to him; to imitate, as far as possible, his perfections; in short, so to act, that what in him is absolute may become in us subjective; and thus the sanctity of god will produce man's own sanctification. having established this sovereign principle, revelation has accomplished its intentions, has attained its object, for the whole sum of the divine law is concentrated in it; and worship, morals, judicial laws, and all single observances prescribed, are but branches or constituent parts of this principle; they all flow from, and return to, it, with a systematic consequence. xcii. besides the three cardinal articles above stated, the observance of which, in their general tendencies at least, is incumbent on all mankind, there are in the sacred code various special prescriptions obligatory only on israel, as him who first received the revelation, and who is bound to preserve it with particular means, and to testify it for ever, by his acts and by his very existence. through such prescriptions, the law designed either to keep alive among the people the idea of the high mission entrusted to it, and the memory of signal favours which providence prodigally conferred upon it in the early times of the institution, or to initiate it into a more scrupulous sanctitude, by interdicting to it some things that are left permissive to others. it is not necessary here to give a complete list of such precepts, as the mere inspection of the sacred text suffices to point them out; and we shall confine ourselves to indicating some of the more important. pre-eminent among them stands the sabbath, the elevated tendency of which has been already explained in the sinaitic revelation; next come the three festivals of passover, pentecost, and tabernacles, which, besides being linked to, and combined with, rural events and circumstances, are also designed to commemorate luminous epochs in the national history; the great day of atonement, as a highly important act of reconciliation with god; the circumcision, as an ineffaceable mark of the adoption of israel; the assiduous study of the divine law, as the purest source of truth, and repository of the religious idea; the fringes in the garments, the phylacteries or frontlets, the inscriptions on the door-posts, and such like commemorative means; the redemption of the firstborn children; and the offering of the first fruits, as a demonstration of filial dependance on, and gratitude to, the supreme cause; the prohibition to feed on certain loathsome animals, and reptiles and insects, in order not to assimilate to the human body substances of a low, imperfect, and possibly deteriorated organization; the interdiction of marriages between certain degrees of relationships, because wanting in the antagonism required in connubial unions;[ ] the duty of offering up prayer, one of the noblest offices of piety, and the most effectual medium of communion with god; that of confessing sins, the inevitable consequence of human frailty; the injunctions to reject idolatry, divinations, charms, exorcisms, sortileges, and all manner of superstitions, all of which are obstacles to the development of the religious idea; and several other precepts, which may be found dispersed throughout the sacred code, all having similar tendencies, and coming more or less directly within the scope we have assigned to them. [note : another probable reason of this prohibition is, that the practice of such unions would be fraught with great domestic disorders and unhappiness, and consequent social evils. but it is opportune here to remind the leader, that many attempts have been made, in the course of centuries, by eminent expositors, to assign to many of the mosaic ordinances motives of various characters, rationalistic and metaphysical, sanitary, political, and mystical, but all more or less conjectural. to the religious man the positive knowledge of the true motives is not at all essential for the performance of the divine precepts; and in the words of our author himself, as stated elsewhere, "we have to bow reverently before an explicit and rigorous commandment of god, and we consider it as calculated to contribute to the promotion of our own weal."--the translator.] chapter xv. xciii. casting now a retrospective glance on what we have hitherto briefly stated, it will be easy to deduce, from the aggregate of these notions, the principal characteristic of that wondrous institution, which it pleased the divine mercy to found upon earth for the benefit of the human family, selecting for its organ the people of israel; an institution, which, in reference to the means adopted for its preservation and propagation, is called _judaism_. the scope of judaism is, then, the propagation among men of the _religious idea_, and this comprises the doctrines revealed respecting the deity and respecting man, in consequence of which the latter will be able to attain his true goal. respecting god, revelation teaches that he is a being absolute--that is to say, that has in himself all the sources of existence, of will, of power, and of action--hence he is eternal, all-perfect, all-powerful, all-holy; he is unique, because there is no god beside him; and he is one, because in him there can be no multiplicity or division of parts; he created out of nought the universe, which he governs by pre-ordained physical laws, and all that exists owes to him its existence and conservation. respecting man, revelation teaches that he has an immortal soul, made in the image of god--that is, endowed with various spiritual faculties similar, in their nature, to those of his maker--therefore susceptible of a progressive perfection, which he will attain by sanctifying himself--that is, by imitating god and carrying out his commands. to that effect, god entered into an immediate relation with man, whereby he not only provides for the preservation of mankind, as he does for that of all other things created, but he, moreover, granted him a supernatural assistance to improve his moral condition; and this assistance consists in having made him the recipient of a revelation, by which he instructed him in the best rules of life, and declared to him that he will be his support, his protector, his judge, his loving father, and his guide towards eternal felicity. xciv. but the religious idea is not simply a theory that may be accepted or rejected without affecting the human actions, it is not an abstraction confined within the sphere of contemplation; it is a practical system, which requires to be put into execution, and to be manifested in every part of the human conduct. as such, it was to pass into the hands of men, to direct their actions; and they could conform to it only to the extent of their intellectual comprehension of its spirit. now, every institution, however excellent in itself, is liable to vicissitudes, as soon as human ingenuity seeks to comprehend it, and human weakness to carry it into effect. even as the intellectual powers and the modes of viewing things vary among men, so the religious idea, in its practical application, was subject, in the lapse of time, to some alteration among those who became its depositaries. judaism did not remain always pure and consentaneous to its ends; and, although based on a foundation unchangeable in its nature, and eternal, its practice was sometimes at variance with its spirit, and its essence was either neglected or misunderstood, according to certain circumstances of the national development, as we are informed, even by the records of sacred history. xcv. there can be no doubt but the inspired man, who first was commissioned to proclaim the true religious idea, had fully realized in his mind the vastness and immense consequences of that new institution in its ultimate universal compass. in his eloquent addresses there are even some broad traits which allude to a fulfilment reserved to the latest posterity. nevertheless, it is obvious, that, having to instruct a people who were not yet prepared to realize such an idea, and in an age when the opinions of all mankind ran into totally different directions, he had to take into account the condition of the times and of men, and to use a language suited to his hearers. at the same time it was not designed, or expected, by the holy legislator to see at once realized the last and comprehensive results to which the revealed doctrine aspires; it was sufficient to have given it existence and form, and to have instituted a repository capably of preserving it, leaving its final universal triumph to the development of humanity and progress of civilisation. considered in these points of view, mosaism has the appearance, in its exterior garb, of a special law, adapted to peculiar circumstances, and circumscribed to few persons, but in reality, and apart from that kind of integument, it contains the universal doctrines, destined to become the inheritance of all mankind. the blessed prophet clearly foresaw that the new ideas preached by him would meet with many an obstacle, before they were thoroughly adopted, even by those who were called upon to preserve them; hence the greater was the force with which he inculcated the monotheistic principle, and the necessity of segregation from foreign and idolatrous influences; thus his laws acquired an aspect of _particularism_ and nationality, whereas on being carefully studied, and deeply penetrated, they exhibit their more general and sublime tendency. therefore, in judging of mosaism, and in interpreting the body of laws contained in the pentateuch, we must never lose sight of the two following necessary cautions; viz., to deduce general theories from particular cases; and to take into account the circumstances of time and place, in order to seize that which is designed for all times and all places.[ ] [note : the attentive student of the pentateuch must see, especially when assisted by the best commentators, that several ordinances are the creatures of circumstance and time, and consequently of an essentially transitory character. among these stand foremost all such as refer to the treatment of, and relations with, the canaanitic families. the strict separation of israel from those corrupt and idolatrous populations, and their ultimate destruction, were conditions necessary to the establishment and success of the new order of things. as soon as the end of those ordinances was accomplished, they naturally ceased to have any other than a historical value. therefore, he (if any such there be) who would transfer to the gentiles of our days the principles of the policy that was inculcated towards the canaanites of the time of moses, would not only he committing a sad mistake, but running counter to the spirit of judaism, and violating the very letter of the law, elsewhere clearly expressed. "thou shalt love the stranger as thyself," is the motto which god inscribed for perpetuity on the banner of israel.--the translator.] xcvi. what the inspired arch-prophet had foretold came too truly to pass, as soon as the people of israel, mixing too freely with their corrupt neighbours, wished to imitate them, and assumed the form of a monarchy. ambition and lust of power could ill agree with a law, which establishes individual liberty and equality of rights. consequently, it was not long before paganism ascended the throne, attended by a hideous train of profligacies and crimes; and, what then remained of the mosaic institutions, consisted only of the material service of the temple, and some exterior acts mechanically performed, but sadly lacking the idea, which alone constitutes their merit. to put an end to so great a disorder, prophetism rose. with admirable zeal, energy, eloquence, and abnegation, thundering in the courts, the temple, and the public markets; now by word of mouth, then by writings; now threatening, anon exhorting; always struggling with infinite obstacles, and setting at defiance the tyranny of the ruling powers with the sole prestige of the animated word, prophetism undertook to revivify the religious idea, almost extinguished, or crushed under the weight of universal perversion. but to repress with greater force the overflowing depravity, and to combat the evil with an opposite extreme, it was proper to divest the religious idea of its particularising and national forms, and to present it in its more comprehensive and general character, in its celestial beauty of a future reign of happiness, based on love, justice, liberty, and universal peace. this was precisely what prophetism did. therefore, he would be greatly mistaken, who would suppose, in the expressions used by the prophets, any intention of slight towards the ceremonial laws, and those biblical prescriptions, which are specially intended for the chosen people. true, these are to be regarded as means calculated to a superior end; but they remain in full force and validity until that end (which is in store in the eternal mind) shall have been fully and finally attained. the prophets eliminated nothing from, and added nothing to, the law; they sought to revive the religious idea, which is the foundation and aim of the law; they brought it into prominence, to impress it more forcibly on the minds of a people who had nearly lost it. but they did more; they bounded over the confines of the present, transferred themselves through the imagination to a future final re-arrangement of the human conditions; and, giving to the religious idea its greatest possible latitude, depicted a future state of ideal perfection, which, while it offered a vivid contrast with contemporary corruption, left to posterity an imperishable monument of their inspired eloquence and exquisite foresight.[ ] [note : the original has here several succeeding paragraphs devoted to a historical review of various phases of judaism, which it describes under the names of talmudism, rabbinism, caraism, and cabalism. believing this digression, or appendix, to be unnecessary to the general purposes of the present book, i have omitted it in the translation, _with the sanction of the distinguished author himself._--the translator.] chapter xvi. xcvii. judaism is now clearly delineated before us. from the outline that we have endeavoured to sketch, it is evident that the religion of the jew imposes upon him solemn duties towards god, towards his fellow-men, and towards himself. a sincere, pure, undivided, active, loving worship of his heavenly father, and a constant practice of justice, benevolence, and charity, in their widest sense, will lead to his self-sanctification, which is the aim intended for him. these are his fundamental duties, as far as regards actions. many of the observances prescribed by holy writ teach the modes and means of carrying out such duties. all such prescriptions as are strictly connected with the existence of the temple, and the sojourn in palestine are dispensed with, since the destruction of the former, and the dispersion of israel on the face of the earth. but no doubts can exist as to the others, which are all, and for ever, in full force, having been ordained for all times and all places. but the jew has also a creed to profess. according to the scriptures, he is bound to believe in the unity, eternity, omnipotence, omniscience, unerring justice, and infinite mercy of god; in his general providence over all the universe, which he created and which he governs, and his more special providence over man; he is bound to believe in the divine origin of the mosaic revelation, in its truth and immutability, and in its efficacy to promote his own sanctification; he is bound to believe in the spirituality and immortality of the human soul, in its destination and aptitude to perform all that is good, and in the future reward of the virtuous and punishment of the wicked; and, lastly, he is bound to believe, that, in order to make known, preserve, and propagate these dogmas, a covenant was established between god and israel, in consequence of which the latter is called _servant of god, son of god, holy people_, and has the particular mission to conform to the will of god, which is called _walking in the ways of the eternal_. these various points are, however, so intimately connected with each other, and form so complete a system, that one being admitted, the others follow as legitimate consequences. it now remains for us only to add a few words concerning the hopes of israel. the future--as great in its consequences as extraordinary in its conditions--which the jew has a right to expect, has its foundation in the divine promises, and, consequently, its accomplishment, though long in the womb of time, is infallible. by virtue of such promises, israel expects a complete material restoration and spiritual perfection, not of his own people only, but of all the human family; so that every individual of the human species may then correspond, in all respects, to the lofty requirements of his nature, and attain the ends pre-established for man by the infinite wisdom of the creator; and this not only during his earthly life, but also beyond it, in his immortal condition. as to the modes by which these heavenly universal promises will come into actuality, we must rest satisfied with very feeble and vague notions, and not require an exact comprehension of specialities, which, in our present limited power of mind, we might be unable even to conceive. it is sufficient for us to be able to deduce with certainty from prophetic words, that (as regards the future condition of this life) an increased intelligence, and a more energetic will directed towards what is good--which in the biblical language is called _circumcision of the heart_--will be the means of diffusing throughout the world the knowledge of the one god, and the exercise of virtue, under the regimen of an incorruptible justice, a generous benevolence, a universal peace, and an uninterrupted prosperity and happiness. to israel, in particular, the gathering of his scattered members, the restoration of his ancestral inheritance, and the re-establishment of his nationality, have been promised and repeatedly assured; and the glory of that epoch forms the subject of the most glowing pictures of inspired poetry. but the fulfilment of these promises the jew must expect from the wonder-working hand of god alone, without any personal efforts of his own. meanwhile, he is to consider himself, as he truly is, a citizen of the country in which he dwells, a brother to his fellow-citizens, a dutiful observer of the law of the land, and a loyal subject of the sovereign, whose authority is constituted by god. london: printed by j. wertheimer and co., circus place, finsbury circus. none legends of babylon and egypt in relation to hebrew tradition by leonard w. king, m.a., litt.d., f.s.a. assistant keeper of egyptian and assyrian antiquities in the british museum professor in the university of london king's college first published by humphrey milford, oxford university press. the british academy the schweich lectures preparer's note this text was prepared from a edition of the book, hence the references to dates after in some places. greek text has been transliterated within brackets "{}" using an oxford english dictionary alphabet table. diacritical marks have been lost. preface in these lectures an attempt is made, not so much to restate familiar facts, as to accommodate them to new and supplementary evidence which has been published in america since the outbreak of the war. but even without the excuse of recent discovery, no apology would be needed for any comparison or contrast of hebrew tradition with the mythological and legendary beliefs of babylon and egypt. hebrew achievements in the sphere of religion and ethics are only thrown into stronger relief when studied against their contemporary background. the bulk of our new material is furnished by some early texts, written towards the close of the third millennium b.c. they incorporate traditions which extend in unbroken outline from their own period into the remote ages of the past, and claim to trace the history of man back to his creation. they represent the early national traditions of the sumerian people, who preceded the semites as the ruling race in babylonia; and incidentally they necessitate a revision of current views with regard to the cradle of babylonian civilization. the most remarkable of the new documents is one which relates in poetical narrative an account of the creation, of antediluvian history, and of the deluge. it thus exhibits a close resemblance in structure to the corresponding hebrew traditions, a resemblance that is not shared by the semitic-babylonian versions at present known. but in matter the sumerian tradition is more primitive than any of the semitic versions. in spite of the fact that the text appears to have reached us in a magical setting, and to some extent in epitomized form, this early document enables us to tap the stream of tradition at a point far above any at which approach has hitherto been possible. though the resemblance of early sumerian tradition to that of the hebrews is striking, it furnishes a still closer parallel to the summaries preserved from the history of berossus. the huge figures incorporated in the latter's chronological scheme are no longer to be treated as a product of neo-babylonian speculation; they reappear in their original surroundings in another of these early documents, the sumerian dynastic list. the sources of berossus had inevitably been semitized by babylon; but two of his three antediluvian cities find their place among the five of primitive sumerian belief, and two of his ten antediluvian kings rejoin their sumerian prototypes. moreover, the recorded ages of sumerian and hebrew patriarchs are strangely alike. it may be added that in egypt a new fragment of the palermo stele has enabled us to verify, by a very similar comparison, the accuracy of manetho's sources for his prehistoric period, while at the same time it demonstrates the way in which possible inaccuracies in his system, deduced from independent evidence, may have arisen in remote antiquity. it is clear that both hebrew and hellenistic traditions were modelled on very early lines. thus our new material enables us to check the age, and in some measure the accuracy, of the traditions concerning the dawn of history which the greeks reproduced from native sources, both in babylonia and egypt, after the conquests of alexander had brought the near east within the range of their intimate acquaintance. the third body of tradition, that of the hebrews, though unbacked by the prestige of secular achievement, has, through incorporation in the canons of two great religious systems, acquired an authority which the others have not enjoyed. in re-examining the sources of all three accounts, so far as they are affected by the new discoveries, it will be of interest to observe how the same problems were solved in antiquity by very different races, living under widely divergent conditions, but within easy reach of one another. their periods of contact, ascertained in history or suggested by geographical considerations, will prompt the further question to what extent each body of belief was evolved in independence of the others. the close correspondence that has long been recognized and is now confirmed between the hebrew and the semitic-babylonian systems, as compared with that of egypt, naturally falls within the scope of our enquiry. excavation has provided an extraordinarily full archaeological commentary to the legends of egypt and babylon; and when i received the invitation to deliver the schweich lectures for , i was reminded of the terms of the bequest and was asked to emphasize the archaeological side of the subject. such material illustration was also calculated to bring out, in a more vivid manner than was possible with purely literary evidence, the contrasts and parallels presented by hebrew tradition. thanks to a special grant for photographs from the british academy, i was enabled to illustrate by means of lantern slides many of the problems discussed in the lectures; and it was originally intended that the photographs then shown should appear as plates in this volume. but in view of the continued and increasing shortage of paper, it was afterwards felt to be only right that all illustrations should be omitted. this very necessary decision has involved a recasting of certain sections of the lectures as delivered, which in its turn has rendered possible a fuller treatment of the new literary evidence. to the consequent shifting of interest is also due a transposition of names in the title. on their literary side, and in virtue of the intimacy of their relation to hebrew tradition, the legends of babylon must be given precedence over those of egypt. for the delay in the appearance of the volume i must plead the pressure of other work, on subjects far removed from archaeological study and affording little time and few facilities for a continuance of archaeological and textual research. it is hoped that the insertion of references throughout, and the more detailed discussion of problems suggested by our new literary material, may incline the reader to add his indulgence to that already extended to me by the british academy. l. w. king. legends of babylon and egypt in relation to hebrew tradition lecture i--egypt, babylon, and palestine, and some traditional origins of civilization at the present moment most of us have little time or thought to spare for subjects not connected directly or indirectly with the war. we have put aside our own interests and studies; and after the war we shall all have a certain amount of leeway to make up in acquainting ourselves with what has been going on in countries not yet involved in the great struggle. meanwhile the most we can do is to glance for a moment at any discovery of exceptional interest that may come to light. the main object of these lectures will be to examine certain hebrew traditions in the light of new evidence which has been published in america since the outbreak of the war. the evidence is furnished by some literary texts, inscribed on tablets from nippur, one of the oldest and most sacred cities of babylonia. they are written in sumerian, the language spoken by the non-semitic people whom the semitic babylonians conquered and displaced; and they include a very primitive version of the deluge story and creation myth, and some texts which throw new light on the age of babylonian civilization and on the area within which it had its rise. in them we have recovered some of the material from which berossus derived his dynasty of antediluvian kings, and we are thus enabled to test the accuracy of the greek tradition by that of the sumerians themselves. so far then as babylonia is concerned, these documents will necessitate a re-examination of more than one problem. the myths and legends of ancient egypt are also to some extent involved. the trend of much recent anthropological research has been in the direction of seeking a single place of origin for similar beliefs and practices, at least among races which were bound to one another by political or commercial ties. and we shall have occasion to test, by means of our new data, a recent theory of egyptian influence. the nile valley was, of course, one the great centres from which civilization radiated throughout the ancient east; and, even when direct contact is unproved, egyptian literature may furnish instructive parallels and contrasts in any study of western asiatic mythology. moreover, by a strange coincidence, there has also been published in egypt since the beginning of the war a record referring to the reigns of predynastic rulers in the nile valley. this, like some of the nippur texts, takes us back to that dim period before the dawn of actual history, and, though the information it affords is not detailed like theirs, it provides fresh confirmation of the general accuracy of manetho's sources, and suggests some interesting points for comparison. but the people with whose traditions we are ultimately concerned are the hebrews. in the first series of schweich lectures, delivered in the year , the late canon driver showed how the literature of assyria and babylon had thrown light upon hebrew traditions concerning the origin and early history of the world. the majority of the cuneiform documents, on which he based his comparison, date from a period no earlier than the seventh century b.c., and yet it was clear that the texts themselves, in some form or other, must have descended from a remote antiquity. he concluded his brief reference to the creation and deluge tablets with these words: "the babylonian narratives are both polytheistic, while the corresponding biblical narratives (gen. i and vi-xi) are made the vehicle of a pure and exalted monotheism; but in spite of this fundamental difference, and also variations in detail, the resemblances are such as to leave no doubt that the hebrew cosmogony and the hebrew story of the deluge are both derived ultimately from the same original as the babylonian narratives, only transformed by the magic touch of israel's religion, and infused by it with a new spirit."( ) among the recently published documents from nippur we have at last recovered one at least of those primitive originals from which the babylonian accounts were derived, while others prove the existence of variant stories of the world's origin and early history which have not survived in the later cuneiform texts. in some of these early sumerian records we may trace a faint but remarkable parallel with the hebrew traditions of man's history between his creation and the flood. it will be our task, then, to examine the relations which the hebrew narratives bear both to the early sumerian and to the later babylonian versions, and to ascertain how far the new discoveries support or modify current views with regard to the contents of those early chapters of genesis. ( ) driver, _modern research as illustrating the bible_ (the schweich lectures, ), p. . i need not remind you that genesis is the book of hebrew origins, and that its contents mark it off to some extent from the other books of the hebrew bible. the object of the pentateuch and the book of joshua is to describe in their origin the fundamental institutions of the national faith and to trace from the earliest times the course of events which led to the hebrew settlement in palestine. of this national history the book of genesis forms the introductory section. four centuries of complete silence lie between its close and the beginning of exodus, where we enter on the history of a nation as contrasted with that of a family.( ) while exodus and the succeeding books contain national traditions, genesis is largely made up of individual biography. chapters xii-l are concerned with the immediate ancestors of the hebrew race, beginning with abram's migration into canaan and closing with joseph's death in egypt. but the aim of the book is not confined to recounting the ancestry of israel. it seeks also to show her relation to other peoples in the world, and probing still deeper into the past it describes how the earth itself was prepared for man's habitation. thus the patriarchal biographies are preceded, in chapters i-xi, by an account of the original of the world, the beginnings of civilization, and the distribution of the various races of mankind. it is, of course, with certain parts of this first group of chapters that such striking parallels have long been recognized in the cuneiform texts. ( ) cf., e.g., skinner, _a critical and exegetical commentary on genesis_ ( ), p. ii f.; driver, _the book of genesis_, th ed. ( ), pp. ff.; ryle, _the book of genesis_ ( ), pp. x ff. in approaching this particular body of hebrew traditions, the necessity for some caution will be apparent. it is not as though we were dealing with the reported beliefs of a malayan or central australian tribe. in such a case there would be no difficulty in applying a purely objective criticism, without regard to ulterior consequences. but here our own feelings are involved, having their roots deep in early associations. the ground too is well trodden; and, had there been no new material to discuss, i think i should have preferred a less contentious theme. the new material is my justification for the choice of subject, and also the fact that, whatever views we may hold, it will be necessary for us to assimilate it to them. i shall have no hesitation in giving you my own reading of the evidence; but at the same time it will be possible to indicate solutions which will probably appeal to those who view the subject from more conservative standpoints. that side of the discussion may well be postponed until after the examination of the new evidence in detail. and first of all it will be advisable to clear up some general aspects of the problem, and to define the limits within which our criticism may be applied. it must be admitted that both egypt and babylon bear a bad name in hebrew tradition. both are synonymous with captivity, the symbols of suffering endured at the beginning and at the close of the national life. and during the struggle against assyrian aggression, the disappointment at the failure of expected help is reflected in prophecies of the period. these great crises in hebrew history have tended to obscure in the national memory the part which both babylon and egypt may have played in moulding the civilization of the smaller nations with whom they came in contact. to such influence the races of syria were, by geographical position, peculiarly subject. the country has often been compared to a bridge between the two great continents of asia and africa, flanked by the sea on one side and the desert on the other, a narrow causeway of highland and coastal plain connecting the valleys of the nile and the euphrates.( ) for, except on the frontier of egypt, desert and sea do not meet. farther north the arabian plateau is separated from the mediterranean by a double mountain chain, which runs south from the taurus at varying elevations, and encloses in its lower course the remarkable depression of the jordan valley, the dead sea, and the 'arabah. the judaean hills and the mountains of moab are merely the southward prolongation of the lebanon and anti-lebanon, and their neighbourhood to the sea endows this narrow tract of habitable country with its moisture and fertility. it thus formed the natural channel of intercourse between the two earliest centres of civilization, and was later the battle-ground of their opposing empires. ( ) see g. a. smith, _historical geography of the holy land_, pp. ff., ff., and myres, _dawn of history_, pp. ff.; and cf. hogarth, _the nearer east_, pp. ff., and reclus, _nouvelle géographie universelle_, t. ix, pp. ff. the great trunk-roads of through communication run north and south, across the eastern plateaus of the haurân and moab, and along the coastal plains. the old highway from egypt, which left the delta at pelusium, at first follows the coast, then trends eastward across the plain of esdraelon, which breaks the coastal range, and passing under hermon runs northward through damascus and reaches the euphrates at its most westerly point. other through tracks in palestine ran then as they do to-day, by beesheba and hebron, or along the 'arabah and west of the dead sea, or through edom and east of jordan by the present hajj route to damascus. but the great highway from egypt, the most westerly of the trunk-roads through palestine, was that mainly followed, with some variant sections, by both caravans and armies, and was known by the hebrews in its southern course as the "way of the philistines" and farther north as the "way of the east". the plain of esraelon, where the road first trends eastward, has been the battle-ground for most invaders of palestine from the north, and though egyptian armies often fought in the southern coastal plain, they too have battled there when they held the southern country. megiddo, which commands the main pass into the plain through the low samaritan hills to the southeast of carmel, was the site of thothmes iii's famous battle against a syrian confederation, and it inspired the writer of the apocalypse with his vision of an armageddon of the future. but invading armies always followed the beaten track of caravans, and movements represented by the great campaigns were reflected in the daily passage of international commerce. with so much through traffic continually passing within her borders, it may be matter for surprise that far more striking evidence of its cultural effect should not have been revealed by archaeological research in palestine. here again the explanation is mainly of a geographical character. for though the plains and plateaus could be crossed by the trunk-roads, the rest of the country is so broken up by mountain and valley that it presented few facilities either to foreign penetration or to external control. the physical barriers to local intercourse, reinforced by striking differences in soil, altitude, and climate, while they precluded syria herself from attaining national unity, always tended to protect her separate provinces, or "kingdoms," from the full effects of foreign aggression. one city-state could be traversed, devastated, or annexed, without in the least degree affecting neighbouring areas. it is true that the population of syria has always been predominantly semitic, for she was on the fringe of the great breeding-ground of the semitic race and her landward boundary was open to the arabian nomad. indeed, in the whole course of her history the only race that bade fair at one time to oust the semite in syria was the greek. but the greeks remained within the cities which they founded or rebuilt, and, as robertson smith pointed out, the death-rate in eastern cities habitually exceeds the birth-rate; the urban population must be reinforced from the country if it is to be maintained, so that the type of population is ultimately determined by the blood of the peasantry.( ) hence after the arab conquest the greek elements in syria and palestine tended rapidly to disappear. the moslem invasion was only the last of a series of similar great inroads, which have followed one another since the dawn of history, and during all that time absorption was continually taking place from desert tribes that ranged the syrian border. as we have seen, the country of his adoption was such as to encourage the semitic nomad's particularism, which was inherent in his tribal organization. thus the predominance of a single racial element in the population of palestine and syria did little to break down or overstep the natural barriers and lines of cleavage. ( ) see robertson smith, _religion of the semites_, p. f.; and cf. smith, _hist. geogr._, p. f. these facts suffice to show why the influence of both egypt and babylon upon the various peoples and kingdoms of palestine was only intensified at certain periods, when ambition for extended empire dictated the reduction of her provinces in detail. but in the long intervals, during which there was no attempt to enforce political control, regular relations were maintained along the lines of trade and barter. and in any estimate of the possible effect of foreign influence upon hebrew thought, it is important to realize that some of the channels through which in later periods it may have acted had been flowing since the dawn of history, and even perhaps in prehistoric times. it is probable that syria formed one of the links by which we may explain the babylonian elements that are attested in prehistoric egyptian culture.( ) but another possible line of advance may have been by way of arabia and across the red sea into upper egypt. ( ) cf. _sumer and akkad_, pp. ff.; and for a full discussion of the points of resemblance between the early babylonian and egyptian civilizations, see sayce, _the archaeology of the cuneiform inscriptions_, chap. iv, pp. ff. the latter line of contact is suggested by an interesting piece of evidence that has recently been obtained. a prehistoric flint knife, with a handle carved from the tooth of a hippopotamus, has been purchased lately by the louvre,( ) and is said to have been found at gebel el-'arak near naga' hamâdi, which lies on the nile not far below koptos, where an ancient caravan-track leads by wâdi hammâmât to the red sea. on one side of the handle is a battle-scene including some remarkable representations of ancient boats. all the warriors are nude with the exception of a loin girdle, but, while one set of combatants have shaven heads or short hair, the others have abundant locks falling in a thick mass upon the shoulder. on the other face of the handle is carved a hunting scene, two hunters with dogs and desert animals being arranged around a central boss. but in the upper field is a very remarkable group, consisting of a personage struggling with two lions arranged symmetrically. the rest of the composition is not very unlike other examples of prehistoric egyptian carving in low relief, but here attitude, figure, and clothing are quite un-egyptian. the hero wears a sort of turban on his abundant hair, and a full and rounded beard descends upon his breast. a long garment clothes him from the waist and falls below the knees, his muscular calves ending in the claws of a bird of prey. there is nothing like this in prehistoric egyptian art. ( ) see bénédite, "le couteau de gebel al-'arak", in _foundation eugène piot, mon. et. mém._, xxii. i. ( ). perhaps monsieur bénédite is pressing his theme too far when he compares the close-cropped warriors on the handle with the shaven sumerians and elamites upon steles from telloh and susa, for their loin-girdles are african and quite foreign to the euphrates valley. and his suggestion that two of the boats, flat-bottomed and with high curved ends, seem only to have navigated the tigris and euphrates,( ) will hardly command acceptance. but there is no doubt that the heroic personage upon the other face is represented in the familiar attitude of the babylonian hero gilgamesh struggling with lions, which formed so favourite a subject upon early sumerian and babylonian seals. his garment is sumerian or semitic rather than egyptian, and the mixture of human and bird elements in the figure, though not precisely paralleled at this early period, is not out of harmony with mesopotamian or susan tradition. his beard, too, is quite different from that of the libyan desert tribes which the early egyptian kings adopted. though the treatment of the lions is suggestive of proto-elamite rather than of early babylonian models, the design itself is unmistakably of mesopotamian origin. this discovery intensifies the significance of other early parallels that have been noted between the civilizations of the euphrates and the nile, but its evidence, so far as it goes, does not point to syria as the medium of prehistoric intercourse. yet then, as later, there can have been no physical barrier to the use of the river-route from mesopotamia into syria and of the tracks thence southward along the land-bridge to the nile's delta. ( ) op. cit., p. . in the early historic periods we have definite evidence that the eastern coast of the levant exercised a strong fascination upon the rulers of both egypt and babylonia. it may be admitted that syria had little to give in comparison to what she could borrow, but her local trade in wine and oil must have benefited by an increase in the through traffic which followed the working of copper in cyprus and sinai and of silver in the taurus. moreover, in the cedar forests of lebanon and the north she possessed a product which was highly valued both in egypt and the treeless plains of babylonia. the cedars procured by sneferu from lebanon at the close of the iiird dynasty were doubtless floated as rafts down the coast, and we may see in them evidence of a regular traffic in timber. it has long been known that the early babylonian king sharru-kin, or sargon of akkad, had pressed up the euphrates to the mediterranean, and we now have information that he too was fired by a desire for precious wood and metal. one of the recently published nippur inscriptions contains copies of a number of his texts, collected by an ancient scribe from his statues at nippur, and from these we gather additional details of his campaigns. we learn that after his complete subjugation of southern babylonia he turned his attention to the west, and that enlil gave him the lands "from the upper sea to the lower sea", i.e. from the mediterranean to the persian gulf. fortunately this rather vague phrase, which survived in later tradition, is restated in greater detail in one of the contemporary versions, which records that enlil "gave him the upper land, mari, iarmuti, and ibla, as far as the cedar forest and the silver mountains".( ) ( ) see poebel, _historical texts_ (univ. of penns. mus. publ., bab. sect., vol. iv, no. , ), pp. f., ff. mari was a city on the middle euphrates, but the name may here signify the district of mari which lay in the upper course of sargon's march. now we know that the later sumerian monarch gudea obtained his cedar beams from the amanus range, which he names _amanum_ and describes as the "cedar mountains".( ) doubtless he felled his trees on the eastern slopes of the mountain. but we may infer from his texts that sargon actually reached the coast, and his "cedar forest" may have lain farther to the south, perhaps as far south as the lebanon. the "silver mountains" can only be identified with the taurus, where silver mines were worked in antiquity. the reference to iarmuti is interesting, for it is clearly the same place as iarimuta or iarimmuta, of which we find mention in the tell el-amarna letters. from the references to this district in the letters of rib-adda, governor of byblos, we may infer that it was a level district on the coast, capable of producing a considerable quantity of grain for export, and that it was under egyptian control at the time of amenophis iv. hitherto its position has been conjecturally placed in the nile delta, but from sargon's reference we must probably seek it on the north syrian or possibly the cilician coast. perhaps, as dr. poebel suggests, it was the plain of antioch, along the lower course and at the mouth of the orontes. but his further suggestion that the term is used by sargon for the whole stretch of country between the sea and the euphrates is hardly probable. for the geographical references need not be treated as exhaustive, but as confined to the more important districts through which the expedition passed. the district of ibla which is also mentioned by narâm-sin and gudea, lay probably to the north of iarmuti, perhaps on the southern slopes of taurus. it, too, we may regard as a district of restricted extent rather than as a general geographical term for the extreme north of syria. ( ) thureau-dangin, _les inscriptions de sumer de d'akkad_, p. f., statue b, col. v. . ; germ. ed., p. f. it is significant that sargon does not allude to any battle when describing this expedition, nor does he claim to have devastated the western countries.( ) indeed, most of these early expeditions to the west appear to have been inspired by motives of commercial enterprise rather than of conquest. but increase of wealth was naturally followed by political expansion, and egypt's dream of an asiatic empire was realized by pharaohs of the xviiith dynasty. the fact that babylonian should then have been adopted as the medium of official intercourse in syria points to the closeness of the commercial ties which had already united the euphrates valley with the west. egyptian control had passed from canaan at the time of the hebrew settlement, which was indeed a comparatively late episode in the early history of syria. whether or not we identify the khabiri with the hebrews, the character of the latter's incursion is strikingly illustrated by some of the tell el-amarna letters. we see a nomad folk pressing in upon settled peoples and gaining a foothold here and there.( ) ( ) in some versions of his new records sargon states that " , men daily eat bread before him" (see poebel, op. cit., p. ); though the figure may be intended to convey an idea of the size of sargon's court, we may perhaps see in it a not inaccurate estimate of the total strength of his armed forces. ( ) see especially professor burney's forthcoming commentary on judges (passim), and his forthcoming schweich lectures (now delivered, in ). the great change from desert life consists in the adoption of agriculture, and when once that was made by the hebrews any further advance in economic development was dictated by their new surroundings. the same process had been going on, as we have seen, in syria since the dawn of history, the semitic nomad passing gradually through the stages of agricultural and village life into that of the city. the country favoured the retention of tribal exclusiveness, but ultimate survival could only be purchased at the cost of some amalgamation with their new neighbours. below the surface of hebrew history these two tendencies may be traced in varying action and reaction. some sections of the race engaged readily in the social and commercial life of canaanite civilization with its rich inheritance from the past. others, especially in the highlands of judah and the south, at first succeeded in keeping themselves remote from foreign influence. during the later periods of the national life the country was again subjected, and in an intensified degree, to those forces of political aggression from mesopotamia and egypt which we have already noted as operating in canaan. but throughout the settled hebrew community as a whole the spark of desert fire was not extinguished, and by kindling the zeal of the prophets it eventually affected nearly all the white races of mankind. in his presidential address before the british association at newcastle,( ) sir arthur evans emphasized the part which recent archaeology has played in proving the continuity of human culture from the most remote periods. he showed how gaps in our knowledge had been bridged, and he traced the part which each great race had taken in increasing its inheritance. we have, in fact, ample grounds for assuming an interchange, not only of commercial products, but, in a minor degree, of ideas within areas geographically connected; and it is surely not derogatory to any hebrew writer to suggest that he may have adopted, and used for his own purposes, conceptions current among his contemporaries. in other words, the vehicle of religious ideas may well be of composite origin; and, in the course of our study of early hebrew tradition, i suggest that we hold ourselves justified in applying the comparative method to some at any rate of the ingredients which went to form the finished product. the process is purely literary, but it finds an analogy in the study of semitic art, especially in the later periods. and i think it will make my meaning clearer if we consider for a moment a few examples of sculpture produced by races of semitic origin. i do not suggest that we should regard the one process as in any way proving the existence of the other. we should rather treat the comparison as illustrating in another medium the effect of forces which, it is clear, were operative at various periods upon races of the same stock from which the hebrews themselves were descended. in such material products the eye at once detects the semite's readiness to avail himself of foreign models. in some cases direct borrowing is obvious; in others, to adapt a metaphor from music, it is possible to trace extraneous _motifs_ in the design.( ) ( ) "new archaeological lights on the origins of civilization in europe," british association, newcastle-on- tyne, . ( ) the necessary omission of plates, representing the slides shown in the lectures, has involved a recasting of most passages in which points of archaeological detail were discussed; see preface. but the following paragraphs have been retained as the majority of the monuments referred to are well known. some of the most famous monuments of semitic art date from the persian and hellenistic periods, and if we glance at them in this connexion it is in order to illustrate during its most obvious phase a tendency of which the earlier effects are less pronounced. in the sarcophagus of the sidonian king eshmu-'azar ii, which is preserved in the louvre,( ) we have indeed a monument to which no semitic sculptor can lay claim. workmanship and material are egyptian, and there is no doubt that it was sculptured in egypt and transported to sidon by sea. but the king's own engravers added the long phoenician inscription, in which he adjures princes and men not to open his resting-place since there are no jewels therein, concluding with some potent curses against any violation of his tomb. one of the latter implores the holy gods to deliver such violators up "to a mighty prince who shall rule over them", and was probably suggested by alexander's recent occupation of sidon in b.c. after his reduction and drastic punishment of tyre. king eshmun-'zar was not unique in his choice of burial in an egyptian coffin, for he merely followed the example of his royal father, tabnîth, "priest of 'ashtart and king of the sidonians", whose sarcophagus, preserved at constantinople, still bears in addition to his own epitaph that of its former occupant, a certain egyptian general penptah. but more instructive than these borrowed memorials is a genuine example of phoenician work, the stele set up by yehaw-milk, king of byblos, and dating from the fourth or fifth century b.c.( ) in the sculptured panel at the head of the stele the king is represented in the persian dress of the period standing in the presence of 'ashtart or astarte, his "lady, mistress of byblos". there is no doubt that the stele is of native workmanship, but the influence of egypt may be seen in the technique of the carving, in the winged disk above the figures, and still more in the representation of the goddess in her character as the egyptian hathor, with disk and horns, vulture head-dress and papyrus-sceptre. the inscription records the dedication of an altar and shrine to the goddess, and these too we may conjecture were fashioned on egyptian lines. ( ) _corp. inscr. semit._, i. i, tab. ii. ( ) _c.i.s._, i. i, tab. i. the representation of semitic deities under egyptian forms and with egyptian attributes was encouraged by the introduction of their cults into egypt itself. in addition to astarte of byblos, ba'al, anath, and reshef were all borrowed from syria in comparatively early times and given egyptian characters. the conical syrian helmet of reshef, a god of war and thunder, gradually gave place to the white egyptian crown, so that as reshpu he was represented as a royal warrior; and qadesh, another form of astarte, becoming popular with egyptian women as a patroness of love and fecundity, was also sometimes modelled on hathor.( ) ( ) see w. max müller, _egyptological researches_, i, p. f., pl. , and s. a. cook, _religion of ancient palestine_, pp. ff. semitic colonists on the egyptian border were ever ready to adopt egyptian symbolism in delineating the native gods to whom they owed allegiance, and a particularly striking example of this may be seen on a stele of the persian period preserved in the cairo museum.( ) it was found at tell defenneh, on the right bank of the pelusiac branch of the nile, close to the old egyptian highway into syria, a site which may be identified with that of the biblical tahpanhes and the daphnae of the greeks. here it was that the jewish fugitives, fleeing with jeremiah after the fall of jerusalem, founded a jewish colony beside a flourishing phoenician and aramaean settlement. one of the local gods of tahpanhes is represented on the cairo monument, an egyptian stele in the form of a naos with the winged solar disk upon its frieze. he stands on the back of a lion and is clothed in asiatic costume with the high syrian tiara crowning his abundant hair. the syrian workmanship is obvious, and the syrian character of the cult may be recognized in such details as the small brazen fire-altar before the god, and the sacred pillar which is being anointed by the officiating priest. but the god holds in his left hand a purely egyptian sceptre and in his right an emblem as purely babylonian, the weapon of marduk and gilgamesh which was also wielded by early sumerian kings. ( ) müller, op. cit., p. f., pl. . numismatic evidence exhibits a similar readiness on the part of local syrian cults to adopt the veneer of hellenistic civilization while retaining in great measure their own individuality; see hill, "some palestinian cults in the graeco-roman age", in _proceedings of the british academy_, vol. v ( ). the elephantine papyri have shown that the early jews of the diaspora, though untrammeled by the orthodoxy of jerusalem, maintained the purity of their local cult in the face of considerable difficulties. hence the gravestones of their aramaean contemporaries, which have been found in egypt, can only be cited to illustrate the temptations to which they were exposed.( ) such was the memorial erected by abseli to the memory of his parents, abbâ and ahatbû, in the fourth year of xerxes, b.c.( ) they had evidently adopted the religion of osiris, and were buried at saqqârah in accordance with the egyptian rites. the upper scene engraved upon the stele represents abbâ and his wife in the presence of osiris, who is attended by isis and nephthys; and in the lower panel is the funeral scene, in which all the mourners with one exception are asiatics. certain details of the rites that are represented, and mistakes in the hieroglyphic version of the text, prove that the work is aramaean throughout.( ) ( ) it may be admitted that the greek platonized cult of isis and osiris had its origin in the fusion of greeks and egyptians which took place in ptolemaic times (cf. scott- moncrieff, _paganism and christianity in egypt_, p. f.). but we may assume that already in the persian period the osiris cult had begun to acquire a tinge of mysticism, which, though it did not affect the mechanical reproduction of the native texts, appealed to the oriental mind as well as to certain elements in greek religion. persian influence probably prepared the way for the platonic exegesis of the osiris and isis legends which we find in plutarch; and the latter may have been in great measure a development, and not, as is often assumed, a complete misunderstanding of the later egyptian cult. ( ) _c.i.s._, ii. i, tab. xi, no. . ( ) a very similar monument is the carpentras stele (_c.i.s._, ii., i, tab. xiii, no. ), commemorating taba, daughter of tahapi, an aramaean lady who was also a convert to osiris. it is rather later than that of abbâ and his wife, since the aramaic characters are transitional from the archaic to the square alphabet; see driver, _notes on the hebrew text of the books of samuel_, pp. xviii ff., and cooke, _north semitic inscriptions_, p. f. the vatican stele (op. cit. tab. xiv. no. ), which dates from the fourth century, represents inferior work. if our examples of semitic art were confined to the persian and later periods, they could only be employed to throw light on their own epoch, when through communication had been organized, and there was consequently a certain pooling of commercial and artistic products throughout the empire.( ) it is true that under the great king the various petty states and provinces were encouraged to manage their own affairs so long as they paid the required tribute, but their horizon naturally expanded with increase of commerce and the necessity for service in the king's armies. at this time aramaic was the speech of syria, and the population, especially in the cities, was still largely aramaean. as early as the thirteenth century sections of this interesting semitic race had begun to press into northern syria from the middle euphrates, and they absorbed not only the old canaanite population but also the hittite immigrants from cappadocia. the latter indeed may for a time have furnished rulers to the vigorous north syrian principalities which resulted from this racial combination, but the aramaean element, thanks to continual reinforcement, was numerically dominant, and their art may legitimately be regarded as in great measure a semitic product. fortunately we have recovered examples of sculpture which prove that tendencies already noted in the persian period were at work, though in a minor degree, under the later assyrian empire. the discoveries made at zenjirli, for example, illustrate the gradually increasing effect of assyrian influence upon the artistic output of a small north syrian state. ( ) cf. bevan, _house of seleucus_, vol. i, pp. , f. the artistic influence of mesopotamia was even more widely spread than that of egypt during the persian period. this is suggested, for example, by the famous lion-weight discovered at abydos in mysia, the town on the hellespont famed for the loves of hero and leander. the letters of its aramaic inscription (_c.i.s._, ii. i, tab. vii, no. ) prove by their form that it dates from the persian period, and its provenance is sufficiently attested. its weight moreover suggests that it was not merely a babylonian or persian importation, but cast for local use, yet in design and technique it is scarcely distinguishable from the best assyrian work of the seventh century. this village in north-western syria, on the road between antioch and mar'ash, marks the site of a town which lay near the southern border or just within the syrian district of sam'al. the latter is first mentioned in the assyrian inscriptions by shalmaneser iii, the son and successor of the great conqueror, ashur-nasir-pal; and in the first half of the eighth century, though within the radius of assyrian influence, it was still an independent kingdom. it is to this period that we must assign the earliest of the inscribed monuments discovered at zenjirli and its neighbourhood. at gerjin, not far to the north-west, was found the colossal statue of hadad, chief god of the aramaeans, which was fashioned and set up in his honour by panammu i, son of qaral and king of ya'di.( ) in the long aramaic inscription engraved upon the statue panammu records the prosperity of his reign, which he ascribes to the support he has received from hadad and his other gods, el, reshef, rekub-el, and shamash. he had evidently been left in peace by assyria, and the monument he erected to his god is of aramaean workmanship and design. but the influence of assyria may be traced in hadad's beard and in his horned head-dress, modelled on that worn by babylonian and assyrian gods as the symbol of divine power. ( ) see f. von luschan, _sendschirli_, i. ( ), pp. ff., pl. vi; and cf. cooke, _north sem. inscr._, pp. ff. the characters of the inscription on the statue are of the same archaic type as those of the moabite stone, though unlike them they are engraved in relief; so too are the inscriptions of panammu's later successor bar-rekub (see below). gerjin was certainly in ya'di, and winckler's suggestion that zenjirli itself also lay in that district but near the border of sam'al may be provisionally accepted; the occurrence of the names in the inscriptions can be explained in more than one way (see cooke, op. cit., p. ). the political changes introduced into ya'di and sam'al by tiglath-pileser iv are reflected in the inscriptions and monuments of bar-rekub, a later king of the district. internal strife had brought disaster upon ya'di and the throne had been secured by panammu ii, son of bar-sur, whose claims received assyrian support. in the words of his son bar-rekub, "he laid hold of the skirt of his lord, the king of assyria", who was gracious to him; and it was probably at this time, and as a reward for his loyalty, that ya'di was united with the neighbouring district of sam'al. but panammu's devotion to his foreign master led to his death, for he died at the siege of damascus, in or b.c., "in the camp, while following his lord, tiglath-pileser, king of assyria". his kinsfolk and the whole camp bewailed him, and his body was sent back to ya'di, where it was interred by his son, who set up an inscribed statue to his memory. bar-rekub followed in his father's footsteps, as he leads us to infer in his palace-inscription found at zenjirli: "i ran at the wheel of my lord, the king of assyria, in the midst of mighty kings, possessors of silver and possessors of gold." it is not strange therefore that his art should reflect assyrian influence far more strikingly than that of panammu i. the figure of himself which he caused to be carved in relief on the left side of the palace-inscription is in the assyrian style,( ) and so too is another of his reliefs from zenjirli. on the latter bar-rekub is represented seated upon his throne with eunuch and scribe in attendance, while in the field is the emblem of full moon and crescent, here ascribed to "ba'al of harran", the famous centre of moon-worship in northern mesopotamia.( ) ( ) _sendschirli_, iv ( ), pl. lxvii. attitude and treatment of robes are both assyrian, and so is the arrangement of divine symbols in the upper field, though some of the latter are given under unfamiliar forms. the king's close-fitting peaked cap was evidently the royal headdress of sam'al; see the royal figure on a smaller stele of inferior design, op. cit., pl. lxvi. ( ) op. cit. pp. , ff., and pl. lx. the general style of the sculpture and much of the detail are obviously assyrian. assyrian influence is particularly noticeable in bar-rekub's throne; the details of its decoration are precisely similar to those of an assyrian bronze throne in the british museum. the full moon and crescent are not of the familiar form, but are mounted on a standard with tassels. the detailed history and artistic development of sam'al and ya'di convey a very vivid impression of the social and material effects upon the native population of syria, which followed the westward advance of assyria in the eighth century. we realize not only the readiness of one party in the state to defeat its rival with the help of assyrian support, but also the manner in which the life and activities of the nation as a whole were unavoidably affected by their action. other hittite-aramaean and phoenician monuments, as yet undocumented with literary records, exhibit a strange but not unpleasing mixture of foreign _motifs_, such as we see on the stele from amrith( ) in the inland district of arvad. but perhaps the most remarkable example of syrian art we possess is the king's gate recently discovered at carchemish.( ) the presence of the hieroglyphic inscriptions points to the survival of hittite tradition, but the figures represented in the reliefs are of aramaean, not hittite, type. here the king is seen leading his eldest son by the hand in some stately ceremonial, and ranged in registers behind them are the younger members of the royal family, whose ages are indicated by their occupations.( ) the employment of basalt in place of limestone does not disguise the sculptor's debt to assyria. but the design is entirely his own, and the combined dignity and homeliness of the composition are refreshingly superior to the arrogant spirit and hard execution which mar so much assyrian work. this example is particularly instructive, as it shows how a borrowed art may be developed in skilled hands and made to serve a purpose in complete harmony with its new environment. ( ) _collection de clercq_, t. ii, pl. xxxvi. the stele is sculptured in relief with the figure of a north syrian god. here the winged disk is egyptian, as well as the god's helmet with uraeus, and his loin-cloth; his attitude and his supporting lion are hittite; and the lozenge-mountains, on which the lion stands, and the technique of the carving are assyrian. but in spite of its composite character the design is quite successful and not in the least incongruous. ( ) hogarth, _carchemish_, pt. i ( ), pl. b. f. ( ) two of the older boys play at knuckle-bones, others whip spinning-tops, and a little naked girl runs behind supporting herself with a stick, on the head of which is carved a bird. the procession is brought up by the queen- mother, who carries the youngest baby and leads a pet lamb. such monuments surely illustrate the adaptability of the semitic craftsman among men of phoenician and aramaean strain. excavation in palestine has failed to furnish examples of hebrew work. but hebrew tradition itself justifies us in regarding this _trait_ as of more general application, or at any rate as not repugnant to hebrew thought, when it relates that solomon employed tyrian craftsmen for work upon the temple and its furniture; for phoenician art was essentially egyptian in its origin and general character. even eshmun-'zar's desire for burial in an egyptian sarcophagus may be paralleled in hebrew tradition of a much earlier period, when, in the last verse of genesis,( ) it is recorded that joseph died, "and they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in egypt". since it formed the subject of prophetic denunciation, i refrain for the moment from citing the notorious adoption of assyrian customs at certain periods of the later judaean monarchy. the two records i have referred to will suffice, for we have in them cherished traditions, of which the hebrews themselves were proud, concerning the most famous example of hebrew religious architecture and the burial of one of the patriarchs of the race. a similar readiness to make use of the best available resources, even of foreign origin, may on analogy be regarded as at least possible in the composition of hebrew literature. ( ) gen. l. , assigned by critics to e. we shall see that the problems we have to face concern the possible influence of babylon, rather than of egypt, upon hebrew tradition. and one last example, drawn from the later period, will serve to demonstrate how babylonian influence penetrated the ancient world and has even left some trace upon modern civilization. it is a fact, though one perhaps not generally realized, that the twelve divisions on the dials of our clocks and watches have a babylonian, and ultimately a sumerian, ancestry. for why is it we divide the day into twenty-four hours? we have a decimal system of reckoning, we count by tens; why then should we divide the day and night into twelve hours each, instead of into ten or some multiple of ten? the reason is that the babylonians divided the day into twelve double-hours; and the greeks took over their ancient system of time-division along with their knowledge of astronomy and passed it on to us. so if we ourselves, after more than two thousand years, are making use of an old custom from babylon, it would not be surprising if the hebrews, a contemporary race, should have fallen under her influence even before they were carried away as captives and settled forcibly upon her river-banks. we may pass on, then, to the site from which our new material has been obtained--the ancient city of nippur, in central babylonia. though the place has been deserted for at least nine hundred years, its ancient name still lingers on in local tradition, and to this day _niffer_ or _nuffar_ is the name the arabs give the mounds which cover its extensive ruins. no modern town or village has been built upon them or in their immediate neighbourhood. the nearest considerable town is dîwânîyah, on the left bank of the hillah branch of the euphrates, twenty miles to the south-west; but some four miles to the south of the ruins is the village of sûq el-'afej, on the eastern edge of the 'afej marshes, which begin to the south of nippur and stretch away westward. protected by its swamps, the region contains a few primitive settlements of the wild 'afej tribesmen, each a group of reed-huts clustering around the mud fort of its ruling sheikh. their chief enemies are the shammâr, who dispute with them possession of the pastures. in summer the marshes near the mounds are merely pools of water connected by channels through the reed-beds, but in spring the flood-water converts them into a vast lagoon, and all that meets the eye are a few small hamlets built on rising knolls above the water-level. thus nippur may be almost isolated during the floods, but the mounds are protected from the waters' encroachment by an outer ring of former habitation which has slightly raised the level of the encircling area. the ruins of the city stand from thirty to seventy feet above the plain, and in the north-eastern corner there rose, before the excavations, a conical mound, known by the arabs as _bint el-emîr_ or "the princess". this prominent landmark represents the temple-tower of enlil's famous sanctuary, and even after excavation it is still the first object that the approaching traveller sees on the horizon. when he has climbed its summit he enjoys an uninterrupted view over desert and swamp. the cause of nippur's present desolation is to be traced to the change in the bed of the euphrates, which now lies far to the west. but in antiquity the stream flowed through the centre of the city, along the dry bed of the shatt en-nîl, which divides the mounds into an eastern and a western group. the latter covers the remains of the city proper and was occupied in part by the great business-houses and bazaars. here more than thirty thousand contracts and accounts, dating from the fourth millennium to the fifth century b.c., were found in houses along the former river-bank. in the eastern half of the city was enlil's great temple ekur, with its temple-tower imkharsag rising in successive stages beside it. the huge temple-enclosure contained not only the sacrificial shrines, but also the priests' apartments, store-chambers, and temple-magazines. outside its enclosing wall, to the south-west, a large triangular mound, christened "tablet hill" by the excavators, yielded a further supply of records. in addition to business-documents of the first dynasty of babylon and of the later assyrian, neo-babylonian, and persian periods, between two and three thousand literary texts and fragments were discovered here, many of them dating from the sumerian period. and it is possible that some of the early literary texts that have been published were obtained in other parts of the city. no less than twenty-one different strata, representing separate periods of occupation, have been noted by the american excavators at various levels within the nippur mounds,( ) the earliest descending to virgin soil some twenty feet below the present level of the surrounding plain. the remote date of nippur's foundation as a city and cult-centre is attested by the fact that the pavement laid by narâm-sin in the south-eastern temple-court lies thirty feet above virgin soil, while only thirty-six feet of superimposed _débris_ represent the succeeding millennia of occupation down to sassanian and early arab times. in the period of the hebrew captivity the city still ranked as a great commercial market and as one of the most sacred repositories of babylonian religious tradition. we know that not far off was tel-abib, the seat of one of the colonies of jewish exiles, for that lay "by the river of chebar",( ) which we may identify with the kabaru canal in nippur's immediate neighbourhood. it was "among the captives by the river chebar" that ezekiel lived and prophesied, and it was on chebar's banks that he saw his first vision of the cherubim.( ) he and other of the jewish exiles may perhaps have mingled with the motley crowd that once thronged the streets of nippur, and they may often have gazed on the huge temple-tower which rose above the city's flat roofs. we know that the later population of nippur itself included a considerable jewish element, for the upper strata of the mounds have yielded numerous clay bowls with hebrew, mandaean, and syriac magical inscriptions;( ) and not the least interesting of the objects recovered was the wooden box of a jewish scribe, containing his pen and ink-vessel and a little scrap of crumbling parchment inscribed with a few hebrew characters.( ) ( ) see hilprecht, _explorations in bible lands_, pp. ff., ff.; and fisher, _excavations at nippur_, pt. i ( ), pt. ii ( ). ( ) ezek. iii. . ( ) ezek. i. , ; iii. ; and cf. x. , , , and xliii. . ( ) see j. a. montgomery, _aramaic incantation texts from nippur_, ( ) hilprecht, _explorations_, p. f. of the many thousands of inscribed clay tablets which were found in the course of the expeditions, some were kept at constantinople, while others were presented by the sultan abdul hamid to the excavators, who had them conveyed to america. since that time a large number have been published. the work was necessarily slow, for many of the texts were found to be in an extremely bad state of preservation. so it happened that a great number of the boxes containing tablets remained until recently still packed up in the store-rooms of the pennsylvania museum. but under the present energetic director of the museum, dr. g. b. gordon, the process of arranging and publishing the mass of literary material has been "speeded up". a staff of skilled workmen has been employed on the laborious task of cleaning the broken tablets and fitting the fragments together. at the same time the help of several assyriologists was welcomed in the further task of running over and sorting the collections as they were prepared for study. professor clay, professor barton, dr. langdon, dr. edward chiera, and dr. arno poebel have all participated in the work. but the lion's share has fallen to the last-named scholar, who was given leave of absence by john hopkins university in order to take up a temporary appointment at the pennsylvania museum. the result of his labours was published by the museum at the end of .( ) the texts thus made available for study are of very varied interest. a great body of them are grammatical and represent compilations made by semitic scribes of the period of hammurabi's dynasty for their study of the old sumerian tongue. containing, as most of them do, semitic renderings of the sumerian words and expressions collected, they are as great a help to us in our study of sumerian language as they were to their compilers; in particular they have thrown much new light on the paradigms of the demonstrative and personal pronouns and on sumerian verbal forms. but literary texts are also included in the recent publications. ( ) poebel, _historical texts_ and _historical and grammatical texts_ (univ. of penns. mus. publ., bab. sect., vol. iv, no. , and vol. v), philadelphia, . when the pennsylvania museum sent out its first expedition, lively hopes were entertained that the site selected would yield material of interest from the biblical standpoint. the city of nippur, as we have seen, was one of the most sacred and most ancient religious centres in the country, and enlil, its city-god, was the head of the babylonian pantheon. on such a site it seemed likely that we might find versions of the babylonian legends which were current at the dawn of history before the city of babylonia and its semitic inhabitants came upon the scene. this expectation has proved to be not unfounded, for the literary texts include the sumerian deluge version and creation myth to which i referred at the beginning of the lecture. other texts of almost equal interest consist of early though fragmentary lists of historical and semi-mythical rulers. they prove that berossus and the later babylonians depended on material of quite early origin in compiling their dynasties of semi-mythical kings. in them we obtain a glimpse of ages more remote than any on which excavation in babylonia has yet thrown light, and for the first time we have recovered genuine native tradition of early date with regard to the cradle of babylonian culture. before we approach the sumerian legends themselves, it will be as well to-day to trace back in this tradition the gradual merging of history into legend and myth, comparing at the same time the ancient egyptian's picture of his own remote past. we will also ascertain whether any new light is thrown by our inquiry upon hebrew traditions concerning the earliest history of the human race and the origins of civilization. in the study of both egyptian and babylonian chronology there has been a tendency of late years to reduce the very early dates that were formerly in fashion. but in egypt, while the dynasties of manetho have been telescoped in places, excavation has thrown light on predynastic periods, and we can now trace the history of culture in the nile valley back, through an unbroken sequence, to its neolithic stage. quite recently, too, as i mentioned just now, a fresh literary record of these early predynastic periods has been recovered, on a fragment of the famous palermo stele, our most valuable monument for early egyptian history and chronology. egypt presents a striking contrast to babylonia in the comparatively small number of written records which have survived for the reconstruction of her history. we might well spare much of her religious literature, enshrined in endless temple-inscriptions and papyri, if we could but exchange it for some of the royal annals of egyptian pharaohs. that historical records of this character were compiled by the egyptian scribes, and that they were as detailed and precise in their information as those we have recovered from assyrian sources, is clear from the few extracts from the annals of thothmes iii's wars which are engraved on the walls of the temple at karnak.( ) as in babylonia and assyria, such records must have formed the foundation on which summaries of chronicles of past egyptian history were based. in the palermo stele it is recognized that we possess a primitive chronicle of this character. ( ) see breasted, _ancient records_, i, p. , ii, pp. ff. drawn up as early as the vth dynasty, its historical summary proves that from the beginning of the dynastic age onward a yearly record was kept of the most important achievements of the reigning pharaoh. in this fragmentary but invaluable epitome, recording in outline much of the history of the old kingdom,( ) some interesting parallels have long been noted with babylonian usage. the early system of time-reckoning, for example, was the same in both countries, each year being given an official title from the chief event that occurred in it. and although in babylonia we are still without material for tracing the process by which this cumbrous method gave place to that of reckoning by regnal years, the palermo stele demonstrates the way in which the latter system was evolved in egypt. for the events from which the year was named came gradually to be confined to the fiscal "numberings" of cattle and land. and when these, which at first had taken place at comparatively long intervals, had become annual events, the numbered sequence of their occurrence corresponded precisely to the years of the king's reign. on the stele, during the dynastic period, each regnal year is allotted its own space or rectangle,( ) arranged in horizontal sequence below the name and titles of the ruling king. ( ) op. cit., i, pp. ff. ( ) the spaces are not strictly rectangles, as each is divided vertically from the next by the egyptian hieroglyph for "year". the text, which is engraved on both sides of a great block of black basalt, takes its name from the fact that the fragment hitherto known has been preserved since at the museum of palermo. five other fragments of the text have now been published, of which one undoubtedly belongs to the same monument as the palermo fragment, while the others may represent parts of one or more duplicate copies of that famous text. one of the four cairo fragments( ) was found by a digger for _sebakh_ at mitrahîneh (memphis); the other three, which were purchased from a dealer, are said to have come from minieh, while the fifth fragment, at university college, is also said to have come from upper egypt,( ) though it was purchased by professor petrie while at memphis. these reports suggest that a number of duplicate copies were engraved and set up in different egyptian towns, and it is possible that the whole of the text may eventually be recovered. the choice of basalt for the records was obviously dictated by a desire for their preservation, but it has had the contrary effect; for the blocks of this hard and precious stone have been cut up and reused in later times. the largest and most interesting of the new fragments has evidently been employed as a door-sill, with the result that its surface is much rubbed and parts of its text are unfortunately almost undecipherable. we shall see that the earliest section of its record has an important bearing on our knowledge of egyptian predynastic history and on the traditions of that remote period which have come down to us from the history of manetho. ( ) see gautier, _le musée �gyptien_, iii ( ), pp. ff., pl. xxiv ff., and foucart, _bulletin de l'institut français d'archéologie orientale_, xii, ii ( ), pp. ff.; and cf. gardiner, _journ. of egypt. arch._, iii, pp. ff., and petrie, _ancient egypt_, , pt. iii, pp. ff. ( ) cf. petrie, op. cit., pp. , . from the fragment of the stele preserved at palermo we already knew that its record went back beyond the ist dynasty into predynastic times. for part of the top band of the inscription, which is there preserved, contains nine names borne by kings of lower egypt or the delta, which, it had been conjectured, must follow the gods of manetho and precede the "worshippers of horus", the immediate predecessors of the egyptian dynasties.( ) but of contemporary rulers of upper egypt we had hitherto no knowledge, since the supposed royal names discovered at abydos and assigned to the time of the "worshippers of horus" are probably not royal names at all.( ) with the possible exception of two very archaic slate palettes, the first historical memorials recovered from the south do not date from an earlier period than the beginning of the ist dynasty. the largest of the cairo fragments now helps us to fill in this gap in our knowledge. ( ) see breasted, _anc. rec._, i, pp. , . ( ) cf. hall, _ancient history of the near east_, p. f. on the top of the new fragment( ) we meet the same band of rectangles as at palermo,( ) but here their upper portions are broken away, and there only remains at the base of each of them the outlined figure of a royal personage, seated in the same attitude as those on the palermo stone. the remarkable fact about these figures is that, with the apparent exception of the third figure from the right,( ) each wears, not the crown of the north, as at palermo, but the crown of the south. we have then to do with kings of upper egypt, not the delta, and it is no longer possible to suppose that the predynastic rulers of the palermo stele were confined to those of lower egypt, as reflecting northern tradition. rulers of both halves of the country are represented, and monsieur gautier has shown,( ) from data on the reverse of the inscription, that the kings of the delta were arranged on the original stone before the rulers of the south who are outlined upon our new fragment. moreover, we have now recovered definite proof that this band of the inscription is concerned with predynastic egyptian princes; for the cartouche of the king, whose years are enumerated in the second band immediately below the kings of the south, reads athet, a name we may with certainty identify with athothes, the second successor of menes, founder of the ist dynasty, which is already given under the form ateth in the abydos list of kings.( ) it is thus quite certain that the first band of the inscription relates to the earlier periods before the two halves of the country were brought together under a single ruler. ( ) cairo no. ; see gautier, _mus. �gypt._, iii, pl. xxiv f. ( ) in this upper band the spaces are true rectangles, being separated by vertical lines, not by the hieroglyph for "year" as in the lower bands; and each rectangle is assigned to a separate king, and not, as in the other bands, to a year of a king's reign. ( ) the difference in the crown worn by this figure is probably only apparent and not intentional; m. foucart, after a careful examination of the fragment, concludes that it is due to subsequent damage or to an original defect in the stone; cf. _bulletin_, xii, ii, p. . ( ) op. cit., p. f. ( ) in manetho's list he corresponds to {kenkenos}, the second successor of menes according to both africanus and eusebius, who assign the name athothis to the second ruler of the dynasty only, the teta of the abydos list. the form athothes is preserved by eratosthenes for both of menes' immediate successors. though the tradition of these remote times is here recorded on a monument of the vth dynasty, there is no reason to doubt its general accuracy, or to suppose that we are dealing with purely mythological personages. it is perhaps possible, as monsieur foucart suggests, that missing portions of the text may have carried the record back through purely mythical periods to ptah and the creation. in that case we should have, as we shall see, a striking parallel to early sumerian tradition. but in the first extant portions of the palermo text we are already in the realm of genuine tradition. the names preserved appear to be those of individuals, not of mythological creations, and we may assume that their owners really existed. for though the invention of writing had not at that time been achieved, its place was probably taken by oral tradition. we know that with certain tribes of africa at the present day, who possess no knowledge of writing, there are functionaries charged with the duty of preserving tribal traditions, who transmit orally to their successors a remembrance of past chiefs and some details of events that occurred centuries before.( ) the predynastic egyptians may well have adopted similar means for preserving a remembrance of their past history. ( ) m. foucart illustrates this point by citing the case of the bushongos, who have in this way preserved a list of no less than a hundred and twenty-one of their past kings; op. cit., p. , and cf. tordey and joyce, "les bushongos", in _annales du musée du congo belge_, sér. iii, t. ii, fasc. i (brussels, ). moreover, the new text furnishes fresh proof of the general accuracy of manetho, even when dealing with traditions of this prehistoric age. on the stele there is no definite indication that these two sets of predynastic kings were contemporaneous rulers of lower and upper egypt respectively; and since elsewhere the lists assign a single sovereign to each epoch, it has been suggested that we should regard them as successive representatives of the legitimate kingdom.( ) now manetho, after his dynasties of gods and demi-gods, states that thirty memphite kings reigned for , years, and were followed by ten thinite kings whose reigns covered a period of years. neglecting the figures as obviously erroneous, we may well admit that the greek historian here alludes to our two pre-menite dynasties. but the fact that he should regard them as ruling consecutively does not preclude the other alternative. the modern convention of arranging lines of contemporaneous rulers in parallel columns had not been evolved in antiquity, and without some such method of distinction contemporaneous rulers, when enumerated in a list, can only be registered consecutively. it would be natural to assume that, before the unification of egypt by the founder of the ist dynasty, the rulers of north and south were independent princes, possessing no traditions of a united throne on which any claim to hegemony could be based. on the assumption that this was so, their arrangement in a consecutive series would not have deceived their immediate successors. but it would undoubtedly tend in course of time to obliterate the tradition of their true order, which even at the period of the vth dynasty may have been completely forgotten. manetho would thus have introduced no strange or novel confusion; and this explanation would of course apply to other sections of his system where the dynasties he enumerates appear to be too many for their period. but his reproduction of two lines of predynastic rulers, supported as it now is by the early evidence of the palermo text, only serves to increase our confidence in the general accuracy of his sources, while at the same time it illustrates very effectively the way in which possible inaccuracies, deduced from independent data, may have arisen in quite early times. ( ) foucart, loc. cit. in contrast to the dynasties of manetho, those of berossus are so imperfectly preserved that they have never formed the basis of babylonian chronology.( ) but here too, in the chronological scheme, a similar process of reduction has taken place. certain dynasties, recovered from native sources and at one time regarded as consecutive, were proved to have been contemporaneous; and archaeological evidence suggested that some of the great gaps, so freely assumed in the royal sequence, had no right to be there. as a result, the succession of known rulers was thrown into truer perspective, and such gaps as remained were being partially filled by later discoveries. among the latter the most important find was that of an early list of kings, recently published by père scheil( ) and subsequently purchased by the british museum shortly before the war. this had helped us to fill in the gap between the famous sargon of akkad and the later dynasties, but it did not carry us far beyond sargon's own time. our archaeological evidence also comes suddenly to an end. thus the earliest picture we have hitherto obtained of the sumerians has been that of a race employing an advanced system of writing and possessed of a knowledge of metal. we have found, in short, abundant remains of a bronze-age culture, but no traces of preceding ages of development such as meet us on early egyptian sites. it was a natural inference that the advent of the sumerians in the euphrates valley was sudden, and that they had brought their highly developed culture with them from some region of central or southern asia. ( ) while the evidence of herodotus is extraordinarily valuable for the details he gives of the civilizations of both egypt and babylonia, and is especially full in the case of the former, it is of little practical use for the chronology. in egypt his report of the early history is confused, and he hardly attempts one for babylonia. it is probable that on such subjects he sometimes misunderstood his informants, the priests, whose traditions were more accurately reproduced by the later native writers manetho and berossus. for a detailed comparison of classical authorities in relation to both countries, see griffith in hogarth's _authority and archaeology_, pp. ff. ( ) see _comptes rendus_, (oct.), pp. ff., and _rev. d'assyr._, ix ( ), p. . the newly published nippur documents will cause us to modify that view. the lists of early kings were themselves drawn up under the dynasty of nîsin in the twenty-second century b.c., and they give us traces of possibly ten and at least eight other "kingdoms" before the earliest dynasty of the known lists.( ) one of their novel features is that they include summaries at the end, in which it is stated how often a city or district enjoyed the privilege of being the seat of supreme authority in babylonia. the earliest of their sections lie within the legendary period, and though in the third dynasty preserved we begin to note signs of a firmer historical tradition, the great break that then occurs in the text is at present only bridged by titles of various "kingdoms" which the summaries give; a few even of these are missing and the relative order of the rest is not assured. but in spite of their imperfect state of preservation, these documents are of great historical value and will furnish a framework for future chronological schemes. meanwhile we may attribute to some of the later dynasties titles in complete agreement with sumerian tradition. the dynasty of ur-engur, for example, which preceded that of nîsin, becomes, if we like, the third dynasty of ur. another important fact which strikes us after a scrutiny of the early royal names recovered is that, while two or three are semitic,( ) the great majority of those borne by the earliest rulers of kish, erech, and ur are as obviously sumerian. ( ) see poebel, _historical texts_, pp. ff. and _historical and grammatical texts_, pl. ii-iv, nos. - . the best preserved of the lists is no. ; nos. and are comparatively small fragments; and of no. the obverse only is here published for the first time, the contents of the reverse having been made known some years ago by hilprecht (cf. _mathematical, metrological, and chronological tablets_, p. f., pl. , no. ). the fragments belong to separate copies of the sumerian dynastic record, and it happens that the extant portions of their text in some places cover the same period and are duplicates of one another. ( ) cf., e.g., two of the earliest kings of kish, galumum and zugagib. the former is probably the semitic-babylonian word _kalumum_, "young animal, lamb," the latter _zukakîbum_, "scorpion"; cf. poebel, _hist. texts_, p. . the occurrence of these names points to semitic infiltration into northern babylonia since the dawn of history, a state of things we should naturally expect. it is improbable that on this point sumerian tradition should have merely reflected the conditions of a later period. it is clear that in native tradition, current among the sumerians themselves before the close of the third millennium, their race was regarded as in possession of babylonia since the dawn of history. this at any rate proves that their advent was not sudden nor comparatively recent, and it further suggests that babylonia itself was the cradle of their civilization. it will be the province of future archaeological research to fill out the missing dynasties and to determine at what points in the list their strictly historical basis disappears. some, which are fortunately preserved near the beginning, bear on their face their legendary character. but for our purpose they are none the worse for that. in the first two dynasties, which had their seats at the cities of kish and erech, we see gods mingling with men upon the earth. tammuz, the god of vegetation, for whose annual death ezekiel saw women weeping beside the temple at jerusalem, is here an earthly monarch. he appears to be described as "a hunter", a phrase which recalls the death of adonis in greek mythology. according to our sumerian text he reigned in erech for a hundred years. another attractive babylonian legend is that of etana, the prototype of icarus and hero of the earliest dream of human flight.( ) clinging to the pinions of his friend the eagle he beheld the world and its encircling stream recede beneath him; and he flew through the gate of heaven, only to fall headlong back to earth. he is here duly entered in the list, where we read that "etana, the shepherd who ascended to heaven, who subdued all lands", ruled in the city of kish for years. ( ) the egyptian conception of the deceased pharaoh ascending to heaven as a falcon and becoming merged into the sun, which first occurs in the pyramid texts (see gardiner in cumont's _�tudes syriennes_, pp. ff.), belongs to a different range of ideas. but it may well have been combined with the etana tradition to produce the funerary eagle employed so commonly in roman syria in representations of the emperor's apotheosis (cf. cumont, op. cit., pp. ff., ). the god lugal-banda is another hero of legend. when the hearts of the other gods failed them, he alone recovered the tablets of fate, stolen by the bird-god zû from enlil's palace. he is here recorded to have reigned in erech for , years. tradition already told us that erech was the native city of gilgamesh, the hero of the national epic, to whom his ancestor ut-napishtim related the story of the flood. gilgamesh too is in our list, as king of erech for years. we have here in fact recovered traditions of post-diluvian kings. unfortunately our list goes no farther back than that, but it is probable that in its original form it presented a general correspondence to the system preserved from berossus, which enumerates ten antediluvian kings, the last of them xisuthros, the hero of the deluge. indeed, for the dynastic period, the agreement of these old sumerian lists with the chronological system of berossus is striking. the latter, according to syncellus, gives , or , years as the total duration of the historical period, apart from his preceding mythical ages, while the figure as preserved by eusebius is , years.( ) the compiler of one of our new lists,( ) writing some , years earlier, reckons that the dynastic period in his day had lasted for , years. of course all these figures are mythical, and even at the time of the sumerian dynasty of nîsin variant traditions were current with regard to the number of historical and semi-mythical kings of babylonia and the duration of their rule. for the earlier writer of another of our lists,( ) separated from the one already quoted by an interval of only sixty-seven years, gives , ( ) years as the total duration of the dynasties at his time. but in spite of these discrepancies, the general resemblance presented by the huge totals in the variant copies of the list to the alternative figures of berossus, if we ignore his mythical period, is remarkable. they indicate a far closer correspondence of the greek tradition with that of the early sumerians themselves than was formerly suspected. ( ) the figure , is that given by syncellus (ed. dindorf, p. ); but it is , in the equivalent which is added in "sars", &c. the discrepancy is explained by some as due to an intentional omission of the units in the second reckoning; others would regard , as the correct figure (cf. _hist. of bab._, p. f.). the reading of ninety against eighty is supported by the , of eusebius (_chron. lib. pri._, ed. schoene, col. ). ( ) no. . ( ) no. . ( ) the figures are broken, but the reading given may be accepted with some confidence; see poebel, _hist. inscr._, p. . further proof of this correspondence may be seen in the fact that the new sumerian version of the deluge story, which i propose to discuss in the second lecture, gives us a connected account of the world's history down to that point. the deluge hero is there a sumerian king named ziusudu, ruling in one of the newly created cities of babylonia and ministering at the shrine of his city-god. he is continually given the royal title, and the foundation of the babylonian "kingdom" is treated as an essential part of creation. we may therefore assume that an antediluvian period existed in sumerian tradition as in berossus.( ) and i think dr. poebel is right in assuming that the nippur copies of the dynastic list begin with the post-diluvian period.( ) ( ) of course it does not necessarily follow that the figure assigned to the duration of the antediluvian or mythical period by the sumerians would show so close a resemblance to that of berossus as we have already noted in their estimates of the dynastic or historical period. but there is no need to assume that berossus' huge total of a hundred and twenty "sars" ( , years) is entirely a product of neo- babylonian speculation; the total , is explained as representing ten months of a cosmic year, each month consisting of twelve "sars", i.e. x = , years. the sumerians themselves had no difficulty in picturing two of their dynastic rulers as each reigning for two "ners" ( , years), and it would not be unlikely that "sars" were distributed among still earlier rulers; the numbers were easily written. for the unequal distribution of his hundred and twenty "sars" by berossus among his ten antediluvian kings, see appendix ii. ( ) the exclusion of the antediluvian period from the list may perhaps be explained on the assumption that its compiler confined his record to "kingdoms", and that the mythical rulers who preceded them did not form a "kingdom" within his definition of the term. in any case we have a clear indication that an earlier period was included before the true "kingdoms", or dynasties, in an assyrian copy of the list, a fragment of which is preserved in the british museum from the library of ashur-bani-pal at nineveh; see _chron. conc. early bab. kings_ (studies in east. hist., ii f.), vol. i, pp. ff., vol. ii, pp. ff., f. there we find traces of an extra column of text preceding that in which the first kingdom of kish was recorded. it would seem almost certain that this extra column was devoted to antediluvian kings. the only alternative explanation would be that it was inscribed with the summaries which conclude the sumerian copies of our list. but later scribes do not so transpose their material, and the proper place for summaries is at the close, not at the beginning, of a list. in the assyrian copy the dynastic list is brought up to date, and extends down to the later assyrian period. formerly its compiler could only be credited with incorporating traditions of earlier times. but the correspondence of the small fragment preserved of its second column with part of the first column of the nippur texts (including the name of "enmennunna") proves that the assyrian scribe reproduced an actual copy of the sumerian document. though professor barton, on the other hand, holds that the dynastic list had no concern with the deluge, his suggestion that the early names preserved by it may have been the original source of berossus' antediluvian rulers( ) may yet be accepted in a modified form. in coming to his conclusion he may have been influenced by what seems to me an undoubted correspondence between one of the rulers in our list and the sixth antediluvian king of berossus. i think few will be disposed to dispute the equation {daonos poimon} = etana, a shepherd. each list preserves the hero's shepherd origin and the correspondence of the names is very close, daonos merely transposing the initial vowel of etana.( ) that berossus should have translated a post-diluvian ruler into the antediluvian dynasty would not be at all surprising in view of the absence of detailed correspondence between his later dynasties and those we know actually occupied the babylonian throne. moreover, the inclusion of babylon in his list of antediluvian cities should make us hesitate to regard all the rulers he assigns to his earliest dynasty as necessarily retaining in his list their original order in sumerian tradition. thus we may with a clear conscience seek equations between the names of berossus' antediluvian rulers and those preserved in the early part of our dynastic list, although we may regard the latter as equally post-diluvian in sumerian belief. ( ) see the brief statement he makes in the course of a review of dr. poebel's volumes in the _american journal of semitic languages and literature_, xxxi, april , p. . he does not compare any of the names, but he promises a study of those preserved and a comparison of the list with berossus and with gen. iv and v. it is possible that professor barton has already fulfilled his promise of further discussion, perhaps in his _archaeology and the bible_, to the publication of which i have seen a reference in another connexion (cf. _journ. amer. or. soc._, vol. xxxvi, p. ); but i have not yet been able to obtain sight of a copy. ( ) the variant form {daos} is evidently a mere contraction, and any claim it may have had to represent more closely the original form of the name is to be disregarded in view of our new equation. this reflection, and the result already obtained, encourage us to accept the following further equation, which is yielded by a renewed scrutiny of the lists: {'ammenon} = enmenunna. here ammenon, the fourth of berossus' antediluvian kings, presents a wonderfully close transcription of the sumerian name. the _n_ of the first syllable has been assimilated to the following consonant in accordance with a recognized law of euphony, and the resultant doubling of the _m_ is faithfully preserved in the greek. precisely the same initial component, _enme_, occurs in the name enmeduranki, borne by a mythical king of sippar, who has long been recognized as the original of berossus' seventh antediluvian king, {euedorakhos}.( ) there too the original _n_ has been assimilated, but the greek form retains no doubling of the _m_ and points to its further weakening. ( ) var. {euedoreskhos}; the second half of the original name, enmeduranki, is more closely preserved in _edoranchus_, the form given by the armenian translator of eusebius. i do not propose to detain you with a detailed discussion of sumerian royal names and their possible greek equivalents. i will merely point out that the two suggested equations, which i venture to think we may regard as established, throw the study of berossus' mythological personages upon a new plane. no equivalent has hitherto been suggested for {daonos}; but {'ammenon} has been confidently explained as the equivalent of a conjectured babylonian original, ummânu, lit. "workman". the fact that we should now have recovered the sumerian original of the name, which proves to have no connexion in form or meaning with the previously suggested semitic equivalent, tends to cast doubt on other semitic equations proposed. perhaps {'amelon} or {'amillaros} may after all not prove to be the equivalent of amêlu, "man", nor {'amempsinos} that of amêl-sin. both may find their true equivalents in some of the missing royal names at the head of the sumerian dynastic list. there too we may provisionally seek {'aloros}, the "first king", whose equation with aruru, the babylonian mother-goddess, never appeared a very happy suggestion.( ) the ingenious proposal,( ) on the other hand, that his successor, {'alaparos}, represents a miscopied {'adaparos}, a greek rendering of the name of adapa, may still hold good in view of etana's presence in the sumerian dynastic record. ut-napishtim's title, khasisatra or atrakhasis, "the very wise", still of course remains the established equivalent of {xisouthros}; but for {'otiartes} (? {'opartes}), a rival to ubar-tutu, ut-napishtim's father, may perhaps appear. the new identifications do not of course dispose of the old ones, except in the case of ummânu; but they open up a new line of approach and provide a fresh field for conjecture.( ) semitic, and possibly contracted, originals are still possible for unidentified mythical kings of berossus; but such equations will inspire greater confidence, should we be able to establish sumerian originals for the semitic renderings, from new material already in hand or to be obtained in the future. ( ) dr. poebel (_hist inscr._, p. , n. ) makes the interesting suggestion that {'aloros} may represent an abbreviated and corrupt form of the name lal-ur-alimma, which has come down to us as that of an early and mythical king of nippur; see rawlinson, _w.a.i._, iv, ( ), v, and , and cf. _sev. tabl. of creat._, vol. i, p. , no. , rev., l. f. it may be added that the sufferings with which the latter is associated in the tradition are perhaps such as might have attached themselves to the first human ruler of the world; but the suggested equation, though tempting by reason of the remote parallel it would thus furnish to adam's fate, can at present hardly be accepted in view of the possibility that a closer equation to {'aloros} may be forthcoming. ( ) hommel, _proc. soc. bibl. arch._, vol. xv ( ), p. . ( ) see further appendix ii. but it is time i read you extracts from the earlier extant portions of the sumerian dynastic list, in order to illustrate the class of document with which we are dealing. from them it will be seen that the record is not a tabular list of names like the well-known king's lists of the neo-babylonian period. it is cast in the form of an epitomized chronicle and gives under set formulae the length of each king's reign, and his father's name in cases of direct succession to father or brother. short phrases are also sometimes added, or inserted in the sentence referring to a king, in order to indicate his humble origin or the achievement which made his name famous in tradition. the head of the first column of the text is wanting, and the first royal name that is completely preserved is that of galumum, the ninth or tenth ruler of the earliest "kingdom", or dynasty, of kish. the text then runs on connectedly for several lines: galumum ruled for nine hundred years. zugagib ruled for eight hundred and forty years. arpi, son of a man of the people, ruled for seven hundred and twenty years. etana, the shepherd who ascended to heaven, who subdued all lands, ruled for six hundred and thirty-five years.( ) pili . . ., son of etana, ruled for four hundred and ten years. enmenunna ruled for six hundred and eleven years. melamkish, son of enmenunna, ruled for nine hundred years. barsalnunna, son of enmenunna, ruled for twelve hundred years. mesza(. . .), son of barsalnunna, ruled for (. . .) years. (. . .), son of barsalnunna, ruled for (. . .) years. ( ) possibly years. a small gap then occurs in the text, but we know that the last two representatives of this dynasty of twenty-three kings are related to have ruled for nine hundred years and six hundred and twenty-five years respectively. in the second column of the text the lines are also fortunately preserved which record the passing of the first hegemony of kish to the "kingdom of eanna", the latter taking its name from the famous temple of anu and ishtar in the old city of erech. the text continues: the kingdom of kish passed to eanna. in eanna, meskingasher, son of the sun-god, ruled as high priest and king for three hundred and twenty-five years. meskingasher entered into( ) (. . .) and ascended to (. . .). enmerkar, son of meskingasher, the king of erech who built (. . .) with the people of erech,( ) ruled as king for four hundred and twenty years. lugalbanda, the shepherd, ruled for twelve hundred years. dumuzi,( ), the hunter(?), whose city was . . ., ruled for a hundred years. gishbilgames,( ) whose father was a,( ) the high priest of kullab, ruled for one hundred and twenty-six( ) years. (. . .)lugal, son of gishbilgames, ruled for (. . .) years. ( ) the verb may also imply descent into. ( ) the phrase appears to have been imperfectly copied by the scribe. as it stands the subordinate sentence reads "the king of erech who built with the people of erech". either the object governed by the verb has been omitted, in which case we might restore some such phrase as "the city"; or, perhaps, by a slight transposition, we should read "the king who built erech with the people of erech". in any case the first building of the city of erech, as distinguished from its ancient cult-centre eanna, appears to be recorded here in the tradition. this is the first reference to erech in the text; and enmerkar's father was high priest as well as king. ( ) i.e. tammuz. ( ) i.e. gilgamesh. ( ) the name of the father of gilgamesh is rather strangely expressed by the single sign for the vowel _a_ and must apparently be read as a. as there is a small break in the text at the end of this line, dr. poebel not unnaturally assumed that a was merely the first syllable of the name, of which the end was wanting. but it has now been shown that the complete name was a; see förtsch, _orient. lit.-zeit._, vol. xviii, no. (dec., ), col. ff. the reading is deduced from the following entry in an assyrian explanatory list of gods (_cun. texts in the brit. mus._, pt. xxiv, pl. , ll. - ): "the god a, who is also equated to the god dubbisaguri (i.e. 'scribe of ur'), is the priest of kullab; his wife is the goddess ninguesirka (i.e. 'lady of the edge of the street')." a, the priest of kullab and the husband of a goddess, is clearly to be identified with a, the priest of kullab and father of gilgamesh, for we know from the gilgamesh epic that the hero's mother was the goddess ninsun. whether ninguesirka was a title of ninsun, or represents a variant tradition with regard to the parentage of gilgamesh on the mother's side, we have in any case confirmation of his descent from priest and goddess. it was natural that a should be subsequently deified. this was not the case at the time our text was inscribed, as the name is written without the divine determinative. ( ) possibly years. this group of early kings of erech is of exceptional interest. apart from its inclusion of gilgamesh and the gods tammuz and lugalbanda, its record of meskingasher's reign possibly refers to one of the lost legends of erech. like him melchizedek, who comes to us in a chapter of genesis reflecting the troubled times of babylon's first dynasty,( ) was priest as well as king.( ) tradition appears to have credited meskingasher's son and successor, enmerkar, with the building of erech as a city around the first settlement eanna, which had already given its name to the "kingdom". if so, sumerian tradition confirms the assumption of modern research that the great cities of babylonia arose around the still more ancient cult-centres of the land. we shall have occasion to revert to the traditions here recorded concerning the parentage of meskingasher, the founder of this line of kings, and that of its most famous member, gilgamesh. meanwhile we may note that the closing rulers of the "kingdom of eanna" are wanting. when the text is again preserved, we read of the hegemony passing from erech to ur and thence to awan: the k(ingdom of erech( ) passed to) ur. in ur mesannipada became king and ruled for eighty years. meskiagunna, son of mesannipada, ruled for thirty years. elu(. . .) ruled for twenty-five years. balu(. . .) ruled for thirty-six years. four kings (thus) ruled for a hundred and seventy-one years. the kingdom of ur passed to awan. in awan . . . ( ) cf. _hist. of bab._, p. f. ( ) gen. xiv. . ( ) the restoration of erech here, in place of eanna, is based on the absence of the latter name in the summary; after the building of erech by enmerkar, the kingdom was probably reckoned as that of erech. with the "kingdom of ur" we appear to be approaching a firmer historical tradition, for the reigns of its rulers are recorded in decades, not hundreds of years. but we find in the summary, which concludes the main copy of our dynastic list, that the kingdom of awan, though it consisted of but three rulers, is credited with a total duration of three hundred and fifty-six years, implying that we are not yet out of the legendary stratum. since awan is proved by newly published historical inscriptions from nippur to have been an important deity of elam at the time of the dynasty of akkad,( ) we gather that the "kingdom of awan" represented in sumerian tradition the first occasion on which the country passed for a time under elamite rule. at this point a great gap occurs in the text, and when the detailed dynastic succession in babylonia is again assured, we have passed definitely from the realm of myth and legend into that of history.( ) ( ) poebel, _hist. inscr._, p. . ( ) see further, appendix ii. what new light, then, do these old sumerian records throw on hebrew traditions concerning the early ages of mankind? i think it will be admitted that there is something strangely familiar about some of those sumerian extracts i read just now. we seem to hear in them the faint echo of another narrative, like them but not quite the same. and all the days that adam lived were nine hundred and thirty years; and he died. and seth lived an hundred and five years, and begat enosh: and seth lived after he begat enosh eight hundred and seven years, and begat sons and daughters: and all the days of seth were nine hundred and twelve years: and he died. . . . and all the days of enosh were nine hundred and five years: and he died. . . . and all the days of kenan were nine hundred and ten years: and he died. . . . and all the days of mahalalel were eight hundred ninety and five years: and he died. . . . and all the days of jared were nine hundred sixty and two years: and he died. . . . and all the days of enoch were three hundred sixty and five years: and enoch walked with god: and he was not; for god took him. . . . and all the days of methuselah were nine hundred sixty and nine years: and he died. . . . and all the days of lamech were seven hundred seventy and seven years: and he died. and noah was five hundred years old: and noah begat shem, ham, and japheth. throughout these extracts from "the book of the generations of adam",( ) galumum's nine hundred years( ) seem to run almost like a refrain; and methuselah's great age, the recognized symbol for longevity, is even exceeded by two of the sumerian patriarchs. the names in the two lists are not the same,( ) but in both we are moving in the same atmosphere and along similar lines of thought. though each list adheres to its own set formulae, it estimates the length of human life in the early ages of the world on much the same gigantic scale as the other. our sumerian records are not quite so formal in their structure as the hebrew narrative, but the short notes which here and there relieve their stiff monotony may be paralleled in the cainite genealogy of the preceding chapter in genesis.( ) there cain's city-building, for example, may pair with that of enmerkar; and though our new records may afford no precise equivalents to jabal's patronage of nomad life, or to the invention of music and metal-working ascribed to jubal and tubal-cain, these too are quite in the spirit of sumerian and babylonian tradition, in their attempt to picture the beginnings of civilization. thus enmeduranki, the prototype of the seventh antediluvian patriarch of berossus, was traditionally revered as the first exponent of divination.( ) it is in the chronological and general setting, rather than in the hebrew names and details, that an echo seems here to reach us from sumer through babylon. ( ) gen. v. ff. (p). ( ) the same length of reign is credited to melamkish and to one and perhaps two other rulers of that first sumerian "kingdom". ( ) the possibility of the babylonian origin of some of the hebrew names in this geneaology and its cainite parallel has long been canvassed; and considerable ingenuity has been expended in obtaining equations between hebrew names and those of the antediluvian kings of berossus by tracing a common meaning for each suggested pair. it is unfortunate that our new identification of {'ammenon} with the sumerian _enmenunna_ should dispose of one of the best parallels obtained, viz. {'ammenon} = bab. _ummânu_, "workman" || cain, kenan = "smith". another satisfactory pair suggested is {'amelon} = bab. _amêlu_, "man" || enosh = "man"; but the resemblance of the former to _amêlu_ may prove to be fortuitous, in view of the possibility of descent from a quite different sumerian original. the alternative may perhaps have to be faced that the hebrew parallels to sumerian and babylonian traditions are here confined to chronological structure and general contents, and do not extend to hebrew renderings of babylonian names. it may be added that such correspondence between personal names in different languages is not very significant by itself. the name of zugagib of kish, for example, is paralleled by the title borne by one of the earliest kings of the ist dynasty of egypt, narmer, whose carved slate palettes have been found at kierakonpolis; he too was known as "the scorpion." ( ) gen. iv. ff. (j). ( ) it may be noted that an account of the origin of divination is included in his description of the descendents of noah by the writer of the biblical antiquities of philo, a product of the same school as the fourth book of esdras and the apocalypse of baruch; see james, _the biblical antiquities of philo_, p. . i may add that a parallel is provided by the new sumerian records to the circumstances preceding the birth of the nephilim at the beginning of the sixth chapter of genesis.( ) for in them also great prowess or distinction is ascribed to the progeny of human and divine unions. we have already noted that, according to the traditions the records embody, the sumerians looked back to a time when gods lived upon the earth with men, and we have seen such deities as tammuz and lugalbanda figuring as rulers of cities in the dynastic sequence. as in later periods, their names are there preceded by the determinative for divinity. but more significant still is the fact that we read of two sumerian heroes, also rulers of cities, who were divine on the father's or mother's side but not on both. meskingasher is entered in the list as "son of the sun-god",( ) and no divine parentage is recorded on the mother's side. on the other hand, the human father of gilgamesh is described as the high priest of kullab, and we know from other sources that his mother was the goddess ninsun.( ) that this is not a fanciful interpretation is proved by a passage in the gilgamesh epic itself,( ) in which its hero is described as two-thirds god and one-third man. we again find ourselves back in the same stratum of tradition with which the hebrew narratives have made us so familiar. ( ) gen. vi. - (j). ( ) the phrase recalls the familiar egyptian royal designation "son of the sun," and it is possible that we may connect with this same idea the palermo stele's inclusion of the mother's and omission of the father's name in its record of the early dynastic pharaohs. this suggestion does not exclude the possibility of the prevalence of matrilineal (and perhaps originally also of matrilocal and matripotestal) conditions among the earliest inhabitants of egypt. indeed the early existence of some form of mother- right may have originated, and would certainly have encouraged, the growth of a tradition of solar parentage for the head of the state. ( ) poebel, _hist. inscr._, p. f. ( ) tablet i, col. ii, l. ; and cf. tablet ix, col. ii. l. . what light then does our new material throw upon traditional origins of civilization? we have seen that in egypt a new fragment of the palermo stele has confirmed in a remarkable way the tradition of the predynastic period which was incorporated in his history by manetho. it has long been recognized that in babylonia the sources of berossus must have been refracted by the political atmosphere of that country during the preceding nineteen hundred years. this inference our new material supports; but when due allowance has been made for a resulting disturbance of vision, the sumerian origin of the remainder of his evidence is notably confirmed. two of his ten antediluvian kings rejoin their sumerian prototypes, and we shall see that two of his three antediluvian cities find their place among the five of primitive sumerian belief. it is clear that in babylonia, as in egypt, the local traditions of the dawn of history, current in the hellenistic period, were modelled on very early lines. both countries were the seats of ancient civilizations, and it is natural that each should stage its picture of beginnings upon its own soil and embellish it with local colouring. it is a tribute to the historical accuracy of hebrew tradition to recognize that it never represented palestine as the cradle of the human race. it looked to the east rather than to the south for evidence of man's earliest history and first progress in the arts of life. and it is in the east, in the soil of babylonia, that we may legitimately seek material in which to verify the sources of that traditional belief. the new parallels i have to-day attempted to trace between some of the hebrew traditions, preserved in gen. iv-vi, and those of the early sumerians, as presented by their great dynastic list, are essentially general in character and do not apply to details of narrative or to proper names. if they stood alone, we should still have to consider whether they are such as to suggest cultural influence or independent origin. but fortunately they do not exhaust the evidence we have lately recovered from the site of nippur, and we will postpone formulating our conclusions with regard to them until the whole field has been surveyed. from the biblical standpoint by far the most valuable of our new documents is one that incorporates a sumerian version of the deluge story. we shall see that it presents a variant and more primitive picture of that great catastrophe than those of the babylonian and hebrew versions. and what is of even greater interest, it connects the narrative of the flood with that of creation, and supplies a brief but intermediate account of the antediluvian period. how then are we to explain this striking literary resemblance to the structure of the narrative in genesis, a resemblance that is completely wanting in the babylonian versions? but that is a problem we must reserve for the next lecture. lecture ii -- deluge stories and the new sumerian version in the first lecture we saw how, both in babylonia and egypt, recent discoveries had thrown light upon periods regarded as prehistoric, and how we had lately recovered traditions concerning very early rulers both in the nile valley and along the lower euphrates. on the strength of the latter discovery we noted the possibility that future excavation in babylonia would lay bare stages of primitive culture similar to those we have already recovered in egyptian soil. meanwhile the documents from nippur had shown us what the early sumerians themselves believed about their own origin, and we traced in their tradition the gradual blending of history with legend and myth. we saw that the new dynastic list took us back in the legendary sequence at least to the beginning of the post-diluvian period. now one of the newly published literary texts fills in the gap beyond, for it gives us a sumerian account of the history of the world from the creation to the deluge, at about which point, as we saw, the extant portions of the dynastic list take up the story. i propose to devote my lecture to-day to this early version of the flood and to the effect of its discovery upon some current theories. the babylonian account of the deluge, which was discovered by george smith in on tablets from the royal library at nineveh, is, as you know, embedded in a long epic of twelve books recounting the adventures of the old babylonian hero gilgamesh. towards the end of this composite tale, gilgamesh, desiring immortality, crosses the waters of death in order to beg the secret from his ancestor ut-napishtim, who in the past had escaped the deluge and had been granted immortality by the gods. the eleventh tablet, or book, of the epic contains the account of the deluge which ut-napishtim related to his kinsman gilgamesh. the close correspondence of this babylonian story with that contained in genesis is recognized by every one and need not detain us. you will remember that in some passages the accounts tally even in minute details, such, for example, as the device of sending out birds to test the abatement of the waters. it is true that in the babylonian version a dove, a swallow, and a raven are sent forth in that order, instead of a raven and the dove three times. but such slight discrepancies only emphasize the general resemblance of the narratives. in any comparison it is usually admitted that two accounts have been combined in the hebrew narrative. i should like to point out that this assumption may be made by any one, whatever his views may be with regard to the textual problems of the hebrew bible and the traditional authorship of the pentateuch. and for our purpose at the moment it is immaterial whether we identify the compiler of these hebrew narratives with moses himself, or with some later jewish historian whose name has not come down to us. whoever he was, he has scrupulously preserved his two texts and, even when they differ, he has given each as he found it. thanks to this fact, any one by a careful examination of the narrative can disentangle the two versions for himself. he will find each gives a consistent story. one of them appears to be simpler and more primitive than the other, and i will refer to them as the earlier and the later hebrew versions.( ) the babylonian text in the epic of gilgamesh contains several peculiarities of each of the hebrew versions, though the points of resemblance are more detailed in the earlier of the two. ( ) in the combined account in gen. vi. -ix. , if the following passages be marked in the margin or underlined, and then read consecutively, it will be seen that they give a consistent and almost complete account of the deluge: gen. vi. - ; vii. , , - (down to "as god commanded him"), (to "upon the earth"), - , ; viii. , (to "were stopped"), (from "and after")- , (to "from off the earth"), - ; and ix. - . the marked passages represent the "later hebrew version." if the remaining passages be then read consecutively, they will be seen to give a different version of the same events, though not so completely preserved as the other; these passages substantially represent the "earlier hebrew version". in commentaries on the hebrew text they are, of course, usually referred to under the convenient symbols j and p, representing respectively the earlier and the later versions. for further details, see any of the modern commentaries on genesis, e.g. driver, _book of genesis_, pp. ff.; skinner, _genesis_, pp. ff.; ryle, _genesis_, p. f. now the tablets from the royal library at nineveh inscribed with the gilgamesh epic do not date from an earlier period than the seventh century b.c. but archaeological evidence has long shown that the traditions themselves were current during all periods of babylonian history; for gilgamesh and his half-human friend enkidu were favourite subjects for the seal-engraver, whether he lived in sumerian times or under the achaemenian kings of persia. we have also, for some years now, possessed two early fragments of the deluge narrative, proving that the story was known to the semitic inhabitants of the country at the time of hammurabi's dynasty.( ) our newly discovered text from nippur was also written at about that period, probably before b.c. but the composition itself, apart from the tablet on which it is inscribed, must go back very much earlier than that. for instead of being composed in semitic babylonian, the text is in sumerian, the language of the earliest known inhabitants of babylonia, whom the semites eventually displaced. this people, it is now recognized, were the originators of the babylonian civilization, and we saw in the first lecture that, according to their own traditions, they had occupied that country since the dawn of history. ( ) the earlier of the two fragments is dated in the eleventh year of ammizaduga, the tenth king of hammurabi's dynasty, i.e. in b.c.; it was published by scheil, _recueil de travaux_, vol. xx, pp. ff. here the deluge story does not form part of the gilgamesh epic, but is recounted in the second tablet of a different work; its hero bears the name atrakhasis, as in the variant version of the deluge from the nineveh library. the other and smaller fragment, which must be dated by its script, was published by hilprecht (_babylonian expedition_, series d, vol. v, fasc. , pp. ff.), who assigned it to about the same period; but it is probably of a considerably later date. the most convenient translations of the legends that were known before the publication of the nippur texts are those given by rogers, _cuneiform parallels to the old testament_ (oxford, ), and dhorme, _choix de textes religieux assyro-babyloniens_ (paris, ). the semites as a ruling race came later, though the occurrence of semitic names in the sumerian dynastic list suggests very early infiltration from arabia. after a long struggle the immigrants succeeded in dominating the settled race; and in the process they in turn became civilized. they learnt and adopted the cuneiform writing, they took over the sumerian literature. towards the close of the third millennium, when our tablet was written, the sumerians as a race had almost ceased to exist. they had been absorbed in the semitic population and their language was no longer the general language of the country. but their ancient literature and sacred texts were carefully preserved and continued to be studied by the semitic priests and scribes. so the fact that the tablet is written in the old sumerian tongue proves that the story it tells had come down from a very much earlier period. this inference is not affected by certain small differences in idiom which its language presents when compared with that of sumerian building-inscriptions. such would naturally occur in the course of transmission, especially in a text which, as we shall see, had been employed for a practical purpose after being subjected to a process of reduction to suit it to its new setting. when we turn to the text itself, it will be obvious that the story also is very primitive. but before doing so we will inquire whether this very early version is likely to cast any light on the origin of deluge stories such as are often met with in other parts of the world. our inquiry will have an interest apart from the question itself, as it will illustrate the views of two divergent schools among students of primitive literature and tradition. according to one of these views, in its most extreme form, the tales which early or primitive man tells about his gods and the origin of the world he sees around him are never to be regarded as simple stories, but are to be consistently interpreted as symbolizing natural phenomena. it is, of course, quite certain that, both in egypt and babylonia, mythology in later periods received a strong astrological colouring; and it is equally clear that some legends derive their origin from nature myths. but the theory in the hands of its more enthusiastic adherents goes further than that. for them a complete absence of astrological colouring is no deterrent from an astrological interpretation; and, where such colouring does occur, the possibility of later embellishment is discounted, and it is treated without further proof as the base on which the original story rests. one such interpretation of the deluge narrative in babylonia, particularly favoured by recent german writers, would regard it as reflecting the passage of the sun through a portion of the ecliptic. it is assumed that the primitive babylonians were aware that in the course of ages the spring equinox must traverse the southern or watery region of the zodiac. this, on their system, signified a submergence of the whole universe in water, and the deluge myth would symbolize the safe passage of the vernal sun-god through that part of the ecliptic. but we need not spend time over that view, as its underlying conception is undoubtedly quite a late development of babylonian astrology. more attractive is the simpler astrological theory that the voyage of any deluge hero in his boat or ark represents the daily journey of the sun-god across the heavenly ocean, a conception which is so often represented in egyptian sculpture and painting. it used to be assumed by holders of the theory that this idea of the sun as "the god in the boat" was common among primitive races, and that that would account for the widespread occurrence of deluge-stories among scattered races of the world. but this view has recently undergone some modification in accordance with the general trend of other lines of research. in recent years there has been an increased readiness among archaeologists to recognize evidence of contact between the great civilizations of antiquity. this has been particularly the case in the area of the eastern mediterranean; but the possibility has also been mooted of the early use of land-routes running from the near east to central and southern asia. the discovery in chinese turkestan, to the east of the caspian, of a prehistoric culture resembling that of elam has now been followed by the finding of similar remains by sir aurel stein in the course of the journey from which he has lately returned.( ) they were discovered in an old basin of the helmand river in persian seistan, where they had been laid bare by wind-erosion. but more interesting still, and an incentive to further exploration in that region, is another of his discoveries last year, also made near the afghan border. at two sites in the helmand delta, well above the level of inundation, he came across fragments of pottery inscribed in early aramaic characters,( ) though, for obvious reasons, he has left them with all his other collections in india. this unexpected find, by the way, suggests for our problem possibilities of wide transmission in comparatively early times. ( ) see his "expedition in central asia", in _the geographical journal_, vol. xlvii (jan.-june, ), pp. ff. ( ) op. cit., p. . the synthetic tendency among archaeologists has been reflected in anthropological research, which has begun to question the separate and independent origin, not only of the more useful arts and crafts, but also of many primitive customs and beliefs. it is suggested that too much stress has been laid on environment; and, though it is readily admitted that similar needs and experiences may in some cases have given rise to similar expedients and explanations, it is urged that man is an imitative animal and that inventive genius is far from common.( ) consequently the wide dispersion of many beliefs and practices, which used generally to be explained as due to the similar and independent working of the human mind under like conditions, is now often provisionally registered as evidence of migratory movement or of cultural drift. much good work has recently been done in tabulating the occurrence of many customs and beliefs, in order to ascertain their lines of distribution. workers are as yet in the collecting stage, and it is hardly necessary to say that explanatory theories are still to be regarded as purely tentative and provisional. at the meetings of the british association during the last few years, the most breezy discussions in the anthropological section have undoubtedly centred around this subject. there are several works in the field, but the most comprehensive theory as yet put forward is one that concerns us, as it has given a new lease of life to the old solar interpretation of the deluge story. ( ) see, e.g. marett, _anthropology_ ( nd ed., ), chap. iv, "environment," pp. ff.; and for earlier tendencies, particularly in the sphere of mythological exegesis, see s. reinach, _cultes, mythes et religions_, t. iv ( ), pp. ff. in a land such as egypt, where there is little rain and the sky is always clear, the sun in its splendour tended from the earliest period to dominate the national consciousness. as intercourse increased along the nile valley, centres of sun-worship ceased to be merely local, and the political rise of a city determined the fortunes of its cult. from the proto-dynastic period onward, the "king of the two lands" had borne the title of "horus" as the lineal descendant of the great sun-god of edfu, and the rise of ra in the vth dynasty, through the priesthood of heliopolis, was confirmed in the solar theology of the middle kingdom. thus it was that other deities assumed a solar character as forms of ra. amen, the local god of thebes, becomes amen-ra with the political rise of his city, and even the old crocodile-god, sebek, soars into the sky as sebek-ra. the only other movement in the religion of ancient egypt, comparable in importance to this solar development, was the popular cult of osiris as god of the dead, and with it the official religion had to come to terms. horus is reborn as the posthumous son of osiris, and ra gladdens his abode during his nightly journey through the underworld. the theory with which we are concerned suggests that this dominant trait in egyptian religion passed, with other elements of culture, beyond the bounds of the nile valley and influenced the practice and beliefs of distant races. this suggestion has been gradually elaborated by its author, professor elliot smith, who has devoted much attention to the anatomical study of egyptian mummification. beginning with a scrutiny of megalithic building and sun-worship,( ) he has subsequently deduced, from evidence of common distribution, the existence of a culture-complex, including in addition to these two elements the varied practices of tattooing, circumcision, ear-piercing, that quaint custom known as couvade, head-deformation, and the prevalence of serpent-cults, myths of petrifaction and the deluge, and finally of mummification. the last ingredient was added after an examination of papuan mummies had disclosed their apparent resemblance in points of detail to egyptian mummies of the xxist dynasty. as a result he assumes the existence of an early cultural movement, for which the descriptive title "heliolithic" has been coined.( ) starting with egypt as its centre, one of the principal lines of its advance is said to have lain through syria and mesopotamia and thence along the coastlands of asia to the far east. the method of distribution and the suggested part played by the phoenicians have been already criticized sufficiently. but in a modified form the theory has found considerable support, especially among ethnologists interested in indonesia. i do not propose to examine in detail the evidence for or against it. it will suffice to note that the deluge story and its alleged egyptian origin in solar worship form one of the prominent strands in its composition. ( ) cf. elliot smith, _the ancient egyptians_, . ( ) see in particular his monograph "on the significance of the geographical distribution of the practice of mummification" in the _memoirs of the manchester literary and philosophical society_, . one weakness of this particular strand is that the egyptians themselves possessed no tradition of the deluge. indeed the annual inundation of the nile is not such as would give rise to a legend of world-destruction; and in this respect it presents a striking contrast to the tigris and euphrates. the ancient egyptian's conception of his own gentle river is reflected in the form he gave the nile-god, for hapi is represented as no fierce warrior or monster. he is given a woman's breasts as a sign of his fecundity. the nearest egyptian parallel to the deluge story is the "legend of the destruction of mankind", which is engraved on the walls of a chamber in the tomb of seti i.( ) the late sir gaston maspero indeed called it "a dry deluge myth", but his paradox was intended to emphasize the difference as much as the parallelism presented. it is true that in the egyptian myth the sun-god causes mankind to be slain because of their impiety, and he eventually pardons the survivors. the narrative thus betrays undoubted parallelism to the babylonian and hebrew stories, so far as concerns the attempted annihilation of mankind by the offended god, but there the resemblance ends. for water has no part in man's destruction, and the essential element of a deluge story is thus absent.( ) our new sumerian document, on the other hand, contains what is by far the earliest example yet recovered of a genuine deluge tale; and we may thus use it incidentally to test this theory of egyptian influence, and also to ascertain whether it furnishes any positive evidence on the origin of deluge stories in general. ( ) it was first published by monsieur naville, _tranc. soc. bibl. arch._, iv ( ), pp. ff. the myth may be most conveniently studied in dr. budge's edition in _egyptian literature_, vol. i, "legends of the gods" ( ), pp. ff., where the hieroglyphic text and translation are printed on opposite pages; cf. the summary, op. cit., pp. xxiii ff., where the principal literature is also cited. see also his _gods of the egyptians_, vol. i, chap. xii, pp. ff. ( ) the undoubted points of resemblance, as well as the equally striking points of divergence, presented by the egyptian myth when compared with the babylonian and hebrew stories of a deluge may be briefly indicated. the impiety of men in complaining of the age of ra finds a parallel in the wickedness of man upon the earth (j) and the corruption of all flesh (p) of the hebrew versions. the summoning by ra of the great heliopolitan cosmic gods in council, including his personified eye, the primaeval pair shu and tefnut, keb the god of the earth and his consort nut the sky-goddess, and nu the primaeval water-god and originally nut's male counterpart, is paralleled by the _puhur ilâni_, or "assembly of the gods", in the babylonian version (see gilg. epic. xi. l. f., and cf. ll. ff.); and they meet in "the great house", or sun-temple at heliopolis, as the babylonian gods deliberate in shuruppak. egyptian, babylonian, and hebrew narratives all agree in the divine determination to destroy mankind and in man's ultimate survival. but the close of the egyptian story diverges into another sphere. the slaughter of men by the eye of ra in the form of the goddess hathor, who during the night wades in their blood, is suggestive of africa; and so too is her drinking of men's blood mixed with the narcotic mandrake and with seven thousand vessels of beer, with the result that through drunkenness she ceased from slaughter. the latter part of the narrative is directly connected with the cult- ritual and beer-drinking at the festivals of hathor and ra; but the destruction of men by slaughter in place of drowning appears to belong to the original myth. indeed, the only suggestion of a deluge story is suggested by the presence of nu, the primaeval water-god, at ra's council, and that is explicable on other grounds. in any case the points of resemblance presented by the earlier part of the egyptian myth to semitic deluge stories are general, not detailed; and though they may possibly be due to reflection from asia, they are not such as to suggest an egyptian origin for deluge myths. the tablet on which our new version of the deluge is inscribed was excavated at nippur during the third babylonian expedition sent out by the university of pennsylvania; but it was not until the summer of that its contents were identified, when the several fragments of which it was composed were assembled and put together. it is a large document, containing six columns of writing, three on each side; but unfortunately only the lower half has been recovered, so that considerable gaps occur in the text.( ) the sharp edges of the broken surface, however, suggest that it was damaged after removal from the soil, and the possibility remains that some of the missing fragments may yet be recovered either at pennsylvania or in the museum at constantinople. as it is not dated, its age must be determined mainly by the character of its script. a close examination of the writing suggests that it can hardly have been inscribed as late as the kassite dynasty, since two or three signs exhibit more archaic forms than occur on any tablets of that period;( ) and such linguistic corruptions as have been noted in its text may well be accounted for by the process of decay which must have already affected the sumerian language at the time of the later kings of nisin. moreover, the tablet bears a close resemblance to one of the newly published copies of the sumerian dynastic list from nippur;( ) for both are of the same shape and composed of the same reddish-brown clay, and both show the same peculiarities of writing. the two tablets in fact appear to have been written by the same hand, and as that copy of the dynastic list was probably drawn up before the latter half of the first dynasty of babylon, we may assign the same approximate date for the writing of our text. this of course only fixes a lower limit for the age of the myth which it enshrines. ( ) the breadth of the tablet is / in., and it originally measured about in. in length from top to bottom; but only about one-third of its inscribed surface is preserved. ( ) cf. poebel, _hist. texts_, pp. ff. ( ) no. . that the composition is in the form of a poem may be seen at a glance from the external appearance of the tablet, the division of many of the lines and the blank spaces frequently left between the sign-groups being due to the rhythmical character of the text. the style of the poetry may be simple and abrupt, but it exhibits a familiar feature of both semitic-babylonian and hebrew poetry, in its constant employment of partial repetition or paraphrase in parallel lines. the story it tells is very primitive and in many respects unlike the babylonian versions of the deluge which we already possess. perhaps its most striking peculiarity is the setting of the story, which opens with a record of the creation of man and animals, goes on to tell how the first cities were built, and ends with a version of the deluge, which is thus recounted in its relation to the sumerian history of the world. this literary connexion between the creation and deluge narratives is of unusual interest, in view of the age of our text. in the babylonian versions hitherto known they are included in separate epics with quite different contexts. here they are recounted together in a single document, much as they probably were in the history of berossus and as we find them in the present form of the book of genesis. this fact will open up some interesting problems when we attempt to trace the literary descent of the tradition. but one important point about the text should be emphasized at once, since it will affect our understanding of some very obscure passages, of which no satisfactory explanation has yet been given. the assumption has hitherto been made that the text is an epic pure and simple. it is quite true that the greater part of it is a myth, recounted as a narrative in poetical form, but there appear to me to be clear indications that the myth was really embedded in an incantation. if this was so, the mythological portion was recited for a magical purpose, with the object of invoking the aid of the chief deities whose actions in the past are there described, and of increasing by that means the potency of the spell.( ) in the third lecture i propose to treat in more detail the employment and significance of myth in magic, and we shall have occasion to refer to other instances, sumerian, babylonian, and egyptian, in which a myth has reached us in a magical setting. ( ) it will be seen that the subject-matter of any myth treated in this way has a close connexion with the object for which the incantation was performed. in the present case the inference of magical use is drawn from certain passages in the text itself, which appear to be explicable only on that hypothesis. in magical compositions of the later period intended for recitation, the sign for "incantation" is usually prefixed. unfortunately the beginning of our text is wanting; but its opening words are given in the colophon, or title, which is engraved on the left-hand edge of the tablet, and it is possible that the traces of the first sign there are to be read as en, "incantation".( ) should a re-examination of the tablet establish this reading of the word, we should have definite proof of the suggested magical setting of the narrative. but even if we assume its absence, that would not invalidate the arguments that can be adduced in favour of recognizing the existence of a magical element, for they are based on internal evidence and enable us to explain certain features which are inexplicable on dr. poebel's hypothesis. moreover, we shall later on examine another of the newly published sumerian compositions from nippur, which is not only semi-epical in character, but is of precisely the same shape, script, and period as our text, and is very probably a tablet of the same series. there also the opening signs of the text are wanting, but far more of its contents are preserved and they present unmistakable traces of magical use. its evidence, as that of a parallel text, may therefore be cited in support of the present contention. it may be added that in sumerian magical compositions of this early period, of which we have not yet recovered many quite obvious examples, it is possible that the prefix "incantation" was not so invariable as in the later magical literature. ( ) cf. poebel, _hist. texts_, p. , and _hist. and gram. texts_, pl. i. in the photographic reproduction of the edges of the tablet given in the latter volume, pl. lxxxix, the traces of the sign suggest the reading en (= sem. _�iptu_, "incantation"). but the sign may very possibly be read an. in the latter case we may read, in the traces of the two sign-groups at the beginning of the text, the names of both anu and enlil, who appear so frequently as the two presiding deities in the myth. it has already been remarked that only the lower half of our tablet has been recovered, and that consequently a number of gaps occur in the text. on the obverse the upper portion of each of the first three columns is missing, while of the remaining three columns, which are inscribed upon the reverse, the upper portions only are preserved. this difference in the relative positions of the textual fragments recovered is due to the fact that sumerian scribes, like their later babylonian and assyrian imitators, when they had finished writing the obverse of a tablet, turned it over from bottom to top--not, as we should turn a sheet of paper, from right to left. but in spite of the lacunae, the sequence of events related in the mythological narrative may be followed without difficulty, since the main outline of the story is already familiar enough from the versions of the semitic-babylonian scribes and of berossus. some uncertainties naturally remain as to what exactly was included in the missing portions of the tablet; but the more important episodes are fortunately recounted in the extant fragments, and these suffice for a definition of the distinctive character of the sumerian version. in view of its literary importance it may be advisable to attempt a somewhat detailed discussion of its contents, column by column;( ) and the analysis may be most conveniently divided into numbered sections, each of which refers to one of the six columns of the tablet. the description of the first column will serve to establish the general character of the text. through the analysis of the tablet parallels and contrasts will be noted with the babylonian and hebrew versions. it will then be possible to summarise, on a surer foundation, the literary history of the traditions, and finally to estimate the effect of our new evidence upon current theories as to the origin and wide dispersion of deluge stories. ( ) in the lecture as delivered the contents of each column were necessarily summarized rather briefly, and conclusions were given without discussion of the evidence. the following headings, under which the six numbered sections may be arranged, indicate the contents of each column and show at a glance the main features of the sumerian version: i. introduction to the myth, and account of creation. ii. the antediluvian cities. iii. the council of the gods, and ziusudu's piety. iv. the dream-warning. v. the deluge, the escape of the great boat, and the sacrifice to the sun-god. vi. the propitiation of the angry gods, and ziusudu's immortality. i. introduction to the myth, and account of creation the beginning of the text is wanting, and the earliest lines preserved of the first column open with the closing sentences of a speech, probably by the chief of the four creating deities, who are later on referred to by name. in it there is a reference to a future destruction of mankind, but the context is broken; the lines in question begin: "as for my human race, from (_or_ in) its destruction will i cause it to be (. . .), for nintu my creatures (. . .) will i (. . .)." from the reference to "my human race" it is clear that the speaker is a creating deity; and since the expression is exactly parallel to the term "my people" used by ishtar, or bêlit-ili, "the lady of the gods", in the babylonian version of the deluge story when she bewails the destruction of mankind, dr. poebel assigns the speech to ninkharsagga, or nintu,( ) the goddess who later in the column is associated with anu, enlil, and enki in man's creation. but the mention of nintu in her own speech is hardly consistent with that supposition,( ) if we assume with dr. poebel, as we are probably justified in doing, that the title nintu is employed here and elsewhere in the narrative merely as a synonym of ninkharsagga.( ) it appears to me far more probable that one of the two supreme gods, anu or enlil, is the speaker,( ) and additional grounds will be cited later in support of this view. it is indeed possible, in spite of the verbs and suffixes in the singular, that the speech is to be assigned to both anu and enlil, for in the last column, as we shall see, we find verb in the singular following references to both these deities. in any case one of the two chief gods may be regarded as speaking and acting on behalf of both, though it may be that the inclusion of the second name in the narrative was not original but simply due to a combination of variant traditions. such a conflate use of anu-enlil would present a striking parallel to the hebrew combination yahweh-elohim, though of course in the case of the former pair the subsequent stage of identification was never attained. but the evidence furnished by the text is not conclusive, and it is preferable here and elsewhere in the narrative to regard either anu or enlil as speaking and acting both on his own behalf and as the other's representative. ( ) op. cit., p. f.; and cf. jastrow, _hebrew and babylonian traditions_, p. . ( ) it necessitates the taking of (_dingir_) _nin-tu-ra_ as a genitive, not a dative, and the very awkward rendering "my, nintu's, creations". ( ) another of the recently published sumerian mythological compositions from nippur includes a number of myths in which enki is associated first with ninella, referred to also as nintu, "the goddess of birth", then with ninshar, referred to also as ninkurra, and finally with ninkharsagga. this text exhibits the process by which separate traditions with regard to goddesses originally distinct were combined together, with the result that their heroines were subsequently often identified with one another. there the myths that have not been subjected to a very severe process of editing, and in consequence the welding is not so complete as in the sumerian version of the deluge. ( ) if enlil's name should prove to be the first word of the composition, we should naturally regard him as the speaker here and as the protagonist of the gods throughout the text, a _rôle_ he also plays in the semitic-babylonian version. this reference to the deluge, which occurs so early in the text, suggests the probability that the account of the creation and of the founding of antediluvian cities, included in the first two columns, is to be taken merely as summarizing the events that led up to the deluge. and an almost certain proof of this may be seen in the opening words of the composition, which are preserved in its colophon or title on the left-hand edge of the tablet. we have already noted that the first two words are there to be read, either as the prefix "incantation" followed by the name "enlil", or as the two divine names "anu (and) enlil". now the signs which follow the traces of enlil's name are quite certain; they represent "ziusudu", which, as we shall see in the third column, is the name of the deluge hero in our sumerian version. he is thus mentioned in the opening words of the text, in some relation to one or both of the two chief gods of the subsequent narrative. but the natural place for his first introduction into the story is in the third column, where it is related that "at that time ziusudu, the king" did so-and-so. the prominence given him at the beginning of the text, at nearly a column's interval before the lines which record the creation of man, is sufficient proof that the deluge story is the writer's main interest, and that preceding episodes are merely introductory to it. what subject then may we conjecture was treated in the missing lines of this column, which precede the account of creation and close with the speech of the chief creating deity? now the deluge narrative practically ends with the last lines of the tablet that are preserved, and the lower half of the sixth column is entirely wanting. we shall see reason to believe that the missing end of the tablet was not left blank and uninscribed, but contained an incantation, the magical efficacy of which was ensured by the preceding recitation of the deluge myth. if that were so, it would be natural enough that the text should open with its main subject. the cause of the catastrophe and the reason for man's rescue from it might well be referred to by one of the creating deities in virtue of the analogy these aspects of the myth would present to the circumstances for which the incantation was designed. a brief account of the creation and of antediluvian history would then form a natural transition to the narrative of the deluge itself. and even if the text contained no incantation, the narrative may well have been introduced in the manner suggested, since this explanation in any case fits in with what is still preserved of the first column. for after his reference to the destruction of mankind, the deity proceeds to fix the chief duty of man, either as a preliminary to his creation, or as a reassertion of that duty after his rescue from destruction by the flood. it is noteworthy that this duty consists in the building of temples to the gods "in a clean spot", that is to say "in hallowed places". the passage may be given in full, including the two opening lines already discussed: "as for my human race, from (_or_ in) its destruction will i cause it to be (. . .), for nintu my creatures (. . .) will i (. . .). the people will i cause to . . . in their settlements, cities . . . shall (man) build, in there protection will i cause him to rest, that he may lay the brick of our houses in a clean spot, that in a clean spot he may establish our . . . !" in the reason here given for man's creation, or for his rescue from the flood, we have an interesting parallel to the sixth tablet of the semitic-babylonian creation series. at the opening of that tablet marduk, in response to "the word of the gods", is urged by his heart to devise a cunning plan which he imparts to ea, namely the creation of man from his own divine blood and from bone which he will fashion. and the reason he gives for his proposal is precisely that which, as we have seen, prompted the sumerian deity to create or preserve the human race. for marduk continues: "i will create man who shall inhabit (. . .), that the service of the gods may be established and that their shrines may be built."( ) ( ) see _the seven tablets of creation_, vol. i, pp. ff. we shall see later, from the remainder of marduk's speech, that the semitic version has been elaborated at this point in order to reconcile it with other ingredients in its narrative, which were entirely absent from the simpler sumerian tradition. it will suffice here to note that, in both, the reason given for man's existence is the same, namely, that the gods themselves may have worshippers.( ) the conception is in full agreement with early sumerian thought, and reflects the theocratic constitution of the earliest sumerian communities. the idea was naturally not repugnant to the semites, and it need not surprise us to find the very words of the principal sumerian creator put into the mouth of marduk, the city-god of babylon. ( ) it may be added that this is also the reason given for man's creation in the introduction to a text which celebrates the founding or rebuilding of a temple. the deity's speech perhaps comes to an end with the declaration of his purpose in creating mankind or in sanctioning their survival of the deluge; and the following three lines appear to relate his establishment of the divine laws in accordance with which his intention was carried out. the passage includes a refrain, which is repeated in the second column: the sublime decrees he made perfect for it. it may probably be assumed that the refrain is employed in relation to the same deity in both passages. in the second column it precedes the foundation of the babylonian kingdom and the building of the antediluvian cities. in that passage there can be little doubt that the subject of the verb is the chief sumerian deity, and we are therefore the more inclined to assign to him also the opening speech of the first column, rather than to regard it as spoken by the sumerian goddess whose share in the creation would justify her in claiming mankind as her own. in the last four lines of the column we have a brief record of the creation itself. it was carried out by the three greatest gods of the sumerian pantheon, anu, enlil and enki, with the help of the goddess ninkharsagga; the passage reads: when anu, enlil, enki and ninkharsagga created the blackheaded (i.e. mankind), the _niggil(ma)_ of the earth they caused the earth to produce(?), the animals, the four-legged creatures of the field, they artfully called into existence. the interpretation of the third line is obscure, but there is no doubt that it records the creation of something which is represented as having taken place between the creation of mankind and that of animals. this object, which is written as _nig-gil_ or _nig-gil-ma_, is referred to again in the sixth column, where the sumerian hero of the deluge assigns to it the honorific title, "preserver of the seed of mankind". it must therefore have played an important part in man's preservation from the flood; and the subsequent bestowal of the title may be paralleled in the early semitic deluge fragment from nippur, where the boat in which ut-napishtim escapes is assigned the very similar title "preserver of life".( ) but _niggilma_ is not the word used in the sumerian version of ziusudu's boat, and i am inclined to suggest a meaning for it in connexion with the magical element in the text, of the existence of which there is other evidence. on that assumption, the prominence given to its creation may be paralleled in the introduction to a later magical text, which described, probably in connexion with an incantation, the creation of two small creatures, one white and one black, by nin-igi-azag, "the lord of clear vision", one of the titles borne by enki or ea. the time of their creation is indicated as after that of "cattle, beasts of the field and creatures of the city", and the composition opens in a way which is very like the opening of the present passage in our text.( ) in neither text is there any idea of giving a complete account of the creation of the world, only so much of the original myth being included in each case as suffices for the writer's purpose. here we may assume that the creation of mankind and of animals is recorded because they were to be saved from the flood, and that of the _niggilma_ because of the part it played in ensuring their survival. ( ) see hilprecht, _babylonian expedition_, series d, vol. v, fasc. , plate, rev., l. ; the photographic reproduction clearly shows, as dr. poebel suggests (_hist. texts_, p. n ), that the line should read: _((isu)elippu) �i-i lu (isu)ma-gur-gur-ma �um-�a lu na-si-rat na-pi�-tim_, "that ship shall be a _magurgurru_ (giant boat), and its name shall be 'preserver of life' (lit. 'she that preserves life')." ( ) see _seven tablets of creation_, vol. i, pp. ff. the text opens with the words "when the gods in their assembly had made (the world), and had created the heavens, and had formed the earth, and had brought living creatures into being . . .", the lines forming an introduction to the special act of creation with which the composition was concerned. the discussion of the meaning of _niggilma_ may best be postponed till the sixth column, where we find other references to the word. meanwhile it may be noted that in the present passage the creation of man precedes that of animals, as it did in the earlier hebrew version of creation, and probably also in the babylonian version, though not in the later hebrew version. it may be added that in another sumerian account of the creation( ) the same order, of man before animals, is followed. ( ) cf. _sev. tabl._, vol. i, p. f.; but the text has been subjected to editing, and some of its episodes are obviously displaced. ii. the antediluvian cities as we saw was the case with the first column of the text, the earliest part preserved of the second column contains the close of a speech by a deity, in which he proclaims an act he is about to perform. here we may assume with some confidence that the speaker is anu or enlil, preferably the latter, since it would be natural to ascribe the political constitution of babylonia, the foundation of which is foreshadowed, to the head of the sumerian pantheon. it would appear that a beginning had already been made in the establishment of "the kingdom", and, before proceeding to his further work of founding the antediluvian cities, he follows the example of the speaker in the first column of the text and lays down the divine enactments by which his purpose was accomplished. the same refrain is repeated: the sub(lime decrees) he made perfect for it. the text then relates the founding by the god of five cities, probably "in clean places", that is to say on hallowed ground. he calls each by its name and assigns it to its own divine patron or city-god: (in clean place)s he founded (five) cit(ies). and after he had called their names and they had been allotted to divine rulers(?),-- the . . . of these cities, eridu, he gave to the leader, nu- dimmud, secondly, to nugira(?) he gave bad-. . .,( ) thirdly, larak he gave to pabilkharsag, fourthly, sippar he gave to the hero, the sun-god, fifthly, shuruppak he gave to "the god of shuruppak",-- after he had called the names of these cities, and they had been allotted to divine rulers(?), ( ) in semitic-babylonian the first component of this city- name would read "dûr". the completion of the sentence, in the last two lines of the column, cannot be rendered with any certainty, but the passage appears to have related the creation of small rivers and pools. it will be noted that the lines which contain the names of the five cities and their patron gods( ) form a long explanatory parenthesis, the preceding line being repeated after their enumeration. ( ) the precise meaning of the sign-group here provisionally rendered "divine ruler" is not yet ascertained. as the first of the series of five cities of eridu, the seat of nudimmud or enki, who was the third of the creating deities, it has been urged that the upper part of the second column must have included an account of the founding of erech, the city of anu, and of nippur, enlil's city.( ) but the numbered sequence of the cities would be difficult to reconcile with the earlier creation of other cities in the text, and the mention of eridu as the first city to be created would be quite in accord with its great age and peculiarly sacred character as a cult-centre. moreover the evidence of the sumerian dynastic list is definitely against any claim of erech to antediluvian existence. for when the hegemony passed from the first post-diluvian "kingdom" to the second, it went not to erech but to the shrine eanna, which gave its name to the second "kingdom"; and the city itself was apparently not founded before the reign of enmerkar, the second occupant of the throne, who is the first to be given the title "king of erech". this conclusion with regard to erech incidentally disposes of the arguments for nippur's antediluvian rank in primitive sumerian tradition, which have been founded on the order of the cities mentioned at the beginning of the later sumerian myth of creation.( ) the evidence we thus obtain that the early sumerians themselves regarded eridu as the first city in the world to be created, increases the hope that future excavation at abu shahrain may reveal sumerian remains of periods which, from an archaeological standpoint, must still be regarded as prehistoric. ( ) cf. poebel, op. cit., p. . ( ) the city of nippur does not occur among the first four "kingdoms" of the sumerian dynastic list; but we may probably assume that it was the seat of at least one early "kingdom", in consequence of which enlil, its city-god, attained his later pre-eminent rank in the sumerian pantheon. it is noteworthy that no human rulers are mentioned in connexion with eridu and the other four antediluvian cities; and ziusudu, the hero of the story, is apparently the only mortal whose name occurred in our text. but its author's principal subject is the deluge, and the preceding history of the world is clearly not given in detail, but is merely summarized. in view of the obviously abbreviated form of the narrative, of which we have already noted striking evidence in its account of the creation, we may conclude that in the fuller form of the tradition the cities were also assigned human rulers, each one the representative of his city-god. these would correspond to the antediluvian dynasty of berossus, the last member of which was xisuthros, the later counterpart of ziusudu. in support of the exclusion of nippur and erech from the myth, it will be noted that the second city in the list is not adab,( ) which was probably the principal seat of the goddess ninkharsagga, the fourth of the creating deities. the names of both deity and city in that line are strange to us. larak, the third city in the series, is of greater interest, for it is clearly larankha, which according to berossus was the seat of the eighth and ninth of his antediluvian kings. in commercial documents of the persian period, which have been found during the excavations at nippur, larak is described as lying "on the bank of the old tigris", a phrase which must be taken as referring to the shatt el-hai, in view of the situation of lagash and other early cities upon it or in its immediate neighbourhood. the site of the city should perhaps be sought on the upper course of the stream, where it tends to approach nippur. it would thus have lain in the neighbourhood of bismâya, the site of adab. like adab, lagash, shuruppak, and other early sumerian cities, it was probably destroyed and deserted at a very early period, though it was reoccupied under its old name in neo-babylonian or persian times. its early disappearance from babylonian history perhaps in part accounts for our own unfamiliarity with pabilkharsag, its city-god, unless we may regard the name as a variant from of pabilsag; but it is hardly likely that the two should be identified. ( ) the site of adab, now marked by the mounds of bismâya, was partially excavated by an expedition sent out in by the university of chicago, and has provided valuable material for the study of the earliest sumerian period; see _reports of the expedition of the oriental exploration fund_ (babylonian section of the university of chicago), and banks, _bismya_ ( ). on grounds of antiquity alone we might perhaps have expected its inclusion in the myth. in sibbar, the fourth of the antediluvian cities in our series, we again have a parallel to berossus. it has long been recognized that pantibiblon, or pantibiblia, from which the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh of his antediluvian kings all came, was the city of sippar in northern babylonia. for the seventh of these rulers, {euedorakhos}, is clearly enmeduranki, the mythical king of sippar, who in babylonian tradition was regarded as the founder of divination. in a fragmentary composition that has come down to us he is described, not only as king of sippar, but as "beloved of anu, enlil, and enki", the three creating gods of our text; and it is there recounted how the patron deities of divination, shamash and adad, themselves taught him to practise their art.( ) moreover, berossus directly implies the existence of sippar before the deluge, for in the summary of his version that has been preserved xisuthros, under divine instruction, buries the sacred writings concerning the origin of the world in "sispara", the city of the sun-god, so that after the deluge they might be dug up and transmitted to mankind. ebabbar, the great sun-temple, was at sippar, and it is to the sun-god that the city is naturally allotted in the new sumerian version. ( ) cf. zimmern, _beiträge zur kenntniss der bab. relig._, pp. ff. the last of the five antediluvian cities in our list is shuruppak, in which dwelt ut-napishtim, the hero of the babylonian version of the deluge. its site has been identified with the mounds of fâra, in the neighbourhood of the shatt el-kâr, the former bed of the euphrates; and the excavations that were conducted there in have been most productive of remains dating from the prehistoric period of sumerian culture.( ) since our text is concerned mainly with the deluge, it is natural to assume that the foundation of the city from which the deluge-hero came would be recorded last, in order to lead up to the central episode of the text. the city of ziusudu, the hero of the sumerian story, is unfortunately not given in the third column, but, in view of shuruppak's place in the list of antediluvian cities, it is not improbable that on this point the sumerian and babylonian versions agreed. in the gilgamesh epic shuruppak is the only antediluvian city referred to, while in the hebrew accounts no city at all is mentioned in connexion with noah. the city of xisuthros, too, is not recorded, but as his father came from larankha or larak, we may regard that city as his in the greek version. besides larankha, the only antediluvian cities according to berossus were babylon and sippar, and the influence of babylonian theology, of which we here have evidence, would be sufficient to account for a disturbance of the original traditions. at the same time it is not excluded that larak was also the scene of the deluge in our text, though, as we have noted, the position of shuruppak at the close of the sumerian list points to it as the more probable of the two. it may be added that we cannot yet read the name of the deity to whom shuruppak was allotted, but as it is expressed by the city's name preceded by the divine determinative, the rendering "the god of shuruppak" will meanwhile serve. ( ) see _hist. of sum. and akk._, pp. ff. the creation of small rivers and pools, which seems to have followed the foundation of the five sacred cities, is best explained on the assumption that they were intended for the supply of water to the cities and to the temples of their five patron gods. the creation of the euphrates and the tigris, if recorded in our text at all, or in its logical order, must have occurred in the upper portion of the column. the fact that in the later sumerian account their creation is related between that of mankind and the building of nippur and erech cannot be cited in support of this suggestion, in view of the absence of those cities from our text and of the process of editing to which the later version has been subjected, with a consequent disarrangement of its episodes. iii. the council of the gods, and ziusudu's piety from the lower part of the third column, where its text is first preserved, it is clear that the gods had already decided to send a deluge, for the goddess nintu or ninkharsagga, here referred to also as "the holy innanna", wails aloud for the intended destruction of "her people". that this decision has been decreed by the gods in council is clear from a passage in the fourth column, where it is stated that the sending of a flood to destroy mankind was "the word of the assembly (of the gods)". the first lines preserved in the present column describe the effect of the decision on the various gods concerned and their action at the close of the council. in the lines which described the council of the gods, broken references to "the people" and "a flood" are preserved, after which the text continues: at that time nintu (. . .) like a (. . .), the holy innanna lament(ed) on account of her people. enki in his own heart (held) counsel; anu, enlil, enki and ninkharsagga (. . .). the gods of heaven and earth in(voked) the name of anu and enlil. it is unfortunate that the ends of all the lines in this column are wanting, but enough remains to show a close correspondence of the first two lines quoted with a passage in the gilgamesh epic where ishtar is described as lamenting the destruction of mankind.( ) this will be seen more clearly by printing the two couplets in parallel columns: sumerian version semitic version at that time nintu (. . .) ishtar cried aloud like a woman like a (. . .), in travail, the holy innanna lament(ed) bêlit-ili lamented with a loud on account of her people. voice. ( ) gilg. epic, xi, l. f. the expression bêlit-ili, "the lady of the gods", is attested as a title borne both by the semitic goddess ishtar and by the sumerian goddess nintu or ninkharsagga. in the passage in the babylonian version, "the lady of the gods" has always been treated as a synonym of ishtar, the second half of the couplet being regarded as a restatement of the first, according to a recognized law of babylonian poetry. we may probably assume that this interpretation is correct, and we may conclude by analogy that "the holy innanna" in the second half of the sumerian couplet is there merely employed as a synonym of nintu.( ) when the sumerian myth was recast in accordance with semitic ideas, the _rôle_ of creatress of mankind, which had been played by the old sumerian goddess ninkharsagga or nintu, was naturally transferred to the semitic ishtar. and as innanna was one of ishtar's designations, it was possible to make the change by a simple transcription of the lines, the name nintu being replaced by the synonymous title bêlit-ili, which was also shared by ishtar. difficulties are at once introduced if we assume with dr. poebel that in each version two separate goddesses are represented as lamenting, nintu or bêlit-ili and innanna or ishtar. for innanna as a separate goddess had no share in the sumerian creation, and the reference to "her people" is there only applicable to nintu. dr. poebel has to assume that the sumerian names should be reversed in order to restore them to their original order, which he suggests the babylonian version has preserved. but no such textual emendation is necessary. in the semitic version ishtar definitely displaces nintu as the mother of men, as is proved by a later passage in her speech where she refers to her own bearing of mankind.( ) the necessity for the substitution of her name in the later version is thus obvious, and we have already noted how simply this was effected. ( ) cf. also jastrow, _hebr. and bab. trad._, p. . ( ) gilg. epic, xi, l. . another feature in which the two versions differ is that in the sumerian text the lamentation of the goddess precedes the sending of the deluge, while in the gilgamesh epic it is occasioned by the actual advent of the storm. since our text is not completely preserved, it is just possible that the couplet was repeated at the end of the fourth column after mankind's destruction had taken place. but a further apparent difference has been noted. while in the sumerian version the goddess at once deplores the divine decision, it is clear from ishtar's words in the gilgamesh epic that in the assembly of the gods she had at any rate concurred in it.( ) on the other hand, in bêlit-ili's later speech in the epic, after ut-napishtim's sacrifice upon the mountain, she appears to subscribe the decision to enlil alone.( ) the passages in the gilgamesh epic are not really contradictory, for they can be interpreted as implying that, while enlil forced his will upon the other gods against bêlit-ili's protest, the goddess at first reproached herself with her concurrence, and later stigmatized enlil as the real author of the catastrophe. the semitic narrative thus does not appear, as has been suggested, to betray traces of two variant traditions which have been skilfully combined, though it may perhaps exhibit an expansion of the sumerian story. on the other hand, most of the apparent discrepancies between the sumerian and babylonian versions disappear, on the recognition that our text gives in many passages only an epitome of the original sumerian version. ( ) cf. l. f., "since i commanded evil in the assembly of the gods, (and) commanded battle for the destruction of my people". ( ) cf. ll. ff., "ye gods that are here! so long as i forget not the (jewels of) lapis lazuli upon my neck, i will keep these days in my memory, never will i forget them! let the gods come to the offering, but let not enlil come to the offering, since he took not counsel but sent the deluge and surrendered my people to destruction." the lament of the goddess is followed by a brief account of the action taken by the other chief figures in the drama. enki holds counsel with his own heart, evidently devising the project, which he afterwards carried into effect, of preserving the seed of mankind from destruction. since the verb in the following line is wanting, we do not know what action is there recorded of the four creating deities; but the fact that the gods of heaven and earth invoked the name of anu and enlil suggests that it was their will which had been forced upon the other gods. we shall see that throughout the text anu and enlil are the ultimate rulers of both gods and men. the narrative then introduces the human hero of the deluge story: at that time ziusudu, the king, . . . priest of the god (. . .), made a very great . . ., (. . .). in humility he prostrates himself, in reverence (. . .), daily he stands in attendance (. . .). a dream,( ) such as had not been before, comes forth( ) . . . (. . .), by the name of heaven and earth he conjures (. . .). ( ) the word may also be rendered "dreams". ( ) for this rendering of the verb _e-de_, for which dr. poebel does not hazard a translation, see rawlinson, _w.a.i._, iv, pl. , l. f.(a), _nu-e-de_ = sem. _la us- su-u_ (pres.); and cf. brünnow, _classified list_, p. . an alternative rendering "is created" is also possible, and would give equally good sense; cf. _nu-e-de_ = sem. _la �u- pu-u_, _w.a.i._, iv, pl. , l. (a), and brünnow, op. cit., p. . the name of the hero, ziusudu, is the fuller sumerian equivalent of ut-napishtim (or uta-napishtim), the abbreviated semitic form which we find in the gilgamesh epic. for not only are the first two elements of the sumerian name identical with those of the semitic ut-napishtim, but the names themselves are equated in a later babylonian syllabary or explanatory list of words.( ) we there find "ut-napishte" given as the equivalent of the sumerian "zisuda", evidently an abbreviated form of the name ziusudu;( ) and it is significant that the names occur in the syllabary between those of gilgamesh and enkidu, evidently in consequence of the association of the deluge story by the babylonians with their national epic of gilgamesh. the name ziusudu may be rendered "he who lengthened the day of life" or "he who made life long of days",( ) which in the semitic form is abbreviated by the omission of the verb. the reference is probably to the immortality bestowed upon ziusudu at the close of the story, and not to the prolongation of mankind's existence in which he was instrumental. it is scarcely necessary to add that the name has no linguistic connexion with the hebrew name noah, to which it also presents no parallel in meaning. ( ) cf. _cun. texts in the brit. mus._, pt. xviii, pl. , l. (a). ( ) the name in the sumerian version is read by dr. poebel as ziugiddu, but there is much in favour of prof. zimmern's suggestion, based on the form zisuda, that the third syllable of the name should be read as _su_. on a fragment of another nippur text, no. , dr. langdon reads the name as _zi-u-sud-du_ (cf. univ. of penns. mus. publ., bab. sec., vol. x, no. , p. , pl. iv a); the presence of the phonetic complement _du_ may be cited in favour of this reading, but it does not appear to be supported by the photographic reproductions of the name in the sumerian deluge version given by dr. poebel (_hist. and gramm. texts_, pl. lxxxviii f.). it may be added that, on either alternative, the meaning of the name is the same. ( ) the meaning of the sumerian element _u_ in the name, rendered as _utu_ in the semitic form, is rather obscure, and dr. poebel left it unexplained. it is very probable, as suggested by dr. langdon (cf. _proc. soc. bibl. arch._, xxxvi, , p. ), that we should connect it with the semitic _uddu_; in that case, in place of "breath", the rending he suggests, i should be inclined to render it here as "day", for _uddu_ as the meaning "dawn" and the sign ud is employed both for _urru_, "day-light", and _ûmu_, "day". it is an interesting fact that ziusudu should be described simply as "the king", without any indication of the city or area he ruled; and in three of the five other passages in the text in which his name is mentioned it is followed by the same title without qualification. in most cases berossus tells us the cities from which his antediluvian rulers came; and if the end of the line had been preserved it might have been possible to determine definitely ziusudu's city, and incidentally the scene of the deluge in the sumerian version, by the name of the deity in whose service he acted as priest. we have already noted some grounds for believing that his city may have been shuruppak, as in the babylonian version; and if that were so, the divine name reads as "the god of shurrupak" should probably be restored at the end of the line.( ) ( ) the remains that are preserved of the determinative, which is not combined with the sign en, proves that enki's name is not to be restored. hence ziusudu was not priest of enki, and his city was probably not eridu, the seat of his divine friend and counsellor, and the first of the antediluvian cities. sufficient reason for enki's intervention on ziusudu's behalf is furnished by the fact that, as god of the deep, he was concerned in the proposed method of man's destruction. his rivalry of enlil, the god of the earth, is implied in the babylonian version (cf. gilg. epic. xi, ll. - ), and in the sumerian version this would naturally extend to anu, the god of heaven. the employment of the royal title by itself accords with the tradition from berossus that before the deluge, as in later periods, the land was governed by a succession of supreme rulers, and that the hero of the deluge was the last of them. in the gilgamesh epic, on the other hand, ut-napishtim is given no royal nor any other title. he is merely referred to as a "man of shuruppak, son of ubar-tutu", and he appears in the guise of an ancient hero or patriarch not invested with royal power. on this point berossus evidently preserves the original sumerian traditions, while the hebrew versions resemble the semitic-babylonian narrative. the sumerian conception of a series of supreme antediluvian rulers is of course merely a reflection from the historical period, when the hegemony in babylonia was contested among the city-states. the growth of the tradition may have been encouraged by the early use of _lugal_, "king", which, though always a term of secular character, was not very sharply distinguished from that of _patesi_ and other religious titles, until, in accordance with political development, it was required to connote a wider dominion. in sumer, at the time of the composition of our text, ziusudu was still only one in a long line of babylonian rulers, mainly historical but gradually receding into the realms of legend and myth. at the time of the later semites there had been more than one complete break in the tradition and the historical setting of the old story had become dim. the fact that hebrew tradition should range itself in this matter with babylon rather than with sumer is important as a clue in tracing the literary history of our texts. the rest of the column may be taken as descriptive of ziusudu's activities. one line records his making of some very great object or the erection of a huge building;( ) and since the following lines are concerned solely with religious activities, the reference is possibly to a temple or some other structure of a sacred character. its foundation may have been recorded as striking evidence of his devotion to his god; or, since the verb in this sentence depends on the words "at that time" in the preceding line, we may perhaps regard his action as directly connected with the revelation to be made to him. his personal piety is then described: daily he occupied himself in his god's service, prostrating himself in humility and constant in his attendance at the shrine. a dream (or possibly dreams), "such as had not been before", appears to him and he seems to be further described as conjuring "by the name of heaven and earth"; but as the ends of all these lines are broken, the exact connexion of the phrases is not quite certain. ( ) the element _gur-gur_, "very large" or "huge", which occurs in the name of this great object or building, _an- sag-gur-gur_, is employed later in the term for the "huge boat", _(gish)ma-gur-gur_, in which ziusudu rode out the storm. there was, of course, even at this early period a natural tendency to picture on a superhuman scale the lives and deeds of remote predecessors, a tendency which increased in later times and led, as we shall see, to the elaboration of extravagant detail. it is difficult not to associate the reference to a dream, or possibly to dream-divination, with the warning in which enki reveals the purpose of the gods. for the later versions prepare us for a reference to a dream. if we take the line as describing ziusudu's practice of dream-divination in general, "such as had not been before", he may have been represented as the first diviner of dreams, as enmeduranki was held to be the first practitioner of divination in general. but it seems to me more probable that the reference is to a particular dream, by means of which he obtained knowledge of the gods' intentions. on the rendering of this passage depends our interpretation of the whole of the fourth column, where the point will be further discussed. meanwhile it may be noted that the conjuring "by the name of heaven and earth", which we may assume is ascribed to ziusudu, gains in significance if we may regard the setting of the myth as a magical incantation, an inference in support of which we shall note further evidence. for we are furnished at once with the grounds for its magical employment. if ziusudu, through conjuring by the name of heaven and earth, could profit by the warning sent him and so escape the impending fate of mankind, the application of such a myth to the special needs of a sumerian in peril or distress will be obvious. for should he, too, conjure by the name of heaven and earth, he might look for a similar deliverance; and his recital of the myth itself would tend to clinch the magical effect of his own incantation. the description of ziusudu has also great interest in furnishing us with a close parallel to the piety of noah in the hebrew versions. for in the gilgamesh epic and in berossus this feature of the story is completely absent. we are there given no reason why ut-napishtim was selected by ea, nor xisuthros by kronos. for all that those versions tell us, the favour of each deity might have been conferred arbitrarily, and not in recognition of, or in response to, any particular quality or action on the part of its recipient. the sumerian version now restores the original setting of the story and incidentally proves that, in this particular, the hebrew versions have not embroidered a simpler narrative for the purpose of edification, but have faithfully reproduced an original strand of the tradition. iv. the dream-warning the top of the fourth column of the text follows immediately on the close of the third column, so that at this one point we have no great gap between the columns. but unfortunately the ends of all the lines in both columns are wanting, and the exact content of some phrases preserved and their relation to each other are consequently doubtful. this materially affects the interpretation of the passage as a whole, but the main thread of the narrative may be readily followed. ziusudu is here warned that a flood is to be sent "to destroy the seed of mankind"; the doubt that exists concerns the manner in which the warning is conveyed. in the first line of the column, after a reference to "the gods", a building seems to be mentioned, and ziusudu, standing beside it, apparently hears a voice, which bids him take his stand beside a wall and then conveys to him the warning of the coming flood. the destruction of mankind had been decreed in "the assembly (of the gods)" and would be carried out by the commands of anu and enlil. before the text breaks off we again have a reference to the "kingdom" and "its rule", a further trace of the close association of the deluge with the dynastic succession in the early traditions of sumer. in the opening words of the warning to ziusudu, with its prominent repetition of the word "wall", we must evidently trace some connexion with the puzzling words of ea in the gilgamesh epic, when he begins his warning to ut-napishtim. the warnings, as given in the two versions, are printed below in parallel columns for comparison.( ) the gilgamesh epic, after relating how the great gods in shuruppak had decided to send a deluge, continues as follows in the right-hand column: sumerian version semitic version for (. . .) . . . the gods a nin-igi-azag,( ) the god ea, . . . (. . .); sat with them, ziusudu standing at its side and he repeated their word to heard (. . .): the house of reeds: "at the wall on my left side take "reed-hut, reed-hut! wall, thy stand and (. . .), wall! at the wall i will speak a word o reed-hut, hear! o wall, to thee (. . .). understand! o my devout one . . . (. . .), thou man of shuruppak, son of ubar-tutu, by our hand(?) a flood( ) . . . pull down thy house, build a (. . .) will be (sent). ship, to destroy the seed of mankind leave thy possessions, take (. . .) heed for thy life, is the decision, the word of the abandon thy property, and save assembly( ) (of the gods) thy life. the commands of anu (and) and bring living seed of every en(lil . . .) kind into the ship. its kingdom, its rule (. . .) as for the ship, which thou shalt build, to his (. . .)" of which the measurements shall be carefully measured, (. . .) its breadth and length shall correspond. (. . .) in the deep shalt thou immerse it." ( ) col. iv, ll. ff. are there compared with gilg. epic, xi, ll. - . ( ) nin-igi-azag, "the lord of clear vision", a title borne by enki, or ea, as god of wisdom. ( ) the sumerian term _amaru_, here used for the flood and rendered as "rain-storm" by dr. poebel, is explained in a later syllabary as the equivalent of the semitic-babylonian word _abûbu_ (cf. meissner, _s.a.i._, no. ), the term employed for the flood both in the early semitic version of the atrakhasis story dated in ammizaduga's reign and in the gilgamesh epic. the word _abûbu_ is often conventionally rendered "deluge", but should be more accurately translated "flood". it is true that the tempests of the sumerian version probably imply rain; and in the gilgamesh epic heavy rain in the evening begins the flood and is followed at dawn by a thunderstorm and hurricane. but in itself the term _abûbu_ implies flood, which could take place through a rise of the rivers unaccompanied by heavy local rain. the annual rainfall in babylonia to-day is on an average only about in., and there have been years in succession when the total rainfall has not exceeded in.; and yet the _abûbu_ is not a thing of the past. ( ) the word here rendered "assembly" is the semitic loan- word _buhrum_, in babylonian _puhrum_, the term employed for the "assembly" of the gods both in the babylonian creation series and in the gilgamesh epic. its employment in the sumerian version, in place of its sumerian equivalent _ukkin_, is an interesting example of semitic influence. its occurrence does not necessarily imply the existence of a recognized semitic version at the period our text was inscribed. the substitution of _buhrum_ for _ukkin_ in the text may well date from the period of hammurabi, when we may assume that the increased importance of the city-council was reflected in the general adoption of the semitic term (cf. poebel, _hist. texts_, p. ). in the semitic version ut-napishtim, who tells the story in the first person, then says that he "understood", and that, after assuring ea that he would carry out his commands, he asked how he was to explain his action to "the city, the people, and the elders"; and the god told him what to say. then follows an account of the building of the ship, introduced by the words "as soon as the dawn began to break". in the sumerian version the close of the warning, in which the ship was probably referred to, and the lines prescribing how ziusudu carried out the divine instructions are not preserved. it will be seen that in the passage quoted from the semitic version there is no direct mention of a dream; the god is represented at first as addressing his words to a "house of reeds" and a "wall", and then as speaking to ut-napishtim himself. but in a later passage in the epic, when ea seeks to excuse his action to enlil, he says that the gods' decision was revealed to atrakhasis through a dream.( ) dr. poebel rightly compares the direct warning of ut-napishtim by ea in the passage quoted above with the equally direct warning ziusudu receives in the sumerian version. but he would have us divorce the direct warning from the dream-warning, and he concludes that no less than three different versions of the story have been worked together in the gilgamesh epic. in the first, corresponding to that in our text, ea communicates the gods' decision directly to ut-napishtim; in the second he sends a dream from which atrakhasis, "the very wise one", guesses the impending peril; while in the third he relates the plan to a wall, taking care that ut-napishtim overhears him.( ) the version of berossus, that kronos himself appears to xisuthros in a dream and warns him, is rejected by dr. poebel, who remarks that here the "original significance of the dream has already been obliterated". consequently there seems to him to be "no logical connexion" between the dreams or dream mentioned at the close of the third column and the communication of the plan of the gods at the beginning of the fourth column of our text.( ) ( ) cf. l. f.; "i did not divulge the decision of the great gods. i caused atrakhasis to behold a dream and thus he heard the decision of the gods." ( ) cf. poebel, _hist. texts_, p. f. with the god's apparent subterfuge in the third of these supposed versions sir james frazer (_ancient stories of a great flood_, p. ) not inaptly compares the well-known story of king midas's servant, who, unable to keep the secret of the king's deformity to himself, whispered it into a hole in the ground, with the result that the reeds which grew up there by their rustling in the wind proclaimed it to the world (ovid, _metamorphoses_, xi, ff.). ( ) op. cit., p. ; cf. also jastrow, _heb. and bab. trad._, p. . so far from berossus having missed the original significance of the narrative he relates, i think it can be shown that he reproduces very accurately the sense of our sumerian text; and that the apparent discrepancies in the semitic version, and the puzzling references to a wall in both it and the sumerian version, are capable of a simple explanation. there appears to me no justification for splitting the semitic narrative into the several versions suggested, since the assumption that the direct warning and the dream-warning must be distinguished is really based on a misunderstanding of the character of sumerian dreams by which important decisions of the gods in council were communicated to mankind. we fortunately possess an instructive sumerian parallel to our passage. in it the will of the gods is revealed in a dream, which is not only described in full but is furnished with a detailed interpretation; and as it seems to clear up our difficulties, it may be well to summarize its main features. the occasion of the dream in this case was not a coming deluge but a great dearth of water in the rivers, in consequence of which the crops had suffered and the country was threatened with famine. this occurred in the reign of gudea, patesi of lagash, who lived some centuries before our sumerian document was inscribed. in his own inscription( ) he tells us that he was at a loss to know by what means he might restore prosperity to his country, when one night he had a dream; and it was in consequence of the dream that he eventually erected one of the most sumptuously appointed of sumerian temples and thereby restored his land to prosperity. before recounting his dream he describes how the gods themselves took counsel. on the day in which destinies were fixed in heaven and earth, enlil, the chief of the gods, and ningirsu, the city-god of lagash, held converse; and enlil, turning to ningirsu, described the sad condition of southern babylonia, and remarked that "the decrees of the temple eninnû should be made glorious in heaven and upon earth", or, in other words, that ningirsu's city-temple must be rebuilt. thereupon ningirsu did not communicate his orders directly to gudea, but conveyed the will of the gods to him by means of a dream. ( ) see thureau-dangin, _les inscriptions de sumer et d'akkad_, cyl. a, pp. ff., germ. ed., pp. ff.; and cf. king and hall, _eg. and west. asia_, pp. ff. it will be noticed that we here have a very similar situation to that in the deluge story. a conference of the gods has been held; a decision has been taken by the greatest god, enlil; and, in consequence, another deity is anxious to inform a sumerian ruler of that decision. the only difference is that here enlil desires the communication to be made, while in the deluge story it is made without his knowledge, and obviously against his wishes. so the fact that ningirsu does not communicate directly with the patesi, but conveys his message by means of a dream, is particularly instructive. for here there can be no question of any subterfuge in the method employed, since enlil was a consenting party. the story goes on to relate that, while the patesi slept, a vision of the night came to him, and he beheld a man whose stature was so great that it equalled the heavens and the earth. by the diadem he wore upon his head gudea knew that the figure must be a god. beside the god was the divine eagle, the emblem of lagash; his feet rested upon the whirlwind, and a lion crouched upon his right hand and upon his left. the figure spoke to the patesi, but he did not understand the meaning of the words. then it seemed to gudea that the sun rose from the earth; and he beheld a woman holding in her hand a pure reed, and she carried also a tablet on which was a star of the heavens, and she seemed to take counsel with herself. while gudea was gazing, he seemed to see a second man, who was like a warrior; and he carried a slab of lapis lazuli, on which he drew out the plan of a temple. before the patesi himself it seemed that a fair cushion was placed, and upon the cushion was set a mould, and within the mould was a brick. and on the right hand the patesi beheld an ass that lay upon the ground. such was the dream of gudea, and he was troubled because he could not interpret it.( ) ( ) the resemblance its imagery bears to that of apocalyptic visions of a later period is interesting, as evidence of the latter's remote ancestry, and of the development in the use of primitive material to suit a completely changed political outlook. but those are points which do not concern our problem. to cut the long story short, gudea decided to seek the help of ninâ, "the child of eridu", who, as daughter of enki, the god of wisdom, could divine all the mysteries of the gods. but first of all by sacrifices and libations he secured the mediation of his own city-god and goddess, ningirsu and gatumdug; and then, repairing to ninâ's temple, he recounted to her the details of his vision. when the patesi had finished, the goddess addressed him and said she would explain to him the meaning of his dream. here, no doubt, we are to understand that she spoke through the mouth of her chief priest. and this was the interpretation of the dream. the man whose stature was so great, and whose head was that of a god, was the god ningirsu, and the words which he uttered were an order to the patesi to rebuild the temple eninnû. the sun which rose from the earth was the god ningishzida, for like the sun he goes forth from the earth. the maiden who held the pure reed and carried the tablet with the star was the goddess nisaba; the star was the pure star of the temple's construction, which she proclaimed. the second man, who was like a warrior, was the god nibub; and the plan of the temple which he drew was the plan of eninnû; and the ass that lay upon the ground was the patesi himself.( ) ( ) the symbolism of the ass, as a beast of burden, was applicable to the patesi in his task of carrying out the building of the temple. the essential feature of the vision is that the god himself appeared to the sleeper and delivered his message in words. that is precisely the manner in which kronos warned xisuthros of the coming deluge in the version of berossus; while in the gilgamesh epic the apparent contradiction between the direct warning and the dream-warning at once disappears. it is true that gudea states that he did not understand the meaning of the god's message, and so required an interpretation; but he was equally at a loss as to the identity of the god who gave it, although ningirsu was his own city-god and was accompanied by his own familiar city-emblem. we may thus assume that the god's words, as words, were equally intelligible to gudea. but as they were uttered in a dream, it was necessary that the patesi, in view of his country's peril, should have divine assurance that they implied no other meaning. and in his case such assurance was the more essential, in view of the symbolism attaching to the other features of his vision. that this is sound reasoning is proved by a second vision vouchsafed to gudea by ningirsu. for the patesi, though he began to prepare for the building of the temple, was not content even with ninâ's assurance. he offered a prayer to ningirsu himself, saying that he wished to build the temple, but had received no sign that this was the will of the god; and he prayed for a sign. then, as the patesi lay stretched upon the ground, the god again appeared to him and gave him detailed instructions, adding that he would grant the sign for which he asked. the sign was that he should feel his side touched as by a flame,( ) and thereby he should know that he was the man chosen by ningirsu to carry out his commands. here it is the sign which confirms the apparent meaning of the god's words. and gudea was at last content and built the temple.( ) ( ) cyl. a., col. xii, l. f.; cf. thureau-dangin, op. cit., p. f., germ. ed., p. f. the word translated "side" may also be rendered as "hand"; but "side" is the more probable rendering of the two. the touching of gudea's side (or hand) presents an interesting resemblance to the touching of jacob's thigh by the divine wrestler at peniel in gen. xxxii. ff. (j or je). given a belief in the constant presence of the unseen and its frequent manifestation, such a story as that of peniel might well arise from an unexplained injury to the sciatic muscle, while more than one ailment of the heart or liver might perhaps suggest the touch of a beckoning god. there is of course no connexion between the sumerian and hebrew stories beyond their common background. it may be added that those critics who would reverse the _rôles_ of jacob and the wrestler miss the point of the hebrew story. ( ) even so, before starting on the work, he took the further precautions of ascertaining that the omens were favourable and of purifying his city from all malign influence. we may conclude, then, that in the new sumerian version of the deluge we have traced a logical connexion between the direct warning to ziusudu in the fourth column of the text and the reference to a dream in the broken lines at the close of the third column. as in the gilgamesh epic and in berossus, here too the god's warning is conveyed in a dream; and the accompanying reference to conjuring by the name of heaven and earth probably represents the means by which ziusudu was enabled to verify its apparent meaning. the assurance which gudea obtained through the priest of ninâ and the sign, the priest-king ziusudu secured by his own act, in virtue of his piety and practice of divination. and his employment of the particular class of incantation referred to, that which conjures by the name of heaven and earth, is singularly appropriate to the context. for by its use he was enabled to test the meaning of enki's words, which related to the intentions of anu and enlil, the gods respectively of heaven and of earth. the symbolical setting of gudea's vision also finds a parallel in the reed-house and wall of the deluge story, though in the latter case we have not the benefit of interpretation by a goddess. in the sumerian version the wall is merely part of the vision and does not receive a direct address from the god. that appears as a later development in the semitic version, and it may perhaps have suggested the excuse, put in that version into the mouth of ea, that he had not directly revealed the decision of the gods.( ) ( ) in that case the parallel suggested by sir james frazer between the reed-house and wall of the gilgamesh epic, now regarded as a medium of communication, and the whispering reeds of the midas story would still hold good. the omission of any reference to a dream before the warning in the gilgamesh epic may be accounted for on the assumption that readers of the poem would naturally suppose that the usual method of divine warning was implied; and the text does indicate that the warning took place at night, for gilgamesh proceeds to carry out the divine instructions at the break of day. the direct warning of the hebrew versions, on the other hand, does not carry this implication, since according to hebrew ideas direct speech, as well as vision, was included among the methods by which the divine will could be conveyed to man. v. the flood, the escape of the great boat, and the sacrifice to the sun-god the missing portion of the fourth column must have described ziusudu's building of his great boat in order to escape the deluge, for at the beginning of the fifth column we are in the middle of the deluge itself. the column begins: all the mighty wind-storms together blew, the flood . . . raged. when for seven days, for seven nights, the flood had overwhelmed the land when the wind-storm had driven the great boat over the mighty waters, the sun-god came forth, shedding light over heaven and earth. ziusudu opened the opening of the great boat; the light of the hero, the sun-god, (he) causes to enter into the interior(?) of the great boat. ziusudu, the king, bows himself down before the sun-god; the king sacrifices an ox, a sheep he slaughters(?). the connected text of the column then breaks off, only a sign or two remaining of the following half-dozen lines. it will be seen that in the eleven lines that are preserved we have several close parallels to the babylonian version and some equally striking differences. while attempting to define the latter, it will be well to point out how close the resemblances are, and at the same time to draw a comparison between the sumerian and babylonian versions of this part of the story and the corresponding hebrew accounts. here, as in the babylonian version, the flood is accompanied by hurricanes of wind, though in the latter the description is worked up in considerable detail. we there read( ) that at the appointed time the ruler of the darkness at eventide sent a heavy rain. ut-napishtim saw its beginning, but fearing to watch the storm, he entered the interior of the ship by ea's instructions, closed the door, and handed over the direction of the vessel to the pilot puzur-amurri. later a thunder-storm and hurricane added their terrors to the deluge. for at early dawn a black cloud came up from the horizon, adad the storm-god thundering in its midst, and his heralds, nabû and sharru, flying over mountain and plain. nergal tore away the ship's anchor, while ninib directed the storm; the anunnaki carried their lightning-torches and lit up the land with their brightness; the whirlwind of the storm-god reached the heavens, and all light was turned into darkness. the storm raged the whole day, covering mountain and people with water.( ) no man beheld his fellow; the gods themselves were afraid, so that they retreated into the highest heaven, where they crouched down, cowering like dogs. then follows the lamentation of ishtar, to which reference has already been made, the goddess reproaching herself for the part she had taken in the destruction of her people. this section of the semitic narrative closes with the picture of the gods weeping with her, sitting bowed down with their lips pressed together. ( ) gilg. epic, xi, ll. ff. ( ) in the atrakhasis version, dated in the reign of ammizaduga, col. i, l. , contains a reference to the "cry" of men when adad the storm-god, slays them with his flood. it is probable that the sumerian version, in the missing portion of its fourth column, contained some account of ziusudu's entry into his boat; and this may have been preceded, as in the gilgamesh epic, by a reference to "the living seed of every kind", or at any rate to "the four-legged creatures of the field", and to his personal possessions, with which we may assume he had previously loaded it. but in the fifth column we have no mention of the pilot or of any other companions who may have accompanied the king; and we shall see that the sixth column contains no reference to ziusudu's wife. the description of the storm may have begun with the closing lines of the fourth column, though it is also quite possible that the first line of the fifth column actually begins the account. however that may be, and in spite of the poetic imagery of the semitic babylonian narrative, the general character of the catastrophe is the same in both versions. we find an equally close parallel, between the sumerian and babylonian accounts, in the duration of the storm which accompanied the flood, as will be seen by printing the two versions together:( ) sumerian version semitic version when for seven days, for seven for six days and nights nights, the flood had overwhelmed the the wind blew, the flood, the land, tempest overwhelmed the land. when the wind-storm had driven when the seventh day drew near, the great boat over the the tempest, the flood, ceased mighty waters, from the battle in which it had fought like a host. the sun-god came forth shedding then the sea rested and was light over heaven and earth. still, and the wind-storm, the flood, ceased. ( ) col. v, ll. - are here compared with gilg. epic, xi, ll. - . the two narratives do not precisely agree as to the duration of the storm, for while in the sumerian account the storm lasts seven days and seven nights, in the semitic-babylonian version it lasts only six days and nights, ceasing at dawn on the seventh day. the difference, however, is immaterial when we compare these estimates with those of the hebrew versions, the older of which speaks of forty days' rain, while the later version represents the flood as rising for no less than a hundred and fifty days. the close parallel between the sumerian and babylonian versions is not, however, confined to subject-matter, but here, even extends to some of the words and phrases employed. it has already been noted that the sumerian term employed for "flood" or "deluge" is the attested equivalent of the semitic word; and it may now be added that the word which may be rendered "great boat" or "great ship" in the sumerian text is the same word, though partly expressed by variant characters, which occurs in the early semitic fragment of the deluge story from nippur.( ) in the gilgamesh epic, on the other hand, the ordinary ideogram for "vessel" or "ship"( ) is employed, though the great size of the vessel is there indicated, as in berossus and the later hebrew version, by detailed measurements. moreover, the sumerian and semitic verbs, which are employed in the parallel passages quoted above for the "overwhelming" of the land, are given as synonyms in a late syllabary, while in another explanatory text the sumerian verb is explained as applying to the destructive action of a flood.( ) such close linguistic parallels are instructive as furnishing additional proof, if it were needed, of the dependence of the semitic-babylonian and assyrian versions upon sumerian originals. ( ) the sumerian word is _(gish)ma-gur-gur_, corresponding to the term written in the early semitic fragment, l. , as _(isu)ma-gur-gur_, which is probably to be read under its semitized form _magurgurru_. in l. of that fragment the vessel is referred to under the synonymous expression _(isu)elippu ra-be-tu_, "a great ship". ( ) i.e. (gish)ma, the first element in the sumerian word, read in semitic babylonian as _elippu_, "ship"; when employed in the early semitic fragment it is qualified by the adj. _ra-be-tu_, "great". there is no justification for assuming, with prof. hilbrecht, that a measurement of the vessel was given in l. of the early semitic fragment. ( ) the sumerian verb _ur_, which is employed in l. of the fifth column in the expression _ba-an-da-ab-ur-ur_, translated as "raged", occurs again in l. in the phrase _kalam-ma ba-ur-ra_, "had overwhelmed the land". that we are justified in regarding the latter phrase as the original of the semitic _i-sap-pan mâta_ (gilg. epic, xi, l. ) is proved by the equation sum. _ur-ur_ = sem. _sa-pa-nu_ (rawlinson, _w.a.i._, vol. v, pl. , l. c) and by the explanation sum. _ur-ur_ = sem. _�a-ba-tu �a a-bu-bi_, i.e. "_ur-ur_ = to smite, of a flood" (_cun. texts_, pt. xii, pl. , obv., l. ); cf. poebel, _hist. texts_, p. , n. . it may be worth while to pause for a moment in our study of the text, in order to inquire what kind of boat it was in which ziusudu escaped the flood. it is only called "a great boat" or "a great ship" in the text, and this term, as we have noted, was taken over, semitized, and literally translated in an early semitic-babylonian version. but the gilgamesh epic, representing the later semitic-babylonian version, supplies fuller details, which have not, however, been satisfactorily explained. either the obvious meaning of the description and figures there given has been ignored, or the measurements have been applied to a central structure placed upon a hull, much on the lines of a modern "house-boat" or the conventional noah's ark.( ) for the latter interpretation the text itself affords no justification. the statement is definitely made that the length and breadth of the vessel itself are to be the same;( ) and a later passage gives ten _gar_ for the height of its sides and ten _gar_ for the breadth of its deck.( ) this description has been taken to imply a square box-like structure, which, in order to be seaworthy, must be placed on a conjectured hull. ( ) cf., e.g., jastrow, _hebr. and bab. trad._, p. . ( ) gilg. epic, xi, ll. - . ( ) l. f. the _gar_ contained twelve cubits, so that the vessel would have measured cubits each way; taking the babylonian cubit, on the basis of gudea's scale, at mm. (cf. thureau-dangin, _journal asiatique_, dix. sér., t. xiii, , pp. ff., ), this would give a length, breadth, and height of nearly ft. i do not think it has been noted in this connexion that a vessel, approximately with the relative proportions of that described in the gilgamesh epic, is in constant use to-day on the lower tigris and euphrates. a _kuffah_,( ) the familiar pitched coracle of baghdad, would provide an admirable model for the gigantic vessel in which ut-napishtim rode out the deluge. "without either stem or stern, quite round like a shield"--so herodotus described the _kuffah_ of his day; () so, too, is it represented on assyrian slabs from nineveh, where we see it employed for the transport of heavy building material;( ) its form and structure indeed suggest a prehistoric origin. the _kuffah_ is one of those examples of perfect adjustment to conditions of use which cannot be improved. any one who has travelled in one of these craft will agree that their storage capacity is immense, for their circular form and steeply curved side allow every inch of space to be utilized. it is almost impossible to upset them, and their only disadvantage is lack of speed. for their guidance all that is required is a steersman with a paddle, as indicated in the epic. it is true that the larger kuffah of to-day tends to increase in diameter as compared to height, but that detail might well be ignored in picturing the monster vessel of ut-napishtim. its seven horizontal stages and their nine lateral divisions would have been structurally sound in supporting the vessel's sides; and the selection of the latter uneven number, though prompted doubtless by its sacred character, is only suitable to a circular craft in which the interior walls would radiate from the centre. the use of pitch and bitumen for smearing the vessel inside and out, though unusual even in mesopotamian shipbuilding, is precisely the method employed in the _kuffah's_ construction. ( ) arab. _kuffah_, pl. _kufaf_; in addition to its common use for the baghdad coracle, the word is also employed for a large basket. ( ) herodotus, i, . ( ) the _kuffah_ is formed of wicker-work coated with bitumen. some of those represented on the nineveh sculptures appear to be covered with skins; and herodotus (i, ) states that "the boats which come down the river to babylon are circular and made of skins." but his further description shows that he is here referred to the _kelek_ or skin-raft, with which he has combined a description of the _kuffah_. the late sir henry rawlinson has never seen or heard of a skin-covered _kuffah_ on either the tigris or euphrates, and there can be little doubt that bitumen was employed for their construction in antiquity, as it is to-day. these craft are often large enough to carry five or six horses and a dozen men. we have no detailed description of ziusudu's "great boat", beyond the fact that it was covered in and had an opening, or light-hole, which could be closed. but the form of ut-napishtim's vessel was no doubt traditional, and we may picture that of ziusudu as also of the _kuffah_ type, though smaller and without its successor's elaborate internal structure. the gradual development of the huge coracle into a ship would have been encouraged by the semitic use of the term "ship" to describe it; and the attempt to retain something of its original proportions resulted in producing the unwieldy ark of later tradition.( ) ( ) the description of the ark is not preserved from the earlier hebrew version (j), but the latter hebrew version (p), while increasing the length of the vessel, has considerably reduced its height and breadth. its measurements are there given (gen. vi. ) as cubits in length, cubits in breadth, and cubits in height; taking the ordinary hebrew cubit at about in., this would give a length of about ft., a breadth of about ft., and a height of about ft. the interior stories are necessarily reduced to three. the vessel in berossus measures five stadia by two, and thus had a length of over three thousand feet and a breadth of more than twelve hundred. we will now return to the text and resume the comparison we were making between it and the gilgamesh epic. in the latter no direct reference is made to the appearance of the sun-god after the storm, nor is ut-napishtim represented as praying to him. but the sequence of events in the sumerian version is very natural, and on that account alone, apart from other reasons, it may be held to represent the original form of the story. for the sun-god would naturally reappear after the darkness of the storm had passed, and it would be equally natural that ziusudu should address himself to the great light-god. moreover, the gilgamesh epic still retains traces of the sumerian version, as will be seen from a comparison of their narratives,( ) the semitic version being quoted from the point where the hurricane ceased and the sea became still. ( ) col. v, ll. - are here compared with gilg. epic, xi, ll. - . sumerian version semitic version when i looked at the storm, the uproar had ceased, and all mankind was turned into clay; in place of fields there was a swamp. ziusudu opened the opening of i opened the opening (lit. the great boat; "hole"), and daylight fell upon my countenance. the light of the hero, the sun- god, (he) causes to enter into the interior(?) of the great boat. ziusudu, the king, bows himself down before the i bowed myself down and sat down sun-god; weeping; the king sacrifices an ox, a over my countenance flowed my sheep he slaughters(?). tears. i gazed upon the quarters (of the world)--all(?) was sea. it will be seen that in the semitic version the beams of the sun-god have been reduced to "daylight", and ziusudu's act of worship has become merely prostration in token of grief. both in the gilgamesh epic and in berossus the sacrifice offered by the deluge hero to the gods follows the episode of the birds, and it takes place on the top of the mountain after the landing from the vessel. it is hardly probable that two sacrifices were recounted in the sumerian version, one to the sun-god in the boat and another on the mountain after landing; and if we are right in identifying ziusudu's recorded sacrifice with that of ut-napishtim and xisuthros, it would seem that, according to the sumerian version, no birds were sent out to test the abatement of the waters. this conclusion cannot be regarded as quite certain, inasmuch as the greater part of the fifth column is waning. we have, moreover, already seen reason to believe that the account on our tablet is epitomized, and that consequently the omission of any episode from our text does not necessarily imply its absence from the original sumerian version which it follows. but here at least it is clear that nothing can have been omitted between the opening of the light-hole and the sacrifice, for the one act is the natural sequence of the other. on the whole it seems preferable to assume that we have recovered a simpler form of the story. as the storm itself is described in a few phrases, so the cessation of the flood may have been dismissed with equal brevity; the gradual abatement of the waters, as attested by the dove, the swallow, and the raven, may well be due to later elaboration or to combination with some variant account. under its amended form the narrative leads naturally up to the landing on the mountain and the sacrifice of thanksgiving to the gods. in the sumerian version, on the other hand, ziusudu regards himself as saved when he sees the sun shining; he needs no further tests to assure himself that the danger is over, and his sacrifice too is one of gratitude for his escape. the disappearance of the sun-god from the semitic version was thus a necessity, to avoid an anti-climax; and the hero's attitude of worship had obviously to be translated into one of grief. an indication that the sacrifice was originally represented as having taken place on board the boat may be seen in the lines of the gilgamesh epic which recount how enlil, after acquiescing in ut-napishtim's survival of the flood, went up into the ship and led him forth by the hand, although, in the preceding lines, he had already landed and had sacrificed upon the mountain. the two passages are hardly consistent as they stand, but they find a simple explanation of we regard the second of them as an unaltered survival from an earlier form of the story. if the above line of reasoning be sound, it follows that, while the earlier hebrew version closely resembles the gilgamesh epic, the later hebrew version, by its omission of the birds, would offer a parallel to the sumerian version. but whether we may draw any conclusion from this apparent grouping of our authorities will be best dealt with when we have concluded our survey of the new evidence. as we have seen, the text of the fifth column breaks off with ziusudu's sacrifice to the sun-god, after he had opened a light-hole in the boat and had seen by the god's beams that the storm was over. the missing portion of the fifth column must have included at least some account of the abatement of the waters, the stranding of the boat, and the manner in which anu and enlil became apprised of ziusudu's escape, and consequently of the failure of their intention to annihilate mankind. for in the sixth column of the text we find these two deities reconciled to ziusudu and bestowing immortality upon him, as enlil bestows immortality upon ut-napishtim at the close of the semitic version. in the latter account, after the vessel had grounded on mount nisir and ut-napishtim had tested the abatement of the waters by means of the birds, he brings all out from the ship and offers his libation and sacrifice upon the mountain, heaping up reed, cedar-wood, and myrtle beneath his seven sacrificial vessels. and it was by this act on his part that the gods first had knowledge of his escape. for they smelt the sweet savour of the sacrifice, and "gathered like flies over the sacrificer".( ) ( ) gilg. epic, xi, l. . it is possible in our text that ziusudu's sacrifice in the boat was also the means by which the gods became acquainted with his survival; and it seems obvious that the sun-god, to whom it was offered, should have continued to play some part in the narrative, perhaps by assisting ziusudu in propitiating anu and enlil. in the semitic-babylonian version, the first deity to approach the sacrifice is bêlit-ili or ishtar, who is indignant with enlil for what he has done. when enlil himself approaches and sees the ship he is filled with anger against the gods, and, asking who has escaped, exclaims that no man must live in the destruction. thereupon ninib accuses ea, who by his pleading succeeds in turning enlil's purpose. he bids enlil visit the sinner with his sin and lay his transgression on the transgressor; enlil should not again send a deluge to destroy the whole of mankind, but should be content with less wholesale destruction, such as that wrought by wild beasts, famine, and plague. finally he confesses that it was he who warned ziusudu of the gods' decision by sending him a dream. enlil thereupon changes his intention, and going up into the ship, leads ut-napishtim forth. though ea's intervention finds, of course, no parallel in either hebrew version, the subject-matter of his speech is reflected in both. in the earlier hebrew version yahweh smells the sweet savour of noah's burnt offering and says in his heart he will no more destroy every living creature as he had done; while in the later hebrew version elohim, after remembering noah and causing the waters to abate, establishes his covenant to the same effect, and, as a sign of the covenant, sets his bow in the clouds. in its treatment of the climax of the story we shall see that the sumerian version, at any rate in the form it has reached us, is on a lower ethical level than the babylonian and hebrew versions. ea's argument that the sinner should bear his own sin and the transgressor his own transgression in some measure forestalls that of ezekiel;( ) and both the hebrew versions represent the saving of noah as part of the divine intention from the beginning. but the sumerian version introduces the element of magic as the means by which man can bend the will of the gods to his own ends. how far the details of the sumerian myth at this point resembled that of the gilgamesh epic it is impossible to say, but the general course of the story must have been the same. in the latter enlil's anger is appeased, in the former that of anu and enlil; and it is legitimate to suppose that enki, like ea, was ziusudu's principal supporter, in view of the part he had already taken in ensuring his escape. ( ) cf. ezek. xviii, passim, esp. xviii. . vi. the propitiation of the angry gods, and ziusudu's immortality the presence of the puzzling lines, with which the sixth column of our text opens, was not explained by dr. poebel; indeed, they would be difficult to reconcile with his assumption that our text is an epic pure and simple. but if, as is suggested above, we are dealing with a myth in magical employment, they are quite capable of explanation. the problem these lines present will best be stated by giving a translation of the extant portion of the column, where they will be seen with their immediate context in relation to what follows them: "by the soul of heaven, by the soul of earth, shall ye conjure him, that with you he may . . . ! anu and enlil by the soul of heaven, by the soul of earth, shall ye conjure, and with you will he . . . ! "the _niggilma_ of the ground springs forth in abundance(?)!" ziusudu, the king, before anu and enlil bows himself down. life like (that of) a god he gives to him, an eternal soul like (that of) a god he creates for him. at that time ziusudu, the king, the name of the _niggilma_ (named) "preserver of the seed of mankind". in a . . . land,( ) the land( ) of dilmun(?), they caused him to dwell. ( ) possibly to be translated "mountain". the rendering of the proper name as that of dilmun is very uncertain. for the probable identification of dilmun with the island of bahrein in the persian gulf, cf. rawlinson, _journ. roy. as. soc._, , pp. ff.; and see further, meissner, _orient. lit- zeit._, xx. no. , col. ff. the first two lines of the column are probably part of the speech of some deity, who urges the necessity of invoking or conjuring anu and enlil "by the soul of heaven, by the soul of earth", in order to secure their support or approval. now anu and enlil are the two great gods who had determined on mankind's destruction, and whose wrath at his own escape from death ziusudu must placate. it is an obvious inference that conjuring "by the soul of heaven" and "by the soul of earth" is either the method by which ziusudu has already succeeded in appeasing their anger, or the means by which he is here enjoined to attain that end. against the latter alternative it is to be noted that the god is addressing more than one person; and, further, at ziusudu is evidently already pardoned, for, so far from following the deity's advice, he immediately prostrates himself before anu and enlil and receives immortality. we may conjecture that at the close of the fifth column ziusudu had already performed the invocation and thereby had appeased the divine wrath; and that the lines at the beginning of the sixth column point the moral of the story by enjoining on ziusudu and his descendants, in other words on mankind, the advisability of employing this powerful incantation at their need. the speaker may perhaps have been one of ziusudu's divine helpers--the sun-god to whom he had sacrificed, or enki who had saved him from the flood. but it seems to me more probable that the words are uttered by anu and enlil themselves.( ) for thereby they would be represented as giving their own sanction to the formula, and as guaranteeing its magical efficacy. that the incantation, as addressed to anu and enlil, would be appropriate is obvious, since each would be magically approached through his own sphere of control. ( ) one of them may have been the speaker on behalf of both. it is significant that at another critical point of the story we have already met with a reference to conjuring "by the name of heaven and earth", the phrase occurring at the close of the third column after the reference to the dream or dreams. there, as we saw, we might possibly explain the passage as illustrating one aspect of ziusudu's piety: he may have been represented as continually practising this class of divination, and in that case it would be natural enough that in the final crisis of the story he should have propitiated the gods he conjured by the same means. or, as a more probable alternative, it was suggested that we might connect the line with enki's warning, and assume that ziusudu interpreted the dream-revelation of anu and enlil's purpose by means of the magical incantation which was peculiarly associated with them. on either alternative the phrase fits into the story itself, and there is no need to suppose that the narrative is interrupted, either in the third or in the sixth column, by an address to the hearers of the myth, urging them to make the invocation on their own behalf. on the other hand, it seems improbable that the lines in question formed part of the original myth; they may have been inserted to weld the myth more closely to the magic. both incantation and epic may have originally existed independently, and, if so, their combination would have been suggested by their contents. for while the former is addressed to anu and enlil, in the latter these same gods play the dominant parts: they are the two chief creators, it is they who send the flood, and it is their anger that must be appeased. if once combined, the further step of making the incantation the actual means by which ziusudu achieved his own rescue and immortality would be a natural development. it may be added that the words would have been an equally appropriate addition if the incantation had not existed independently, but had been suggested by, and developed from, the myth. in the third and eleventh lines of the column we have further references to the mysterious object, the creation of which appears to have been recorded in the first column of the text between man's creation and that of animals. the second sign of the group composing its name was not recognized by dr. poebel, but it is quite clearly written in two of the passages, and has been correctly identified by professor barton.( ) the sumerian word is, in fact, to be read _nig-gil-ma_,( ) which, when preceded by the determinative for "pot", "jar", or "bowl", is given in a later syllabary as the equivalent of the semitic word _mashkhalu_. evidence that the word _mashkhalu_ was actually employed to denote a jar or vessel of some sort is furnished by one of the tel el-amarna letters which refers to "one silver _mashkhalu_" and "one (or two) stone _mashkhalu_".( ) in our text the determinative is absent, and it is possible that the word is used in another sense. professor barton, in both passages in the sixth column, gives it the meaning "curse"; he interprets the lines as referring to the removal of a curse from the earth after the flood, and he compares gen. viii. , where yahweh declares he will not again "curse the ground for man's sake". but this translation ignores the occurrence of the word in the first column, where the creation of the _niggilma_ is apparently recorded; and his rendering "the seed that was cursed" in l. is not supported by the photographic reproduction of the text, which suggests that the first sign in the line is not that for "seed", but is the sign for "name", as correctly read by dr. poebel. in that passage the _niggilma_ appears to be given by ziusudu the name "preserver of the seed of mankind", which we have already compared to the title bestowed on uta-napishtim's ship, "preserver of life". like the ship, it must have played an important part in man's preservation, which would account not only for the honorific title but for the special record of its creation. ( ) see _american journal of semitic languages_, vol. xxxi, april , p. . ( ) it is written _nig-gil_ in the first column. ( ) see winckler, _el-amarna_, pl. f., no. , obv., col. ii, l. , rev., col. i, l. , and knudtzon, _el-am. taf._, pp. , ; the vessels were presents from amenophis iv to burnaburiash. it we may connect the word with the magical colouring of the myth, we might perhaps retain its known meaning, "jar" or "bowl", and regard it as employed in the magical ceremony which must have formed part of the invocation "by the soul of heaven, by the soul of earth". but the accompanying references to the ground, to its production from the ground, and to its springing up, if the phrases may be so rendered, suggest rather some kind of plant;( ) and this, from its employment in magical rites, may also have given its name to a bowl or vessel which held it. a very similar plant was that found and lost by gilgamesh, after his sojourn with ut-napishtim; it too had potent magical power and bore a title descriptive of its peculiar virtue of transforming old age to youth. should this suggestion prove to be correct, the three passages mentioning the _niggilma_ must be classed with those in which the invocation is referred to, as ensuring the sanction of the myth to further elements in the magic. in accordance with this view, the fifth line in the sixth column is probably to be included in the divine speech, where a reference to the object employed in the ritual would not be out of place. but it is to be hoped that light will be thrown on this puzzling word by further study, and perhaps by new fragments of the text; meanwhile it would be hazardous to suggest a more definite rendering. ( ) the references to "the ground", or "the earth", also tend to connect it peculiarly with enlil. enlil's close association with the earth, which is, of course, independently attested, is explicitly referred to in the babylonian version (cf. gilg. epic. xi, ll. - ). suggested reflections of this idea have long been traced in the hebrew versions; cf. gen. viii. (j), where yahweh says he will not again curse the ground, and gen. ix. (p), where elohim speaks of his covenant "between me and the earth". with the sixth line of the column it is clear that the original narrative of the myth is resumed.( ) ziusudu, the king, prostrates himself before anu and enlil, who bestow immortality upon him and cause him to dwell in a land, or mountain, the name of which may perhaps be read as dilmun. the close parallelism between this portion of the text and the end of the myth in the gilgamesh epic will be seen from the following extracts,( ) the magical portions being omitted from the sumerian version: ( ) it will also be noted that with this line the text again falls naturally into couplets. ( ) col. vi, ll. - and are there compared with gilg. epic, xi, ll. - . sumerian version semitic version then enlil went up into the ship; ziusudu, the king, he took me by the hand and led me forth. before anu and enlil bows himself he brought out my wife and down. caused her to bow down at my side; he touched our brows, standing between us and blessing us: life like (that of) a god he "formerly was ut-napishtim of gives to him. mankind, an eternal soul like (that of) a but now let ut-napishtim be god he creates for him. like the gods, even us! and let ut-napishtim dwell afar off at the mouth of the rivers!" in a . . . land, the land of( ) then they took me and afar off, dilmun(?), they caused him to at the mouth of the rivers, dwell. they caused me to dwell. ( ) or, "on a mountain, the mountain of", &c. the sumerian version thus apparently concludes with the familiar ending of the legend which we find in the gilgamesh epic and in berossus, though it here occurs in an abbreviated form and with some variations in detail. in all three versions the prostration of the deluge hero before the god is followed by the bestowal of immortality upon him, a fate which, according to berossus, he shared with his wife, his daughter, and the steersman. the gilgamesh epic perhaps implies that ut-napishtim's wife shared in his immortality, but the sumerian version mentions ziusudu alone. in the gilgamesh epic ut-napishtim is settled by the gods at the mouth of the rivers, that is to say at the head of the persian gulf, while according to a possible rendering of the sumerian version he is made to dwell on dilmun, an island in the gulf itself. the fact that gilgamesh in the epic has to cross the sea to reach ut-napishtim may be cited in favour of the reading "dilmun"; and the description of the sea as "the waters of death", if it implies more than the great danger of their passage, was probably a later development associated with ut-napishtim's immortality. it may be added that in neither hebrew version do we find any parallel to the concluding details of the original story, the hebrew narratives being brought to an end with the blessing of noah and the divine promise to, or covenant with, mankind. such then are the contents of our sumerian document, and from the details which have been given it will have been seen that its story, so far as concerns the deluge, is in essentials the same as that we already find in the gilgamesh epic. it is true that this earlier version has reached us in a magical setting, and to some extent in an abbreviated form. in the next lecture i shall have occasion to refer to another early mythological text from nippur, which was thought by its first interpreter to include a second sumerian version of the deluge legend. that suggestion has not been substantiated, though we shall see that the contents of the document are of a very interesting character. but in view of the discussion that has taken place in the united states over the interpretation of the second text, and of the doubts that have subsequently been expressed in some quarters as to the recent discovery of any new form of the deluge legend, it may be well to formulate briefly the proof that in the inscription published by dr. poebel an early sumerian version of the deluge story has actually been recovered. any one who has followed the detailed analysis of the new text which has been attempted in the preceding paragraphs will, i venture to think, agree that the following conclusions may be drawn: (i) the points of general resemblance presented by the narrative to that in the gilgamesh epic are sufficiently close in themselves to show that we are dealing with a sumerian version of that story. and this conclusion is further supported (a) by the occurrence throughout the text of the attested sumerian equivalent of the semitic word, employed in the babylonian versions, for the "flood" or "deluge", and (b) by the use of precisely the same term for the hero's "great boat", which is already familiar to us from an early babylonian version. (ii) the close correspondence in language between portions of the sumerian legend and the gilgamesh epic suggest that the one version was ultimately derived from the other. and this conclusion in its turn is confirmed (a) by the identity in meaning of the sumerian and babylonian names for the deluge hero, which are actually found equated in a late explanatory text, and (b) by small points of difference in the babylonian form of the story which correspond to later political and religious developments and suggest the work of semitic redactors. the cumulative effect of such general and detailed evidence is overwhelming, and we may dismiss all doubts as to the validity of dr. poebel's claim. we have indeed recovered a very early, and in some of its features a very primitive, form of the deluge narrative which till now has reached us only in semitic and greek renderings; and the stream of tradition has been tapped at a point far above any at which we have hitherto approached it. what evidence, we may ask, does this early sumerian version offer with regard to the origin and literary history of the hebrew versions? the general dependence of the biblical versions upon the babylonian legend as a whole has long been recognized, and needs no further demonstration; and it has already been observed that the parallelisms with the version in the gilgamesh epic are on the whole more detailed and striking in the earlier than in the later hebrew version.( ) in the course of our analysis of the sumerian text its more striking points of agreement or divergence, in relation to the hebrew versions, were noted under the different sections of its narrative. it was also obvious that, in many features in which the hebrew versions differ from the gilgamesh epic, the latter finds sumerian support. these facts confirm the conclusion, which we should naturally base on grounds of historical probability, that while the semitic-babylonian versions were derived from sumer, the hebrew accounts were equally clearly derived from babylon. but there are one or two pieces of evidence which are apparently at variance with this conclusion, and these call for some explanation. ( ) for details see especially skinner, _genesis_, pp. ff. not too much significance should be attached to the apparent omission of the episode of the birds from the sumerian narrative, in which it would agree with the later as against the earlier hebrew version; for, apart from its epitomized character, there is so much missing from the text that the absence of this episode cannot be regarded as established with certainty. and in any case it could be balanced by the sumerian order of creation of men before animals, which agrees with the earlier hebrew version against the later. but there is one very striking point in which our new sumerian text agrees with both the hebrew versions as against the gilgamesh epic and berossus; and that is in the character of ziusudu, which presents so close a parallel to the piety of noah. as we have already seen, the latter is due to no hebrew idealization of the story, but represents a genuine strand of the original tradition, which is completely absent from the babylonian versions. but the babylonian versions are the media through which it has generally been assumed that the tradition of the deluge reached the hebrews. what explanation have we of this fact? this grouping of sumerian and hebrew authorities, against the extant sources from babylon, is emphasized by the general framework of the sumerian story. for the literary connexion which we have in genesis between the creation and the deluge narratives has hitherto found no parallel in the cuneiform texts. in babylon and assyria the myth of creation and the deluge legend have been divorced. from the one a complete epic has been evolved in accordance with the tenets of babylonian theology, the creation myth being combined in the process with other myths of a somewhat analogous character. the deluge legend has survived as an isolated story in more than one setting, the principal semitic version being recounted to the national hero gilgamesh, towards the close of the composite epic of his adventures which grew up around the nucleus of his name. it is one of the chief surprises of the newly discovered sumerian version that the hebrew connexion of the narratives is seen to be on the lines of very primitive tradition. noah's reputation for piety does not stand alone. his line of descent from adam, and the thread of narrative connecting the creation of the world with its partial destruction by the deluge, already appear in sumerian form at a time when the city of babylon itself had not secured its later power. how then are we to account for this correspondence of sumerian and hebrew traditions, on points completely wanting in our intermediate authorities, from which, however, other evidence suggests that the hebrew narratives were derived? at the risk of anticipating some of the conclusions to be drawn in the next lecture, it may be well to define an answer now. it is possible that those who still accept the traditional authorship of the pentateuch may be inclined to see in this correspondence of hebrew and sumerian ideas a confirmation of their own hypothesis. but it should be pointed out at once that this is not an inevitable deduction from the evidence. indeed, it is directly contradicted by the rest of the evidence we have summarized, while it would leave completely unexplained some significant features of the problem. it is true that certain important details of the sumerian tradition, while not affecting babylon and assyria, have left their stamp upon the hebrew narratives; but that is not an exhaustive statement of the case. for we have also seen that a more complete survival of sumerian tradition has taken place in the history of berossus. there we traced the same general framework of the narratives, with a far closer correspondence in detail. the kingly rank of ziusudu is in complete harmony with the berossian conception of a series of supreme antediluvian rulers, and the names of two of the antediluvian cites are among those of their newly recovered sumerian prototypes. there can thus be no suggestion that the greek reproductions of the sumerian tradition were in their turn due to hebrew influence. on the contrary we have in them a parallel case of survival in a far more complete form. the inference we may obviously draw is that the sumerian narrative continued in existence, in a literary form that closely resembled the original version, into the later historical periods. in this there would be nothing to surprise us, when we recall the careful preservation and study of ancient sumerian religious texts by the later semitic priesthood of the country. each ancient cult-centre in babylonia continued to cling to its own local traditions, and the sumerian desire for their preservation, which was inherited by their semitic guardians, was in great measure unaffected by political occurrences elsewhere. hence it was that ashur-bani-pal, when forming his library at nineveh, was able to draw upon so rich a store of the more ancient literary texts of babylonia. the sumerian version of the deluge and of antediluvian history may well have survived in a less epitomized form than that in which we have recovered it; and, like other ancient texts, it was probably provided with a semitic translation. indeed its literary study and reproduction may have continued without interruption in babylon itself. but even if sumerian tradition died out in the capital under the influence of the babylonian priesthood, its re-introduction may well have taken place in neo-babylonian times. perhaps the antiquarian researches of nabonidus were characteristic of his period; and in any case the collection of his country's gods into the capital must have been accompanied by a renewed interest in the more ancient versions of the past with which their cults were peculiarly associated. in the extant summary from berossus we may possibly see evidence of a subsequent attempt to combine with these more ancient traditions the continued religious dominance of marduk and of babylon. our conclusion, that the sumerian form of the tradition did not die out, leaves the question as to the periods during which babylonian influence may have acted upon hebrew tradition in great measure unaffected; and we may therefore postpone its further consideration to the next lecture. to-day the only question that remains to be considered concerns the effect of our new evidence upon the wider problem of deluge stories as a whole. what light does it throw on the general character of deluge stories and their suggested egyptian origin? one thing that strikes me forcibly in reading this early text is the complete absence of any trace or indication of astrological _motif_. it is true that ziusudu sacrifices to the sun-god; but the episode is inherent in the story, the appearance of the sun after the storm following the natural sequence of events and furnishing assurance to the king of his eventual survival. to identify the worshipper with his god and to transfer ziusudu's material craft to the heavens is surely without justification from the simple narrative. we have here no prototype of ra sailing the heavenly ocean. and the destructive flood itself is not only of an equally material and mundane character, but is in complete harmony with its babylonian setting. in the matter of floods the tigris and euphrates present a striking contrast to the nile. it is true that the life-blood of each country is its river-water, but the conditions of its use are very different, and in mesopotamia it becomes a curse when out of control. in both countries the river-water must be used for maturing the crops. but while the rains of abyssinia cause the nile to rise between august and october, thus securing both summer and winter crops, the melting snows of armenia and the taurus flood the mesopotamian rivers between march and may. in egypt the nile flood is gentle; it is never abrupt, and the river gives ample warning of its rise and fall. it contains just enough sediment to enrich the land without choking the canals; and the water, after filling its historic basins, may when necessary be discharged into the falling river in november. thus egypt receives a full and regular supply of water, and there is no difficulty in disposing of any surplus. the growth in such a country of a legend of world-wide destruction by flood is inconceivable. in mesopotamia, on the other hand, the floods, which come too late for the winter crops, are followed by the rainless summer months; and not only must the flood-water be controlled, but some portion of it must be detained artificially, if it is to be of use during the burning months of july, august, and september, when the rivers are at their lowest. moreover, heavy rain in april and a warm south wind melting the snow in the hills may bring down such floods that the channels cannot contain them; the dams are then breached and the country is laid waste. here there is first too much water and then too little. the great danger from flood in babylonia, both in its range of action and in its destructive effect, is due to the strangely flat character of the tigris and euphrates delta.( ) hence after a severe breach in the tigris or euphrates, the river after inundating the country may make itself a new channel miles away from the old one. to mitigate the danger, the floods may be dealt with in two ways--by a multiplication of canals to spread the water, and by providing escapes for it into depressions in the surrounding desert, which in their turn become centres of fertility. both methods were employed in antiquity; and it may be added that in any scheme for the future prosperity of the country they must be employed again, of course with the increased efficiency of modern apparatus.( ) but while the babylonians succeeded in controlling the euphrates, the tigris was never really tamed,( ) and whenever it burst its right bank the southern plains were devastated. we could not have more suitable soil for the growth of a deluge story. ( ) baghdad, though miles by crow-fly from the sea and by river, is only ft. above sea-level. ( ) the babylonians controlled the euphrates, and at the same time provided against its time of "low supply", by escapes into two depressions in the western desert to the nw. of babylon, known to-day as the habbânîyah and abu dîs depressions, which lie s. of the modern town of ramâdi and n. of kerbela. that these depressions were actually used as reservoirs in antiquity is proved by the presence along their edges of thick beds of euphrates shells. in addition to canals and escapes, the babylonian system included well- constructed dikes protected by brushwood. by cutting an eight-mile channel through a low hill between the habbânîyah and abu dîs depressions and by building a short dam ft. high across the latter's narrow outlet, sir william willcocks estimates that a reservoir could be obtained holding eighteen milliards of tons of water. see his work _the irrigations of mesopotamia_ (e. and f. n. spon, ), _geographical journal_, vol. xl, no. (aug., ), pp. ff., and the articles in _the near east_ cited on p. , n. , and p. , n. . sir william willcocks's volume and subsequent papers form the best introduction to the study of babylonian deluge tradition on its material side. ( ) their works carried out on the tigris were effective for irrigation; but the babylonians never succeeded in controlling its floods as they did those of the euphrates. a massive earthen dam, the remains of which are still known as "nimrod's dam", was thrown across the tigris above the point where it entered its delta; this served to turn the river over hard conglomerate rock and kept it at a high level so that it could irrigate the country on both banks. above the dam were the heads of the later nahrwân canal, a great stream ft. wide and ft. deep, which supplied the country east of the river. the nâr sharri or "king's canal", the nahar malkha of the greeks and the nahr el-malik of the arabs, protected the right bank of the tigris by its own high artificial banks, which can still be traced for hundreds of miles; but it took its supply from the euphrates at sippar, where the ground is some ft. higher than on the tigris. the tigris usually flooded its left bank; it was the right bank which was protected, and a breach here meant disaster. cf. willcocks, op. cit., and _the near east_, sept. , (vol. xi, no. ), p. . it was only by constant and unremitting attention that disaster from flood could be averted; and the difficulties of the problem were and are increased by the fact that the flood-water of the mesopotamian rivers contains five times as much sediment as the nile. in fact, one of the most pressing of the problems the sumerian and early babylonian engineers had to solve was the keeping of the canals free from silt.( ) what the floods, if left unchecked, may do in mesopotamia, is well illustrated by the decay of the ancient canal-system, which has been the immediate cause of the country's present state of sordid desolation. that the decay was gradual was not the fault of the rivers, but was due to the sound principles on which the old system of control had been evolved through many centuries of labour. at the time of the moslem conquest the system had already begun to fail. in the fifth century there had been bad floods; but worse came in a.d. , when both rivers burst their banks and played havoc with the dikes and embankments. it is related that the sassanian king parwiz, the contemporary of mohammed, crucified in one day forty canal-workers at a certain breach, and yet was unable to master the flood.( ) all repairs were suspended during the anarchy of the moslem invasion. as a consequence the tigris left its old bed for the shatt el-hai at kût, and pouring its own and its tributaries' waters into the euphrates formed the great euphrates swamp, two hundred miles long and fifty broad. but even then what was left of the old system was sufficient to support the splendour of the eastern caliphate. ( ) cf. _letters of hammurabi_, vol. iii, pp. xxxvi ff.; it was the duty of every village or town upon the banks of the main canals in babylonia to keep its own section clear of silt, and of course it was also responsible for its own smaller irrigation-channels. while the invention of the system of basin-irrigation was practically forced on egypt, the extraordinary fertility of babylonia was won in the teeth of nature by the system of perennial irrigation, or irrigation all the year round. in babylonia the water was led into small fields of two or three acres, while the nile valley was irrigated in great basins each containing some thirty to forty thousand acres. the babylonian method gives far more profitable results, and sir william willcocks points out that egypt to-day is gradually abandoning its own system and adopting that of its ancient rival; see _the near east_, sept. , , p. . ( ) see le strange, _the lands of the eastern caliphate_, p. . the second great blow to the system followed the mongol conquest, when the nahrwân canal, to the east of the tigris, had its head swept away by flood and the area it had irrigated became desert. then, in about the fifteenth century, the tigris returned to its old course; the shatt el-hai shrank, and much of the great swamp dried up into the desert it is to-day.( ) things became worse during the centuries of turkish misrule. but the silting up of the hillah, or main, branch of the euphrates about , and the transference of a great part of its stream into the hindîyah canal, caused even the turks to take action. they constructed the old hindîyah barrage in , but it gave way in and the state of things was even worse than before; for the hillah branch then dried entirely.( ) ( ) this illustrates the damage the tigris itself is capable of inflicting on the country. it may be added that sir william willcocks proposes to control the tigris floods by an escape into the tharthâr depression, a great salt pan at the tail of wadi tharthâr, which lies ft. below sea level and is ft. lower than the flood-level of the tigris some thirty-two miles away. the escape would leave the tigris to the s. of sâmarra, the proposed beled barrage being built below it and up-stream of "nimrod's dam". the tharthâr escape would drain into the euphrates, and the latter's habbânîyah escape would receive any surplus water from the tigris, a second barrage being thrown across the euphrates up-stream of fallûjah, where there is an outcrop of limestone near the head of the sakhlawîyah canal. the tharthâr depression, besides disposing of the tigris flood- water, would thus probably feed the euphrates; and a second barrage on the tigris, to be built at kût, would supply water to the shatt el-hai. when the country is freed from danger of flood, the baghdad railway could be run through the cultivated land instead of through the eastern desert; see willcocks, _the near east_, oct. , (vol. xi, no. ), p. f. ( ) it was then that sir william willcocks designed the new hindîyah barrage, which was completed in . the hindîyah branch, to-day the main stream of the euphrates, is the old low-lying pallacopas canal, which branched westward above babylon and discharged its waters into the western marshes. in antiquity the head of this branch had to be opened in high floods and then closed again immediately after the flood to keep the main stream full past babylon, which entailed the employment of an enormous number of men. alexander the great's first work in babylonia was cutting a new head for the pallacopas in solid ground, for hitherto it had been in sandy soil; and it was while reclaiming the marshes farther down-stream that he contracted the fever that killed him. from this brief sketch of progressive disaster during the later historical period, the inevitable effect of neglected silt and flood, it will be gathered that the two great rivers of mesopotamia present a very strong contrast to the nile. for during the same period of misgovernment and neglect in egypt the nile did not turn its valley and delta into a desert. on the tigris and euphrates, during ages when the earliest dwellers on their banks were struggling to make effective their first efforts at control, the waters must often have regained the upper hand. under such conditions the story of a great flood in the past would not be likely to die out in the future; the tradition would tend to gather illustrative detail suggested by later experience. our new text reveals the deluge tradition in mesopotamia at an early stage of its development, and incidentally shows us that there is no need to postulate for its origin any convulsion of nature or even a series of seismic shocks accompanied by cyclone in the persian gulf. if this had been the only version of the story that had come down to us, we should hardly have regarded it as a record of world-wide catastrophe. it is true the gods' intention is to destroy mankind, but the scene throughout is laid in southern babylonia. after seven days' storm, the sun comes out, and the vessel with the pious priest-king and his domestic animals on board grounds, apparently still in babylonia, and not on any distant mountain, such as mt. nisir or the great mass of ararat in armenia. these are obviously details which tellers of the story have added as it passed down to later generations. when it was carried still farther afield, into the area of the eastern mediterranean, it was again adapted to local conditions. thus apollodorus makes deucalion land upon parnassus,( ) and the pseudo-lucian relates how he founded the temple of derketo at hierapolis in syria beside the hole in the earth which swallowed up the flood.( ) to the sumerians who first told the story, the great flood appeared to have destroyed mankind, for southern babylonia was for them the world. later peoples who heard it have fitted the story to their own geographical horizon, and in all good faith and by a purely logical process the mountain-tops are represented as submerged, and the ship, or ark, or chest, is made to come to ground on the highest peak known to the story-teller and his hearers. but in its early sumerian form it is just a simple tradition of some great inundation, which overwhelmed the plain of southern babylonia and was peculiarly disastrous in its effects. and so its memory survived in the picture of ziusudu's solitary coracle upon the face of the waters, which, seen through the mists of the deluge tradition, has given us the noah's ark of our nursery days. ( ) hesiod is our earliest authority for the deucalion flood story. for its probable babylonian origin, cf. farnell, _greece and babylon_ ( ), p. . ( ) _de syria dea_, f. thus the babylonian, hebrew, and greek deluge stories resolve themselves, not into a nature myth, but into an early legend, which has the basis of historical fact in the euphrates valley. and it is probable that we may explain after a similar fashion the occurrence of tales of a like character at least in some other parts of the world. among races dwelling in low-lying or well-watered districts it would be surprising if we did not find independent stories of past floods from which few inhabitants of the land escaped. it is only in hilly countries such as palestine, where for the great part of the year water is scarce and precious, that we are forced to deduce borrowing; and there is no doubt that both the babylonian and the biblical stories have been responsible for some at any rate of the scattered tales. but there is no need to adopt the theory of a single source for all of them, whether in babylonia or, still less, in egypt.( ) ( ) this argument is taken from an article i published in professor headlam's _church quarterly review_, jan., , pp. ff., containing an account of dr. poebel's discovery. i should like to add, with regard to this reading of our new evidence, that i am very glad to know sir james frazer holds a very similar opinion. for, as you are doubtless all aware, sir james is at present collecting flood stories from all over the world, and is supplementing from a wider range the collections already made by lenormant, andree, winternitz, and gerland. when his work is complete it will be possible to conjecture with far greater confidence how particular traditions or groups of tradition arose, and to what extent transmission has taken place. meanwhile, in his recent huxley memorial lecture,( ) he has suggested a third possibility as to the way deluge stories may have arisen. ( ) sir j. g. frazer, _ancient stories of a great flood_ (the huxley memorial lecture, ), roy. anthrop. inst., . stated briefly, it is that a deluge story may arise as a popular explanation of some striking natural feature in a country, although to the scientific eye the feature in question is due to causes other than catastrophic flood. and he worked out the suggestion in the case of the greek traditions of a great deluge, associated with the names of deucalion and dardanus. deucalion's deluge, in its later forms at any rate, is obviously coloured by semitic tradition; but both greek stories, in their origin, sir james frazer would trace to local conditions--the one suggested by the gorge of tempe in thessaly, the other explaining the existence of the bosphorus and dardanelles. as he pointed out, they would be instances, not of genuine historical traditions, but of what sir james tyler calls "observation myths". a third story of a great flood, regarded in greek tradition as the earliest of the three, he would explain by an extraordinary inundation of the copaic lake in boeotia, which to this day is liable to great fluctuations of level. his new theory applies only to the other two traditions. for in them no historical kernel is presupposed, though gradual erosion by water is not excluded as a cause of the surface features which may have suggested the myths. this valuable theory thus opens up a third possibility for our analysis. it may also, of course, be used in combination, if in any particular instance we have reason to believe that transmission, in some vague form, may already have taken place. and it would with all deference suggest the possibility that, in view of other evidence, this may have occurred in the case of the greek traditions. with regard to the theory itself we may confidently expect that further examples will be found in its illustration and support. meanwhile in the new sumerian version i think we may conclude that we have recovered beyond any doubt the origin of the babylonian and hebrew traditions and of the large group of stories to which they in their turn have given rise. lecture iii -- creation and the dragon myth; and the problem of babylonian parallels in hebrew tradition in our discussion of the new sumerian version of the deluge story we came to the conclusion that it gave no support to any theory which would trace all such tales to a single origin, whether in egypt or in babylonia. in spite of strong astrological elements in both the egyptian and babylonian religious systems, we saw grounds for regarding the astrological tinge of much ancient mythology as a later embellishment and not as primitive material. and so far as our new version of the deluge story was concerned, it resolved itself into a legend, which had a basis of historical fact in the euphrates valley. it will be obvious that the same class of explanation cannot be applied to narratives of the creation of the world. for there we are dealing, not with legends, but with myths, that is, stories exclusively about the gods. but where an examination of their earlier forms is possible, it would seem to show that many of these tales also, in their origin, are not to be interpreted as nature myths, and that none arose as mere reflections of the solar system. in their more primitive and simpler aspects they seem in many cases to have been suggested by very human and terrestrial experience. to-day we will examine the egyptian, sumerian, and babylonian myths of creation, and, after we have noted the more striking features of our new material, we will consider the problem of foreign influences upon hebrew traditions concerning the origin and early history of the world. in egypt, as until recently in babylonia, we have to depend for our knowledge of creation myths on documents of a comparatively late period. moreover, egyptian religious literature as a whole is textually corrupt, and in consequence it is often difficult to determine the original significance of its allusions. thanks to the funerary inscriptions and that great body of magical formulae and ritual known as "the chapters of coming forth by day", we are very fully informed on the egyptian doctrines as to the future state of the dead. the egyptian's intense interest in his own remote future, amounting almost to an obsession, may perhaps in part account for the comparatively meagre space in the extant literature which is occupied by myths relating solely to the past. and it is significant that the one cycle of myth, of which we are fully informed in its latest stage of development, should be that which gave its sanction to the hope of a future existence for man. the fact that herodotus, though he claims a knowledge of the sufferings or "mysteries" of osiris, should deliberately refrain from describing them or from even uttering the name,( ) suggests that in his time at any rate some sections of the mythology had begun to acquire an esoteric character. there is no doubt that at all periods myth played an important part in the ritual of feast-days. but mythological references in the earlier texts are often obscure; and the late form in which a few of the stories have come to us is obviously artificial. the tradition, for example, which relates how mankind came from the tears which issued from ra's eye undoubtedly arose from a play upon words. ( ) herodotus, ii, . on the other hand, traces of myth, scattered in the religious literature of egypt, may perhaps in some measure betray their relative age by the conceptions of the universe which underlie them. the egyptian idea that the sky was a heavenly ocean, which is not unlike conceptions current among the semitic babylonians and hebrews, presupposes some thought and reflection. in egypt it may well have been evolved from the probably earlier but analogous idea of the river in heaven, which the sun traversed daily in his boats. such a river was clearly suggested by the nile; and its world-embracing character is reminiscent of a time when through communication was regularly established, at least as far south as elephantine. possibly in an earlier period the long narrow valley, or even a section of it, may have suggested the figure of a man lying prone upon his back. such was keb, the earth-god, whose counterpart in the sky was the goddess nut, her feet and hands resting at the limits of the world and her curved body forming the vault of heaven. perhaps still more primitive, and dating from a pastoral age, may be the notion that the sky was a great cow, her body, speckled with stars, alone visible from the earth beneath. reference has already been made to the dominant influence of the sun in egyptian religion, and it is not surprising that he should so often appear as the first of created beings. his orb itself, or later the god in youthful human form, might be pictured as emerging from a lotus on the primaeval waters, or from a marsh-bird's egg, a conception which influenced the later phoenician cosmogeny. the scarabaeus, or great dung-feeding beetle of egypt, rolling the ball before it in which it lays its eggs, is an obvious theme for the early myth-maker. and it was natural that the beetle of khepera should have been identified with the sun at his rising, as the hawk of ra represented his noonday flight, and the aged form of attun his setting in the west. but in all these varied conceptions and explanations of the universe it is difficult to determine how far the poetical imagery of later periods has transformed the original myths which may lie behind them. as the egyptian creator the claims of ra, the sun-god of heliopolis, early superseded those of other deities. on the other hand, ptah of memphis, who for long ages had been merely the god of architects and craftsmen, became under the empire the architect of the universe and is pictured as a potter moulding the world-egg. a short poem by a priest of ptah, which has come down to us from that period, exhibits an attempt to develop this idea on philosophical lines.( ) its author represents all gods and living creatures as proceeding directly from the mind and thought of ptah. but this movement, which was more notably reflected in akhenaton's religious revolution, died out in political disaster, and the original materialistic interpretation of the myths was restored with the cult of amen. how materialistic this could be is well illustrated by two earlier members of the xviiith dynasty, who have left us vivid representations of the potter's wheel employed in the process of man's creation. when the famous hatshepsut, after the return of her expedition to punt in the ninth year of her young consort thothmes iii, decided to build her temple at deir el-bahari in the necropolis of western thebes, she sought to emphasize her claim to the throne of egypt by recording her own divine origin upon its walls. we have already noted the egyptians' belief in the solar parentage of their legitimate rulers, a myth that goes back at least to the old kingdom and may have had its origin in prehistoric times. with the rise of thebes, amen inherited the prerogatives of ra; and so hatshepsut seeks to show, on the north side of the retaining wall of her temple's upper platform, that she was the daughter of amen himself, "the great god, lord of the sky, lord of the thrones of the two lands, who resides at thebes". the myth was no invention of her own, for obviously it must have followed traditional lines, and though it is only employed to exhibit the divine creation of a single personage, it as obviously reflects the procedure and methods of a general creation myth. ( ) see breasted, _zeitschrift fur aegyptische sprache_, xxxix, pp. ff., and _history of egypt_, pp. ff. this series of sculptures shared the deliberate mutilation that all her records suffered at the hands of thothmes iii after her death, but enough of the scenes and their accompanying text has survived to render the detailed interpretation of the myth quite certain.( ) here, as in a general creation myth, amen's first act is to summon the great gods in council, in order to announce to them the future birth of the great princess. of the twelve gods who attend, the first is menthu, a form of the sun-god and closely associated with amen.( ) but the second deity is atum, the great god of heliopolis, and he is followed by his cycle of deities--shu, "the son of ra"; tefnut, "the lady of the sky"; keb, "the father of the gods"; nut, "the mother of the gods"; osiris, isis, nephthys, set, horus, and hathor. we are here in the presence of cosmic deities, as befits a projected act of creation. the subsequent scenes exhibit the egyptian's literal interpretation of the myth, which necessitates the god's bodily presence and personal participation. thoth mentions to amen the name of queen aahmes as the future mother of hatshepsut, and we later see amen himself, in the form of her husband, aa-kheperka-ra (thothmes i), sitting with aahmes and giving her the ankh, or sign of life, which she receives in her hand and inhales through her nostrils.( ) god and queen are seated on thrones above a couch, and are supported by two goddesses. after leaving the queen, amen calls on khnum or khnemu, the flat-horned ram-god, who in texts of all periods is referred to as the "builder" of gods and men;( ) and he instructs him to create the body of his future daughter and that of her _ka_, or "double", which would be united to her from birth. ( ) see naville, _deir el-bahari_, pt. ii, pp. ff., plates xlvi ff. ( ) see budge, _gods of the egyptians_, vol. ii, pp. ff. his chief cult-centre was hermonthis, but here as elsewhere he is given his usual title "lord of thebes". ( ) pl. xlvii. similar scenes are presented in the "birth- temples" at denderah, edfu, philae, esneh, and luxor; see naville, op. cit., p. . ( ) cf. budge, op. cit., vol. ii, p. . the scene in the series, which is of greatest interest in the present connexion, is that representing khnum at his work of creation. he is seated before a potter's wheel which he works with his foot,( ) and on the revolving table he is fashioning two children with his hands, the baby princess and her "double". it was always hatshepsut's desire to be represented as a man, and so both the children are boys.( ) as yet they are lifeless, but the symbol of life will be held to their nostrils by heqet, the divine potter's wife, whose frog-head typifies birth and fertility. when amenophis iii copied hatshepsut's sculptures for his own series at luxor, he assigned this duty to the greater goddess hathor, perhaps the most powerful of the cosmic goddesses and the mother of the world. the subsequent scenes at deir el-bahari include the leading of queen aahmes by khnum and heqet to the birth-chamber; the great birth scene where the queen is attended by the goddesses nephthys and isis, a number of divine nurses and midwives holding several of the "doubles" of the baby, and favourable genii, in human form or with the heads of crocodiles, jackals, and hawks, representing the four cardinal points and all bearing the gift of life; the presentation of the young child by the goddess hathor to amen, who is well pleased at the sight of his daughter; and the divine suckling of hatshepsut and her "doubles". but these episodes do not concern us, as of course they merely reflect the procedure following a royal birth. but khnum's part in the princess's origin stands on a different plane, for it illustrates the egyptian myth of creation by the divine potter, who may take the form of either khnum or ptah. monsieur naville points out the extraordinary resemblance in detail which hatshepsut's myth of divine paternity bears to the greek legend of zeus and alkmene, where the god takes the form of amphitryon, alkmene's husband, exactly as amen appears to the queen;( ) and it may be added that the egyptian origin of the greek story was traditionally recognized in the ancestry ascribed to the human couple.( ) ( ) this detail is not clearly preserved at deir el-bahari; but it is quite clear in the scene on the west wall of the "birth-room" in the temple at luxor, which amenophis iii evidently copied from that of hatshepsut. ( ) in the similar scene at luxor, where the future amenophis iii is represented on the creator's wheel, the sculptor has distinguished the human child from its spiritual "double" by the quaint device of putting its finger in its mouth. ( ) see naville, op. cit., p. . ( ) cf., e.g., herodotus, ii, . the only complete egyptian creation myth yet recovered is preserved in a late papyrus in the british museum, which was published some years ago by dr. budge.( ) it occurs under two separate versions embedded in "the book of the overthrowing of apep, the enemy of ra". here ra, who utters the myth under his late title of neb-er-tcher, "lord to the utmost limit", is self-created as khepera from nu, the primaeval water; and then follow successive generations of divine pairs, male and female, such as we find at the beginning of the semitic-babylonian creation series.( ) though the papyrus was written as late as the year b.c., the myth is undoubtedly early. for the first two divine pairs shu and tefnut, keb and nut, and four of the latter pairs' five children, osiris and isis, set and nephthys, form with the sun-god himself the greater ennead of heliopolis, which exerted so wide an influence on egyptian religious speculation. the ennead combined the older solar elements with the cult of osiris, and this is indicated in the myth by a break in the successive generations, nut bringing forth at a single birth the five chief gods of the osiris cycle, osiris himself and his son horus, with set, isis, and nephthys. thus we may see in the myth an early example of that religious syncretism which is so characteristic of later egyptian belief. ( ) see _archaeologia_, vol. lii ( ). dr. budge published a new edition of the whole papyrus in _egyptian hieratic papyri in the british museum_ ( ), and the two versions of the creation myth are given together in his _gods of the egyptians_, vol. i ( ), chap. viii, pp. ff., and more recently in his _egyptian literature_, vol. i, "legends of the gods" ( ), pp. ff. an account of the papyrus is included in the introduction to "legends of the gods", pp. xiii ff. ( ) in _gods of the egyptians_, vol. i, chap. vii, pp. ff., dr. budge gives a detailed comparison of the egyptian pairs of primaeval deities with the very similar couples of the babylonian myth. the only parallel this egyptian myth of creation presents to the hebrew cosmogony is in its picture of the primaeval water, corresponding to the watery chaos of genesis i. but the resemblance is of a very general character, and includes no etymological equivalence such as we find when we compare the hebrew account with the principal semitic-babylonian creation narrative.( ) the application of the ankh, the egyptian sign for life, to the nostrils of a newly-created being is no true parallel to the breathing into man's nostrils of the breath of life in the earlier hebrew version,( ) except in the sense that each process was suggested by our common human anatomy. we should naturally expect to find some hebrew parallel to the egyptian idea of creation as the work of a potter with his clay, for that figure appears in most ancient mythologies. the hebrews indeed used the conception as a metaphor or parable,( ) and it also underlies their earlier picture of man's creation. i have not touched on the grosser egyptian conceptions concerning the origin of the universe, which we may probably connect with african ideas; but those i have referred to will serve to demonstrate the complete absence of any feature that presents a detailed resemblance of the hebrew tradition. ( ) for the wide diffusion, in the myths of remote peoples, of a vague theory that would trace all created things to a watery origin, see farnell, _greece and babylon_, p. . ( ) gen. ii. (j). ( ) cf., e.g., isaiah xxix. , xlv. ; and jeremiah xviii. f. when we turn to babylonia, we find there also evidence of conflicting ideas, the product of different and to some extent competing religious centres. but in contrast to the rather confused condition of egyptian mythology, the semitic creation myth of the city of babylon, thanks to the latter's continued political ascendancy, succeeded in winning a dominant place in the national literature. this is the version in which so many points of resemblance to the first chapter of genesis have long been recognized, especially in the succession of creative acts and their relative order. in the semitic-babylonian version the creation of the world is represented as the result of conflict, the emergence of order out of chaos, a result that is only attained by the personal triumph of the creator. but this underlying dualism does not appear in the more primitive sumerian version we have now recovered. it will be remembered that in the second lecture i gave some account of the myth, which occurs in an epitomized form as an introduction to the sumerian version of the deluge, the two narratives being recorded in the same document and connected with one another by a description of the antediluvian cities. we there saw that creation is ascribed to the three greatest gods of the sumerian pantheon, anu, enlil, and enki, assisted by the goddess ninkharsagga. it is significant that in the sumerian version no less than four deities are represented as taking part in the creation. for in this we may see some indication of the period to which its composition must be assigned. their association in the text suggests that the claims of local gods had already begun to compete with one another as a result of political combination between the cities of their cults. to the same general period we must also assign the compilation of the sumerian dynastic record, for that presupposes the existence of a supreme ruler among the sumerian city-states. this form of political constitution must undoubtedly have been the result of a long process of development, and the fact that its existence should be regarded as dating from the creation of the world indicates a comparatively developed stage of the tradition. but behind the combination of cities and their gods we may conjecturally trace anterior stages of development, when each local deity and his human representative seemed to their own adherents the sole objects for worship and allegiance. and even after the demands of other centres had been conceded, no deity ever quite gave up his local claims. enlil, the second of the four sumerian creating deities, eventually ousted his rivals. it has indeed long been recognized that the _rôle_ played by marduk in the babylonian version of creation had been borrowed from enlil of nippur; and in the atrakhasis legend enlil himself appears as the ultimate ruler of the world and the other gods figure as "his sons". anu, who heads the list and plays with enlil the leading part in the sumerian narrative, was clearly his chief rival. and though we possess no detailed account of anu's creative work, the persistent ascription to him of the creation of heaven, and his familiar title, "the father of the gods", suggest that he once possessed a corresponding body of myth in eanna, his temple at erech. enki, the third of the creating gods, was naturally credited, as god of wisdom, with special creative activities, and fortunately in his case we have some independent evidence of the varied forms these could assume. according to one tradition that has come down to us,( ) after anu had made the heavens, enki created apsû or the deep, his own dwelling-place. then taking from it a piece of clay( ) he proceeded to create the brick-god, and reeds and forests for the supply of building material. from the same clay he continued to form other deities and materials, including the carpenter-god; the smith-god; arazu, a patron deity of building; and mountains and seas for all that they produced; the goldsmith-god, the stone-cutter-god, and kindred deities, together with their rich products for offerings; the grain-deities, ashnan and lakhar; siris, a wine-god; ningishzida and ninsar, a garden-god, for the sake of the rich offerings they could make; and a deity described as "the high priest of the great gods," to lay down necessary ordinances and commands. then he created "the king", for the equipment probably of a particular temple, and finally men, that they might practise the cult in the temple so elaborately prepared. ( ) see weissbach, _babylonische miscellen_, pp. ff. ( ) one of the titles of enki was "the potter"; cf. _cun. texts_ in the brit. mus., pt. xxiv, pl. f., ll. , . it will be seen from this summary of enki's creative activities, that the text from which it is taken is not a general creation myth, but in all probability the introductory paragraph of a composition which celebrated the building or restoration of a particular temple; and the latter's foundation is represented, on henotheistic lines, as the main object of creation. composed with that special purpose, its narrative is not to be regarded as an exhaustive account of the creation of the world. the incidents are eclective, and only such gods and materials are mentioned as would have been required for the building and adornment of the temple and for the provision of its offerings and cult. but even so its mythological background is instructive. for while anu's creation of heaven is postulated as the necessary precedent of enki's activities, the latter creates the deep, vegetation, mountains, seas, and mankind. moreover, in his character as god of wisdom, he is not only the teacher but the creator of those deities who were patrons of man's own constructive work. from such evidence we may infer that in his temple at eridu, now covered by the mounds of abu shahrain in the extreme south of babylonia, and regarded in early sumerian tradition as the first city in the world, enki himself was once celebrated as the sole creator of the universe. the combination of the three gods anu, enlil, and enki, is persistent in the tradition; for not only were they the great gods of the universe, representing respectively heaven, earth, and the watery abyss, but they later shared the heavenly sphere between them. it is in their astrological character that we find them again in creative activity, though without the co-operation of any goddess, when they appear as creators of the great light-gods and as founders of time divisions, the day and the month. this sumerian myth, though it reaches us only in an extract or summary in a neo-babylonian schoolboy's exercise,( ) may well date from a comparatively early period, but probably from a time when the "ways" of anu, enlil, and enki had already been fixed in heaven and their later astrological characters had crystallized. ( ) see _the seven tablets of creation_, vol. i, pp. ff. the tablet gives extracts from two very similar sumerian and semitic texts. in both of them anu, enlil, and enki appear as creators "through their sure counsel". in the sumerian extract they create the moon and ordain its monthly course, while in the semitic text, after establishing heaven and earth, they create in addition to the new moon the bright day, so that "men beheld the sun-god in the gate of his going forth". the idea that a goddess should take part with a god in man's creation is already a familiar feature of babylonian mythology. thus the goddess aruru, in co-operation with marduk, might be credited with the creation of the human race,( ) as she might also be pictured creating on her own initiative an individual hero such as enkidu of the gilgamesh epic. the _rôle_ of mother of mankind was also shared, as we have seen, by the semitic ishtar. and though the old sumerian goddess, ninkharsagga, the "lady of the mountains", appears in our sumerian text for the first time in the character of creatress, some of the titles we know she enjoyed, under her synonyms in the great god list of babylonia, already reflected her cosmic activities.( ) for she was known as "the builder of that which has breath", "the carpenter of mankind", "the carpenter of the heart", "the coppersmith of the gods", "the coppersmith of the land", and "the lady potter". ( ) op. cit., p. f. ( ) cf. _cun. texts in the brit. mus._, pt. xxiv, pl. , ll. , , , , , , and poebel, _hist. texts_, p. . in the myth we are not told her method of creation, but from the above titles it is clear that in her own cycle of tradition ninkhasagga was conceived as fashioning men not only from clay but also from wood, and perhaps as employing metal for the manufacture of her other works of creation. moreover, in the great god list, where she is referred to under her title makh, ninkhasagga is associated with anu, enlil, and enki; she there appears, with her dependent deities, after enlil and before enki. we thus have definite proof that her association with the three chief sumerian gods was widely recognized in the early sumerian period and dictated her position in the classified pantheon of babylonia. apart from this evidence, the important rank assigned her in the historical and legal records and in votive inscriptions,( ) especially in the early period and in southern babylonia, accords fully with the part she here plays in the sumerian creation myth. eannatum and gudea of lagash both place her immediately after anu and enlil, giving her precedence over enki; and even in the kassite kudurru inscriptions of the thirteenth and twelfth centuries, where she is referred to, she takes rank after enki and before the other gods. in sumer she was known as "the mother of the gods", and she was credited with the power of transferring the kingdom and royal insignia from one king to his successor. ( ) see especially, poebel, op. cit., pp. ff. her supreme position as a goddess is attested by the relative insignificance of her husband dunpae, whom she completely overshadows, in which respect she presents a contrast to the goddess ninlil, enlil's female counterpart. the early clay figurines found at nippur and on other sites, representing a goddess suckling a child and clasping one of her breasts, may well be regarded as representing ninkharsagga and not ninlil. her sanctuaries were at kesh and adab, both in the south, and this fact sufficiently explains her comparative want of influence in akkad, where the semitic ishtar took her place. she does indeed appear in the north during the sargonic period under her own name, though later she survives in her synonyms of ninmakh, "the sublime lady", and nintu, "the lady of child-bearing". it is under the latter title that hammurabi refers to her in his code of laws, where she is tenth in a series of eleven deities. but as goddess of birth she retained only a pale reflection of her original cosmic character, and her functions were gradually specialized.( ) ( ) cf. poebel, op. cit., p. . it is possible that, under one of her later synonyms, we should identify her, as dr. poebel suggests, with the mylitta of herodotus. from a consideration of their characters, as revealed by independent sources of evidence, we thus obtain the reason for the co-operation of four deities in the sumerian creation. in fact the new text illustrates a well-known principle in the development of myth, the reconciliation of the rival claims of deities, whose cults, once isolated, had been brought from political causes into contact with each other. in this aspect myth is the medium through which a working pantheon is evolved. naturally all the deities concerned cannot continue to play their original parts in detail. in the babylonian epic of creation, where a single deity, and not a very prominent one, was to be raised to pre-eminent rank, the problem was simple enough. he could retain his own qualities and achievements while borrowing those of any former rival. in the sumerian text we have the result of a far more delicate process of adjustment, and it is possible that the brevity of the text is here not entirely due to compression of a longer narrative, but may in part be regarded as evidence of early combination. as a result of the association of several competing deities in the work of creation, a tendency may be traced to avoid discrimination between rival claims. thus it is that the assembled gods, the pantheon as a whole, are regarded as collectively responsible for the creation of the universe. it may be added that this use of _ilâni_, "the gods", forms an interesting linguistic parallel to the plural of the hebrew divine title elohim. it will be remembered that in the sumerian version the account of creation is not given in full, only such episodes being included as were directly related to the deluge story. no doubt the selection of men and animals was suggested by their subsequent rescue from the flood; and emphasis was purposely laid on the creation of the _niggilma_ because of the part it played in securing mankind's survival. even so, we noted one striking parallel between the sumerian version and that of the semitic babylonians, in the reason both give for man's creation. but in the former there is no attempt to explain how the universe itself had come into being, and the existence of the earth is presupposed at the moment when anu, enlil, enki, and ninkharsagga undertake the creation of man. the semitic-babylonian version, on the other hand, is mainly occupied with events that led up to the acts of creation, and it concerns our problem to inquire how far those episodes were of semitic and how far of sumerian origin. a further question arises as to whether some strands of the narrative may not at one time have existed in sumerian form independently of the creation myth. the statement is sometimes made that there is no reason to assume a sumerian original for the semitic-babylonian version, as recorded on "the seven tablets of creation";( ) and this remark, though true of that version as a whole, needs some qualification. the composite nature of the poem has long been recognized, and an analysis of the text has shown that no less than five principal strands have been combined for its formation. these consist of (i) the birth of the gods; (ii) the legend of ea and apsû; (iii) the principal dragon myth; (iv) the actual account of creation; and (v) the hymn to marduk under his fifty titles.( ) the assyrian commentaries to the hymn, from which considerable portions of its text are restored, quote throughout a sumerian original, and explain it word for word by the phrases of the semitic version;( ) so that for one out of the seven tablets a semitic origin is at once disproved. moreover, the majority of the fifty titles, even in the forms in which they have reached us in the semitic text, are demonstrably sumerian, and since many of them celebrate details of their owner's creative work, a sumerian original for other parts of the version is implied. enlil and ea are both represented as bestowing their own names upon marduk,( ) and we may assume that many of the fifty titles were originally borne by enlil as a sumerian creator.( ) thus some portions of the actual account of creation were probably derived from a sumerian original in which "father enlil" figured as the hero. ( ) cf., e.g., jastrow, _journ. of the amer. or. soc._, vol. xxxvi ( ), p. . ( ) see _the seven tablets of creation_, vol. i, pp. lxvi ff.; and cf. skinner, _genesis_, pp. ff. ( ) cf. _sev. tabl._, vol. i, pp. ff. ( ) cf. tabl. vii, ll. ff. ( ) the number fifty was suggested by an ideogram employed for enlil's name. for what then were the semitic babylonians themselves responsible? it seems to me that, in the "seven tablets", we may credit them with considerable ingenuity in the combination of existing myths, but not with their invention. the whole poem in its present form is a glorification of marduk, the god of babylon, who is to be given pre-eminent rank among the gods to correspond with the political position recently attained by his city. it would have been quite out of keeping with the national thought to make a break in the tradition, and such a course would not have served the purpose of the babylonian priesthood, which was to obtain recognition of their claims by the older cult-centres in the country. hence they chose and combined the more important existing myths, only making such alterations as would fit them to their new hero. babylon herself had won her position by her own exertions; and it would be a natural idea to give marduk his opportunity of becoming creator of the world as the result of successful conflict. a combination of the dragon myth with the myth of creation would have admirably served their purpose; and this is what we find in the semitic poem. but even that combination may not have been their own invention; for, though, as we shall see, the idea of conflict had no part in the earlier forms of the sumerian creation myth, its combination with the dragon _motif_ may have characterized the local sumerian version of nippur. how mechanical was the babylonian redactors' method of glorifying marduk is seen in their use of the description of tiamat and her monster brood, whom marduk is made to conquer. to impress the hearers of the poem with his prowess, this is repeated at length no less than four times, one god carrying the news of her revolt to another. direct proof of the manner in which the later redactors have been obliged to modify the original sumerian creation myth, in consequence of their incorporation of other elements, may be seen in the sixth tablet of the poem, where marduk states the reason for man's creation. in the second lecture we noted how the very words of the principal sumerian creator were put into marduk's mouth; but the rest of the semitic god's speech finds no equivalent in the sumerian version and was evidently inserted in order to reconcile the narrative with its later ingredients. this will best be seen by printing the two passages in parallel columns:( ) ( ) the extract from the sumerian version, which occurs in the lower part of the first column, is here compared with the semitic-babylonian creation series, tablet vi, ll. - (see _seven tablets_, vol. i, pp. ff.). the comparison is justified whether we regard the sumerian speech as a direct preliminary to man's creation, or as a reassertion of his duty after his rescue from destruction by the flood. sumerian version semitic version "the people will i cause to . . . "i will make man, that man may in their settlements, (. . .). cities . . . shall (man) build, i will create man who shall in their protection will i cause inhabit (. . .), him to rest, that he may lay the brick of our that the service of the gods may house in a clean spot, be established, and that (their) shrines (may be built). that in a clean spot he may but i will alter the ways of the establish our . . . !" gods, and i will change (their paths); together shall they be oppressed, and unto evil shall (they . . .)!" the welding of incongruous elements is very apparent in the semitic version. for the statement that man will be created in order that the gods may have worshippers is at once followed by the announcement that the gods themselves must be punished and their "ways" changed. in the sumerian version the gods are united and all are naturally regarded as worthy of man's worship. the sumerian creator makes no distinctions; he refers to "our houses", or temples, that shall be established. but in the later version divine conflict has been introduced, and the future head of the pantheon has conquered and humiliated the revolting deities. their "ways" must therefore be altered before they are fit to receive the worship which was accorded them by right in the simpler sumerian tradition. in spite of the epitomized character of the sumerian version, a comparison of these passages suggests very forcibly that the semitic-babylonian myth of creation is based upon a simpler sumerian story, which has been elaborated to reconcile it with the dragon myth. the semitic poem itself also supplies evidence of the independent existence of the dragon myth apart from the process of creation, for the story of ea and apsû, which it incorporates, is merely the local dragon myth of eridu. its inclusion in the story is again simply a tribute to marduk; for though ea, now become marduk's father, could conquer apsû, he was afraid of tiamat, "and turned back".( ) the original eridu myth no doubt represented enki as conquering the watery abyss, which became his home; but there is nothing to connect this tradition with his early creative activities. we have long possessed part of another local version of the dragon myth, which describes the conquest of a dragon by some deity other than marduk; and the fight is there described as taking place, not before creation, but at a time when men existed and cities had been built.( ) men and gods were equally terrified at the monster's appearance, and it was to deliver the land from his clutches that one of the gods went out and slew him. tradition delighted to dwell on the dragon's enormous size and terrible appearance. in this version he is described as fifty _bêru_( ) in length and one in height; his mouth measured six cubits and the circuit of his ears twelve; he dragged himself along in the water, which he lashed with his tail; and, when slain, his blood flowed for three years, three months, a day and a night. from this description we can see he was given the body of an enormous serpent.( ) ( ) tabl. iii, l. , &c. in the story of bel and the dragon, the third of the apocryphal additions to daniel, we have direct evidence of the late survival of the dragon _motif_ apart from any trace of the creation myth; in this connexion see charles, _apocrypha and pseudopigrapha_, vol. i ( ), p. f. ( ) see _seven tablets_, vol. i, pp. ff., lxviii f. the text is preserved on an assyrian tablet made for the library of ashur-bani-pal. ( ) the _bêru_ was the space that could be covered in two hours' travelling. ( ) the babylonian dragon has progeny in the later apocalyptic literature, where we find very similar descriptions of the creatures' size. among them we may perhaps include the dragon in the apocalypse of baruch, who, according to the slavonic version, apparently every day drinks a cubit's depth from the sea, and yet the sea does not sink because of the three hundred and sixty rivers that flow into it (cf. james, "apocrypha anecdota", second series, in armitage robinson's _texts and studies_, v, no. , pp. lix ff.). but egypt's dragon _motif_ was even more prolific, and the _pistis sophia_ undoubtedly suggested descriptions of the serpent, especially in connexion with hades. a further version of the dragon myth has now been identified on one of the tablets recovered during the recent excavations at ashur,( ) and in it the dragon is not entirely of serpent form, but is a true dragon with legs. like the one just described, he is a male monster. the description occurs as part of a myth, of which the text is so badly preserved that only the contents of one column can be made out with any certainty. in it a god, whose name is wanting, announces the presence of the dragon: "in the water he lies and i (. . .)!" thereupon a second god cries successively to aruru, the mother-goddess, and to pallil, another deity, for help in his predicament. and then follows the description of the dragon: in the sea was the serpent cre(ated). sixty _bêru_ is his length; thirty _bêru_ high is his he(ad).( ) for half (a _bêru_) each stretches the surface of his ey(es);( ) for twenty _bêru_ go (his feet).( ) he devours fish, the creatures (of the sea), he devours birds, the creatures (of the heaven), he devours wild asses, the creatures (of the field), he devours men,( ) to the peoples (he . . .). ( ) for the text, see ebeling, _assurtexte_ i, no. ; it is translated by him in _orient. lit.-zeit._, vol. xix, no. (april, ). ( ) the line reads: _ bêru �a-ka-a ri-(�a-a-�u)_. dr. ebeling renders _ri-�a-a_ as "heads" (köpfe), implying that the dragon had more than one head. it may be pointed out that, if we could accept this translation, we should have an interesting parallel to the description of some of the primaeval monsters, preserved from berossus, as {soma men ekhontas en, kephalas de duo}. but the common word for "head" is _kakkadu_, and there can be little doubt that _rî�â_ is here used in its ordinary sense of "head, summit, top" when applied to a high building. ( ) the line reads: _a-na / ta-am la-bu-na li-bit ên(a- �u)_. dr. ebeling translates, "auf je eine hälfte ist ein ziegel (ihrer) auge(n) gelegt". but _libittu_ is clearly used here, not with its ordinary meaning of "brick", which yields a strange rendering, but in its special sense, when applied to large buildings, of "foundation, floor-space, area", i.e. "surface". dr. ebeling reads _ênâ-�u_ at the end of the line, but the sign is broken; perhaps the traces may prove to be those of _uznâ �u_, "his ears", in which case _li-bit uz(nâ-�u)_ might be rendered either as "surface of his ears", or as "base (lit. foundation) of his ears". ( ) i.e. the length of his pace was twenty _bêru_. ( ) lit. "the black-headed". the text here breaks off, at the moment when pallil, whose help against the dragon had been invoked, begins to speak. let us hope we shall recover the continuation of the narrative and learn what became of this carnivorous monster. there are ample grounds, then, for assuming the independent existence of the babylonian dragon-myth, and though both the versions recovered have come to us in semitic form, there is no doubt that the myth itself existed among the sumerians. the dragon _motif_ is constantly recurring in descriptions of sumerian temple-decoration, and the twin dragons of ningishzida on gudea's libation-vase, carved in green steatite and inlaid with shell, are a notable product of sumerian art.( ) the very names borne by tiamat's brood of monsters in the "seven tablets" are stamped in most cases with their sumerian descent, and kingu, whom she appointed as her champion in place of apsû, is equally sumerian. it would be strange indeed if the sumerians had not evolved a dragon myth,( ) for the dragon combat is the most obvious of nature myths and is found in most mythologies of europe and the near east. the trailing storm-clouds suggest his serpent form, his fiery tongue is seen in the forked lightning, and, though he may darken the world for a time, the sun-god will always be victorious. in egypt the myth of "the overthrowing of apep, the enemy of ra" presents a close parallel to that of tiamat;( ) but of all eastern mythologies that of the chinese has inspired in art the most beautiful treatment of the dragon, who, however, under his varied forms was for them essentially beneficent. doubtless the semites of babylonia had their own versions of the dragon combat, both before and after their arrival on the euphrates, but the particular version which the priests of babylon wove into their epic is not one of them. ( ) see e. de sarzec, _découvertes en chaldée_, pl. xliv, fig. , and heuzey, _catalogue des antiquités chaldéennes_, p. . ( ) in his very interesting study of "sumerian and akkadian views of beginnings", contributed to the _journ. of the amer. or. soc._, vol. xxxvi ( ), pp. ff., professor jastrow suggests that the dragon combat in the semitic- babylonian creation poem is of semitic not sumerian origin. he does not examine the evidence of the poem itself in detail, but bases the suggestion mainly on the two hypotheses, that the dragon combat of the poem was suggested by the winter storms and floods of the euphrates valley, and that the sumerians came from a mountain region where water was not plentiful. if we grant both assumptions, the suggested conclusion does not seem to me necessarily to follow, in view of the evidence we now possess as to the remote date of the sumerian settlement in the euphrates valley. some evidence may still be held to point to a mountain home for the proto-sumerians, such as the name of their early goddess ninkharsagga, "the lady of the mountains". but, as we must now regard babylonia itself as the cradle of their civilization, other data tend to lose something of their apparent significance. it is true that the same sumerian sign means "land" and "mountain"; but it may have been difficult to obtain an intelligible profile for "land" without adopting a mountain form. such a name as ekur, the "mountain house" of nippur, may perhaps indicate size, not origin; and enki's association with metal-working may be merely due to his character as god of wisdom, and is not appropriate solely "to a god whose home is in the mountains where metals are found" (op. cit., p. ). it should be added that professor jastrow's theory of the dragon combat is bound up with his view of the origin of an interesting sumerian "myth of beginnings", to which reference is made later. ( ) cf. budge, _gods of the egyptians_, vol. i, pp. ff. the inclusion of the two versions of the egyptian creation myth, recording the birth of the gods in the "book of overthrowing apep", does not present a very close parallel to the combination of creation and dragon myths in the semitic-babylonian poem, for in the egyptian work the two myths are not really combined, the creation versions being inserted in the middle of the spells against apep, without any attempt at assimilation (see budge, _egyptian literature_, vol. i, p. xvi). we have thus traced four out of the five strands which form the semitic-babylonian poem of creation to a sumerian ancestry. and we now come back to the first of the strands, the birth of the gods, from which our discussion started. for if this too should prove to be sumerian, it would help to fill in the gap in our sumerian creation myth, and might furnish us with some idea of the sumerian view of "beginnings", which preceded the acts of creation by the great gods. it will be remembered that the poem opens with the description of a time when heaven and earth did not exist, no field or marsh even had been created, and the universe consisted only of the primaeval water-gods, apsû, mummu, and tiamat, whose waters were mingled together. then follows the successive generation of two pairs of deities, lakhmu and lakhamu, and anshar and kishar, long ages separating the two generations from each other and from the birth of the great gods which subsequently takes place. in the summary of the myth which is given by damascius( ) the names of the various deities accurately correspond to those in the opening lines of the poem; but he makes some notable additions, as will be seen from the following table: damascus "seven tablets" i {'apason---tauthe} apsû---tiamat | {moumis} mummu {lakhos---lakhe}( ) lakhmu---lakhamu {'assoros---kissare} anshar---kishar {'anos, 'illinos, 'aos} anu, ( ), nudimmud (= ea) {'aos---dauke} | {belos} ( ) _quaestiones de primis principiis_, cap. ; ed. kopp, p. . ( ) emended from the reading {dakhen kai dakhon} of the text. in the passage of the poem which describes the birth of the great gods after the last pair of primaeval deities, mention is duly made of anu and nudimmud (the latter a title of ea), corresponding to the {'anos} and {'aos} of damascius; and there appears to be no reference to enlil, the original of {'illinos}. it is just possible that his name occurred at the end of one of the broken lines, and, if so, we should have a complete parallel to damascius. but the traces are not in favour of the restoration;( ) and the omission of enlil's name from this part of the poem may be readily explained as a further tribute to marduk, who definitely usurps his place throughout the subsequent narrative. anu and ea had both to be mentioned because of the parts they play in the epic, but enlil's only recorded appearance is in the final assembly of the gods, where he bestows his own name "the lord of the world"( ) upon marduk. the evidence of damascius suggests that enlil's name was here retained, between those of anu and ea, in other versions of the poem. but the occurrence of the name in any version is in itself evidence of the antiquity of this strand of the narrative. it is a legitimate inference that the myth of the birth of the gods goes back to a time at least before the rise of babylon, and is presumably of sumerian origin. ( ) anu and nudimmud are each mentioned for the first time at the beginning of a line, and the three lines following the reference to nudimmud are entirely occupied with descriptions of his wisdom and power. it is also probable that the three preceding lines (ll. - ), all of which refer to anu by name, were entirely occupied with his description. but it is only in ll. - that any reference to enlil can have occurred, and the traces preserved of their second halves do not suggestion the restoration. ( ) cf. tabl. vii, . . further evidence of this may be seen in the fact that anu, enlil, and ea (i.e. enki), who are here created together, are the three great gods of the sumerian version of creation; it is they who create mankind with the help of the goddess ninkharsagga, and in the fuller version of that myth we should naturally expect to find some account of their own origin. the reference in damascius to marduk ({belos}) as the son of ea and damkina ({dauke}) is also of interest in this connexion, as it exhibits a goddess in close connexion with one of the three great gods, much as we find ninkharsagga associated with them in the sumerian version.( ) before leaving the names, it may be added that, of the primaeval deities, anshar and kishar are obviously sumerian in form. ( ) damkina was the later wife of ea or enki; and ninkharsagga is associated with enki, as his consort, in another sumerian myth. it may be noted that the character of apsû and tiamat in this portion of the poem( ) is quite at variance with their later actions. their revolt at the ordered "way" of the gods was a necessary preliminary to the incorporation of the dragon myths, in which ea and marduk are the heroes. here they appear as entirely beneficent gods of the primaeval water, undisturbed by storms, in whose quiet depths the equally beneficent deities lakhmu and lakhamu, anshar and kishar, were generated.( ) this interpretation, by the way, suggests a more satisfactory restoration for the close of the ninth line of the poem than any that has yet been proposed. that line is usually taken to imply that the gods were created "in the midst of (heaven)", but i think the following rendering, in connexion with ll. - , gives better sense: when in the height heaven was not named, and the earth beneath did not bear a name, and the primaeval apsû who begat them,( ) and mummu, and tiamat who bore them( ) all,-- their waters were mingled together, . . . . . . . . . then were created the gods in the midst of (their waters),( ) lakhmu and lakhamu were called into being . . . ( ) tabl. i, ll. - . ( ) we may perhaps see a survival of tiamat's original character in her control of the tablets of fate. the poem does not represent her as seizing them in any successful fight; they appear to be already hers to bestow on kingu, though in the later mythology they are "not his by right" (cf. tabl. i, ll. ff., and tabl. iv, l. ). ( ) i.e. the gods. ( ) the ninth line is preserved only on a neo-babylonian duplicate (_seven tablets_, vol. ii, pl. i). i suggested the restoration _ki-rib �(a-ma-mi)_, "in the midst of heaven", as possible, since the traces of the first sign in the last word of the line seemed to be those of the neo-babylonian form of _�a_. the restoration appeared at the time not altogether satisfactory in view of the first line of the poem, and it could only be justified by supposing that _�amâmu_, or "heaven", was already vaguely conceived as in existence (op. cit., vol. i, p. , n. ). but the traces of the sign, as i have given them (op. cit., vol. ii, pl. i), may also possibly be those of the neo-babylonian form of the sign _me_; and i would now restore the end of the line in the neo-babylonian tablet as _ki-rib m(e-e-�u-nu)_, "in the midst of (their waters)", corresponding to the form _mu-u- �u-nu_ in l. of this duplicate. in the assyrian version _mé(pl)-�u-nu_ would be read in both lines. it will be possible to verify the new reading, by a re-examination of the traces on the tablet, when the british museum collections again become available for study after the war. if the ninth line of the poem be restored as suggested, its account of the birth of the gods will be found to correspond accurately with the summary from berossus, who, in explaining the myth, refers to the babylonian belief that the universe consisted at first of moisture in which living creatures, such as he had already described, were generated.( ) the primaeval waters are originally the source of life, not of destruction, and it is in them that the gods are born, as in egyptian mythology; there nu, the primaeval water-god from whom ra was self-created, never ceased to be the sun-god's supporter. the change in the babylonian conception was obviously introduced by the combination of the dragon myth with that of creation, a combination that in egypt would never have been justified by the gentle nile. from a study of some aspects of the names at the beginning of the babylonian poem we have already seen reason to suspect that its version of the birth of the gods goes back to sumerian times, and it is pertinent to ask whether we have any further evidence that in sumerian belief water was the origin of all things. ( ) {ugrou gar ontos tou pantos kai zoon en auto gegennemenon (toionde) ktl}. his creatures of the primaeval water were killed by the light; and terrestrial animals were then created which could bear (i.e. breathe and exist in) the air. for many years we have possessed a sumerian myth of creation, which has come to us on a late babylonian tablet as the introductory section of an incantation. it is provided with a semitic translation, and to judge from its record of the building of babylon and egasila, marduk's temple, and its identification of marduk himself with the creator, it has clearly undergone some editing at the hands of the babylonian priests. moreover, the occurrence of various episodes out of their logical order, and the fact that the text records twice over the creation of swamps and marshes, reeds and trees or forests, animals and cities, indicate that two sumerian myths have been combined. thus we have no guarantee that the other cities referred to by name in the text, nippur, erech, and eridu, are mentioned in any significant connexion with each other.( ) of the actual cause of creation the text appears to give two versions also, one in its present form impersonal, and the other carried out by a god. but these two accounts are quite unlike the authorized version of babylon, and we may confidently regard them as representing genuine sumerian myths. the text resembles other early accounts of creation by introducing its narrative with a series of negative statements, which serve to indicate the preceding non-existence of the world, as will be seen from the following extract:( ) no city had been created, no creature had been made, nippur had not been created, ekur had not been built, erech had not been created, eanna had not been built, apsû had not been created, eridu had not been built, of the holy house, the house of the gods, the habitation had not been created. all lands( ) were sea. at the time when a channel (was formed) in the midst of the sea, then was eridu created, esagila built, etc. here we have the definite statement that before creation all the world was sea. and it is important to note that the primaeval water is not personified; the ordinary sumerian word for "sea" is employed, which the semitic translator has faithfully rendered in his version of the text.( ) the reference to a channel in the sea, as the cause of creation, seems at first sight a little obscure; but the word implies a "drain" or "water-channel", not a current of the sea itself, and the reference may be explained as suggested by the drainage of a flood-area. no doubt the phrase was elaborated in the original myth, and it is possible that what appears to be a second version of creation later on in the text is really part of the more detailed narrative of the first myth. there the creator himself is named. he is the sumerian god gilimma, and in the semitic translation marduk's name is substituted. to the following couplet, which describes gilimma's method of creation, is appended a further extract from a later portion of the text, there evidently displaced, giving additional details of the creator's work: gilimma bound reeds in the face of the waters, he formed soil and poured it out beside the reeds.( ) (he)( ) filled in a dike by the side of the sea, (he . . .) a swamp, he formed a marsh. (. . .), he brought into existence, (reeds he form)ed,( ) trees he created. ( ) the composite nature of the text is discussed by professor jastrow in his _hebrew and babylonian traditions_, pp. ff.; and in his paper in the _journ. amer. or. soc._, vol. xxxvi ( ), pp. ff.; he has analysed it into two main versions, which he suggests originated in eridu and nippur respectively. the evidence of the text does not appear to me to support the view that any reference to a watery chaos preceding creation must necessarily be of semitic origin. for the literature of the text (first published by pinches, _journ. roy. asiat. soc._, vol. xxiii, pp. ff.), see _sev. tabl._, vol. i, p. . ( ) obv., ll. - . ( ) sum. _nigin-kur-kur-ra-ge_, sem. _nap-har ma-ta-a-tu_, lit. "all lands", i.e. sumerian and babylonian expressions for "the world". ( ) sum. _a-ab-ba_, "sea", is here rendered by _tâmtum_, not by its personified equivalent tiamat. ( ) the suggestion has been made that _amu_, the word in the semitic version here translated "reeds", should be connected with _ammatu_, the word used for "earth" or "dry land" in the babylonian creation series, tabl. i, l. , and given some such meaning as "expanse". the couplet is thus explained to mean that the god made an expanse on the face of the waters, and then poured out dust "on the expanse". but the semitic version in l. reads _itti ami_, "beside the _a._", not _ina ami_, "on the _a._"; and in any case there does not seem much significance in the act of pouring out specially created dust on or beside land already formed. the sumerian word translated by _amu_ is written _gi-dir_, with the element _gi_, "reed", in l. , and though in the following line it is written under its variant form _a-dir_ without _gi_, the equation _gi-a-dir_ = _amu_ is elsewhere attested (cf. delitzsch, _handwörterbuch_, p. ). in favour of regarding _amu_ as some sort of reed, here used collectively, it may be pointed out that the sumerian verb in l. is _ke�da_, "to bind", accurately rendered by _raka�u_ in the semitic version. assuming that l. belongs to the same account, the creation of reeds in general beside trees, after dry land is formed, would not of course be at variance with the god's use of some sort of reed in his first act of creation. he creates the reed-bundles, as he creates the soil, both of which go to form the first dike; the reed-beds, like the other vegetation, spring up from the ground when it appears. ( ) the semitic version here reads "the lord marduk"; the corresponding name in the sumerian text is not preserved. ( ) the line is restored from l. o the obverse of the text. here the sumerian creator is pictured as forming dry land from the primaeval water in much the same way as the early cultivator in the euphrates valley procured the rich fields for his crops. the existence of the earth is here not really presupposed. all the world was sea until the god created land out of the waters by the only practical method that was possible in mesopotamia. in another sumerian myth, which has been recovered on one of the early tablets from nippur, we have a rather different picture of beginnings. for there, though water is the source of life, the existence of the land is presupposed. but it is bare and desolate, as in the mesopotamian season of "low water". the underlying idea is suggestive of a period when some progress in systematic irrigation had already been made, and the filling of the dry canals and subsequent irrigation of the parched ground by the rising flood of enki was not dreaded but eagerly desired. the myth is only one of several that have been combined to form the introductory sections of an incantation; but in all of them enki, the god of the deep water, plays the leading part, though associated with different consorts.( ) the incantation is directed against various diseases, and the recitation of the closing mythical section was evidently intended to enlist the aid of special gods in combating them. the creation of these deities is recited under set formulae in a sort of refrain, and the divine name assigned to each bears a magical connexion with the sickness he or she is intended to dispel.( ) ( ) see langdon, univ. of penns. mus. publ., bab. sect., vol. x, no. ( ), pl. i f., pp. ff.; _journ. amer. or. soc._, vol. xxxvi ( ), pp. ff.; cf. prince, _journ. amer. or. soc._, vol. xxxvi, pp. ff.; jastrow, _journ. amer. or. soc._, vol. xxxvi, pp. ff., and in particular his detailed study of the text in _amer. journ. semit. lang._, vol. xxxiii, pp. ff. dr. langdon's first description of the text, in _proc. soc. bibl. arch._, vol. xxxvi ( ), pp. ff., was based on a comparatively small fragment only; and on his completion of the text from other fragments in pennsylvania. professor sayce at once realized that the preliminary diagnosis of a deluge myth could not be sustained (cf. _expos. times_, nov., , pp. ff.). he, professor prince, and professor jastrow independently showed that the action of enki in the myth in sending water on the land was not punitive but beneficent; and the preceding section, in which animals are described as not performing their usual activities, was shown independently by professor prince and professor jastrow to have reference, not to their different nature in an ideal existence in paradise, but, on familiar lines, to their non- existence in a desolate land. it may be added that professor barton and dr. peters agree generally with professor prince and professor jastrow in their interpretation of the text, which excludes the suggested biblical parallels; and i understand from dr. langdon that he very rightly recognizes that the text is not a deluge myth. it is a subject for congratulation that the discussion has materially increased our knowledge of this difficult composition. ( ) cf. col. vi, ll. ff.; thus _ab_-u was created for the sickness of the cow (_ab_); nin-_tul_ for that of the flock (u-_tul_); nin-_ka_-u-tu and nin-_ka_-si for that of the mouth (_ka_); na-zi for that of the _na-zi_ (meaning uncertain); _da zi_-ma for that of the _da-zi_ (meaning uncertain); nin-_til_ for that of _til_ (life); the name of the eighth and last deity is imperfectly preserved. we have already noted examples of a similar use of myth in magic, which was common to both egypt and babylonia; and to illustrate its employment against disease, as in the nippur document, it will suffice to cite a well-known magical cure for the toothache which was adopted in babylon.( ) there toothache was believed to be caused by the gnawing of a worm in the gum, and a myth was used in the incantation to relieve it. the worm's origin is traced from anu, the god of heaven, through a descending scale of creation; anu, the heavens, the earth, rivers, canals and marshes are represented as each giving rise to the next in order, until finally the marshes produce the worm. the myth then relates how the worm, on being offered tempting food by ea in answer to her prayer, asked to be allowed to drink the blood of the teeth, and the incantation closes by invoking the curse of ea because of the worm's misguided choice. it is clear that power over the worm was obtained by a recital of her creation and of her subsequent ingratitude, which led to her present occupation and the curse under which she laboured. when the myth and invocation had been recited three times over the proper mixture of beer, a plant, and oil, and the mixture had been applied to the offending tooth, the worm would fall under the spell of the curse and the patient would at once gain relief. the example is instructive, as the connexion of ideas is quite clear. in the nippur document the recital of the creation of the eight deities evidently ensured their presence, and a demonstration of the mystic bond between their names and the corresponding diseases rendered the working of their powers effective. our knowledge of a good many other myths is due solely to their magical employment. ( ) see thompson, _devils and evil spirits of babylonia_, vol. ii, pp. ff.; for a number of other examples, see jastrow, _j.a.o.s._, vol. xxxvi, p. , n. . perhaps the most interesting section of the new text is one in which divine instructions are given in the use of plants, the fruit or roots of which may be eaten. here usmû, a messenger from enki, god of the deep, names eight such plants by enki's orders, thereby determining the character of each. as professor jastrow has pointed out, the passage forcibly recalls the story from berossus, concerning the mythical creature oannes, who came up from the erythraean sea, where it borders upon babylonia, to instruct mankind in all things, including "seeds and the gathering of fruits".( ) but the only part of the text that concerns us here is the introductory section, where the life-giving flood, by which the dry fields are irrigated, is pictured as following the union of the water-deities, enki and ninella.( ) professor jastrow is right in emphasizing the complete absence of any conflict in this sumerian myth of beginnings; but, as with the other sumerian versions we have examined, it seems to me there is no need to seek its origin elsewhere than in the euphrates valley. ( ) cf. jastrow, _j.a.o.s._, vol. xxxvi, p. , and _a.j.s.l._, vol. xxxiii, p. f. it may be added that the divine naming of the plants also presents a faint parallel to the naming of the beasts and birds by man himself in gen. ii. f. ( ) professor jastrow (_a.j.s.l._, vol. xxxiii, p. ) compares similar myths collected by sir james frazer (_magic art_, vol. ii, chap. xi and chap. xii, § ). he also notes the parallel the irrigation myth presents to the mist (or flood) of the earlier hebrew version (gen. ii. f). but enki, like ea, was no rain-god; he had his dwellings in the euphrates and the deep. even in later periods, when the sumerian myths of creation had been superseded by that of babylon, the euphrates never ceased to be regarded as the source of life and the creator of all things. and this is well brought out in the following introductory lines of a semitic incantation, of which we possess two neo-babylonian copies:( ) o thou river, who didst create all things, when the great gods dug thee out, they set prosperity upon thy banks, within thee ea, king of the deep, created his dwelling. the flood they sent not before thou wert! here the river as creator is sharply distinguished from the flood; and we may conclude that the water of the euphrates valley impressed the early sumerians, as later the semites, with its creative as well as with its destructive power. the reappearance of the fertile soil, after the receding inundation, doubtless suggested the idea of creation out of water, and the stream's slow but automatic fall would furnish a model for the age-long evolution of primaeval deities. when a god's active and artificial creation of the earth must be portrayed, it would have been natural for the primitive sumerian to picture the creator working as he himself would work when he reclaimed a field from flood. we are thus shown the old sumerian god gilimma piling reed-bundles in the water and heaping up soil beside them, till the ground within his dikes dries off and produces luxuriant vegetation. but here there is a hint of struggle in the process, and we perceive in it the myth-redactor's opportunity to weave in the dragon _motif_. no such excuse is afforded by the other sumerian myth, which pictures the life-producing inundation as the gift of the two deities of the deep and the product of their union. but in their other aspect the rivers of mesopotamia could be terrible; and the dragon _motif_ itself, on the tigris and euphrates, drew its imagery as much from flood as from storm. when therefore a single deity must be made to appear, not only as creator, but also as the champion of his divine allies and the conqueror of other gods, it was inevitable that the myths attaching to the waters under their two aspects should be combined. this may already have taken place at nippur, when enlil became the head of the pantheon; but the existence of his myth is conjectural.( ) in a later age we can trace the process in the light of history and of existing texts. there marduk, identified wholly as the sun-god, conquers the once featureless primaeval water, which in the process of redaction has now become the dragon of flood and storm. ( ) the aspect of enlil as the creator of vegetation is emphasized in tablet vii of the babylonian poem of creation. it is significant that his first title, asara, should be interpreted as "bestower of planting", "founder of sowing", "creator of grain and plants", "he who caused the green herb to spring up" (cf. _seven tablets_, vol. i, p. f.). these opening phrases, by which the god is hailed, strike the key- note of the whole composition. it is true that, as sukh-kur, he is "destroyer of the foe"; but the great majority of the titles and their semitic glosses refer to creative activities, not to the dragon myth. thus the dualism which is so characteristic a feature of the semitic-babylonian system, though absent from the earliest sumerian ideas of creation, was inherent in the nature of the local rivers, whose varied aspects gave rise to or coloured separate myths. its presence in the later mythology may be traced as a reflection of political development, at first probably among the warring cities of sumer, but certainly later in the semitic triumph at babylon. it was but to be expected that the conqueror, whether sumerian or semite, should represent his own god's victory as the establishment of order out of chaos. but this would be particularly in harmony with the character of the semitic babylonians of the first dynasty, whose genius for method and organization produced alike hammurabi's code of laws and the straight streets of the capital. we have thus been able to trace the various strands of the semitic-babylonian poem of creation to sumerian origins; and in the second lecture we arrived at a very similar conclusion with regard to the semitic-babylonian version of the deluge preserved in the epic of gilgamesh. we there saw that the literary structure of the sumerian version, in which creation and deluge are combined, must have survived under some form into the neo-babylonian period, since it was reproduced by berossus. and we noted the fact that the same arrangement in genesis did not therefore prove that the hebrew accounts go back directly to early sumerian originals. in fact, the structural resemblance presented by genesis can only be regarded as an additional proof that the sumerian originals continued to be studied and translated by the semitic priesthood, although they had long been superseded officially by their later descendants, the semitic epics. a detailed comparison of the creation and deluge narratives in the various versions at once discloses the fact that the connexion between those of the semitic babylonians and the hebrews is far closer and more striking than that which can be traced when the latter are placed beside the sumerian originals. we may therefore regard it as certain that the hebrews derived their knowledge of sumerian tradition, not directly from the sumerians themselves, but through semitic channels from babylon. it will be unnecessary here to go in detail through the points of resemblance that are admitted to exist between the hebrew account of creation in the first chapter of genesis and that preserved in the "seven tablets".( ) it will suffice to emphasize two of them, which gain in significance through our newly acquired knowledge of early sumerian beliefs. it must be admitted that, on first reading the poem, one is struck more by the differences than by the parallels; but that is due to the polytheistic basis of the poem, which attracts attention when compared with the severe and dignified monotheism of the hebrew writer. and if allowance be made for the change in theological standpoint, the material points of resemblance are seen to be very marked. the outline or general course of events is the same. in both we have an abyss of waters at the beginning denoted by almost the same semitic word, the hebrew _tehôm_, translated "the deep" in gen. i. , being the equivalent of the semitic-babylonian _tiamat_, the monster of storm and flood who presents so striking a contrast to the sumerian primaeval water.( ) the second act of creation in the hebrew narrative is that of a "firmament", which divided the waters under it from those above.( ) but this, as we have seen, has no parallel in the early sumerian conception until it was combined with the dragon combat in the form in which we find it in the babylonian poem. there the body of tiamat is divided by marduk, and from one half of her he constructs a covering or dome for heaven, that is to say a "firmament", to keep her upper waters in place. these will suffice as text passages, since they serve to point out quite clearly the semitic source to which all the other detailed points of hebrew resemblance may be traced. ( ) see _seven tablets_, vol. i, pp. lxxxi ff., and skinner, _genesis_, pp. ff. ( ) the invariable use of the hebrew word _tehôm_ without the article, except in two passages in the plural, proves that it is a proper name (cf. skinner, op. cit., p. ); and its correspondence with _tiamat_ makes the resemblance of the versions far more significant than if their parallelism were confined solely to ideas. ( ) gen. i. - . in the case of the deluge traditions, so conclusive a demonstration is not possible, since we have no similar criterion to apply. and on one point, as we saw, the hebrew versions preserve an original sumerian strand of the narrative that was not woven into the gilgamesh epic, where there is no parallel to the piety of noah. but from the detailed description that was given in the second lecture, it will have been noted that the sumerian account is on the whole far simpler and more primitive than the other versions. it is only in the babylonian epic, for example, that the later hebrew writer finds material from which to construct the ark, while the sweet savour of ut-napishtim's sacrifice, and possibly his sending forth of the birds, though reproduced in the earlier hebrew version, find no parallels in the sumerian account.( ) as to the general character of the flood, there is no direct reference to rain in the sumerian version, though its presence is probably implied in the storm. the heavy rain of the babylonian epic has been increased to forty days of rain in the earlier hebrew version, which would be suitable to a country where local rain was the sole cause of flood. but the later hebrew writer's addition of "the fountains of the deep" to "the windows of heaven" certainly suggests a more intimate knowledge of mesopotamia, where some contributary cause other than local rain must be sought for the sudden and overwhelming catastrophes of which the rivers are capable. ( ) for detailed lists of the points of agreement presented by the hebrew versions j and p to the account in the gilgamesh epic, see skinner, op. cit., p. f.; driver, _genesis_, p. f.; and gordon, _early traditions of genesis_ ( ), pp. ff. thus, viewed from a purely literary standpoint, we are now enabled to trace back to a primitive age the ancestry of the traditions, which, under a very different aspect, eventually found their way into hebrew literature. and in the process we may note the changes they underwent as they passed from one race to another. the result of such literary analysis and comparison, so far from discrediting the narratives in genesis, throws into still stronger relief the moral grandeur of the hebrew text. we come then to the question, at what periods and by what process did the hebrews become acquainted with babylonian ideas? the tendency of the purely literary school of critics has been to explain the process by the direct use of babylonian documents wholly within exilic times. if the creation and deluge narratives stood alone, a case might perhaps be made out for confining babylonian influence to this late period. it is true that during the captivity the jews were directly exposed to such influence. they had the life and civilization of their captors immediately before their eyes, and it would have been only natural for the more learned among the hebrew scribes and priests to interest themselves in the ancient literature of their new home. and any previous familiarity with the myths of babylonia would undoubtedly have been increased by actual residence in the country. we may perhaps see a result of such acquaintance with babylonian literature, after jehoiachin's deportation, in an interesting literary parallel that has been pointed out between ezek. xiv. - and a speech in the babylonian account of the deluge in the gilgamesh epic, xi, ii. - .( ) the passage in ezekiel occurs within chaps. i-xxiv, which correspond to the prophet's first period and consist in the main of his utterances in exile before the fall of jerusalem. it forms, in fact, the introduction to the prophet's announcement of the coming of "four sore judgements upon jerusalem", from which there "shall be left a remnant that shall be carried forth".( ) but in consequence, here and there, of traces of a later point of view, it is generally admitted that many of the chapters in this section may have been considerably amplified and altered by ezekiel himself in the course of writing. and if we may regard the literary parallel that has been pointed out as anything more than fortuitous, it is open to us to assume that chap. xiv may have been worked up by ezekiel many years after his prophetic call at tel-abib. ( ) see daiches, "ezekiel and the babylonian account of the deluge", in the _jewish quarterly review_, april . it has of course long been recognized that ezekiel, in announcing the punishment of the king of egypt in xxxii. ff., uses imagery which strongly recalls the babylonian creation myth. for he compares pharaoh to a sea-monster over whom yahweh will throw his net (as marduk had thrown his over tiamat); cf. loisy, _les mythes babyloniens et les premiers chaptires de la genèse_ ( ), p. . ( ) ezek. xiv. f. in the passage of the babylonian epic, enlil had already sent the flood and had destroyed the good with the wicked. ea thereupon remonstrates with him, and he urges that in future the sinner only should be made to suffer for his sin; and, instead of again causing a flood, let there be discrimination in the divine punishments sent on men or lands. while the flood made the escape of the deserving impossible, other forms of punishment would affect the guilty only. in ezekiel the subject is the same, but the point of view is different. the land the prophet has in his mind in verse is evidently judah, and his desire is to explain why it will suffer although not all its inhabitants deserved to share its fate. the discrimination, which ea urges, ezekiel asserts will be made; but the sinner must bear his own sin, and the righteous, however eminent, can only save themselves by their righteousness. the general principle propounded in the epic is here applied to a special case. but the parallelism between the passages lies not only in the general principle but also in the literary setting. this will best be brought out by printing the passages in parallel columns. gilg. epic, xi, - ezek. xiv. - ea opened his mouth and spake, and the word of the lord came he said to the warrior enlil; unto me, saying, thou director of the gods! o son of man, when a land sinneth warrior! against me by committing a why didst thou not take counsel trespass, and i stretch out but didst cause a flood? mine hand upon it, and break on the transgressor lay his the staff of the bread transgression! thereof, and send _famine_ be merciful, so that (all) be not upon it, and cut off from it destroyed! have patience, so man and beast; though these that (all) be not (cut off)! three men, noah, daniel, and instead of causing a flood, job, were in it, they should let _lions_( ) come and diminish deliver but their own souls by mankind! their righteousness, saith the instead of causing a flood, lord god. let _leopards_( ) come and if i cause _noisome beasts_ to diminish mankind! pass through the land, and instead of causing a flood, they spoil it, so that it be let _famine_ be caused and let it desolate, that no man may pass smite the land! through because of the beasts; instead of causing a flood, though these three men were in let the _plague-god_ come and it, as i live, saith the lord (slay) mankind! god, they shall deliver neither sons nor daughters; they only shall be delivered, but the land shall be desolate. or if i bring a _sword_ upon that land, and say, sword, go through the land; so that i cut off from it man and beast; though these three men were in it, as i live, saith the lord god, they shall deliver neither sons nor daughters, but they only shall be delivered themselves. or if i send a _pestilence_ into that land, and pour out my fury upon it in blood, to cut off from it man and beast; though noah, daniel, and job, were in it, as i live, saith the lord god, they shall deliver neither son nor daughter; they shall but deliver their own souls by their righteousness. ( ) both babylonian words are in the singular, but probably used collectively, as is the case with their hebrew equivalent in ezek. xiv. . it will be seen that, of the four kinds of divine punishment mentioned, three accurately correspond in both compositions. famine and pestilence occur in both, while the lions and leopards of the epic find an equivalent in "noisome beasts". the sword is not referred to in the epic, but as this had already threatened jerusalem at the time of the prophecy's utterance its inclusion by ezekiel was inevitable. moreover, the fact that noah should be named in the refrain, as the first of the three proverbial examples of righteousness, shows that ezekiel had the deluge in his mind, and increases the significance of the underlying parallel between his argument and that of the babylonian poet.( ) it may be added that ezekiel has thrown his prophecy into poetical form, and the metre of the two passages in the babylonian and hebrew is, as dr. daiches points out, not dissimilar. ( ) this suggestion is in some measure confirmed by the _biblical antiquities of philo_, ascribed by dr. james to the closing years of the first century a.d.; for its writer, in his account of the flood, has actually used ezek. xiv. ff. in order to elaborate the divine speech in gen. viii. f. this will be seen from the following extract, in which the passage interpolated between verses and of gen. viii is enclosed within brackets: "and god said: i will not again curse the earth for man's sake, for the guise of man's heart hath left off (sic) from his youth. and therefore i will not again destroy together all living as i have done. (but it shall be, when the dwellers upon earth have sinned, i will judge them by _famine_ or by the _sword_ or by fire or by _pestilence_ (lit. death), and there shall be earthquakes, and they shall be scattered into places not inhabited (or, the places of their habitation shall be scattered). but i will not again spoil the earth with the water of a flood, and) in all the days of the earth seed time and harvest, cold and heat, summer and autumn, day and night shall not cease . . ."; see james, _the biblical antiquities of philo_, p. , iii. . here wild beasts are omitted, and fire, earthquakes, and exile are added; but famine, sword, and pestilence are prominent, and the whole passage is clearly suggested by ezekiel. as a result of the combination, we have in the _biblical antiquities_ a complete parallel to the passage in the gilgamesh epic. it may of course be urged that wild beasts, famine, and pestilence are such obvious forms of divine punishment that their enumeration by both writers is merely due to chance. but the parallelism should be considered with the other possible points of connexion, namely, the fact that each writer is dealing with discrimination in divine punishments of a wholesale character, and that while the one is inspired by the babylonian tradition of the flood, the other takes the hero of the hebrew flood story as the first of his selected types of righteousness. it is possible that ezekiel may have heard the babylonian version recited after his arrival on the chebar. and assuming that some form of the story had long been a cherished tradition of the hebrews themselves, we could understand his intense interest in finding it confirmed by the babylonians, who would show him where their flood had taken place. to a man of his temperament, the one passage in the babylonian poem that would have made a special appeal would have been that quoted above, where the poet urges that divine vengeance should be combined with mercy, and that all, righteous and wicked alike, should not again be destroyed. a problem continually in ezekiel's thoughts was this very question of wholesale divine punishment, as exemplified in the case of judah; and it would not have been unlikely that the literary structure of the babylonian extract may have influenced the form in which he embodied his own conclusions. but even if we regard this suggestion as unproved or improbable, ezekiel's reference to noah surely presupposes that at least some version of the flood story was familiar to the hebrews before the captivity. and this conclusion is confirmed by other babylonian parallels in the early chapters of genesis, in which oral tradition rather than documentary borrowing must have played the leading part.( ) thus babylonian parallels may be cited for many features in the story of paradise,( ) though no equivalent of the story itself has been recovered. in the legend of adapa, for example, wisdom and immortality are the prerogative of the gods, and the winning of immortality by man is bound up with eating the food of life and drinking the water of life; here too man is left with the gift of wisdom, but immortality is withheld. and the association of winged guardians with the sacred tree in babylonian art is at least suggestive of the cherubim and the tree of life. the very side of eden has now been identified in southern babylonia by means of an old boundary-stone acquired by the british museum a year or two ago.( ) ( ) see loisy, _les mythes babyloniens_, pp. ff., and cf. s. reinach, _cultes, mythes et religions_, t. ii, pp. ff. ( ) cf. especially skinner, _genesis_, pp. ff. for the latest discussion of the serpent and the tree of life, suggested by dr. skinner's summary of the evidence, see frazer in _essays and studies presented to william ridgeway_ ( ), pp. ff. ( ) see _babylonian boundary stones in the british museum_ ( ), pp. ff., and cf. _geographical journal_, vol. xl, no. (aug., ), p. . for the latest review of the evidence relating to the site of paradise, see boissier, "la situation du paradis terrestre", in _le globe_, t. lv, mémoires (geneva, ). but i need not now detain you by going over this familiar ground. such possible echoes from babylon seem to suggest pre-exilic influence rather than late borrowing, and they surely justify us in inquiring to what periods of direct or indirect contact, earlier than the captivity, the resemblances between hebrew and babylonian ideas may be traced. one point, which we may regard as definitely settled by our new material, is that these stories of the creation and of the early history of the world were not of semitic origin. it is no longer possible to regard the hebrew and babylonian versions as descended from common semitic originals. for we have now recovered some of those originals, and they are not semitic but sumerian. the question thus resolves itself into an inquiry as to periods during which the hebrews may have come into direct or indirect contact with babylonia. there are three pre-exilic periods at which it has been suggested the hebrews, or the ancestors of the race, may have acquired a knowledge of babylonian traditions. the earliest of these is the age of the patriarchs, the traditional ancestors of the hebrew nation. the second period is that of the settlement in canaan, which we may put from b.c. to the establishment of david's kingdom at about b.c. the third period is that of the later judaean monarch, from b.c. to b.c., the date of the fall of jerusalem; and in this last period there are two reigns of special importance in this connexion, those of ahaz ( - b.c.) and manasseh ( - b.c.). with regard to the earliest of these periods, those who support the mosaic authorship of the pentateuch may quite consistently assume that abraham heard the legends in ur of the chaldees. and a simple retention of the traditional view seems to me a far preferable attitude to any elaborate attempt at rationalizing it. it is admitted that arabia was the cradle of the semitic race; and the most natural line of advance from arabia to aram and thence to palestine would be up the euphrates valley. some writers therefore assume that nomad tribes, personified in the traditional figure of abraham, may have camped for a time in the neighbourhood of ur and babylon; and that they may have carried the babylonian stories with them in their wanderings, and continued to preserve them during their long subsequent history. but, even granting that such nomads would have taken any interest in traditions of settled folk, this view hardly commends itself. for stories received from foreign sources become more and more transformed in the course of centuries.( ) the vivid babylonian colouring of the genesis narratives cannot be reconciled with this explanation of their source. ( ) this objection would not of course apply to m. naville's suggested solution, that cuneiform tablets formed the medium of transmission. but its author himself adds that he does not deny its conjectural character; see _the text of the old testament_ (schweich lectures, ), p. . a far greater number of writers hold that it was after their arrival in palestine that the hebrew patriarchs came into contact with babylonian culture. it is true that from an early period syria was the scene of babylonian invasions, and in the first lecture we noted some newly recovered evidence upon this point. moreover, the dynasty to which hammurabi belonged came originally from the north-eastern border of canaan and hammurabi himself exercised authority in the west. thus a plausible case could be made out by exponents of this theory, especially as many parallels were noted between the mosaic legislation and that contained in hammurabi's code. but it is now generally recognized that the features common to both the hebrew and the babylonian legal systems may be paralleled to-day in the semitic east and elsewhere,( ) and cannot therefore be cited as evidence of cultural contact. thus the hypothesis that the hebrew patriarchs were subjects of babylon in palestine is not required as an explanation of the facts; and our first period still stands or falls by the question of the mosaic authorship of the pentateuch, which must be decided on quite other grounds. those who do not accept the traditional view will probably be content to rule this first period out. ( ) see cook, _the laws of moses and the code of hammurabi_, p. f.; driver, _genesis_, p. xxxvi f.; and cf. johns, _the laws of babylonia and the laws of the hebrew peoples_ (schweich lectures, ), pp. ff. during the second period, that of the settlement in canaan, the hebrews came into contact with a people who had used the babylonian language as the common medium of communication throughout the near east. it is an interesting fact that among the numerous letters found at tell el-amarna were two texts of quite a different character. these were legends, both in the form of school exercises, which had been written out for practice in the babylonian tongue. one of them was the legend of adapa, in which we noted just now a distant resemblance to the hebrew story of paradise. it seems to me we are here standing on rather firmer ground; and provisionally we might place the beginning of our process after the time of hebrew contact with the canaanites. under the earlier hebrew monarchy there was no fresh influx of babylonian culture into palestine. that does not occur till our last main period, the later judaean monarchy, when, in consequence of the westward advance of assyria, the civilization of babylon was once more carried among the petty syrian states. israel was first drawn into the circle of assyrian influence, when arab fought as the ally of benhadad of damascus at the battle of karkar in b.c.; and from that date onward the nation was menaced by the invading power. in b.c., at the invitation of ahaz of judah, tiglath-pileser iv definitely intervened in the affairs of israel. for ahaz purchased his help against the allied armies of israel and syria in the syro-ephraimitish war. tiglath-pileser threw his forces against damascus and israel, and ahaz became his vassal.( ) to this period, when ahaz, like panammu ii, "ran at the wheel of his lord, the king of assyria", we may ascribe the first marked invasion of assyrian influence over judah. traces of it may be seen in the altar which ahaz caused to be erected in jerusalem after the pattern of the assyrian altar at damascus.( ) we saw in the first lecture, in the monuments we have recovered of panammu i and of bar-rekub, how the life of another small syrian state was inevitably changed and thrown into new channels by the presence of tiglath-pileser and his armies in the west. ( ) kings xvi. ff. ( ) kings xvi. ff. hezekiah's resistance checked the action of assyrian influence on judah for a time. but it was intensified under his son manasseh, when judah again became tributary to assyria, and in the house of the lord altars were built to all the host of heaven.( ) towards the close of his long reign manasseh himself was summoned by ashur-bani-pal to babylon.( ) so when in the year b.c. the jewish exiles came to babylon they could not have found in its mythology an entirely new and unfamiliar subject. they must have recognized several of its stories as akin to those they had assimilated and now regarded as their own. and this would naturally have inclined them to further study and comparison. ( ) kings xxi. . ( ) cf. chron. xxxiii. ff. the answer i have outlined to this problem is the one that appears to me most probable, but i do not suggest that it is the only possible one that can be given. what i do suggest is that the hebrews must have gained some acquaintance with the legends of babylon in pre-exilic times. and it depends on our reading of the evidence into which of the three main periods the beginning of the process may be traced. so much, then, for the influence of babylon. we have seen that no similar problem arises with regard to the legends of egypt. at first sight this may seem strange, for egypt lay nearer than babylon to palestine, and political and commercial intercourse was at least as close. we have already noted how egypt influenced semitic art, and how she offered an ideal, on the material side of her existence, which was readily adopted by her smaller neighbours. moreover, the joseph traditions in genesis give a remarkably accurate picture of ancient egyptian life; and even the egyptian proper names embedded in that narrative may be paralleled with native egyptian names than that to which the traditions refer. why then is it that the actual myths and legends of egypt concerning the origin of the world and its civilization should have failed to impress the hebrew mind, which, on the other hand, was so responsive to those of babylon? one obvious answer would be, that it was nebuchadnezzar ii, and not necho, who carried the jews captive. and we may readily admit that the captivity must have tended to perpetuate and intensify the effects of any babylonian influence that may have previously been felt. but i think there is a wider and in that sense a better answer than that. i do not propose to embark at this late hour on what ethnologists know as the "hamitic" problem. but it is a fact that many striking parallels to egyptian religious belief and practice have been traced among races of the sudan and east africa. these are perhaps in part to be explained as the result of contact and cultural inheritance. but at the same time they are evidence of an african, but non-negroid, substratum in the religion of ancient egypt. in spite of his proto-semitic strain, the ancient egyptian himself never became a semite. the nile valley, at any rate until the moslem conquest, was stronger than its invaders; it received and moulded them to its own ideal. this quality was shared in some degree by the euphrates valley. but babylonia was not endowed with egypt's isolation; she was always open on the south and west to the arabian nomad, who at a far earlier period sealed her semitic type. to such racial division and affinity i think we may confidently trace the influence exerted by egypt and babylon respectively upon hebrew tradition. appendix i comparative table of the sumerian, semitic-babylonian, hellenistic, and hebrew versions of creation, antediluvian history, and the deluge n.b.--parallels with the new sumerian version are in upper-case. sumerian version. seven tablets gilgamesh epic, xi berossus('damscius) earlier heb. (j) later heb. (p) (no heaven or earth no heaven or earth darkness and water creation of earth earth without form first creation from primaeval water- (primaeval water- and heaven and void; darkness primaeval water gods: apsû-tiamat, gods: {'apason- no plant or herb on face of _tehôm_, without conflict; mummu tauthe}, {moumis} ground watered by the primaeval water cf. later sum. ver. generation of: generation of: mist (or flood) divine spirit moving lakhmu-lakhamu {lakhos-lakhe} (cf. sumerian (hovering, brooding) anshar-kishar {'assoros-kissare} irrigation myth of upon face of waters creation) the great gods: birth of great gods: birth of great gods: anu, enlil, enki, anu, nudimmud (=ea) {'anos, 'illinos, and ninkharsagga, apsû and tiamat 'aos, 'aois-lauke, creating deities revolt belos) conquest of tiamat conquest of {'omorka}, creation of light by marduk as sun- or {thamte}, by god {belos} creation of covering creation of heaven and creation of firmament, for heaven from earth from two halves or heaven, to divide half of tiamat's of body of thamte waters; followed by body, to keep her emergence of land waters in place creation of vegetation creation of luminaries creation of luminaries creation of luminaries (creation of (probable order) creation of animals vegetation) reason for man's reason for man's creation: worship of creation: worship of gods gods creation of man creation of man from creation of man from creation of man from creation of man in creator's blood and creator's blood and dust and creator's image of creator, to from bone from earth breath of life have dominion creation of animals (creation of animals) creation of animals creation of vegetation hymn on seventh tablet able to bear the air animals, and woman rest on seventh day creation of kingdom antediluvian kings the line of cain antediluvian antediluvian cities: antediluvian city: antediluvian cities: the nephilim (cf. patriarchs (cf. eridu, bad.., larak, shuruppak babylon, sippar, sumerian dynastic sumerian dynastic sippar, shuruppak larankha list) list) gods decree mankind's gods decree flood, destruction of man destruction of all destruction by flood, goddess ishtar decreed, because of flesh decreed, because nintu protesting protesting his wickedness of its corruption ziusudu, hero of ut-napishtim, hero {xisouthros} noah, hero of deluge noah, hero of deluge deluge, king and of deluge (=khasisatra), hero priest of deluge, king ziusudu's piety noah's favour noah's righteousness warning of ziusudu by warning of ut-nap- warning of xisuthros warning of noah, and enki in dream ishtim by ea in dream by kronos in dream instructions for ark ziusudu's vessel a ship: x x size of ship: x instructions to enter size of ark: x x huge ship cubits; stories; stadia ark cubits; stories divisions all kinds of animals all kinds of animals (x ) clean, unclean of all animals flood and storm for flood from heavy rain flood flood from rain for flood; founts. of deep days and storm for days days and rain, days ship on mt. nisir ark on ararat abatement of waters abatement of waters abatement of waters abatement of waters tested by birds tested by birds tested by birds through drying wind sacrifice to sun-god sacrifice with sweet sacrifice to gods, sacrifice with sweet landing from ark (after in ship savour on mountain after landing and savour after landing year (+ days)) paying adoration to earth anu and enlil appeased ea's protest to enlil apotheosis of x., divine promise to noah divine covenant not (by "heaven and earth") immortality of ut-nap- wife, daughter, and not again to curse again to destroy earth immortality of ziusudu ishtim and his wife pilot the ground by flood; bow as sign appendix ii the antediluvian kings of berossus and the sumerian dynastic list it may be of assistance to the reader to repeat in tabular form the equivalents to the mythical kings of berossus which are briefly discussed in lecture i. in the following table the two new equations, obtained from the earliest section of the sumerian dynastic list, are in upper-case.( ) the established equations to other names are in normal case, while those for which we should possibly seek other equivalents are enclosed within brackets.( ) aruru has not been included as a possible equivalent for {'aloros}.( ) . {'aloros} . {'alaparos (? 'adaparos)}, _alaporus_, _alapaurus_ (adapa) . {'amelon, 'amillaros}, _almelon_ (amêlu) . {'ammenon} enmenunna . {megalaros, megalanos}, _amegalarus_ . {daonos, daos} etana . {euedorakhos, euedoreskhos}, _edoranchus_ enmeduranki . {'amemphinos}, _amemphsinus_ (amêl-sin) . {'otiartes (? 'opartes)} (ubar-tutu) . {xisouthros, sisouthros, sisithros} khasisatra, atrakhasis( ) ( ) for the royal names of berossus, see _euseb. chron. lib. pri._, ed. schoene, cols. f., ff. the latinized variants correspond to forms in the armenian translation of eusebius. ( ) for the principal discussions of equivalents, see hommel, _proc. soc. bibl. arch._, vol. xv ( ), pp. ff., and _die altorientalischen denkmäler und das alte testament_ ( ), pp. ff.; zimmern, _die keilinschriften und das alte testament_, rd ed. ( ), pp. ff.; and cf. lenormant, _les origines de l'histoire_, i ( ), pp. ff. see also driver, _genesis_, th ed. ( ), p. f.; skinner, _genesis_, p. f.; ball, _genesis_, p. ; and gordon, _early traditions of genesis_, pp. ff. ( ) there is a suggested equation of lal-ur-alimma with {'aloros}. ( ) the hundred and twenty "sars", or , years assigned by berossus for the duration of the antediluvian dynasty, are distributed as follows among the ten kings; the numbers are given below first in "sars", followed by their equivalents in years within brackets: . ten "sars" ( , ); . three ( , ); . thirteen ( , ); . twelve ( , ); . eighteen ( , ); . ten ( , ); . eighteen ( , ); . ten ( , ); . eight ( , ); . eighteen ( , ). for comparison with berossus it may be useful to abstract from the sumerian dynastic list the royal names occurring in the earliest extant dynasties. they are given below with variant forms from duplicate copies of the list, and against each is added the number of years its owner is recorded to have ruled. the figures giving the total duration of each dynasty, either in the summaries or under the separate reigns, are sometimes not completely preserved; in such cases an x is added to the total of the figures still legible. except in those cases referred to in the foot-notes, all the names are written in the sumerian lists without the determinative for "god". kingdom of kish ( kings; , + x years, months, days) . . .( ) . (. . .) (?) years . galumum, kalumum " . zugagib, zugakib " . arpi, arpiu, arbum " . etana( ) (or ) years . pili . . .( ) years . enmenunna, enmennunna( ) " . melamkish " . barsalnunna , " . mesza(. . .) (. . .) " . . .( ) . . . . years . . . . " kingdom of eanna (erech)( ) (about - kings; , + x years) . meskingasher years . enmerkar " . lugalbanda( ) , " . dumuzi( ) (i.e. tammuz) " . gishbilgames( ) (i.e. gilgamesh) (or ) years . (. . .)lugal (. . .) years . . .( ) kingdom of ur ( kings; years) . mesannipada years . meskiagnunna " . elu(. . .) " . balu(. . .) " kingdom of awan ( kings; years) . . .( ) ( ) gap of seven, or possibly eight, names. ( ) the name etana is written in the lists with and without the determinative for "god". ( ) the reading of the last sign in the name is unknown. a variant form of the name possibly begins with bali. ( ) this form is given on a fragment of a late assyrian copy of the list; cf. _studies in eastern history_, vol. iii, p. . ( ) gap of four, or possibly three, names. ( ) eanna was the great temple of erech. in the second column of the list "the kingdom" is recorded to have passed from kish to eanna, but the latter name does not occur in the summary. ( ) the name lugalbanda is written in the lists with and without the determinative for "god". ( ) the name dumuzi is written in the list with the determinative for "god". ( ) the name gishbilgames is written in the list with the determinative for "god". ( ) gap of about four, five, or six kings. ( ) wanting. at this point a great gap occurs in our principal list. the names of some of the missing "kingdoms" may be inferred from the summaries, but their relative order is uncertain. of two of them we know the duration, a second kingdom of ur containing four kings and lasting for a hundred and eight years, and another kingdom, the name of which is not preserved, consisting of only one king who ruled for seven years. the dynastic succession only again becomes assured with the opening of the dynastic chronicle published by père scheil and recently acquired by the british museum. it will be noted that with the kingdom of ur the separate reigns last for decades and not hundreds of years each, so that we here seem to approach genuine tradition, though the kingdom of awan makes a partial reversion to myth so far as its duration is concerned. the two suggested equations with antediluvian kings of berossus both occur in the earliest kingdom of kish and lie well within the sumerian mythical period. the second of the rulers concerned, enmenunna (ammenon), is placed in sumerian tradition several thousand years before the reputed succession of the gods lugalbanda and tammuz and of the national hero gilgamesh to the throne of erech. in the first lecture some remarkable points of general resemblance have already been pointed out between hebrew and sumerian traditions of these early ages of the world. none against apion. [ ] by flavius josephus translated by william whiston book . . i suppose that by my books of the antiquity of the jews, most excellent epaphroditus, [ ] have made it evident to those who peruse them, that our jewish nation is of very great antiquity, and had a distinct subsistence of its own originally; as also, i have therein declared how we came to inhabit this country wherein we now live. those antiquities contain the history of five thousand years, and are taken out of our sacred books, but are translated by me into the greek tongue. however, since i observe a considerable number of people giving ear to the reproaches that are laid against us by those who bear ill-will to us, and will not believe what i have written concerning the antiquity of our nation, while they take it for a plain sign that our nation is of a late date, because they are not so much as vouchsafed a bare mention by the most famous historiographers among the grecians. i therefore have thought myself under an obligation to write somewhat briefly about these subjects, in order to convict those that reproach us of spite and voluntary falsehood, and to correct the ignorance of others, and withal to instruct all those who are desirous of knowing the truth of what great antiquity we really are. as for the witnesses whom i shall produce for the proof of what i say, they shall be such as are esteemed to be of the greatest reputation for truth, and the most skillful in the knowledge of all antiquity by the greeks themselves. i will also show, that those who have written so reproachfully and falsely about us are to be convicted by what they have written themselves to the contrary. i shall also endeavor to give an account of the reasons why it hath so happened, that there have not been a great number of greeks who have made mention of our nation in their histories. i will, however, bring those grecians to light who have not omitted such our history, for the sake of those that either do not know them, or pretend not to know them already. . and now, in the first place, i cannot but greatly wonder at those men, who suppose that we must attend to none but grecians, when we are inquiring about the most ancient facts, and must inform ourselves of their truth from them only, while we must not believe ourselves nor other men; for i am convinced that the very reverse is the truth of the case. i mean this,--if we will not be led by vain opinions, but will make inquiry after truth from facts themselves; for they will find that almost all which concerns the greeks happened not long ago; nay, one may say, is of yesterday only. i speak of the building of their cities, the inventions of their arts, and the description of their laws; and as for their care about the writing down of their histories, it is very near the last thing they set about. however, they acknowledge themselves so far, that they were the egyptians, the chaldeans, and the phoenicians (for i will not now reckon ourselves among them) that have preserved the memorials of the most ancient and most lasting traditions of mankind; for almost all these nations inhabit such countries as are least subject to destruction from the world about them; and these also have taken especial care to have nothing omitted of what was [remarkably] done among them; but their history was esteemed sacred, and put into public tables, as written by men of the greatest wisdom they had among them. but as for the place where the grecians inhabit, ten thousand destructions have overtaken it, and blotted out the memory of former actions; so that they were ever beginning a new way of living, and supposed that every one of them was the origin of their new state. it was also late, and with difficulty, that they came to know the letters they now use; for those who would advance their use of these letters to the greatest antiquity pretend that they learned them from the phoenicians and from cadmus; yet is nobody able to demonstrate that they have any writing preserved from that time, neither in their temples, nor in any other public monuments. this appears, because the time when those lived who went to the trojan war, so many years afterward, is in great doubt, and great inquiry is made, whether the greeks used their letters at that time; and the most prevailing opinion, and that nearest the truth, is, that their present way of using those letters was unknown at that time. however, there is not any writing which the greeks agree to be genuine among them ancienter than homer's poems, who must plainly he confessed later than the siege of troy; nay, the report goes, that even he did not leave his poems in writing, but that their memory was preserved in songs, and they were put together afterward, and that this is the reason of such a number of variations as are found in them. [ ] as for those who set themselves about writing their histories, i mean such as cadmus of miletus, and acusilaus of argos, and any others that may be mentioned as succeeding acusilaus, they lived but a little while before the persian expedition into greece. but then for those that first introduced philosophy, and the consideration of things celestial and divine among them, such as pherceydes the syrian, and pythagoras, and thales, all with one consent agree, that they learned what they knew of the egyptians and chaldeans, and wrote but little and these are the things which are supposed to be the oldest of all among the greeks; and they have much ado to believe that the writings ascribed to those men are genuine. . how can it then be other than an absurd thing, for the greeks to be so proud, and to vaunt themselves to be the only people that are acquainted with antiquity, and that have delivered the true accounts of those early times after an accurate manner? nay, who is there that cannot easily gather from the greek writers themselves, that they knew but little on any good foundation when they set to write, but rather wrote their histories from their own conjectures? accordingly, they confute one another in their own books to purpose, and are not ashamed. to give us the most contradictory accounts of the same things; and i should spend my time to little purpose, if i should pretend to teach the greeks that which they know better than i already, what a great disagreement there is between hellanicus and acusilaus about their genealogies; in how many eases acusilaus corrects hesiod: or after what manner ephorus demonstrates hellanicus to have told lies in the greatest part of his history; as does timeus in like manner as to ephorus, and the succeeding writers do to timeus, and all the later writers do to herodotus nor could timeus agree with antiochus and philistius, or with callias, about the sicilian history, no more than do the several writers of the athide follow one another about the athenian affairs; nor do the historians the like, that wrote the argolics, about the affairs of the argives. and now what need i say any more about particular cities and smaller places, while in the most approved writers of the expedition of the persians, and of the actions which were therein performed, there are so great differences? nay, thucydides himself is accused of some as writing what is false, although he seems to have given us the exactest history of the affairs of his own time. [ ] . as for the occasions of so great disagreement of theirs, there may be assigned many that are very probable, if any have a mind to make an inquiry about them; but i ascribe these contradictions chiefly to two causes, which i will now mention, and still think what i shall mention in the first place to be the principal of all. for if we remember that in the beginning the greeks had taken no care to have public records of their several transactions preserved, this must for certain have afforded those that would afterward write about those ancient transactions the opportunity of making mistakes, and the power of making lies also; for this original recording of such ancient transactions hath not only been neglected by the other states of greece, but even among the athenians themselves also, who pretend to be aborigines, and to have applied themselves to learning, there are no such records extant; nay, they say themselves that the laws of draco concerning murders, which are now extant in writing, are the most ancient of their public records; which draco yet lived but a little before the tyrant pisistratus. [ ] for as to the arcadians, who make such boasts of their antiquity, what need i speak of them in particular, since it was still later before they got their letters, and learned them, and that with difficulty also. [ ] . there must therefore naturally arise great differences among writers, when they had no original records to lay for their foundation, which might at once inform those who had an inclination to learn, and contradict those that would tell lies. however, we are to suppose a second occasion besides the former of these contradictions; it is this: that those who were the most zealous to write history were not solicitous for the discovery of truth, although it was very easy for them always to make such a profession; but their business was to demonstrate that they could write well, and make an impression upon mankind thereby; and in what manner of writing they thought they were able to exceed others, to that did they apply themselves, some of them betook themselves to the writing of fabulous narrations; some of them endeavored to please the cities or the kings, by writing in their commendation; others of them fell to finding faults with transactions, or with the writers of such transactions, and thought to make a great figure by so doing. and indeed these do what is of all things the most contrary to true history; for it is the great character of true history that all concerned therein both speak and write the same things; while these men, by writing differently about the same things, think they shall be believed to write with the greatest regard to truth. we therefore [who are jews] must yield to the grecian writers as to language and eloquence of composition; but then we shall give them no such preference as to the verity of ancient history, and least of all as to that part which concerns the affairs of our own several countries. . as to the care of writing down the records from the earliest antiquity among the egyptians and babylonians; that the priests were intrusted therewith, and employed a philosophical concern about it; that they were the chaldean priests that did so among the babylonians; and that the phoenicians, who were mingled among the greeks, did especially make use of their letters, both for the common affairs of life, and for the delivering down the history of common transactions, i think i may omit any proof, because all men allow it so to be. but now as to our forefathers, that they took no less care about writing such records, [for i will not say they took greater care than the others i spoke of,] and that they committed that matter to their high priests and to their prophets, and that these records have been written all along down to our own times with the utmost accuracy; nay, if it be not too bold for me to say it, our history will be so written hereafter;--i shall endeavor briefly to inform you. . for our forefathers did not only appoint the best of these priests, and those that attended upon the divine worship, for that design from the beginning, but made provision that the stock of the priests should continue unmixed and pure; for he who is partaker of the priesthood must propagate of a wife of the same nation, without having any regard to money, or any other dignities; but he is to make a scrutiny, and take his wife's genealogy from the ancient tables, and procure many witnesses to it. [ ] and this is our practice not only in judea, but wheresoever any body of men of our nation do live; and even there an exact catalogue of our priests' marriages is kept; i mean at egypt and at babylon, or in any other place of the rest of the habitable earth, whithersoever our priests are scattered; for they send to jerusalem the ancient names of their parents in writing, as well as those of their remoter ancestors, and signify who are the witnesses also. but if any war falls out, such as have fallen out a great many of them already, when antiochus epiphanes made an invasion upon our country, as also when pompey the great and quintilius varus did so also, and principally in the wars that have happened in our own times, those priests that survive them compose new tables of genealogy out of the old records, and examine the circumstances of the women that remain; for still they do not admit of those that have been captives, as suspecting that they had conversation with some foreigners. but what is the strongest argument of our exact management in this matter is what i am now going to say, that we have the names of our high priests from father to son set down in our records for the interval of two thousand years; and if any of these have been transgressors of these rules, they are prohibited to present themselves at the altar, or to be partakers of any other of our purifications; and this is justly, or rather necessarily done, because every one is not permitted of his own accord to be a writer, nor is there any disagreement in what is written; they being only prophets that have written the original and earliest accounts of things as they learned them of god himself by inspiration; and others have written what hath happened in their own times, and that in a very distinct manner also. . for we have not an innumerable multitude of books among us, disagreeing from and contradicting one another, [as the greeks have,] but only twenty-two books, [ ] which contain the records of all the past times; which are justly believed to be divine; and of them five belong to moses, which contain his laws and the traditions of the origin of mankind till his death. this interval of time was little short of three thousand years; but as to the time from the death of moses till the reign of artaxerxes king of persia, who reigned after xerxes, the prophets, who were after moses, wrote down what was done in their times in thirteen books. the remaining four books contain hymns to god, and precepts for the conduct of human life. it is true, our history hath been written since artaxerxes very particularly, but hath not been esteemed of the like authority with the former by our forefathers, because there hath not been an exact succession of prophets since that time; and how firmly we have given credit to these books of our own nation is evident by what we do; for during so many ages as have already passed, no one has been so bold as either to add any thing to them, to take any thing from them, or to make any change in them; but it is become natural to all jews immediately, and from their very birth, to esteem these books to contain divine doctrines, and to persist in them, and, if occasion be willingly to die for them. for it is no new thing for our captives, many of them in number, and frequently in time, to be seen to endure racks and deaths of all kinds upon the theatres, that they may not be obliged to say one word against our laws and the records that contain them; whereas there are none at all among the greeks who would undergo the least harm on that account, no, nor in case all the writings that are among them were to be destroyed; for they take them to be such discourses as are framed agreeably to the inclinations of those that write them; and they have justly the same opinion of the ancient writers, since they see some of the present generation bold enough to write about such affairs, wherein they were not present, nor had concern enough to inform themselves about them from those that knew them; examples of which may be had in this late war of ours, where some persons have written histories, and published them, without having been in the places concerned, or having been near them when the actions were done; but these men put a few things together by hearsay, and insolently abuse the world, and call these writings by the name of histories. . as for myself, i have composed a true history of that whole war, and of all the particulars that occurred therein, as having been concerned in all its transactions; for i acted as general of those among us that are named galileans, as long as it was possible for us to make any opposition. i was then seized on by the romans, and became a captive. vespasian also and titus had me kept under a guard, and forced me to attend them continually. at the first i was put into bonds, but was set at liberty afterward, and sent to accompany titus when he came from alexandria to the siege of jerusalem; during which time there was nothing done which escaped my knowledge; for what happened in the roman camp i saw, and wrote down carefully; and what informations the deserters brought [out of the city], i was the only man that understood them. afterward i got leisure at rome; and when all my materials were prepared for that work, i made use of some persons to assist me in learning the greek tongue, and by these means i composed the history of those transactions. and i was so well assured of the truth of what i related, that i first of all appealed to those that had the supreme command in that war, vespasian and titus, as witnesses for me, for to them i presented those books first of all, and after them to many of the romans who had been in the war. i also sold them to many of our own men who understood the greek philosophy; among whom were julius archelaus, herod [king of chalcis], a person of great gravity, and king agrippa himself, a person that deserved the greatest admiration. now all these men bore their testimony to me, that i had the strictest regard to truth; who yet would not have dissembled the matter, nor been silent, if i, out of ignorance, or out of favor to any side, either had given false colors to actions, or omitted any of them. . there have been indeed some bad men, who have attempted to calumniate my history, and took it to be a kind of scholastic performance for the exercise of young men. a strange sort of accusation and calumny this! since every one that undertakes to deliver the history of actions truly ought to know them accurately himself in the first place, as either having been concerned in them himself, or been informed of them by such as knew them. now both these methods of knowledge i may very properly pretend to in the composition of both my works; for, as i said, i have translated the antiquities out of our sacred books; which i easily could do, since i was a priest by my birth, and have studied that philosophy which is contained in those writings: and for the history of the war, i wrote it as having been an actor myself in many of its transactions, an eye-witness in the greatest part of the rest, and was not unacquainted with any thing whatsoever that was either said or done in it. how impudent then must those deserve to be esteemed that undertake to contradict me about the true state of those affairs! who, although they pretend to have made use of both the emperors' own memoirs, yet could not they he acquainted with our affairs who fought against them. . this digression i have been obliged to make out of necessity, as being desirous to expose the vanity of those that profess to write histories; and i suppose i have sufficiently declared that this custom of transmitting down the histories of ancient times hath been better preserved by those nations which are called barbarians, than by the greeks themselves. i am now willing, in the next place, to say a few things to those that endeavor to prove that our constitution is but of late time, for this reason, as they pretend, that the greek writers have said nothing about us; after which i shall produce testimonies for our antiquity out of the writings of foreigners; i shall also demonstrate that such as cast reproaches upon our nation do it very unjustly. . as for ourselves, therefore, we neither inhabit a maritime country, nor do we delight in merchandise, nor in such a mixture with other men as arises from it; but the cities we dwell in are remote from the sea, and having a fruitful country for our habitation, we take pains in cultivating that only. our principal care of all is this, to educate our children well; and we think it to be the most necessary business of our whole life to observe the laws that have been given us, and to keep those rules of piety that have been delivered down to us. since, therefore, besides what we have already taken notice of, we have had a peculiar way of living of our own, there was no occasion offered us in ancient ages for intermixing among the greeks, as they had for mixing among the egyptians, by their intercourse of exporting and importing their several goods; as they also mixed with the phoenicians, who lived by the sea-side, by means of their love of lucre in trade and merchandise. nor did our forefathers betake themselves, as did some others, to robbery; nor did they, in order to gain more wealth, fall into foreign wars, although our country contained many ten thousands of men of courage sufficient for that purpose. for this reason it was that the phoenicians themselves came soon by trading and navigation to be known to the grecians, and by their means the egyptians became known to the grecians also, as did all those people whence the phoenicians in long voyages over the seas carried wares to the grecians. the medes also and the persians, when they were lords of asia, became well known to them; and this was especially true of the persians, who led their armies as far as the other continent [europe]. the thracians were also known to them by the nearness of their countries, and the scythians by the means of those that sailed to pontus; for it was so in general that all maritime nations, and those that inhabited near the eastern or western seas, became most known to those that were desirous to be writers; but such as had their habitations further from the sea were for the most part unknown to them which things appear to have happened as to europe also, where the city of rome, that hath this long time been possessed of so much power, and hath performed such great actions in war, is yet never mentioned by herodotus, nor by thucydides, nor by any one of their contemporaries; and it was very late, and with great difficulty, that the romans became known to the greeks. nay, those that were reckoned the most exact historians [and ephorus for one] were so very ignorant of the gauls and the spaniards, that he supposed the spaniards, who inhabit so great a part of the western regions of the earth, to be no more than one city. those historians also have ventured to describe such customs as were made use of by them, which they never had either done or said; and the reason why these writers did not know the truth of their affairs was this, that they had not any commerce together; but the reason why they wrote such falsities was this, that they had a mind to appear to know things which others had not known. how can it then be any wonder, if our nation was no more known to many of the greeks, nor had given them any occasion to mention them in their writings, while they were so remote from the sea, and had a conduct of life so peculiar to themselves? . let us now put the case, therefore, that we made use of this argument concerning the grecians, in order to prove that their nation was not ancient, because nothing is said of them in our records: would not they laugh at us all, and probably give the same reasons for our silence that i have now alleged, and would produce their neighbor nations as witnesses to their own antiquity? now the very same thing will i endeavor to do; for i will bring the egyptians and the phoenicians as my principal witnesses, because nobody can complain of their testimony as false, on account that they are known to have borne the greatest ill-will towards us; i mean this as to the egyptians in general all of them, while of the phoenicians it is known the tyrians have been most of all in the same ill disposition towards us: yet do i confess that i cannot say the same of the chaldeans, since our first leaders and ancestors were derived from them; and they do make mention of us jews in their records, on account of the kindred there is between us. now when i shall have made my assertions good, so far as concerns the others, i will demonstrate that some of the greek writers have made mention of us jews also, that those who envy us may not have even this pretense for contradicting what i have said about our nation. . i shall begin with the writings of the egyptians; not indeed of those that have written in the egyptian language, which it is impossible for me to do. but manetho was a man who was by birth an egyptian, yet had he made himself master of the greek learning, as is very evident; for he wrote the history of his own country in the greek tongue, by translating it, as he saith himself, out of their sacred records; he also finds great fault with herodotus for his ignorance and false relations of egyptian affairs. now this manetho, in the second book of his egyptian history, writes concerning us in the following manner. i will set down his very words, as if i were to bring the very man himself into a court for a witness: "there was a king of ours whose name was timaus. under him it came to pass, i know not how, that god was averse to us, and there came, after a surprising manner, men of ignoble birth out of the eastern parts, and had boldness enough to make an expedition into our country, and with ease subdued it by force, yet without our hazarding a battle with them. so when they had gotten those that governed us under their power, they afterwards burnt down our cities, and demolished the temples of the gods, and used all the inhabitants after a most barbarous manner; nay, some they slew, and led their children and their wives into slavery. at length they made one of themselves king, whose name was salatis; he also lived at memphis, and made both the upper and lower regions pay tribute, and left garrisons in places that were the most proper for them. he chiefly aimed to secure the eastern parts, as fore-seeing that the assyrians, who had then the greatest power, would be desirous of that kingdom, and invade them; and as he found in the saite nomos, [sethroite,] a city very proper for this purpose, and which lay upon the bubastic channel, but with regard to a certain theologic notion was called avaris, this he rebuilt, and made very strong by the walls he built about it, and by a most numerous garrison of two hundred and forty thousand armed men whom he put into it to keep it. thither salatis came in summer time, partly to gather his corn, and pay his soldiers their wages, and partly to exercise his armed men, and thereby to terrify foreigners. when this man had reigned thirteen years, after him reigned another, whose name was beon, for forty-four years; after him reigned another, called apachnas, thirty-six years and seven months; after him apophis reigned sixty-one years, and then janins fifty years and one month; after all these reigned assis forty-nine years and two months. and these six were the first rulers among them, who were all along making war with the egyptians, and were very desirous gradually to destroy them to the very roots. this whole nation was styled hycsos, that is, shepherd-kings: for the first syllable hyc, according to the sacred dialect, denotes a king, as is sos a shepherd; but this according to the ordinary dialect; and of these is compounded hycsos: but some say that these people were arabians." now in another copy it is said that this word does not denote kings, but, on the contrary, denotes captive shepherds, and this on account of the particle hyc; for that hyc, with the aspiration, in the egyptian tongue again denotes shepherds, and that expressly also; and this to me seems the more probable opinion, and more agreeable to ancient history. [but manetho goes on]: "these people, whom we have before named kings, and called shepherds also, and their descendants," as he says, "kept possession of egypt five hundred and eleven years." after these, he says, "that the kings of thebais and the other parts of egypt made an insurrection against the shepherds, and that there a terrible and long war was made between them." he says further, "that under a king, whose name was alisphragmuthosis, the shepherds were subdued by him, and were indeed driven out of other parts of egypt, but were shut up in a place that contained ten thousand acres; this place was named avaris." manetho says, "that the shepherds built a wall round all this place, which was a large and a strong wall, and this in order to keep all their possessions and their prey within a place of strength, but that thummosis the son of alisphragmuthosis made an attempt to take them by force and by siege, with four hundred and eighty thousand men to lie rotund about them, but that, upon his despair of taking the place by that siege, they came to a composition with them, that they should leave egypt, and go, without any harm to be done to them, whithersoever they would; and that, after this composition was made, they went away with their whole families and effects, not fewer in number than two hundred and forty thousand, and took their journey from egypt, through the wilderness, for syria; but that as they were in fear of the assyrians, who had then the dominion over asia, they built a city in that country which is now called judea, and that large enough to contain this great number of men, and called it jerusalem." [ ] now manetho, in another book of his, says, "that this nation, thus called shepherds, were also called captives, in their sacred books." and this account of his is the truth; for feeding of sheep was the employment of our forefathers in the most ancient ages [ ] and as they led such a wandering life in feeding sheep, they were called shepherds. nor was it without reason that they were called captives by the egyptians, since one of our ancestors, joseph, told the king of egypt that he was a captive, and afterward sent for his brethren into egypt by the king's permission. but as for these matters, i shall make a more exact inquiry about them elsewhere. [ ] . but now i shall produce the egyptians as witnesses to the antiquity of our nation. i shall therefore here bring in manetho again, and what he writes as to the order of the times in this case; and thus he speaks: "when this people or shepherds were gone out of egypt to jerusalem, tethtoosis the king of egypt, who drove them out, reigned afterward twenty-five years and four months, and then died; after him his son chebron took the kingdom for thirteen years; after whom came amenophis, for twenty years and seven months; then came his sister amesses, for twenty-one years and nine months; after her came mephres, for twelve years and nine months; after him was mephramuthosis, for twenty-five years and ten months; after him was thmosis, for nine years and eight months; after him came amenophis, for thirty years and ten months; after him came orus, for thirty-six years and five months; then came his daughter acenchres, for twelve years and one month; then was her brother rathotis, for nine years; then was acencheres, for twelve years and five months; then came another acencheres, for twelve years and three months; after him armais, for four years and one month; after him was ramesses, for one year and four months; after him came armesses miammoun, for sixty-six years and two months; after him amenophis, for nineteen years and six months; after him came sethosis, and ramesses, who had an army of horse, and a naval force. this king appointed his brother, armais, to be his deputy over egypt." [in another copy it stood thus: "after him came sethosis, and ramesses, two brethren, the former of whom had a naval force, and in a hostile manner destroyed those that met him upon the sea; but as he slew ramesses in no long time afterward, so he appointed another of his brethren to be his deputy over egypt.] he also gave him all the other authority of a king, but with these only injunctions, that he should not wear the diadem, nor be injurious to the queen, the mother of his children, and that he should not meddle with the other concubines of the king; while he made an expedition against cyprus, and phoenicia, and besides against the assyrians and the medes. he then subdued them all, some by his arms, some without fighting, and some by the terror of his great army; and being puffed up by the great successes he had had, he went on still the more boldly, and overthrew the cities and countries that lay in the eastern parts. but after some considerable time, armais, who was left in egypt, did all those very things, by way of opposition, which his brother had forbid him to do, without fear; for he used violence to the queen, and continued to make use of the rest of the concubines, without sparing any of them; nay, at the persuasion of his friends he put on the diadem, and set up to oppose his brother. but then he who was set over the priests of egypt wrote letters to sethosis, and informed him of all that had happened, and how his brother had set up to oppose him: he therefore returned back to pelusium immediately, and recovered his kingdom again. the country also was called from his name egypt; for manetho says, that sethosis was himself called egyptus, as was his brother armais called danaus." . this is manetho's account. and evident it is from the number of years by him set down belonging to this interval, if they be summed up together, that these shepherds, as they are here called, who were no other than our forefathers, were delivered out of egypt, and came thence, and inhabited this country, three hundred and ninety-three years before danaus came to argos; although the argives look upon him [ ] as their most ancient king manetho, therefore, hears this testimony to two points of the greatest consequence to our purpose, and those from the egyptian records themselves. in the first place, that we came out of another country into egypt; and that withal our deliverance out of it was so ancient in time as to have preceded the siege of troy almost a thousand years; but then, as to those things which manetbo adds, not from the egyptian records, but, as he confesses himself, from some stories of an uncertain original, i will disprove them hereafter particularly, and shall demonstrate that they are no better than incredible fables. . i will now, therefore, pass from these records, and come to those that belong to the phoenicians, and concern our nation, and shall produce attestations to what i have said out of them. there are then records among the tyrians that take in the history of many years, and these are public writings, and are kept with great exactness, and include accounts of the facts done among them, and such as concern their transactions with other nations also, those i mean which were worth remembering. therein it was recorded that the temple was built by king solomon at jerusalem, one hundred forty-three years and eight months before the tyrians built carthage; and in their annals the building of our temple is related; for hirom, the king of tyre, was the friend of solomon our king, and had such friendship transmitted down to him from his forefathers. he thereupon was ambitious to contribute to the splendor of this edifice of solomon, and made him a present of one hundred and twenty talents of gold. he also cut down the most excellent timber out of that mountain which is called libanus, and sent it to him for adorning its roof. solomon also not only made him many other presents, by way of requital, but gave him a country in galilee also, that was called chabulon. [ ] but there was another passion, a philosophic inclination of theirs, which cemented the friendship that was betwixt them; for they sent mutual problems to one another, with a desire to have them unriddled by each other; wherein solomon was superior to hirom, as he was wiser than he in other respects: and many of the epistles that passed between them are still preserved among the tyrians. now, that this may not depend on my bare word, i will produce for a witness dius, one that is believed to have written the phoenician history after an accurate manner. this dius, therefore, writes thus, in his histories of the phoenicians: "upon the death of abibalus, his son hirom took the kingdom. this king raised banks at the eastern parts of the city, and enlarged it; he also joined the temple of jupiter olympius, which stood before in an island by itself, to the city, by raising a causeway between them, and adorned that temple with donations of gold. he moreover went up to libanus, and had timber cut down for the building of temples. they say further, that solomon, when he was king of jerusalem, sent problems to hirom to be solved, and desired he would send others back for him to solve, and that he who could not solve the problems proposed to him should pay money to him that solved them. and when hirom had agreed to the proposals, but was not able to solve the problems, he was obliged to pay a great deal of money, as a penalty for the same. as also they relate, that one oeabdemon, a man of tyre, did solve the problems, and propose others which solomon could not solve, upon which he was obliged to repay a great deal of money to hirom." these things are attested to by dius, and confirm what we have said upon the same subjects before. . and now i shall add menander the ephesian, as an additional witness. this menander wrote the acts that were done both by the greeks and barbarians, under every one of the tyrian kings, and had taken much pains to learn their history out of their own records. now when he was writing about those kings that had reigned at tyre, he came to hirom, and says thus: "upon the death of abibalus, his son hirom took the kingdom; he lived fifty-three years, and reigned thirty-four. he raised a bank on that called the broad place, and dedicated that golden pillar which is in jupiter's temple; he also went and cut down timber from the mountain called libanus, and got timber of cedar for the roofs of the temples. he also pulled down the old temples, and built new ones; besides this, he consecrated the temples of hercules and of astarte. he first built hercules's temple in the month peritus, and that of astarte when he made his expedition against the tityans, who would not pay him their tribute; and when he had subdued them to himself, he returned home. under this king there was a younger son of abdemon, who mastered the problems which solomon king of jerusalem had recommended to be solved." now the time from this king to the building of carthage is thus calculated: "upon the death of hirom, baleazarus his son took the kingdom; he lived forty-three years, and reigned seven years: after him succeeded his son abdastartus; he lived twenty-nine years, and reigned nine years. now four sons of his nurse plotted against him and slew him, the eldest of whom reigned twelve years: after them came astartus, the son of deleastartus; he lived fifty-four years, and reigned twelve years: after him came his brother aserymus; he lived fifty-four years, and reigned nine years: he was slain by his brother pheles, who took the kingdom and reigned but eight months, though he lived fifty years: he was slain by ithobalus, the priest of astarte, who reigned thirty-two years, and lived sixty-eight years: he was succeeded by his son badezorus, who lived forty-five years, and reigned six years: he was succeeded by matgenus his son; he lived thirty-two years, and reigned nine years: pygmalion succeeded him; he lived fifty-six years, and reigned forty-seven years. now in the seventh year of his reign, his sister fled away from him, and built the city carthage in libya." so the whole time from the reign of hirom, till the building of carthage, amounts to the sum of one hundred fifty-five years and eight months. since then the temple was built at jerusalem in the twelfth year of the reign of hirom, there were from the building of the temple, until the building of carthage, one hundred forty-three years and eight months. wherefore, what occasion is there for alleging any more testimonies out of the phoenician histories [on the behalf of our nation], since what i have said is so thoroughly confirmed already? and to be sure our ancestors came into this country long before the building of the temple; for it was not till we had gotten possession of the whole land by war that we built our temple. and this is the point that i have clearly proved out of our sacred writings in my antiquities. . i will now relate what hath been written concerning us in the chaldean histories, which records have a great agreement with our books in oilier things also. berosus shall be witness to what i say: he was by birth a chaldean, well known by the learned, on account of his publication of the chaldean books of astronomy and philosophy among the greeks. this berosus, therefore, following the most ancient records of that nation, gives us a history of the deluge of waters that then happened, and of the destruction of mankind thereby, and agrees with moses's narration thereof. he also gives us an account of that ark wherein noah, the origin of our race, was preserved, when it was brought to the highest part of the armenian mountains; after which he gives us a catalogue of the posterity of noah, and adds the years of their chronology, and at length comes down to nabolassar, who was king of babylon, and of the chaldeans. and when he was relating the acts of this king, he describes to us how he sent his son nabuchodonosor against egypt, and against our land, with a great army, upon his being informed that they had revolted from him; and how, by that means, he subdued them all, and set our temple that was at jerusalem on fire; nay, and removed our people entirely out of their own country, and transferred them to babylon; when it so happened that our city was desolate during the interval of seventy years, until the days of cyrus king of persia. he then says, "that this babylonian king conquered egypt, and syria, and phoenicia, and arabia, and exceeded in his exploits all that had reigned before him in babylon and chaldea." a little after which berosus subjoins what follows in his history of ancient times. i will set down berosus's own accounts, which are these: "when nabolassar, father of nabuchodonosor, heard that the governor whom he had set over egypt, and over the parts of celesyria and phoenicia, had revolted from him, he was not able to bear it any longer; but committing certain parts of his army to his son nabuchodonosor, who was then but young, he sent him against the rebel: nabuchodonosor joined battle with him, and conquered him, and reduced the country under his dominion again. now it so fell out that his father nabolassar fell into a distemper at this time, and died in the city of babylon, after he had reigned twenty-nine years. but as he understood, in a little time, that his father nabolassar was dead, he set the affairs of egypt and the other countries in order, and committed the captives he had taken from the jews, and phoenicians, and syrians, and of the nations belonging to egypt, to some of his friends, that they might conduct that part of the forces that had on heavy armor, with the rest of his baggage, to babylonia; while he went in haste, having but a few with him, over the desert to babylon; whither, when he was come, he found the public affairs had been managed by the chaldeans, and that the principal person among them had preserved the kingdom for him. accordingly, he now entirely obtained all his father's dominions. he then came, and ordered the captives to be placed as colonies in the most proper places of babylonia; but for himself, he adorned the temple of belus, and the other temples, after an elegant manner, out of the spoils he had taken in this war. he also rebuilt the old city, and added another to it on the outside, and so far restored babylon, that none who should besiege it afterwards might have it in their power to divert the river, so as to facilitate an entrance into it; and this he did by building three walls about the inner city, and three about the outer. some of these walls he built of burnt brick and bitumen, and some of brick only. so when he had thus fortified the city with walls, after an excellent manner, and had adorned the gates magnificently, he added a new palace to that which his father had dwelt in, and this close by it also, and that more eminent in its height, and in its great splendor. it would perhaps require too long a narration, if any one were to describe it. however, as prodigiously large and as magnificent as it was, it was finished in fifteen days. now in this palace he erected very high walks, supported by stone pillars, and by planting what was called a pensile paradise, and replenishing it with all sorts of trees, he rendered the prospect an exact resemblance of a mountainous country. this he did to please his queen, because she had been brought up in media, and was fond of a mountainous situation." . this is what berosus relates concerning the forementioned king, as he relates many other things about him also in the third book of his chaldean history; wherein he complains of the grecian writers for supposing, without any foundation, that babylon was built by semiramis, [ ] queen of assyria, and for her false pretense to those wonderful edifices thereto buildings at babylon, do no way contradict those ancient and relating, as if they were her own workmanship; as indeed in these affairs the chaldean history cannot but be the most credible. moreover, we meet with a confirmation of what berosus says in the archives of the phoenicians, concerning this king nabuchodonosor, that he conquered all syria and phoenicia; in which case philostratus agrees with the others in that history which he composed, where he mentions the siege of tyre; as does megasthenes also, in the fourth book of his indian history, wherein he pretends to prove that the forementioned king of the babylonians was superior to hercules in strength and the greatness of his exploits; for he says that he conquered a great part of libya, and conquered iberia also. now as to what i have said before about the temple at jerusalem, that it was fought against by the babylonians, and burnt by them, but was opened again when cyrus had taken the kingdom of asia, shall now be demonstrated from what berosus adds further upon that head; for thus he says in his third book: "nabuchodonosor, after he had begun to build the forementioned wall, fell sick, and departed this life, when he had reigned forty-three years; whereupon his son evilmerodach obtained the kingdom. he governed public affairs after an illegal and impure manner, and had a plot laid against him by neriglissoor, his sister's husband, and was slain by him when he had reigned but two years. after he was slain, neriglissoor, the person who plotted against him, succeeded him in the kingdom, and reigned four years; his son laborosoarchod obtained the kingdom, though he was but a child, and kept it nine mouths; but by reason of the very ill temper and ill practices he exhibited to the world, a plot was laid against him also by his friends, and he was tormented to death. after his death, the conspirators got together, and by common consent put the crown upon the head of nabonnedus, a man of babylon, and one who belonged to that insurrection. in his reign it was that the walls of the city of babylon were curiously built with burnt brick and bitumen; but when he was come to the seventeenth year of his reign, cyrus came out of persia with a great army; and having already conquered all the rest of asia, he came hastily to babylonia. when nabonnedus perceived he was coming to attack him, he met him with his forces, and joining battle with him was beaten, and fled away with a few of his troops with him, and was shut up within the city borsippus. hereupon cyrus took babylon, and gave order that the outer walls of the city should be demolished, because the city had proved very troublesome to him, and cost him a great deal of pains to take it. he then marched away to borsippus, to besiege nabonnedus; but as nabonnedus did not sustain the siege, but delivered himself into his hands, he was at first kindly used by cyrus, who gave him carmania, as a place for him to inhabit in, but sent him out of babylonia. accordingly nabonnedus spent the rest of his time in that country, and there died." . these accounts agree with the true histories in our books; for in them it is written that nebuchadnezzar, in the eighteenth year of his reign, laid our temple desolate, and so it lay in that state of obscurity for fifty years; but that in the second year of the reign of cyrus its foundations were laid, and it was finished again in the second year of darius. i will now add the records of the phoenicians; for it will not be superfluous to give the reader demonstrations more than enough on this occasion. in them we have this enumeration of the times of their several kings: "nabuchodonosor besieged tyre for thirteen years in the days of ithobal, their king; after him reigned baal, ten years; after him were judges appointed, who judged the people: ecnibalus, the son of baslacus, two months; chelbes, the son of abdeus, ten months; abbar, the high priest, three months; mitgonus and gerastratus, the sons of abdelemus, were judges six years; after whom balatorus reigned one year; after his death they sent and fetched merbalus from babylon, who reigned four years; after his death they sent for his brother hirom, who reigned twenty years. under his reign cyrus became king of persia." so that the whole interval is fifty-four years besides three months; for in the seventh year of the reign of nebuchadnezzar he began to besiege tyre, and cyrus the persian took the kingdom in the fourteenth year of hirom. so that the records of the chaldeans and tyrians agree with our writings about this temple; and the testimonies here produced are an indisputable and undeniable attestation to the antiquity of our nation. and i suppose that what i have already said may be sufficient to such as are not very contentious. . but now it is proper to satisfy the inquiry of those that disbelieve the records of barbarians, and think none but greeks to be worthy of credit, and to produce many of these very greeks who were acquainted with our nation, and to set before them such as upon occasion have made mention of us in their own writings. pythagoras, therefore, of samos, lived in very ancient times, and was esteemed a person superior to all philosophers in wisdom and piety towards god. now it is plain that he did not only know our doctrines, but was in very great measure a follower and admirer of them. there is not indeed extant any writing that is owned for his [ ] but many there are who have written his history, of whom hermippus is the most celebrated, who was a person very inquisitive into all sorts of history. now this hermippus, in his first book concerning pythagoras, speaks thus: "that pythagoras, upon the death of one of his associates, whose name was calliphon, a crotonlate by birth, affirmed that this man's soul conversed with him both night and day, and enjoined him not to pass over a place where an ass had fallen down; as also not to drink of such waters as caused thirst again; and to abstain from all sorts of reproaches." after which he adds thus: "this he did and said in imitation of the doctrines of the jews and thracians, which he transferred into his own philosophy." for it is very truly affirmed of this pythagoras, that he took a great many of the laws of the jews into his own philosophy. nor was our nation unknown of old to several of the grecian cities, and indeed was thought worthy of imitation by some of them. this is declared by theophrastus, in his writings concerning laws; for he says that "the laws of the tyrians forbid men to swear foreign oaths." among which he enumerates some others, and particularly that called corban: which oath can only be found among the jews, and declares what a man may call "a thing devoted to god." nor indeed was herodotus of halicarnassus unacquainted with our nation, but mentions it after a way of his own, when he saith thus, in the second book concerning the colchians. his words are these: "the only people who were circumcised in their privy members originally, were the colchians, the egyptians, and the ethiopians; but the phoenicians and those syrians that are in palestine confess that they learned it from the egyptians. and for those syrians who live about the rivers thermodon and parthenius, and their neighbors the macrones, they say they have lately learned it from the colchians; for these are the only people that are circumcised among mankind, and appear to have done the very same thing with the egyptians. but as for the egyptians and ethiopians themselves, i am not able to say which of them received it from the other." this therefore is what herodotus says, that "the syrians that are in palestine are circumcised." but there are no inhabitants of palestine that are circumcised excepting the jews; and therefore it must be his knowledge of them that enabled him to speak so much concerning them. cherilus also, a still ancienter writer, and a poet, [ ] makes mention of our nation, and informs us that it came to the assistance of king xerxes, in his expedition against greece. for in his enumeration of all those nations, he last of all inserts ours among the rest, when he says, "at the last there passed over a people, wonderful to be beheld; for they spake the phoenician tongue with their mouths; they dwelt in the solymean mountains, near a broad lake: their heads were sooty; they had round rasures on them; their heads and faces were like nasty horse-heads also, that had been hardened in the smoke." i think, therefore, that it is evident to every body that cherilus means us, because the solymean mountains are in our country, wherein we inhabit, as is also the lake called asphaltitis; for this is a broader and larger lake than any other that is in syria: and thus does cherilus make mention of us. but now that not only the lowest sort of the grecians, but those that are had in the greatest admiration for their philosophic improvements among them, did not only know the jews, but when they lighted upon any of them, admired them also, it is easy for any one to know. for clearchus, who was the scholar of aristotle, and inferior to no one of the peripatetics whomsoever, in his first book concerning sleep, says that "aristotle his master related what follows of a jew," and sets down aristotle's own discourse with him. the account is this, as written down by him: "now, for a great part of what this jew said, it would be too long to recite it; but what includes in it both wonder and philosophy it may not be amiss to discourse of. now, that i may be plain with thee, hyperochides, i shall herein seem to thee to relate wonders, and what will resemble dreams themselves. hereupon hyperochides answered modestly, and said, for that very reason it is that all of us are very desirous of hearing what thou art going to say. then replied aristotle, for this cause it will be the best way to imitate that rule of the rhetoricians, which requires us first to give an account of the man, and of what nation he was, that so we may not contradict our master's directions. then said hyperochides, go on, if it so pleases thee. this man then, [answered aristotle,] was by birth a jew, and came from celesyria; these jews are derived from the indian philosophers; they are named by the indians calami, and by the syrians judaei, and took their name from the country they inhabit, which is called judea; but for the name of their city, it is a very awkward one, for they call it jerusalem. now this man, when he was hospitably treated by a great many, came down from the upper country to the places near the sea, and became a grecian, not only in his language, but in his soul also; insomuch that when we ourselves happened to be in asia about the same places whither he came, he conversed with us, and with other philosophical persons, and made a trial of our skill in philosophy; and as he had lived with many learned men, he communicated to us more information than he received from us." this is aristotle's account of the matter, as given us by clearchus; which aristotle discoursed also particularly of the great and wonderful fortitude of this jew in his diet, and continent way of living, as those that please may learn more about him from clearchus's book itself; for i avoid setting down any more than is sufficient for my purpose. now clearchus said this by way of digression, for his main design was of another nature. but for hecateus of abdera, who was both a philosopher, and one very useful ill an active life, he was contemporary with king alexander in his youth, and afterward was with ptolemy, the son of lagus; he did not write about the jewish affairs by the by only, but composed an entire book concerning the jews themselves; out of which book i am willing to run over a few things, of which i have been treating by way of epitome. and, in the first place, i will demonstrate the time when this hecateus lived; for he mentions the fight that was between ptolemy and demetrius about gaza, which was fought in the eleventh year after the death of alexander, and in the hundred and seventeenth olympiad, as castor says in his history. for when he had set down this olympiad, he says further, that "in this olympiad ptolemy, the son of lagus, beat in battle demetrius, the son of antigonus, who was named poliorcetes, at gaza." now, it is agreed by all, that alexander died in the hundred and fourteenth olympiad; it is therefore evident that our nation flourished in his time, and in the time of alexander. again, hecateus says to the same purpose, as follows: "ptolemy got possession of the places in syria after that battle at gaza; and many, when they heard of ptolemy's moderation and humanity, went along with him to egypt, and were willing to assist him in his affairs; one of whom [hecateus says] was hezekiah [ ] the high priest of the jews; a man of about sixty-six years of age, and in great dignity among his own people. he was a very sensible man, and could speak very movingly, and was very skillful in the management of affairs, if any other man ever were so; although, as he says, all the priests of the jews took tithes of the products of the earth, and managed public affairs, and were in number not above fifteen hundred at the most." hecateus mentions this hezekiah a second time, and says, that "as he was possessed of so great a dignity, and was become familiar with us, so did he take certain of those that were with him, and explained to them all the circumstances of their people; for he had all their habitations and polity down in writing." moreover, hecateus declares again, "what regard we have for our laws, and that we resolve to endure any thing rather than transgress them, because we think it right for us to do so." whereupon he adds, that "although they are in a bad reputation among their neighbors, and among all those that come to them, and have been often treated injuriously by the kings and governors of persia, yet can they not be dissuaded from acting what they think best; but that when they are stripped on this account, and have torments inflicted upon them, and they are brought to the most terrible kinds of death, they meet them after an extraordinary manner, beyond all other people, and will not renounce the religion of their forefathers." hecateus also produces demonstrations not a few of this their resolute tenaciousness of their laws, when he speaks thus: "alexander was once at babylon, and had an intention to rebuild the temple of belus that was fallen to decay, and in order thereto, he commanded all his soldiers in general to bring earth thither. but the jews, and they only, would not comply with that command; nay, they underwent stripes and great losses of what they had on this account, till the king forgave them, and permitted them to live in quiet." he adds further, that "when the macedonians came to them into that country, and demolished the [old] temples and the altars, they assisted them in demolishing them all [ ] but [for not assisting them in rebuilding them] they either underwent losses, or sometimes obtained forgiveness." he adds further, that "these men deserve to be admired on that account." he also speaks of the mighty populousness of our nation, and says that "the persians formerly carried away many ten thousands of our people to babylon, as also that not a few ten thousands were removed after alexander's death into egypt and phoenicia, by reason of the sedition that was arisen in syria." the same person takes notice in his history, how large the country is which we inhabit, as well as of its excellent character, and says, that "the land in which the jews inhabit contains three millions of arourae, [ ] and is generally of a most excellent and most fruitful soil; nor is judea of lesser dimensions." the same man describe our city jerusalem also itself as of a most excellent structure, and very large, and inhabited from the most ancient times. he also discourses of the multitude of men in it, and of the construction of our temple, after the following manner: "there are many strong places and villages [says he] in the country of judea; but one strong city there is, about fifty furlongs in circumference, which is inhabited by a hundred and twenty thousand men, or thereabouts; they call it jerusalem. there is about the middle of the city a wall of stone, whose length is five hundred feet, and the breadth a hundred cubits, with double cloisters; wherein there is a square altar, not made of hewn stone, but composed of white stones gathered together, having each side twenty cubits long, and its altitude ten cubits. hard by it is a large edifice, wherein there is an altar and a candlestick, both of gold, and in weight two talents: upon these there is a light that is never extinguished, either by night or by day. there is no image, nor any thing, nor any donations therein; nothing at all is there planted, neither grove, nor any thing of that sort. the priests abide therein both nights and days, performing certain purifications, and drinking not the least drop of wine while they are in the temple." moreover, he attests that we jews went as auxiliaries along with king alexander, and after him with his successors. i will add further what he says he learned when he was himself with the same army, concerning the actions of a man that was a jew. his words are these: "as i was myself going to the red sea, there followed us a man, whose name was mosollam; he was one of the jewish horsemen who conducted us; he was a person of great courage, of a strong body, and by all allowed to be the most skillful archer that was either among the greeks or barbarians. now this man, as people were in great numbers passing along the road, and a certain augur was observing an augury by a bird, and requiring them all to stand still, inquired what they staid for. hereupon the augur showed him the bird from whence he took his augury, and told him that if the bird staid where he was, they ought all to stand still; but that if he got up, and flew onward, they must go forward; but that if he flew backward, they must retire again. mosollam made no reply, but drew his bow, and shot at the bird, and hit him, and killed him; and as the augur and some others were very angry, and wished imprecations upon him, he answered them thus: why are you so mad as to take this most unhappy bird into your hands? for how can this bird give us any true information concerning our march, who could not foresee how to save himself? for had he been able to foreknow what was future, he would not have come to this place, but would have been afraid lest mosollam the jew should shoot at him, and kill him." but of hecateus's testimonies we have said enough; for as to such as desire to know more of them, they may easily obtain them from his book itself. however, i shall not think it too much for me to name agatharchides, as having made mention of us jews, though in way of derision at our simplicity, as he supposes it to be; for when he was discoursing of the affairs of stratonice, "how she came out of macedonia into syria, and left her husband demetrius, while yet seleueus would not marry her as she expected, but during the time of his raising an army at babylon, stirred up a sedition about antioch; and how, after that, the king came back, and upon his taking of antioch, she fled to seleucia, and had it in her power to sail away immediately yet did she comply with a dream which forbade her so to do, and so was caught and put to death." when agatharehides had premised this story, and had jested upon stratonice for her superstition, he gives a like example of what was reported concerning us, and writes thus: "there are a people called jews, and dwell in a city the strongest of all other cities, which the inhabitants call jerusalem, and are accustomed to rest on every seventh day [ ] on which times they make no use of their arms, nor meddle with husbandry, nor take care of any affairs of life, but spread out their hands in their holy places, and pray till the evening. now it came to pass, that when ptolemy, the son of lagus, came into this city with his army, that these men, in observing this mad custom of theirs, instead of guarding the city, suffered their country to submit itself to a bitter lord; and their law was openly proved to have commanded a foolish practice. [ ] this accident taught all other men but the jews to disregard such dreams as these were, and not to follow the like idle suggestions delivered as a law, when, in such uncertainty of human reasonings, they are at a loss what they should do." now this our procedure seems a ridiculous thing to agatharehides, but will appear to such as consider it without prejudice a great thing, and what deserved a great many encomiums; i mean, when certain men constantly prefer the observation of their laws, and their religion towards god, before the preservation of themselves and their country. . now that some writers have omitted to mention our nation, not because they knew nothing of us, but because they envied us, or for some other unjustifiable reasons, i think i can demonstrate by particular instances; for hieronymus, who wrote the history of alexander's successors, lived at the same time with hecateus, and was a friend of king antigonus, and president of syria. now it is plain that hecateus wrote an entire book concerning us, while hieronymus never mentions us in his history, although he was bred up very near to the places where we live. thus different from one another are the inclinations of men; while the one thought we deserved to be carefully remembered, as some ill-disposed passion blinded the other's mind so entirely, that he could not discern the truth. and now certainly the foregoing records of the egyptians, and chaldeans, and phoenicians, together with so many of the greek writers, will be sufficient for the demonstration of our antiquity. moreover, besides those forementioned, theophilus, and theodotus, and mnaseas, and aristophanes, and hermogenes, euhemerus also, and conon, and zopyrion, and perhaps many others, [for i have not lighted upon all the greek books,] have made distinct mention of us. it is true, many of the men before mentioned have made great mistakes about the true accounts of our nation in the earliest times, because they had not perused our sacred books; yet have they all of them afforded their testimony to our antiquity, concerning which i am now treating. however, demetrius phalereus, and the elder philo, with eupolemus, have not greatly missed the truth about our affairs; whose lesser mistakes ought therefore to be forgiven them; for it was not in their power to understand our writings with the utmost accuracy. . one particular there is still remaining behind of what i at first proposed to speak to, and that is, to demonstrate that those calumnies and reproaches which some have thrown upon our nation, are lies, and to make use of those writers' own testimonies against themselves; and that in general this self-contradiction hath happened to many other authors by reason of their ill-will to some people, i conclude, is not unknown to such as have read histories with sufficient care; for some of them have endeavored to disgrace the nobility of certain nations, and of some of the most glorious cities, and have cast reproaches upon certain forms of government. thus hath theopompus abused the city of athens, polycrates that of lacedemon, as hath he hat wrote the tripoliticus [for he is not theopompus, as is supposed by some] done by the city of thebes. timeils also hath greatly abused the foregoing people and others also; and this ill-treatment they use chiefly when they have a contest with men of the greatest reputation; some out of envy and malice, and others as supposing that by this foolish talking of theirs they may be thought worthy of being remembered themselves; and indeed they do by no means fail of their hopes, with regard to the foolish part of mankind, but men of sober judgment still condemn them of great malignity. . now the egyptians were the first that cast reproaches upon us; in order to please which nation, some others undertook to pervert the truth, while they would neither own that our forefathers came into egypt from another country, as the fact was, nor give a true account of our departure thence. and indeed the egyptians took many occasions to hate us and envy us: in the first place, because our ancestors had had the dominion over their country? and when they were delivered from them, and gone to their own country again, they lived there in prosperity. in the next place, the difference of our religion from theirs hath occasioned great enmity between us, while our way of divine worship did as much exceed that which their laws appointed, as does the nature of god exceed that of brute beasts; for so far they all agree through the whole country, to esteem such animals as gods, although they differ one from another in the peculiar worship they severally pay to them. and certainly men they are entirely of vain and foolish minds, who have thus accustomed themselves from the beginning to have such bad notions concerning their gods, and could not think of imitating that decent form of divine worship which we made use of, though, when they saw our institutions approved of by many others, they could not but envy us on that account; for some of them have proceeded to that degree of folly and meanness in their conduct, as not to scruple to contradict their own ancient records, nay, to contradict themselves also in their writings, and yet were so blinded by their passions as not to discern it. . and now i will turn my discourse to one of their principal writers, whom i have a little before made use of as a witness to our antiquity; i mean manetho. [ ] he promised to interpret the egyptian history out of their sacred writings, and premised this: that "our people had come into egypt, many ten thousands in number, and subdued its inhabitants;" and when he had further confessed that "we went out of that country afterward, and settled in that country which is now called judea, and there built jerusalem and its temple." now thus far he followed his ancient records; but after this he permits himself, in order to appear to have written what rumors and reports passed abroad about the jews, and introduces incredible narrations, as if he would have the egyptian multitude, that had the leprosy and other distempers, to have been mixed with us, as he says they were, and that they were condemned to fly out of egypt together; for he mentions amenophis, a fictitious king's name, though on that account he durst not set down the number of years of his reign, which yet he had accurately done as to the other kings he mentions; he then ascribes certain fabulous stories to this king, as having in a manner forgotten how he had already related that the departure of the shepherds for jerusalem had been five hundred and eighteen years before; for tethmosis was king when they went away. now, from his days, the reigns of the intermediate kings, according to manethe, amounted to three hundred and ninety-three years, as he says himself, till the two brothers sethos and hermeus; the one of whom, sethos, was called by that other name of egyptus, and the other, hermeus, by that of danaus. he also says that sethos east the other out of egypt, and reigned fifty-nine years, as did his eldest son rhampses reign after him sixty-six years. when manethe therefore had acknowledged that our forefathers were gone out of egypt so many years ago, he introduces his fictitious king amenophis, and says thus: "this king was desirous to become a spectator of the gods, as had orus, one of his predecessors in that kingdom, desired the same before him; he also communicated that his desire to his namesake amenophis, who was the son of papis, and one that seemed to partake of a divine nature, both as to wisdom and the knowledge of futurities." manethe adds, "how this namesake of his told him that he might see the gods, if he would clear the whole country of the lepers and of the other impure people; that the king was pleased with this injunction, and got together all that had any defect in their bodies out of egypt; and that their number was eighty thousand; whom he sent to those quarries which are on the east side of the nile, that they might work in them, and might be separated from the rest of the egyptians." he says further, that "there were some of the learned priests that were polluted with the leprosy; but that still this amenophis, the wise man and the prophet, was afraid that the gods would be angry at him and at the king, if there should appear to have been violence offered them; who also added this further, [out of his sagacity about futurities,] that certain people would come to the assistance of these polluted wretches, and would conquer egypt, and keep it in their possession thirteen years; that, however, he durst not tell the king of these things, but that he left a writing behind him about all those matters, and then slew himself, which made the king disconsolate." after which he writes thus verbatim: "after those that were sent to work in the quarries had continued in that miserable state for a long while, the king was desired that he would set apart the city avaris, which was then left desolate of the shepherds, for their habitation and protection; which desire he granted them. now this city, according to the ancient theology, was typho's city. but when these men were gotten into it, and found the place fit for a revolt, they appointed themselves a ruler out of the priests of hellopolis, whose name was osarsiph, and they took their oaths that they would be obedient to him in all things. he then, in the first place, made this law for them, that they should neither worship the egyptian gods, nor should abstain from any one of those sacred animals which they have in the highest esteem, but kill and destroy them all; that they should join themselves to nobody but to those that were of this confederacy. when he had made such laws as these, and many more such as were mainly opposite to the customs of the egyptians, [ ] he gave order that they should use the multitude of the hands they had in building walls about their city, and make themselves ready for a war with king amenophis, while he did himself take into his friendship the other priests, and those that were polluted with them, and sent ambassadors to those shepherds who had been driven out of the land by tefilmosis to the city called jerusalem; whereby he informed them of his own affairs, and of the state of those others that had been treated after such an ignominious manner, and desired that they would come with one consent to his assistance in this war against egypt. he also promised that he would, in the first place, bring them back to their ancient city and country avaris, and provide a plentiful maintenance for their multitude; that he would protect them and fight for them as occasion should require, and would easily reduce the country under their dominion. these shepherds were all very glad of this message, and came away with alacrity all together, being in number two hundred thousand men; and in a little time they came to avaris. and now amenophis the king of egypt, upon his being informed of their invasion, was in great confusion, as calling to mind what amenophis, the son of papis, had foretold him; and, in the first place, he assembled the multitude of the egyptians, and took counsel with their leaders, and sent for their sacred animals to him, especially for those that were principally worshipped in their temples, and gave a particular charge to the priests distinctly, that they should hide the images of their gods with the utmost care he also sent his son sethos, who was also named ramesses, from his father rhampses, being but five years old, to a friend of his. he then passed on with the rest of the egyptians, being three hundred thousand of the most warlike of them, against the enemy, who met them. yet did he not join battle with them; but thinking that would be to fight against the gods, he returned back and came to memphis, where he took apis and the other sacred animals which he had sent for to him, and presently marched into ethiopia, together with his whole army and multitude of egyptians; for the king of ethiopia was under an obligation to him, on which account he received him, and took care of all the multitude that was with him, while the country supplied all that was necessary for the food of the men. he also allotted cities and villages for this exile, that was to be from its beginning during those fatally determined thirteen years. moreover, he pitched a camp for his ethiopian army, as a guard to king amenophis, upon the borders of egypt. and this was the state of things in ethiopia. but for the people of jerusalem, when they came down together with the polluted egyptians, they treated the men in such a barbarous manner, that those who saw how they subdued the forementioned country, and the horrid wickedness they were guilty of, thought it a most dreadful thing; for they did not only set the cities and villages on fire but were not satisfied till they had been guilty of sacrilege, and destroyed the images of the gods, and used them in roasting those sacred animals that used to be worshipped, and forced the priests and prophets to be the executioners and murderers of those animals, and then ejected them naked out of the country. it was also reported that the priest, who ordained their polity and their laws, was by birth of hellopolls, and his name osarsiph, from osyris, who was the god of hellopolls; but that when he was gone over to these people, his name was changed, and he was called moses." . this is what the egyptians relate about the jews, with much more, which i omit for the sake of brevity. but still manetho goes on, that "after this, amenophis returned back from ethiopia with a great army, as did his son ahampses with another army also, and that both of them joined battle with the shepherds and the polluted people, and beat them, and slew a great many of them, and pursued them to the bounds of syria." these and the like accounts are written by manetho. but i will demonstrate that he trifles, and tells arrant lies, after i have made a distinction which will relate to what i am going to say about him; for this manetho had granted and confessed that this nation was not originally egyptian, but that they had come from another country, and subdued egypt, and then went away again out of it. but that those egyptians who were thus diseased in their bodies were not mingled with us afterward, and that moses who brought the people out was not one of that company, but lived many generations earlier, i shall endeavor to demonstrate from manetho's own accounts themselves. . now, for the first occasion of this fiction, manetho supposes what is no better than a ridiculous thing; for he says that, "king amenophis desired to see the gods." what gods, i pray, did he desire to see? if he meant the gods whom their laws ordained to be worshipped, the ox, the goat, the crocodile, and the baboon, he saw them already; but for the heavenly gods, how could he see them, and what should occasion this his desire? to be sure? it was because another king before him had already seen them. he had then been informed what sort of gods they were, and after what manner they had been seen, insomuch that he did not stand in need of any new artifice for obtaining this sight. however, the prophet by whose means the king thought to compass his design was a wise man. if so, how came he not to know that such his desire was impossible to be accomplished? for the event did not succeed. and what pretense could there be to suppose that the gods would not be seen by reason of the people's maims in their bodies, or leprosy? for the gods are not angry at the imperfection of bodies, but at wicked practices; and as to eighty thousand lepers, and those in an ill state also, how is it possible to have them gathered together in one day? nay, how came the king not to comply with the prophet? for his injunction was, that those that were maimed should be expelled out of egypt, while the king only sent them to work in the quarries, as if he were rather in want of laborers, than intended to purge his country. he says further, that, "this prophet slew himself, as foreseeing the anger of the gods, and those events which were to come upon egypt afterward; and that he left this prediction for the king in writing." besides, how came it to pass that this prophet did not foreknow his own death at the first? nay, how came he not to contradict the king in his desire to see the gods immediately? how came that unreasonable dread upon him of judgments that were not to happen in his lifetime? or what worse thing could he suffer, out of the fear of which he made haste to kill himself? but now let us see the silliest thing of all:--the king, although he had been informed of these things, and terrified with the fear of what was to come, yet did not he even then eject these maimed people out of his country, when it had been foretold him that he was to clear egypt of them; but, as manetho says, "he then, upon their request, gave them that city to inhabit, which had formerly belonged to the shepherds, and was called avaris; whither when they were gone in crowds," he says, "they chose one that had formerly been priest of hellopolls; and that this priest first ordained that they should neither worship the gods, nor abstain from those animals that were worshipped by the egyptians, but should kill and eat them all, and should associate with nobody but those that had conspired with them; and that he bound the multitude by oaths to be sure to continue in those laws; and that when he had built a wall about avaris, he made war against the king." manetho adds also, that "this priest sent to jerusalem to invite that people to come to his assistance, and promised to give them avaris; for that it had belonged to the forefathers of those that were coming from jerusalem, and that when they were come, they made a war immediately against the king, and got possession of all egypt." he says also that "the egyptians came with an army of two hundred thousand men, and that amenophis, the king of egypt, not thinking that he ought to fight against the gods, ran away presently into ethiopia, and committed apis and certain other of their sacred animals to the priests, and commanded them to take care of preserving them." he says further, that, "the people of jerusalem came accordingly upon the egyptians, and overthrew their cities, and burnt their temples, and slew their horsemen, and, in short, abstained from no sort of wickedness nor barbarity; and for that priest who settled their polity and their laws," he says, "he was by birth of hellopolis, and his name was osarsiph, from osyris the god of hellopolis, but that he changed his name, and called himself moses." he then says that "on the thirteenth year afterward, amenophis, according to the fatal time of the duration of his misfortunes, came upon them out of ethiopia with a great army, and joining battle with the shepherds and with the polluted people, overcame them in battle, and slew a great many of them, and pursued them as far as the bounds of syria." . now manetho does not reflect upon the improbability of his lie; for the leprous people, and the multitude that was with them, although they might formerly have been angry at the king, and at those that had treated them so coarsely, and this according to the prediction of the prophet; yet certainly, when they were come out of the mines, and had received of the king a city, and a country, they would have grown milder towards him. however, had they ever so much hated him in particular, they might have laid a private plot against himself, but would hardly have made war against all the egyptians; i mean this on the account of the great kindred they who were so numerous must have had among them. nay still, if they had resolved to fight with the men, they would not have had impudence enough to fight with their gods; nor would they have ordained laws quite contrary to those of their own country, and to those in which they had been bred up themselves. yet are we beholden to manethe, that he does not lay the principal charge of this horrid transgression upon those that came from jerusalem, but says that the egyptians themselves were the most guilty, and that they were their priests that contrived these things, and made the multitude take their oaths for doing so. but still how absurd is it to suppose that none of these people's own relations or friends should be prevailed with to revolt, nor to undergo the hazards of war with them, while these polluted people were forced to send to jerusalem, and bring their auxiliaries from thence! what friendship, i pray, or what relation was there formerly between them that required this assistance? on the contrary, these people were enemies, and greatly differed from them in their customs. he says, indeed, that they complied immediately, upon their praising them that they should conquer egypt; as if they did not themselves very well know that country out of which they had been driven by force. now had these men been in want, or lived miserably, perhaps they might have undertaken so hazardous an enterprise; but as they dwelt in a happy city, and had a large country, and one better than egypt itself, how came it about that, for the sake of those that had of old been their enemies, of those that were maimed in their bodies, and of those whom none of their own relations would endure, they should run such hazards in assisting them? for they could not foresee that the king would run away from them: on the contrary, he saith himself that "amenophis's son had three hundred thousand men with him, and met them at pelusium." now, to be sure, those that came could not be ignorant of this; but for the king's repentance and flight, how could they possibly guess at it? he then says, that "those who came from jerusalem, and made this invasion, got the granaries of egypt into their possession, and perpetrated many of the most horrid actions there." and thence he reproaches them, as though he had not himself introduced them as enemies, or as though he might accuse such as were invited from another place for so doing, when the natural egyptians themselves had done the same things before their coming, and had taken oaths so to do. however, "amenophis, some time afterward, came upon them, and conquered them in battle, and slew his enemies, and drove them before him as far as syria." as if egypt were so easily taken by people that came from any place whatsoever, and as if those that had conquered it by war, when they were informed that amenophis was alive, did neither fortify the avenues out of ethiopia into it, although they had great advantages for doing it, nor did get their other forces ready for their defense! but that he followed them over the sandy desert, and slew them as far as syria; while yet it is rot an easy thing for an army to pass over that country, even without fighting. . our nation, therefore, according to manetho, was not derived from egypt, nor were any of the egyptians mingled with us. for it is to be supposed that many of the leprous and distempered people were dead in the mines, since they had been there a long time, and in so ill a condition; many others must be dead in the battles that happened afterward, and more still in the last battle and flight after it. . it now remains that i debate with manetho about moses. now the egyptians acknowledge him to have been a wonderful and a divine person; nay, they would willingly lay claim to him themselves, though after a most abusive and incredible manner, and pretend that he was of heliopolis, and one of the priests of that place, and was ejected out of it among the rest, on account of his leprosy; although it had been demonstrated out of their records that he lived five hundred and eighteen years earlier, and then brought our forefathers out of egypt into the country that is now inhabited by us. but now that he was not subject in his body to any such calamity, is evident from what he himself tells us; for he forbade those that had the leprosy either to continue in a city, or to inhabit in a village, but commanded that they should go about by themselves with their clothes rent; and declares that such as either touch them, or live under the same roof with them, should be esteemed unclean; nay, more, if any one of their disease be healed, and he recover his natural constitution again, he appointed them certain purifications, and washings with spring water, and the shaving off all their hair, and enjoins that they shall offer many sacrifices, and those of several kinds, and then at length to be admitted into the holy city; although it were to be expected that, on the contrary, if he had been under the same calamity, he should have taken care of such persons beforehand, and have had them treated after a kinder manner, as affected with a concern for those that were to be under the like misfortunes with himself. nor was it only those leprous people for whose sake he made these laws, but also for such as should be maimed in the smallest part of their body, who yet are not permitted by him to officiate as priests; nay, although any priest, already initiated, should have such a calamity fall upon him afterward, he ordered him to be deprived of his honor of officiating. how can it then be supposed that moses should ordain such laws against himself, to his own reproach and damage who so ordained them? nor indeed is that other notion of manetho at all probable, wherein he relates the change of his name, and says that "he was formerly called osarsiph;" and this a name no way agreeable to the other, while his true name was mosses, and signifies a person who is preserved out of the water, for the egyptians call water moil. i think, therefore, i have made it sufficiently evident that manetho, while he followed his ancient records, did not much mistake the truth of the history; but that when he had recourse to fabulous stories, without any certain author, he either forged them himself, without any probability, or else gave credit to some men who spake so out of their ill-will to us. . and now i have done with manetho, i will inquire into what cheremon says. for he also, when he pretended to write the egyptian history, sets down the same name for this king that manetho did, amenophis, as also of his son ramesses, and then goes on thus: "the goddess isis appeared to amenophis in his sleep, and blamed him that her temple had been demolished in the war. but that phritiphantes, the sacred scribe, said to him, that in case he would purge egypt of the men that had pollutions upon them, he should be no longer troubled with such frightful apparitions. that amenophis accordingly chose out two hundred and fifty thousand of those that were thus diseased, and cast them out of the country: that moses and joseph were scribes, and joseph was a sacred scribe; that their names were egyptian originally; that of moses had been tisithen, and that of joseph, peteseph: that these two came to pelusium, and lighted upon three hundred and eighty thousand that had been left there by amenophis, he not being willing to carry them into egypt; that these scribes made a league of friendship with them, and made with them an expedition against egypt: that amenophis could not sustain their attacks, but fled into ethiopia, and left his wife with child behind him, who lay concealed in certain caverns, and there brought forth a son, whose name was messene, and who, when he was grown up to man's estate, pursued the jews into syria, being about two hundred thousand, and then received his father amenophis out of ethiopia." . this is the account cheremon gives us. now i take it for granted that what i have said already hath plainly proved the falsity of both these narrations; for had there been any real truth at the bottom, it was impossible they should so greatly disagree about the particulars. but for those that invent lies, what they write will easily give us very different accounts, while they forge what they please out of their own heads. now manetho says that the king's desire of seeing the gods was the origin of the ejection of the polluted people; but cheremon feigns that it was a dream of his own, sent upon him by isis, that was the occasion of it. manetho says that the person who foreshowed this purgation of egypt to the king was amenophis; but this man says it was phritiphantes. as to the numbers of the multitude that were expelled, they agree exceedingly well [ ] the former reckoning them eighty thousand, and the latter about two hundred and fifty thousand! now, for manetho, he describes those polluted persons as sent first to work in the quarries, and says that the city avaris was given them for their habitation. as also he relates that it was not till after they had made war with the rest of the egyptians, that they invited the people of jerusalem to come to their assistance; while cheremon says only that they were gone out of egypt, and lighted upon three hundred and eighty thousand men about pelusium, who had been left there by amenophis, and so they invaded egypt with them again; that thereupon amenophis fled into ethiopia. but then this cheremon commits a most ridiculous blunder in not informing us who this army of so many ten thousands were, or whence they came; whether they were native egyptians, or whether they came from a foreign country. nor indeed has this man, who forged a dream from isis about the leprous people, assigned the reason why the king would not bring them into egypt. moreover, cheremon sets down joseph as driven away at the same time with moses, who yet died four generations [ ] before moses, which four generations make almost one hundred and seventy years. besides all this, ramesses, the son of amenophis, by manetho's account, was a young man, and assisted his father in his war, and left the country at the same time with him, and fled into ethiopia. but cheremon makes him to have been born in a certain cave, after his father was dead, and that he then overcame the jews in battle, and drove them into syria, being in number about two hundred thousand. o the levity of the man! for he had neither told us who these three hundred and eighty thousand were, nor how the four hundred and thirty thousand perished; whether they fell in war, or went over to ramesses. and, what is the strangest of all, it is not possible to learn out of him who they were whom he calls jews, or to which of these two parties he applies that denomination, whether to the two hundred and fifty thousand leprous people, or to the three hundred and eighty thousand that were about pelusium. but perhaps it will be looked upon as a silly thing in me to make any larger confutation of such writers as sufficiently confute themselves; for had they been only confuted by other men, it had been more tolerable. . i shall now add to these accounts about manethoand cheremon somewhat about lysimachus, who hath taken the same topic of falsehood with those forementioned, but hath gone far beyond them in the incredible nature of his forgeries; which plainly demonstrates that he contrived them out of his virulent hatred of our nation. his words are these: "the people of the jews being leprous and scabby, and subject to certain other kinds of distempers, in the days of bocchoris, king of egypt, they fled to the temples, and got their food there by begging: and as the numbers were very great that were fallen under these diseases, there arose a scarcity in egypt. hereupon bocehoris, the king of egypt, sent some to consult the oracle of [jupiter] hammon about his scarcity. the god's answer was this, that he must purge his temples of impure and impious men, by expelling them out of those temples into desert places; but as to the scabby and leprous people, he must drown them, and purge his temples, the sun having an indignation at these men being suffered to live; and by this means the land will bring forth its fruits. upon bocchoris's having received these oracles, he called for their priests, and the attendants upon their altars, and ordered them to make a collection of the impure people, and to deliver them to the soldiers, to carry them away into the desert; but to take the leprous people, and wrap them in sheets of lead, and let them down into the sea. hereupon the scabby and leprous people were drowned, and the rest were gotten together, and sent into desert places, in order to be exposed to destruction. in this case they assembled themselves together, and took counsel what they should do, and determined that, as the night was coming on, they should kindle fires and lamps, and keep watch; that they also should fast the next night, and propitiate the gods, in order to obtain deliverance from them. that on the next day there was one moses, who advised them that they should venture upon a journey, and go along one road till they should come to places fit for habitation: that he charged them to have no kind regards for any man, nor give good counsel to any, but always to advise them for the worst; and to overturn all those temples and altars of the gods they should meet with: that the rest commended what he had said with one consent, and did what they had resolved on, and so traveled over the desert. but that the difficulties of the journey being over, they came to a country inhabited, and that there they abused the men, and plundered and burnt their temples; and then came into that land which is called judea, and there they built a city, and dwelt therein, and that their city was named hierosyla, from this their robbing of the temples; but that still, upon the success they had afterwards, they in time changed its denomination, that it might not be a reproach to them, and called the city hierosolyma, and themselves hierosolymites." . now this man did not discover and mention the same king with the others, but feigned a newer name, and passing by the dream and the egyptian prophet, he brings him to [jupiter] hammon, in order to gain oracles about the scabby and leprous people; for he says that the multitude of jews were gathered together at the temples. now it is uncertain whether he ascribes this name to these lepers, or to those that were subject to such diseases among the jews only; for he describes them as a people of the jews. what people does he mean? foreigners, or those of that country? why then' dost thou call them jews, if they were egyptians? but if they were foreigners, why dost thou not tell us whence they came? and how could it be that, after the king had drowned many of them in the sea, and ejected the rest into desert places, there should be still so great a multitude remaining? or after what manner did they pass over the desert, and get the land which we now dwell in, and build our city, and that temple which hath been so famous among all mankind? and besides, he ought to have spoken more about our legislator than by giving us his bare name; and to have informed us of what nation he was, and what parents he was derived from; and to have assigned the reasons why he undertook to make such laws concerning the gods, and concerning matters of injustice with regard to men during that journey. for in case the people were by birth egyptians, they would not on the sudden have so easily changed the customs of their country; and in case they had been foreigners, they had for certain some laws or other which had been kept by them from long custom. it is true, that with regard to those who had ejected them, they might have sworn never to bear good-will to them, and might have had a plausible reason for so doing. but if these men resolved to wage an implacable war against all men, in case they had acted as wickedly as he relates of them, and this while they wanted the assistance of all men, this demonstrates a kind of mad conduct indeed; but not of the men themselves, but very greatly so of him that tells such lies about them. he hath also impudence enough to say that a name, implying "robbers of the temples," [ ] was given to their city, and that this name was afterward changed. the reason of which is plain, that the former name brought reproach and hatred upon them in the times of their posterity, while, it seems, those that built the city thought they did honor to the city by giving it such a name. so we see that this fine fellow had such an unbounded inclination to reproach us, that he did not understand that robbery of temples is not expressed by the same word and name among the jews as it is among the greeks. but why should a man say any more to a person who tells such impudent lies? however, since this book is arisen to a competent length, i will make another beginning, and endeavor to add what still remains to perfect my design in the following book. apion book footnotes [ ] this first book has a wrong title. it is not written against apion, as is the first part of the second book, but against those greeks in general who would not believe josephus's former accounts of the very ancient state of the jewish nation, in his books of antiquities; and particularly against agatharelddes, manetho, cheremon, and lysimachus. it is one of the most learned, excellent, and useful books of all antiquity; and upon jerome's perusal of this and the following book, he declares that it seems to him a miraculous thing "how one that was a hebrew, who had been from his infancy instructed in sacred learning, should be able to pronounce such a number of testimonies out of profane authors, as if he had read over all the grecian libraries," epist. . ad magnum; and the learned jew, manasseh-ben-israel, esteemed these two books so excellent, as to translate them into the hebrew; this we learn from his own catalogue of his works, which i have seen. as to the time and place when and where these two books were written, the learned have not hitherto been able to determine them any further than that they were written some time after his antiquities, or some time after a.d. ; which indeed is too obvious at their entrance to be overlooked by even a careless peruser, they being directly intended against those that would not believe what he had advanced in those books con-the great of the jewish nation as to the place, they all imagine that these two books were written where the former were, i mean at rome; and i confess that i myself believed both those determinations, till i came to finish my notes upon these books, when i met with plain indications that they were written not at rome, but in judea, and this after the third of trajan, or a.d. . [ ] take dr. hudson's note here, which as it justly contradicts the common opinion that josephus either died under domitian, or at least wrote nothing later than his days, so does it perfectly agree to my own determination, from justus of tiberias, that he wrote or finished his own life after the third of trajan, or a.d. . to which noldius also agrees, de herod, no. [epaphroditus]. "since florius josephus," says dr. hudson, "wrote [or finished] his books of antiquities on the thirteenth of domitian, [a.d. ,] and after that wrote the memoirs of his own life, as an appendix to the books of antiquities, and at last his two books against apion, and yet dedicated all those writings to epaphroditus; he can hardly be that epaphroditus who was formerly secretary to nero, and was slain on the fourteenth [or fifteenth] of domitian, after he had been for a good while in banishment; but another epaphroditas, a freed-man, and procurator of trajan, as says grotius on luke : ." [ ] the preservation of homer's poems by memory, and not by his own writing them down, and that thence they were styled rhapsodies, as sung by him, like ballads, by parts, and not composed and connected together in complete works, are opinions well known from the ancient commentators; though such supposal seems to myself, as well as to fabricius biblioth. grace. i. p. , and to others, highly improbable. nor does josephus say there were no ancienter writings among the greeks than homer's poems, but that they did not fully own any ancienter writings pretending to such antiquity, which is trite. [ ] it well deserves to be considered, that josephus here says how all the following greek historians looked on herodotus as a fabulous author; and presently, sect. , how manetho, the most authentic writer of the egyptian history, greatly complains of his mistakes in the egyptian affairs; as also that strabo, b. xi. p. , the most accurate geographer and historian, esteemed him such; that xenophon, the much more accurate historian in the affairs of cyrus, implies that herodotus's account of that great man is almost entirely romantic. see the notes on antiq. b. xi. ch. . sect. , and hutchinson's prolegomena to his edition of xenophon's, that we have already seen in the note on antiq. b. viii. ch. . sect. , how very little herodotus knew about the jewish affairs and country, and that he greatly affected what we call the marvelous, as monsieur rollin has lately and justly determined; whence we are not always to depend on the authority of herodotus, where it is unsupported by other evidence, but ought to compare the other evidence with his, and if it preponderate, to prefer it before his. i do not mean by this that herodotus willfully related what he believed to be false, [as cteeias seems to have done,] but that he often wanted evidence, and sometimes preferred what was marvelous to what was best attested as really true. [ ]about the days of cyrus and daniel. [ ] it is here well worth our observation, what the reasons are that such ancient authors as herodotus, josephus, and others have been read to so little purpose by many learned critics; viz. that their main aim has not been chronology or history, but philology, to know words, and not things, they not much entering oftentimes into the real contents of their authors, and judging which were the most accurate discoverers of truth, and most to be depended on in the several histories, but rather inquiring who wrote the finest style, and had the greatest elegance in their expressions; which are things of small consequence in comparison of the other. thus you will sometimes find great debates among the learned, whether herodotus or thucydides were the finest historian in the ionic and attic ways of writing; which signify little as to the real value of each of their histories; while it would be of much more moment to let the reader know, that as the consequence of herodotus's history, which begins so much earlier, and reaches so much wider, than that of thucydides, is therefore vastly greater; so is the most part of thucydides, which belongs to his own times, and fell under his own observation, much the most certain. [ ] of this accuracy of the jews before and in our savior's time, in carefully preserving their genealogies all along, particularly those of the priests, see josephus's life, sect. . this accuracy. seems to have ended at the destruction of jerusalem by titus, or, however, at that by adrian. [ ] which were these twenty-two sacred books of the old testament, see the supplement to the essay of the old testament, p. - , viz. those we call canonical, all excepting the canticles; but still with this further exception, that the book of apocryphal esdras be taken into that number instead of our canonical ezra, which seems to be no more than a later epitome of the other; which two books of canticles and ezra it no way appears that our josephus ever saw. [ ] here we have an account of the first building of the city of jerusalem, according to manetho, when the phoenician shepherds were expelled out of egypt about thirty-seven years before abraham came out of harsh. [ ] genesis ; , ; : , . [ ] in our copies of the book of genesis and of joseph, this joseph never calls himself "a captive," when he was with the king of egypt, though he does call himself "a servant," "a slave," or "captive," many times in the testament of the twelve patriarchs, under joseph, sect. , , - . [ ] of this egyptian chronology of manetho, as mistaken by josephus, and of these phoenician shepherds, as falsely supposed by him, and others after him, to have been the israelites in egypt, see essay on the old testament, appendix, p. - . and note here, that when josephus tells us that the greeks or argives looked on this danaus as "a most ancient," or "the most ancient," king of argos, he need not be supposed to mean, in the strictest sense, that they had no one king so ancient as he; for it is certain that they owned nine kings before him, and inachus at the head of them. see authentic records, part ii. p. , as josephus could not but know very well; but that he was esteemed as very ancient by them, and that they knew they had been first of all denominated "danai" from this very ancient king danaus. nor does this superlative degree always imply the "most ancient" of all without exception, but is sometimes to be rendered "very ancient" only, as is the case in the like superlative degrees of other words also. [ ] authentic records, part ii. p. , as josephus could not but know very well; but that he was esteemed as very ancient by them, and that they knew they had been first of all denominated "danai" from this very ancient king danaus. nor does this superlative degree always imply the "most ancient" of all without exception, but is sometimes to be rendered "very ancient" only, as is the case in the like superlative degrees of other words also. [ ] this number in josephus, that nebuchadnezzar destroyed the temple in the eighteenth year of his reign, is a mistake in the nicety of chronology; for it was in the nineteenth. the true number here for the year of darius, in which the second temple was finished, whether the second with our present copies, or the sixth with that of syncellus, or the tenth with that of eusebius, is very uncertain; so we had best follow josephus's own account elsewhere, antiq.;b. xi. ch. . sect. , which shows us that according to his copy of the old testament, after the second of cyrus, that work was interrupted till the second of darius, when in seven years it was finished in the ninth of darius. [ ] this is a thing well known by the learned, that we are not secure that we have any genuine writings of pythagoras; those golden verses, which are his best remains, being generally supposed to have been written not by himself, but by some of his scholars only, in agreement with what josephus here affirms of him. [ ] whether these verses of cherilus, the heathen poet, in the days of xerxes, belong to the solymi in pisidia, that were near a small lake, or to the jews that dwelt on the solymean or jerusalem mountains, near the great and broad lake asphaltitis, that were a strange people, and spake the phoenician tongue, is not agreed on by the learned. if is yet certain that josephus here, and eusebius, prep. ix. . p. , took them to be jews; and i confess i cannot but very much incline to the same opinion. the other solymi were not a strange people, but heathen idolaters, like the other parts of xerxes's army; and that these spake the phoenician tongue is next to impossible, as the jews certainly did; nor is there the least evidence for it elsewhere. nor was the lake adjoining to the mountains of the solvmi at all large or broad, in comparison of the jewish lake asphaltitis; nor indeed were these so considerable a people as the jews, nor so likely to be desired by xerxes for his army as the jews, to whom he was always very favorable. as for the rest of cherilus's description, that "their heads were sooty; that they had round rasures on their heads; that their heads and faces were like nasty horse-heads, which had been hardened in the smoke;" these awkward characters probably fitted the solymi of pisidi no better than they did the jews in judea. and indeed this reproachful language, here given these people, is to me a strong indication that they were the poor despicable jews, and not the pisidian solymi celebrated in homer, whom cherilus here describes; nor are we to expect that either cherilus or hecateus, or any other pagan writers cited by josephus and eusebius, made no mistakes in the jewish history. if by comparing their testimonies with the more authentic records of that nation we find them for the main to confirm the same, as we almost always do, we ought to be satisfied, and not expect that they ever had an exact knowledge of all the circumstances of the jewish affairs, which indeed it was almost always impossible for them to have. see sect. . [ ] this hezekiah, who is here called a high priest, is not named in josephus's catalogue; the real high priest at that time being rather onias, as archbishop usher supposes. however, josephus often uses the word high priests in the plural number, as living many at the same time. see the note on antiq. b. xx. ch. . sect. . [ ] so i read the text with havercamp, though the place be difficult. [ ] this number of arourae or egyptian acres, , , , each aroura containing a square of egyptian cubits, [being about three quarters of an english acre, and just twice the area of the court of the jewish tabernacle,] as contained in the country of judea, will be about one third of the entire number of arourae in the whole land of judea, supposing it measured miles long and such miles broad; which estimation, for the fruitful parts of it, as perhaps here in hecateus, is not therefore very wide from the truth. the fifty furlongs in compass for the city jerusalem presently are not very wide from the truth also, as josephus himself describes it, who, of the war, b. v. ch. . sect. . makes its wall thirty-three furlongs, besides the suburbs and gardens; nay, he says, b. v. ch. . sect. , that titus's wall about it at some small distance, after the gardens and suburbs were destroyed, was not less than thirty-nine furlongs. nor perhaps were its constant inhabitants, in the days of hecateus, many more than these , , because room was always to be left for vastly greater numbers which came up at the three great festivals; to say nothing of the probable increase in their number between the days of hecateus and josephus, which was at least three hundred years. but see a more authentic account of some of these measures in my description of the jewish temples. however, we are not to expect that such heathens as cherilus or hecateus, or the rest that are cited by josephus and eusebius, could avoid making many mistakes in the jewish history, while yet they strongly confirm the same history in the general, and are most valuable attestations to those more authentic accounts we have in the scriptures and josephus concerning them. [ ] a glorious testimony this of the observation of the sabbath by the jews. see antiq. b. xvi. ch. . sect. , and ch. . sect. ; the life, sect. ; and war, b. iv. ch. . sect. . [ ] not their law, but the superstitious interpretation of their leaders which neither the maccabees nor our blessed savior did ever approve of. [ ] in reading this and the remaining sections of this book, and some parts of the next, one may easily perceive that our usually cool and candid author, josephus, was too highly offended with the impudent calumnies of manethe, and the other bitter enemies of the jews, with whom he had now to deal, and was thereby betrayed into a greater heat and passion than ordinary, and that by consequence he does not hear reason with his usual fairness and impartiality; he seems to depart sometimes from the brevity and sincerity of a faithful historian, which is his grand character, and indulges the prolixity and colors of a pleader and a disputant: accordingly, i confess, i always read these sections with less pleasure than i do the rest of his writings, though i fully believe the reproaches cast on the jews, which he here endeavors to confute and expose, were wholly groundless and unreasonable. [ ] this is a very valuable testimony of manetho, that the laws of osarsiph, or moses, were not made in compliance with, but in opposition to, the customs of the egyptians. see the note on antiq. b. iii. ch. . sect. . [ ] by way of irony, i suppose. [ ] here we see that josephus esteemed a generation between joseph and moses to be about forty-two or forty-three years; which, if taken between the earlier children, well agrees with the duration of human life in those ages. see antheat. rec. part ii. pages , , . [ ] that is the meaning of hierosyla in greek, not in hebrew. book ii. . in the former book, most honored epaphroditus, i have demonstrated our antiquity, and confirmed the truth of what i have said, from the writings of the phoenicians, and chaldeans, and egyptians. i have, moreover, produced many of the grecian writers as witnesses thereto. i have also made a refutation of manetho and cheremon, and of certain others of our enemies. i shall now [ ] therefore begin a confutation of the remaining authors who have written any thing against us; although i confess i have had a doubt upon me about apion [ ] the grammarian, whether i ought to take the trouble of confuting him or not; for some of his writings contain much the same accusations which the others have laid against us, some things that he hath added are very frigid and contemptible, and for the greatest part of what he says, it is very scurrilous, and, to speak no more than the plain truth, it shows him to be a very unlearned person, and what he lays together looks like the work of a man of very bad morals, and of one no better in his whole life than a mountebank. yet, because there are a great many men so very foolish, that they are rather caught by such orations than by what is written with care, and take pleasure in reproaching other men, and cannot abide to hear them commended, i thought it to be necessary not to let this man go off without examination, who had written such an accusation against us, as if he would bring us to make an answer in open court. for i also have observed, that many men are very much delighted when they see a man who first began to reproach another, to be himself exposed to contempt on account of the vices he hath himself been guilty of. however, it is not a very easy thing to go over this man's discourse, nor to know plainly what he means; yet does he seem, amidst a great confusion and disorder in his falsehoods, to produce, in the first place, such things as resemble what we have examined already, and relate to the departure of our forefathers out of egypt; and, in the second place, he accuses those jews that are inhabitants of alexandria; as, in the third place, he mixes with those things such accusations as concern the sacred purifications, with the other legal rites used in the temple. . now although i cannot but think that i have already demonstrated, and that abundantly more than was necessary, that our fathers were not originally egyptians, nor were thence expelled, either on account of bodily diseases, or any other calamities of that sort; yet will i briefly take notice of what apion adds upon that subject; for in his third book, which relates to the affairs of egypt, he speaks thus: "i have heard of the ancient men of egypt, that moses was of heliopolis, and that he thought himself obliged to follow the customs of his forefathers, and offered his prayers in the open air, towards the city walls; but that he reduced them all to be directed towards sun-rising, which was agreeable to the situation of heliopolis; that he also set up pillars instead of gnomons, [ ] under which was represented a cavity like that of a boat, and the shadow that fell from their tops fell down upon that cavity, that it might go round about the like course as the sun itself goes round in the other." this is that wonderful relation which we have given us by this grammarian. but that it is a false one is so plain, that it stands in need of few words to prove it, but is manifest from the works of moses; for when he erected the first tabernacle to god, he did himself neither give order for any such kind of representation to be made at it, nor ordain that those that came after him should make such a one. moreover, when in a future age solomon built his temple in jerusalem, he avoided all such needless decorations as apion hath here devised. he says further, how he had "heard of the ancient men, that moses was of hellopolis." to be sure that was, because being a younger man himself, he believed those that by their elder age were acquainted and conversed with him. now this grammarian, as he was, could not certainly tell which was the poet homer's country, no more than he could which was the country of pythagoras, who lived comparatively but a little while ago; yet does he thus easily determine the age of moses, who preceded them such a vast number of years, as depending on his ancient men's relation, which shows how notorious a liar he was. but then as to this chronological determination of the time when he says he brought the leprous people, the blind, and the lame out of egypt, see how well this most accurate grammarian of ours agrees with those that have written before him! manetho says that the jews departed out of egypt, in the reign of tethmosis, three hundred ninety-three years before danaus fled to argos; lysimaehus says it was under king bocchoris, that is, one thousand seven hundred years ago; molo and some others determined it as every one pleased: but this apion of ours, as deserving to be believed before them, hath determined it exactly to have been in the seventh olympiad, and the first year of that olympiad; the very same year in which he says that carthage was built by the phoenicians. the reason why he added this building of carthage was, to be sure, in order, as he thought, to strengthen his assertion by so evident a character of chronology. but he was not aware that this character confutes his assertion; for if we may give credit to the phoenician records as to the time of the first coming of their colony to carthage, they relate that hirom their king was above a hundred and fifty years earlier than the building of carthage; concerning whom i have formerly produced testimonials out of those phoenician records, as also that this hirom was a friend of solomon when he was building the temple of jerusalem, and gave him great assistance in his building that temple; while still solomon himself built that temple six hundred and twelve years after the jews came out of egypt. as for the number of those that were expelled out of egypt, he hath contrived to have the very same number with lysimaehus, and says they were a hundred and ten thousand. he then assigns a certain wonderful and plausible occasion for the name of sabbath; for he says that "when the jews had traveled a six days' journey, they had buboes in their groins; and that on this account it was that they rested on the seventh day, as having got safely to that country which is now called judea; that then they preserved the language of the egyptians, and called that day the sabbath, for that malady of buboes on their groin was named sabbatosis by the egyptians." and would not a man now laugh at this fellow's trifling, or rather hate his impudence in writing thus? we must, it seems, fake it for granted that all these hundred and ten thousand men must have these buboes. but, for certain, if those men had been blind and lame, and had all sorts of distempers upon them, as apion says they had, they could not have gone one single day's journey; but if they had been all able to travel over a large desert, and, besides that, to fight and conquer those that opposed them, they had not all of them had buboes on their groins after the sixth day was over; for no such distemper comes naturally and of necessity upon those that travel; but still, when there are many ten thousands in a camp together, they constantly march a settled space [in a day]. nor is it at all probable that such a thing should happen by chance; this would be prodigiously absurd to be supposed. however, our admirable author apion hath before told us that "they came to judea in six days' time;" and again, that "moses went up to a mountain that lay between egypt and arabia, which was called sinai, and was concealed there forty days, and that when he came down from thence he gave laws to the jews." but, then, how was it possible for them to tarry forty days in a desert place where there was no water, and at the same time to pass all over the country between that and judea in the six days? and as for this grammatical translation of the word sabbath, it either contains an instance of his great impudence or gross ignorance; for the words sabbo and sabbath are widely different from one another; for the word sabbath in the jewish language denotes rest from all sorts of work; but the word sabbo, as he affirms, denotes among the egyptians the malady of a bubo in the groin. . this is that novel account which the egyptian apion gives us concerning the jews' departure out of egypt, and is no better than a contrivance of his own. but why should we wonder at the lies he tells about our forefathers, when he affirms them to be of egyptian original, when he lies also about himself? for although he was born at oasis in egypt, he pretends to be, as a man may say, the top man of all the egyptians; yet does he forswear his real country and progenitors, and by falsely pretending to be born at alexandria, cannot deny the [ ] pravity of his family; for you see how justly he calls those egyptians whom he hates, and endeavors to reproach; for had he not deemed egyptians to be a name of great reproach, he would not have avoided the name of an egyptian himself; as we know that those who brag of their own countries value themselves upon the denomination they acquire thereby, and reprove such as unjustly lay claim thereto. as for the egyptians' claim to be of our kindred, they do it on one of the following accounts; i mean, either as they value themselves upon it, and pretend to bear that relation to us; or else as they would draw us in to be partakers of their own infamy. but this fine fellow apion seems to broach this reproachful appellation against us, [that we were originally egyptians,] in order to bestow it on the alexandrians, as a reward for the privilege they had given him of being a fellow citizen with them: he also is apprized of the ill-will the alexandrians bear to those jews who are their fellow citizens, and so proposes to himself to reproach them, although he must thereby include all the other egyptians also; while in both cases he is no better than an impudent liar. . but let us now see what those heavy and wicked crimes are which apion charges upon the alexandrian jews. "they came [says he] out of syria, and inhabited near the tempestuous sea, and were in the neighborhood of the dashing of the waves." now if the place of habitation includes any thing that is reproached, this man reproaches not his own real country, [egypt,] but what he pretends to be his own country, alexandria; for all are agreed in this, that the part of that city which is near the sea is the best part of all for habitation. now if the jews gained that part of the city by force, and have kept it hitherto without impeachment, this is a mark of their valor; but in reality it was alexander himself that gave them that place for their habitation, when they obtained equal privileges there with the macedonians. nor call i devise what apion would have said, had their habitation been at necropolis? and not been fixed hard by the royal palace [as it is]; nor had their nation had the denomination of macedonians given them till this very day [as they have]. had this man now read the epistles of king alexander, or those of ptolemy the son of lagus, or met with the writings of the succeeding kings, or that pillar which is still standing at alexandria, and contains the privileges which the great [julius] caesar bestowed upon the jews; had this man, i say, known these records, and yet hath the impudence to write in contradiction to them, he hath shown himself to be a wicked man; but if he knew nothing of these records, he hath shown himself to be a man very ignorant: nay, when lie appears to wonder how jews could be called alexandrians, this is another like instance of his ignorance; for all such as are called out to be colonies, although they be ever so far remote from one another in their original, receive their names from those that bring them to their new habitations. and what occasion is there to speak of others, when those of us jews that dwell at antioch are named antiochians, because seleucns the founder of that city gave them the privileges belonging thereto? after the like manner do those jews that inhabit ephesus, and the other cities of ionia, enjoy the same name with those that were originally born there, by the grant of the succeeding princes; nay, the kindness and humanity of the romans hath been so great, that it hath granted leave to almost all others to take the same name of romans upon them; i mean not particular men only, but entire and large nations themselves also; for those anciently named iberi, and tyrrheni, and sabini, are now called romani. and if apion reject this way of obtaining the privilege of a citizen of alexandria, let him abstain from calling himself an alexandrian hereafter; for otherwise, how can he who was born in the very heart of egypt be an alexandrian, if this way of accepting such a privilege, of which he would have us deprived, be once abrogated? although indeed these romans, who are now the lords of the habitable earth, have forbidden the egyptians to have the privileges of any city whatsoever; while this fine fellow, who is willing to partake of such a privilege himself as he is forbidden to make use of, endeavors by calumnies to deprive those of it that have justly received it; for alexander did not therefore get some of our nation to alexandria, because he wanted inhabitants for this his city, on whose building he had bestowed so much pains; but this was given to our people as a reward, because he had, upon a careful trial, found them all to have been men of virtue and fidelity to him; for, as hecateus says concerning us, "alexander honored our nation to such a degree, that, for the equity and the fidelity which the jews exhibited to him, he permitted them to hold the country of samaria free from tribute. of the same mind also was ptolemy the son of lagus, as to those jews who dwelt at alexandria." for he intrusted the fortresses of egypt into their hands, as believing they would keep them faithfully and valiantly for him; and when he was desirous to secure the government of cyrene, and the other cities of libya, to himself, he sent a party of jews to inhabit in them. and for his successor ptolemy, who was called philadelphus, he did not only set all those of our nation free who were captives under him, but did frequently give money [for their ransom]; and, what was his greatest work of all, he had a great desire of knowing our laws, and of obtaining the books of our sacred scriptures; accordingly, he desired that such men might be sent him as might interpret our law to him; and, in order to have them well compiled, he committed that care to no ordinary persons, but ordained that demetrius phalereus, and andreas, and aristeas; the first, demetrius, the most learned person of his age, and the others, such as were intrusted with the guard of his body; should take care of this matter: nor would he certainly have been so desirous of learning our law, and the philosophy of our nation, had he despised the men that made use of it, or had he not indeed had them in great admiration. . now this apion was unacquainted with almost all the kings of those macedonians whom he pretends to have been his progenitors, who were yet very well affected towards us; for the third of those ptolemies, who was called euergetes, when he had gotten possession of all syria by force, did not offer his thank-offerings to the egyptian gods for his victory, but came to jerusalem, and according to our own laws offered many sacrifices to god, and dedicated to him such gifts as were suitable to such a victory: and as for ptolemy philometer and his wife cleopatra, they committed their whole kingdom to the jews, when onias and dositheus, both jews, whose names are laughed at by apion, were the generals of their whole army. but certainly, instead of reproaching them, he ought to admire their actions, and return them thanks for saving alexandria, whose citizen he pretends to be; for when these alexandrians were making war with cleopatra the queen, and were in danger of being utterly ruined, these jews brought them to terms of agreement, and freed them from the miseries of a civil war. "but then [says apion] onias brought a small army afterward upon the city at the time when thorruns the roman ambassador was there present." yes, do i venture to say, and that he did rightly and very justly in so doing; for that ptolemy who was called physco, upon the death of his brother philometer, came from cyrene, and would have ejected cleopatra as well as her sons out of their kingdom, that he might obtain it for himself unjustly. [ ] for this cause then it was that onias undertook a war against him on cleopatra's account; nor would he desert that trust the royal family had reposed in him in their distress. accordingly, god gave a remarkable attestation to his righteous procedure; for when ptolemy physco [ ] had the presumption to fight against onias's army, and had caught all the jews that were in the city [alexandria], with their children and wives, and exposed them naked and in bonds to his elephants, that they might be trodden upon and destroyed, and when he had made those elephants drunk for that purpose, the event proved contrary to his preparations; for these elephants left the jews who were exposed to them, and fell violently upon physco's friends, and slew a great number of them; nay, after this ptolemy saw a terrible ghost, which prohibited his hurting those men; his very concubine, whom he loved so well, [some call her ithaca, and others irene,] making supplication to him, that he would not perpetrate so great a wickedness. so he complied with her request, and repented of what he either had already done, or was about to do; whence it is well known that the alexandrian jews do with good reason celebrate this day, on the account that they had thereon been vouchsafed such an evident deliverance from god. however, apion, the common calumniator of men, hath the presumption to accuse the jews for making this war against physco, when he ought to have commended them for the same. this man also makes mention of cleopatra, the last queen of alexandria, and abuses us, because she was ungrateful to us; whereas he ought to have reproved her, who indulged herself in all kinds of injustice and wicked practices, both with regard to her nearest relations and husbands who had loved her, and, indeed, in general with regard to all the romans, and those emperors that were her benefactors; who also had her sister arsinoe slain in a temple, when she had done her no harm: moreover, she had her brother slain by private treachery, and she destroyed the gods of her country and the sepulchers of her progenitors; and while she had received her kingdom from the first caesar, she had the impudence to rebel against his son: [ ] and successor; nay, she corrupted antony with her love-tricks, and rendered him an enemy to his country, and made him treacherous to his friends, and [by his means] despoiled some of their royal authority, and forced others in her madness to act wickedly. but what need i enlarge upon this head any further, when she left antony in his fight at sea, though he were her husband, and the father of their common children, and compelled him to resign up his government, with the army, and to follow her [into egypt]? nay, when last of all caesar had taken alexandria, she came to that pitch of cruelty, that she declared she had some hope of preserving her affairs still, in case she could kill the jews, though it were with her own hand; to such a degree of barbarity and perfidiousness had she arrived. and doth any one think that we cannot boast ourselves of any thing, if, as apion says, this queen did not at a time of famine distribute wheat among us? however, she at length met with the punishment she deserved. as for us jews, we appeal to the great caesar what assistance we brought him, and what fidelity we showed to him against the egyptians; as also to the senate and its decrees, and the epistles of augustus caesar, whereby our merits [to the romans] are justified. apion ought to have looked upon those epistles, and in particular to have examined the testimonies given on our behalf, under alexander and all the ptolemies, and the decrees of the senate and of the greatest roman emperors. and if germanicus was not able to make a distribution of corn to all the inhabitants of alexandria, that only shows what a barren time it was, and how great a want there was then of corn, but tends nothing to the accusation of the jews; for what all the emperors have thought of the alexandrian jews is well known, for this distribution of wheat was no otherwise omitted with regard to the jews, than it was with regard to the other inhabitants of alexandria. but they still were desirous to preserve what the kings had formerly intrusted to their care, i mean the custody of the river; nor did those kings think them unworthy of having the entire custody thereof, upon all occasions. . but besides this, apion objects to us thus: "if the jews [says he] be citizens of alexandria, why do they not worship the same gods with the alexandrians?" to which i give this answer: since you are yourselves egyptians, why do you fight it out one against another, and have implacable wars about your religion? at this rate we must not call you all egyptians, nor indeed in general men, because you breed up with great care beasts of a nature quite contrary to that of men, although the nature of all men seems to be one and the same. now if there be such differences in opinion among you egyptians, why are you surprised that those who came to alexandria from another country, and had original laws of their own before, should persevere in the observance of those laws? but still he charges us with being the authors of sedition; which accusation, if it be a just one, why is it not laid against us all, since we are known to be all of one mind. moreover, those that search into such matters will soon discover that the authors of sedition have been such citizens of alexandria as apion is; for while they were the grecians and macedonians who were ill possession of this city, there was no sedition raised against us, and we were permitted to observe our ancient solemnities; but when the number of the egyptians therein came to be considerable, the times grew confused, and then these seditions brake out still more and more, while our people continued uncorrupted. these egyptians, therefore, were the authors of these troubles, who having not the constancy of macedonians, nor the prudence of grecians, indulged all of them the evil manners of the egyptians, and continued their ancient hatred against us; for what is here so presumptuously charged upon us, is owing to the differences that are amongst themselves; while many of them have not obtained the privileges of citizens in proper times, but style those who are well known to have had that privilege extended to them all no other than foreigners: for it does not appear that any of the kings have ever formerly bestowed those privileges of citizens upon egyptians, no more than have the emperors done it more lately; while it was alexander who introduced us into this city at first, the kings augmented our privileges therein, and the romans have been pleased to preserve them always inviolable. moreover, apion would lay a blot upon us, because we do not erect images for our emperors; as if those emperors did not know this before, or stood in need of apion as their defender; whereas he ought rather to have admired the magnanimity and modesty of the romans, whereby they do not compel those that are subject to them to transgress the laws of their countries, but are willing to receive the honors due to them after such a manner as those who are to pay them esteem consistent with piety and with their own laws; for they do not thank people for conferring honors upon them, when they are compelled by violence so to do. accordingly, since the grecians and some other nations think it a right thing to make images, nay, when they have painted the pictures of their parents, and wives, and children, they exult for joy; and some there are who take pictures for themselves of such persons as were no way related to them; nay, some take the pictures of such servants as they were fond of; what wonder is it then if such as these appear willing to pay the same respect to their princes and lords? but then our legislator hath forbidden us to make images, not by way of denunciation beforehand, that the roman authority was not to be honored, but as despising a thing that was neither necessary nor useful for either god or man; and he forbade them, as we shall prove hereafter, to make these images for any part of the animal creation, and much less for god himself, who is no part of such animal creation. yet hath our legislator no where forbidden us to pay honors to worthy men, provided they be of another kind, and inferior to those we pay to god; with which honors we willingly testify our respect to our emperors, and to the people of rome; we also offer perpetual sacrifices for them; nor do we only offer them every day at the common expenses of all the jews, but although we offer no other such sacrifices out of our common expenses, no, not for our own children, yet do we this as a peculiar honor to the emperors, and to them alone, while we do the same to no other person whomsoever. and let this suffice for an answer in general to apion, as to what he says with relation to the alexandrian jews. . however, i cannot but admire those other authors who furnished this man with such his materials; i mean possidonius and apollonius [the son of] molo, [ ] who, while they accuse us for not worshipping the same gods whom others worship, they think themselves not guilty of impiety when they tell lies of us, and frame absurd and reproachful stories about our temple; whereas it is a most shameful thing for freemen to forge lies on any occasion, and much more so to forge them about our temple, which was so famous over all the world, and was preserved so sacred by us; for apion hath the impudence to pretend that, "the jews placed an ass's head in their holy place;" and he affirms that this was discovered when antiochus epiphanes spoiled our temple, and found that ass's head there made of gold, and worth a great deal of money. to this my first answer shall be this, that had there been any such thing among us, an egyptian ought by no means to have thrown it in our teeth, since an ass is not a more contemptible animal than [ ] and goats, and other such creatures, which among them are gods. but besides this answer, i say further, how comes it about that apion does not understand this to be no other than a palpable lie, and to be confuted by the thing itself as utterly incredible? for we jews are always governed by the same laws, in which we constantly persevere; and although many misfortunes have befallen our city, as the like have befallen others, and although theos [epiphanes], and pompey the great, and licinius crassus, and last of all titus caesar, have conquered us in war, and gotten possession of our temple; yet have they none of them found any such thing there, nor indeed any thing but what was agreeable to the strictest piety; although what they found we are not at liberty to reveal to other nations. but for antiochus [epiphanes], he had no just cause for that ravage in our temple that he made; he only came to it when he wanted money, without declaring himself our enemy, and attacked us while we were his associates and his friends; nor did he find any thing there that was ridiculous. this is attested by many worthy writers; polybius of megalopolis, strabo of cappadocia, nicolaus of damascus, timagenes, castor the chronotoger, and apollodorus; [ ] who all say that it was out of antiochus's want of money that he broke his league with the jews, and despoiled their temple when it was full of gold and silver. apion ought to have had a regard to these facts, unless he had himself had either an ass's heart or a dog's impudence; of such a dog i mean as they worship; for he had no other external reason for the lies he tells of us. as for us jews, we ascribe no honor or power to asses, as do the egyptians to crocodiles and asps, when they esteem such as are seized upon by the former, or bitten by the latter, to be happy persons, and persons worthy of god. asses are the same with us which they are with other wise men, viz. creatures that bear the burdens that we lay upon them; but if they come to our thrashing-floors and eat our corn, or do not perform what we impose upon them, we beat them with a great many stripes, because it is their business to minister to us in our husbandry affairs. but this apion of ours was either perfectly unskillful in the composition of such fallacious discourses, or however, when he begun [somewhat better], he was not able to persevere in what he had undertaken, since he hath no manner of success in those reproaches he casts upon us. . he adds another grecian fable, in order to reproach us. in reply to which, it would be enough to say, that they who presume to speak about divine worship ought not to be ignorant of this plain truth, that it is a degree of less impurity to pass through temples, than to forge wicked calumnies of its priests. now such men as he are more zealous to justify a sacrilegious king, than to write what is just and what is true about us, and about our temple; for when they are desirous of gratifying antiochus, and of concealing that perfidiousness and sacrilege which he was guilty of, with regard to our nation, when he wanted money, they endeavor to disgrace us, and tell lies even relating to futurities. apion becomes other men's prophet upon this occasion, and says that "antiochus found in our temple a bed, and a man lying upon it, with a small table before him, full of dainties, from the [fishes of the] sea, and the fowls of the dry land; that this man was amazed at these dainties thus set before him; that he immediately adored the king, upon his coming in, as hoping that he would afford him all possible assistance; that he fell down upon his knees, and stretched out to him his right hand, and begged to be released; and that when the king bid him sit down, and tell him who he was, and why he dwelt there, and what was the meaning of those various sorts of food that were set before him the man made a lamentable complaint, and with sighs, and tears in his eyes, gave him this account of the distress he was in; and said that he was a greek and that as he went over this province, in order to get his living, he was seized upon by foreigners, on a sudden, and brought to this temple, and shut up therein, and was seen by nobody, but was fattened by these curious provisions thus set before him; and that truly at the first such unexpected advantages seemed to him matter of great joy; that after a while, they brought a suspicion him, and at length astonishment, what their meaning should be; that at last he inquired of the servants that came to him and was by them informed that it was in order to the fulfilling a law of the jews, which they must not tell him, that he was thus fed; and that they did the same at a set time every year: that they used to catch a greek foreigner, and fat him thus up every year, and then lead him to a certain wood, and kill him, and sacrifice with their accustomed solemnities, and taste of his entrails, and take an oath upon this sacrificing a greek, that they would ever be at enmity with the greeks; and that then they threw the remaining parts of the miserable wretch into a certain pit." apion adds further, that, "the man said there were but a few days to come ere he was to be slain, and implored of antiochus that, out of the reverence he bore to the grecian gods, he would disappoint the snares the jews laid for his blood, and would deliver him from the miseries with which he was encompassed." now this is such a most tragical fable as is full of nothing but cruelty and impudence; yet does it not excuse antiochus of his sacrilegious attempt, as those who write it in his vindication are willing to suppose; for he could not presume beforehand that he should meet with any such thing in coming to the temple, but must have found it unexpectedly. he was therefore still an impious person, that was given to unlawful pleasures, and had no regard to god in his actions. but [as for apion], he hath done whatever his extravagant love of lying hath dictated to him, as it is most easy to discover by a consideration of his writings; for the difference of our laws is known not to regard the grecians only, but they are principally opposite to the egyptians, and to some other nations also for while it so falls out that men of all countries come sometimes and sojourn among us, how comes it about that we take an oath, and conspire only against the grecians, and that by the effusion of their blood also? or how is it possible that all the jews should get together to these sacrifices, and the entrails of one man should be sufficient for so many thousands to taste of them, as apion pretends? or why did not the king carry this man, whosoever he was, and whatsoever was his name, [which is not set down in apion's book,] with great pomp back into his own country? when he might thereby have been esteemed a religious person himself, and a mighty lover of the greeks, and might thereby have procured himself great assistance from all men against that hatred the jews bore to him. but i leave this matter; for the proper way of confuting fools is not to use bare words, but to appeal to the things themselves that make against them. now, then, all such as ever saw the construction of our temple, of what nature it was, know well enough how the purity of it was never to be profaned; for it had four several courts [ ] encompassed with cloisters round about, every one of which had by our law a peculiar degree of separation from the rest. into the first court every body was allowed to go, even foreigners, and none but women, during their courses, were prohibited to pass through it; all the jews went into the second court, as well as their wives, when they were free from all uncleanness; into the third court went in the jewish men, when they were clean and purified; into the fourth went the priests, having on their sacerdotal garments; but for the most sacred place, none went in but the high priests, clothed in their peculiar garments. now there is so great caution used about these offices of religion, that the priests are appointed to go into the temple but at certain hours; for in the morning, at the opening of the inner temple, those that are to officiate receive the sacrifices, as they do again at noon, till the doors are shut. lastly, it is not so much as lawful to carry any vessel into the holy house; nor is there any thing therein, but the altar [of incense], the table [of shew-bread], the censer, and the candlestick, which are all written in the law; for there is nothing further there, nor are there any mysteries performed that may not be spoken of; nor is there any feasting within the place. for what i have now said is publicly known, and supported by the testimony of the whole people, and their operations are very manifest; for although there be four courses of the priests, and every one of them have above five thousand men in them, yet do they officiate on certain days only; and when those days are over, other priests succeed in the performance of their sacrifices, and assemble together at mid-day, and receive the keys of the temple, and the vessels by tale, without any thing relating to food or drink being carried into the temple; nay, we are not allowed to offer such things at the altar, excepting what is prepared for the sacrifices. . what then can we say of apion, but that he examined nothing that concerned these things, while still he uttered incredible words about them? but it is a great shame for a grammarian not to be able to write true history. now if he knew the purity of our temple, he hath entirely omitted to take notice of it; but he forges a story about the seizing of a grecian, about ineffable food, and the most delicious preparation of dainties; and pretends that strangers could go into a place whereinto the noblest men among the jews are not allowed to enter, unless they be priests. this, therefore, is the utmost degree of impiety, and a voluntary lie, in order to the delusion of those who will not examine into the truth of matters; whereas such unspeakable mischiefs as are above related have been occasioned by such calumnies that are raised upon us. . nay, this miracle or piety derides us further, and adds the following pretended facts to his former fable; for he says that this man related how, "while the jews were once in a long war with the idumeans, there came a man out of one of the cities of the idumeans, who there had worshipped apollo. this man, whose name is said to have been zabidus, came to the jews, and promised that he would deliver apollo, the god of dora, into their hands, and that he would come to our temple, if they would all come up with him, and bring the whole multitude of the jews with them; that zabidus made him a certain wooden instrument, and put it round about him, and set three rows of lamps therein, and walked after such a manner, that he appeared to those that stood a great way off him to be a kind of star, walking upon the earth; that the jews were terribly affrighted at so surprising an appearance, and stood very quiet at a distance; and that zabidus, while they continued so very quiet, went into the holy house, and carried off that golden head of an ass, [for so facetiously does he write,] and then went his way back again to dora in great haste." and say you so, sir! as i may reply; then does apion load the ass, that is, himself, and lays on him a burden of fooleries and lies; for he writes of places that have no being, and not knowing the cities he speaks of, he changes their situation; for idumea borders upon our country, and is near to gaza, in which there is no such city as dora; although there be, it is true, a city named dora in phoenicia, near mount carmel, but it is four days' journey from idumea. [ ] now, then, why does this man accuse us, because we have not gods in common with other nations, if our fathers were so easily prevailed upon to have apollo come to them, and thought they saw him walking upon the earth, and the stars with him? for certainly those who have so many festivals, wherein they light lamps, must yet, at this rate, have never seen a candlestick! but still it seems that while zabidus took his journey over the country, where were so many ten thousands of people, nobody met him. he also, it seems, even in a time of war, found the walls of jerusalem destitute of guards. i omit the rest. now the doors of the holy house were seventy [ ] cubits high, and twenty cubits broad; they were all plated over with gold, and almost of solid gold itself, and there were no fewer than twenty [ ] men required to shut them every day; nor was it lawful ever to leave them open, though it seems this lamp-bearer of ours opened them easily, or thought he opened them, as he thought he had the ass's head in his hand. whether, therefore, he returned it to us again, or whether apion took it, and brought it into the temple again, that antiochus might find it, and afford a handle for a second fable of apion's, is uncertain. . apion also tells a false story, when he mentions an oath of ours, as if we "swore by god, the maker of the heaven, and earth, and sea, to bear no good will to any foreigner, and particularly to none of the greeks." now this liar ought to have said directly that, "we would bear no good-will to any foreigner, and particularly to none of the egyptians." for then his story about the oath would have squared with the rest of his original forgeries, in case our forefathers had been driven away by their kinsmen, the egyptians, not on account of any wickedness they had been guilty of, but on account of the calamities they were under; for as to the grecians, we were rather remote from them in place, than different from them in our institutions, insomuch that we have no enmity with them, nor any jealousy of them. on the contrary, it hath so happened that many of them have come over to our laws, and some of them have continued in their observation, although others of them had not courage enough to persevere, and so departed from them again; nor did any body ever hear this oath sworn by us: apion, it seems, was the only person that heard it, for he indeed was the first composer of it. . however, apion deserves to be admired for his great prudence, as to what i am going to say, which is this, "that there is a plain mark among us, that we neither have just laws, nor worship god as we ought to do, because we are not governors, but are rather in subjection to gentiles, sometimes to one nation, and sometimes to another; and that our city hath been liable to several calamities, while their city [alexandria] hath been of old time an imperial city, and not used to be in subjection to the romans." but now this man had better leave off this bragging, for every body but himself would think that apion said what he hath said against himself; for there are very few nations that have had the good fortune to continue many generations in the principality, but still the mutations in human affairs have put them into subjection under others; and most nations have been often subdued, and brought into subjection by others. now for the egyptians, perhaps they are the only nation that have had this extraordinary privilege, to have never served any of those monarchs who subdued asia and europe, and this on account, as they pretend, that the gods fled into their country, and saved themselves by being changed into the shapes of wild beasts! whereas these egyptians [ ] are the very people that appear to have never, in all the past ages, had one day of freedom, no, not so much as from their own lords. for i will not reproach them with relating the manner how the persians used them, and this not once only, but many times, when they laid their cities waste, demolished their temples, and cut the throats of those animals whom they esteemed to be gods; for it is not reasonable to imitate the clownish ignorance of apion, who hath no regard to the misfortunes of the athenians, or of the lacedemonians, the latter of whom were styled by all men the most courageous, and the former the most religious of the grecians. i say nothing of such kings as have been famous for piety, particularly of one of them, whose name was cresus, nor what calamities he met with in his life; i say nothing of the citadel of athens, of the temple at ephesus, of that at delphi, nor of ten thousand others which have been burnt down, while nobody cast reproaches on those that were the sufferers, but on those that were the actors therein. but now we have met with apion, an accuser of our nation, though one that still forgets the miseries of his own people, the egyptians; but it is that sesostris who was once so celebrated a king of egypt that hath blinded him. now we will not brag of our kings, david and solomon, though they conquered many nations; accordingly we will let them alone. however, apion is ignorant of what every body knows, that the egyptians were servants to the persians, and afterwards to the macedonians, when they were lords of asia, and were no better than slaves, while we have enjoyed liberty formerly; nay, more than that, have had the dominion of the cities that lie round about us, and this nearly for a hundred and twenty years together, until pompeius magnus. and when all the kings every where were conquered by the romans, our ancestors were the only people who continued to be esteemed their confederates and friends, on account of their fidelity to them.[ ] . "but," says apion, "we jews have not had any wonderful men amongst us, not any inventors of arts, nor any eminent for wisdom." he then enumerates socrates, and zeno, and cleanthes, and some others of the same sort; and, after all, he adds himself to them, which is the most wonderful thing of all that he says, and pronounces alexandria to be happy, because it hath such a citizen as he is in it; for he was the fittest man to be a witness to his own deserts, although he hath appeared to all others no better than a wicked mountebank, of a corrupt life and ill discourses; on which account one may justly pity alexandria, if it should value itself upon such a citizen as he is. but as to our own men, we have had those who have been as deserving of commendation as any other whosoever, and such as have perused our antiquities cannot be ignorant of them. . as to the other things which he sets down as blameworthy, it may perhaps be the best way to let them pass without apology, that he may be allowed to be his own accuser, and the accuser of the rest of the egyptians. however, he accuses us for sacrificing animals, and for abstaining from swine's flesh, and laughs at us for the circumcision of our privy members. now as for our slaughter of tame animals for sacrifices, it is common to us and to all other men; but this apion, by making it a crime to sacrifice them, demonstrates himself to be an egyptian; for had he been either a grecian or a macedonian, [as he pretends to be,] he had not shown any uneasiness at it; for those people glory in sacrificing whole hecatombs to the gods, and make use of those sacrifices for feasting; and yet is not the world thereby rendered destitute of cattle, as apion was afraid would come to pass. yet if all men had followed the manners of the egyptians, the world had certainly been made desolate as to mankind, but had been filled full of the wildest sort of brute beasts, which, because they suppose them to be gods, they carefully nourish. however, if any one should ask apion which of the egyptians he thinks to be the most wise and most pious of them all, he would certainly acknowledge the priests to be so; for the histories say that two things were originally committed to their care by their kings' injunctions, the worship of the gods, and the support of wisdom and philosophy. accordingly, these priests are all circumcised, and abstain from swine's flesh; nor does any one of the other egyptians assist them in slaying those sacrifices they offer to the gods. apion was therefore quite blinded in his mind, when, for the sake of the egyptians, he contrived to reproach us, and to accuse such others as not only make use of that conduct of life which he so much abuses, but have also taught other men to be circumcised, as says herodotus; which makes me think that apion is hereby justly punished for his casting such reproaches on the laws of his own country; for he was circumcised himself of necessity, on account of an ulcer in his privy member; and when he received no benefit by such circumcision, but his member became putrid, he died in great torment. now men of good tempers ought to observe their own laws concerning religion accurately, and to persevere therein, but not presently to abuse the laws of other nations, while this apion deserted his own laws, and told lies about ours. and this was the end of apion's life, and this shall be the conclusion of our discourse about him. . but now, since apollonius molo, and lysimachus, and some others, write treatises about our lawgiver moses, and about our laws, which are neither just nor true, and this partly out of ignorance, but chiefly out of ill-will to us, while they calumniate moses as an impostor and deceiver, and pretend that our laws teach us wickedness, but nothing that is virtuous, i have a mind to discourse briefly, according to my ability, about our whole constitution of government, and about the particular branches of it. for i suppose it will thence become evident, that the laws we have given us are disposed after the best manner for the advancement of piety, for mutual communion with one another, for a general love of mankind, as also for justice, and for sustaining labors with fortitude, and for a contempt of death. and i beg of those that shall peruse this writing of mine, to read it without partiality; for it is not my purpose to write an encomium upon ourselves, but i shall esteem this as a most just apology for us, and taken from those our laws, according to which we lead our lives, against the many and the lying objections that have been made against us. moreover, since this apollonius does not do like apion, and lay a continued accusation against us, but does it only by starts, and up and clown his discourse, while he sometimes reproaches us as atheists, and man-haters, and sometimes hits us in the teeth with our want of courage, and yet sometimes, on the contrary, accuses us of too great boldness and madness in our conduct; nay, he says that we are the weakest of all the barbarians, and that this is the reason why we are the only people who have made no improvements in human life; now i think i shall have then sufficiently disproved all these his allegations, when it shall appear that our laws enjoin the very reverse of what he says, and that we very carefully observe those laws ourselves. and if i he compelled to make mention of the laws of other nations, that are contrary to ours, those ought deservedly to thank themselves for it, who have pretended to depreciate our laws in comparison of their own; nor will there, i think, be any room after that for them to pretend either that we have no such laws ourselves, an epitome of which i will present to the reader, or that we do not, above all men, continue in the observation of them. . to begin then a good way backward, i would advance this, in the first place, that those who have been admirers of good order, and of living under common laws, and who began to introduce them, may well have this testimony that they are better than other men, both for moderation and such virtue as is agreeable to nature. indeed their endeavor was to have every thing they ordained believed to be very ancient, that they might not be thought to imitate others, but might appear to have delivered a regular way of living to others after them. since then this is the case, the excellency of a legislator is seen in providing for the people's living after the best manner, and in prevailing with those that are to use the laws he ordains for them, to have a good opinion of them, and in obliging the multitude to persevere in them, and to make no changes in them, neither in prosperity nor adversity. now i venture to say, that our legislator is the most ancient of all the legislators whom we have ally where heard of; for as for the lycurguses, and solons, and zaleucus locrensis, and all those legislators who are so admired by the greeks, they seem to be of yesterday, if compared with our legislator, insomuch as the very name of a law was not so much as known in old times among the grecians. homer is a witness to the truth of this observation, who never uses that term in all his poems; for indeed there was then no such thing among them, but the multitude was governed by wise maxims, and by the injunctions of their king. it was also a long time that they continued in the use of these unwritten customs, although they were always changing them upon several occasions. but for our legislator, who was of so much greater antiquity than the rest, [as even those that speak against us upon all occasions do always confess,] he exhibited himself to the people as their best governor and counselor, and included in his legislation the entire conduct of their lives, and prevailed with them to receive it, and brought it so to pass, that those that were made acquainted with his laws did most carefully observe them. . but let us consider his first and greatest work; for when it was resolved on by our forefathers to leave egypt, and return to their own country, this moses took the many tell thousands that were of the people, and saved them out of many desperate distresses, and brought them home in safety. and certainly it was here necessary to travel over a country without water, and full of sand, to overcome their enemies, and, during these battles, to preserve their children, and their wives, and their prey; on all which occasions he became an excellent general of an army, and a most prudent counselor, and one that took the truest care of them all; he also so brought it about, that the whole multitude depended upon him. and while he had them always obedient to what he enjoined, he made no manner of use of his authority for his own private advantage, which is the usual time when governors gain great powers to themselves, and pave the way for tyranny, and accustom the multitude to live very dissolutely; whereas, when our legislator was in so great authority, he, on the contrary, thought he ought to have regard to piety, and to show his great good-will to the people; and by this means he thought he might show the great degree of virtue that was in him, and might procure the most lasting security to those who had made him their governor. when he had therefore come to such a good resolution, and had performed such wonderful exploits, we had just reason to look upon ourselves as having him for a divine governor and counselor. and when he had first persuaded himself [ ] that his actions and designs were agreeable to god's will, he thought it his duty to impress, above all things, that notion upon the multitude; for those who have once believed that god is the inspector of their lives, will not permit themselves in any sin. and this is the character of our legislator: he was no impostor, no deceiver, as his revilers say, though unjustly, but such a one as they brag minos [ ] to have been among the greeks, and other legislators after him; for some of them suppose that they had their laws from jupiter, while minos said that the revelation of his laws was to be referred to apollo, and his oracle at delphi, whether they really thought they were so derived, or supposed, however, that they could persuade the people easily that so it was. but which of these it was who made the best laws, and which had the greatest reason to believe that god was their author, it will be easy, upon comparing those laws themselves together, to determine; for it is time that we come to that point. [ ] now there are innumerable differences in the particular customs and laws that are among all mankind, which a man may briefly reduce under the following heads: some legislators have permitted their governments to be under monarchies, others put them under oligarchies, and others under a republican form; but our legislator had no regard to any of these forms, but he ordained our government to be what, by a strained expression, may be termed a theocracy, [ ] by ascribing the authority and the power to god, and by persuading all the people to have a regard to him, as the author of all the good things that were enjoyed either in common by all mankind, or by each one in particular, and of all that they themselves obtained by praying to him in their greatest difficulties. he informed them that it was impossible to escape god's observation, even in any of our outward actions, or in any of our inward thoughts. moreover, he represented god as unbegotten, [ ] and immutable, through all eternity, superior to all mortal conceptions in pulchritude; and, though known to us by his power, yet unknown to us as to his essence. i do not now explain how these notions of god are the sentiments of the wisest among the grecians, and how they were taught them upon the principles that he afforded them. however, they testify, with great assurance, that these notions are just, and agreeable to the nature of god, and to his majesty; for pythagoras, and anaxagoras, and plato, and the stoic philosophers that succeeded them, and almost all the rest, are of the same sentiments, and had the same notions of the nature of god; yet durst not these men disclose those true notions to more than a few, because the body of the people were prejudiced with other opinions beforehand. but our legislator, who made his actions agree to his laws, did not only prevail with those that were his contemporaries to agree with these his notions, but so firmly imprinted this faith in god upon all their posterity, that it never could be removed. the reason why the constitution of this legislation was ever better directed to the utility of all than other legislations were, is this, that moses did not make religion a part of virtue, but he saw and he ordained other virtues to be parts of religion; i mean justice, and fortitude, and temperance, and a universal agreement of the members of the community with one another; for all our actions and studies, and all our words, [in moses's settlement,] have a reference to piety towards god; for he hath left none of these in suspense, or undetermined. for there are two ways of coming at any sort of learning and a moral conduct of life; the one is by instruction in words, the other by practical exercises. now other lawgivers have separated these two ways in their opinions, and choosing one of those ways of instruction, or that which best pleased every one of them, neglected the other. thus did the lacedemonians and the cretians teach by practical exercises, but not by words; while the athenians, and almost all the other grecians, made laws about what was to be done, or left undone, but had no regard to the exercising them thereto in practice. . but for our legislator, he very carefully joined these two methods of instruction together; for he neither left these practical exercises to go on without verbal instruction, nor did he permit the hearing of the law to proceed without the exercises for practice; but beginning immediately from the earliest infancy, and the appointment of every one's diet, he left nothing of the very smallest consequence to be done at the pleasure and disposal of the person himself. accordingly, he made a fixed rule of law what sorts of food they should abstain from, and what sorts they should make use of; as also, what communion they should have with others what great diligence they should use in their occupations, and what times of rest should be interposed, that, by living under that law as under a father and a master, we might be guilty of no sin, neither voluntary nor out of ignorance; for he did not suffer the guilt of ignorance to go on without punishment, but demonstrated the law to be the best and the most necessary instruction of all others, permitting the people to leave off their other employments, and to assemble together for the hearing of the law, and learning it exactly, and this not once or twice, or oftener, but every week; which thing all the other legislators seem to have neglected. . and indeed the greatest part of mankind are so far from living according to their own laws, that they hardly know them; but when they have sinned, they learn from others that they have transgressed the law. those also who are in the highest and principal posts of the government, confess they are not acquainted with those laws, and are obliged to take such persons for their assessors in public administrations as profess to have skill in those laws; but for our people, if any body do but ask any one of them about our laws, he will more readily tell them all than he will tell his own name, and this in consequence of our having learned them immediately as soon as ever we became sensible of any thing, and of our having them as it were engraven on our souls. our transgressors of them are but few, and it is impossible, when any do offend, to escape punishment. . and this very thing it is that principally creates such a wonderful agreement of minds amongst us all; for this entire agreement of ours in all our notions concerning god, and our having no difference in our course of life and manners, procures among us the most excellent concord of these our manners that is any where among mankind; for no other people but the jews have avoided all discourses about god that any way contradict one another, which yet are frequent among other nations; and this is true not only among ordinary persons, according as every one is affected, but some of the philosophers have been insolent enough to indulge such contradictions, while some of them have undertaken to use such words as entirely take away the nature of god, as others of them have taken away his providence over mankind. nor can any one perceive amongst us any difference in the conduct of our lives, but all our works are common to us all. we have one sort of discourse concerning god, which is conformable to our law, and affirms that he sees all things; as also we have but one way of speaking concerning the conduct of our lives, that all other things ought to have piety for their end; and this any body may hear from our women, and servants themselves. . and, indeed, hence hath arisen that accusation which some make against us, that we have not produced men that have been the inventors of new operations, or of new ways of speaking; for others think it a fine thing to persevere in nothing that has been delivered down from their forefathers, and these testify it to be an instance of the sharpest wisdom when these men venture to transgress those traditions; whereas we, on the contrary, suppose it to be our only wisdom and virtue to admit no actions nor supposals that are contrary to our original laws; which procedure of ours is a just and sure sign that our law is admirably constituted; for such laws as are not thus well made are convicted upon trial to want amendment. . but while we are ourselves persuaded that our law was made agreeably to the will of god, it would be impious for us not to observe the same; for what is there in it that any body would change? and what can be invented that is better? or what can we take out of other people's laws that will exceed it? perhaps some would have the entire settlement of our government altered. and where shall we find a better or more righteous constitution than ours, while this makes us esteem god to be the governor of the universe, and permits the priests in general to be the administrators of the principal affairs, and withal intrusts the government over the other priests to the chief high priest himself? which priests our legislator, at their first appointment, did not advance to that dignity for their riches, or any abundance of other possessions, or any plenty they had as the gifts of fortune; but he intrusted the principal management of divine worship to those that exceeded others in an ability to persuade men, and in prudence of conduct. these men had the main care of the law and of the other parts of the people's conduct committed to them; for they were the priests who were ordained to be the inspectors of all, and the judges in doubtful cases, and the punishers of those that were condemned to suffer punishment. . what form of government then can be more holy than this? what more worthy kind of worship can be paid to god than we pay, where the entire body of the people are prepared for religion, where an extraordinary degree of care is required in the priests, and where the whole polity is so ordered as if it were a certain religious solemnity? for what things foreigners, when they solemnize such festivals, are not able to observe for a few days' time, and call them mysteries and sacred ceremonies, we observe with great pleasure and an unshaken resolution during our whole lives. what are the things then that we are commanded or forbidden? they are simple, and easily known. the first command is concerning god, and affirms that god contains all things, and is a being every way perfect and happy, self-sufficient, and supplying all other beings; the beginning, the middle, and the end of all things. he is manifest in his works and benefits, and more conspicuous than any other being whatsoever; but as to his form and magnitude, he is most obscure. all materials, let them be ever so costly, are unworthy to compose an image for him, and all arts are unartful to express the notion we ought to have of him. we can neither see nor think of any thing like him, nor is it agreeable to piety to form a resemblance of him. we see his works, the light, the heaven, the earth, the sun and the moon, the waters, the generations of animals, the productions of fruits. these things hath god made, not with hands, nor with labor, nor as wanting the assistance of any to cooperate with him; but as his will resolved they should be made and be good also, they were made and became good immediately. all men ought to follow this being, and to worship him in the exercise of virtue; for this way of worship of god is the most holy of all others. . there ought also to be but one temple for one god; for likeness is the constant foundation of agreement. this temple ought to be common to all men, because he is the common god of all men. high priests are to be continually about his worship, over whom he that is the first by his birth is to be their ruler perpetually. his business must be to offer sacrifices to god, together with those priests that are joined with him, to see that the laws be observed, to determine controversies, and to punish those that are convicted of injustice; while he that does not submit to him shall be subject to the same punishment, as if he had been guilty of impiety towards god himself. when we offer sacrifices to him, we do it not in order to surfeit ourselves, or to be drunken; for such excesses are against the will of god, and would be an occasion of injuries and of luxury; but by keeping ourselves sober, orderly, and ready for our other occupations, and being more temperate than others. and for our duty at the sacrifices [ ] themselves, we ought, in the first place, to pray for the common welfare of all, and after that for our own; for we are made for fellowship one with another, and he who prefers the common good before what is peculiar to himself is above all acceptable to god. and let our prayers and supplications be made humbly to god, not [so much] that he would give us what is good, [for he hath already given that of his own accord, and hath proposed the same publicly to all,] as that we may duly receive it, and when we have received it, may preserve it. now the law has appointed several purifications at our sacrifices, whereby we are cleansed after a funeral, after what sometimes happens to us in bed, and after accompanying with our wives, and upon many other occasions, which it would be too long now to set down. and this is our doctrine concerning god and his worship, and is the same that the law appoints for our practice. . but, then, what are our laws about marriage? that law owns no other mixture of sexes but that which nature hath appointed, of a man with his wife, and that this be used only for the procreation of children. but it abhors the mixture of a male with a male; and if any one do that, death is its punishment. it commands us also, when we marry, not to have regard to portion, nor to take a woman by violence, nor to persuade her deceitfully and knavishly; but to demand her in marriage of him who hath power to dispose of her, and is fit to give her away by the nearness of his kindred; for, says the scripture, "a woman is inferior to her husband in all things." [ ] let her, therefore, be obedient to him; not so that he should abuse her, but that she may acknowledge her duty to her husband; for god hath given the authority to the husband. a husband, therefore, is to lie only with his wife whom he hath married; but to have to do with another man's wife is a wicked thing, which, if any one ventures upon, death is inevitably his punishment: no more can he avoid the same who forces a virgin betrothed to another man, or entices another man's wife. the law, moreover, enjoins us to bring up all our offspring, and forbids women to cause abortion of what is begotten, or to destroy it afterward; and if any woman appears to have so done, she will be a murderer of her child, by destroying a living creature, and diminishing human kind; if any one, therefore, proceeds to such fornication or murder, he cannot be clean. moreover, the law enjoins, that after the man and wife have lain together in a regular way, they shall bathe themselves; for there is a defilement contracted thereby, both in soul and body, as if they had gone into another country; for indeed the soul, by being united to the body, is subject to miseries, and is not freed therefrom again but by death; on which account the law requires this purification to be entirely performed. . nay, indeed, the law does not permit us to make festivals at the births of our children, and thereby afford occasion of drinking to excess; but it ordains that the very beginning of our education should be immediately directed to sobriety. it also commands us to bring those children up in learning, and to exercise them in the laws, and make them acquainted with the acts of their predecessors, in order to their imitation of them, and that they might be nourished up in the laws from their infancy, and might neither transgress them, nor have any pretense for their ignorance of them. . our law hath also taken care of the decent burial of the dead, but without any extravagant expenses for their funerals, and without the erection of any illustrious monuments for them; but hath ordered that their nearest relations should perform their obsequies; and hath showed it to be regular, that all who pass by when any one is buried should accompany the funeral, and join in the lamentation. it also ordains that the house and its inhabitants should be purified after the funeral is over, that every one may thence learn to keep at a great distance from the thoughts of being pure, if he hath been once guilty of murder. . the law ordains also, that parents should be honored immediately after god himself, and delivers that son who does not requite them for the benefits he hath received from them, but is deficient on any such occasion, to be stoned. it also says that the young men should pay due respect to every elder, since god is the eldest of all beings. it does not give leave to conceal any thing from our friends, because that is not true friendship which will not commit all things to their fidelity: it also forbids the revelation of secrets, even though an enmity arise between them. if any judge takes bribes, his punishment is death: he that overlooks one that offers him a petition, and this when he is able to relieve him, he is a guilty person. what is not by any one intrusted to another ought not to be required back again. no one is to touch another's goods. he that lends money must not demand usury for its loan. these, and many more of the like sort, are the rules that unite us in the bands of society one with another. . it will be also worth our while to see what equity our legislator would have us exercise in our intercourse with strangers; for it will thence appear that he made the best provision he possibly could, both that we should not dissolve our own constitution, nor show any envious mind towards those that would cultivate a friendship with us. accordingly, our legislator admits all those that have a mind to observe our laws so to do; and this after a friendly manner, as esteeming that a true union which not only extends to our own stock, but to those that would live after the same manner with us; yet does he not allow those that come to us by accident only to be admitted into communion with us. . however, there are other things which our legislator ordained for us beforehand, which of necessity we ought to do in common to all men; as to afford fire, and water, and food to such as want it; to show them the roads; not to let any one lie unburied. he also would have us treat those that are esteemed our enemies with moderation; for he doth not allow us to set their country on fire, nor permit us to cut down those trees that bear fruit; nay, further, he forbids us to spoil those that have been slain in war. he hath also provided for such as are taken captive, that they may not be injured, and especially that the women may not be abused. indeed he hath taught us gentleness and humanity so effectually, that he hath not despised the care of brute beasts, by permitting no other than a regular use of them, and forbidding any other; and if any of them come to our houses, like supplicants, we are forbidden to slay them; nor may we kill the dams, together with their young ones; but we are obliged, even in an enemy's country, to spare and not kill those creatures that labor for mankind. thus hath our lawgiver contrived to teach us an equitable conduct every way, by using us to such laws as instruct us therein; while at the same time he hath ordained that such as break these laws should be punished, without the allowance of any excuse whatsoever. . now the greatest part of offenses with us are capital; as if any one be guilty of adultery; if any one force a virgin; if any one be so impudent as to attempt sodomy with a male; or if, upon another's making an attempt upon him, he submits to be so used. there is also a law for slaves of the like nature, that can never be avoided. moreover, if any one cheats another in measures or weights, or makes a knavish bargain and sale, in order to cheat another; if any one steals what belongs to another, and takes what he never deposited; all these have punishments allotted them; not such as are met with among other nations, but more severe ones. and as for attempts of unjust behavior towards parents, or for impiety against god, though they be not actually accomplished, the offenders are destroyed immediately. however, the reward for such as live exactly according to the laws is not silver or gold; it is not a garland of olive branches or of small age, nor any such public sign of commendation; but every good man hath his own conscience bearing witness to himself, and by virtue of our legislator's prophetic spirit, and of the firm security god himself affords such a one, he believes that god hath made this grant to those that observe these laws, even though they be obliged readily to die for them, that they shall come into being again, and at a certain revolution of things shall receive a better life than they had enjoyed before. nor would i venture to write thus at this time, were it not well known to all by our actions that many of our people have many a time bravely resolved to endure any sufferings, rather than speak one word against our law. . nay, indeed, in case it had so fallen out, that our nation had not been so thoroughly known among all men as they are, and our voluntary submission to our laws had not been so open and manifest as it is, but that somebody had pretended to have written these laws himself, and had read them to the greeks, or had pretended that he had met with men out of the limits of the known world, that had such reverent notions of god, and had continued a long time in the firm observance of such laws as ours, i cannot but suppose that all men would admire them on a reflection upon the frequent changes they had therein been themselves subject to; and this while those that have attempted to write somewhat of the same kind for politic government, and for laws, are accused as composing monstrous things, and are said to have undertaken an impossible task upon them. and here i will say nothing of those other philosophers who have undertaken any thing of this nature in their writings. but even plato himself, who is so admired by the greeks on account of that gravity in his manners, and force in his words, and that ability he had to persuade men beyond all other philosophers, is little better than laughed at and exposed to ridicule on that account, by those that pretend to sagacity in political affairs; although he that shall diligently peruse his writings will find his precepts to be somewhat gentle, and pretty near to the customs of the generality of mankind. nay, plato himself confesseth that it is not safe to publish the true notion concerning god among the ignorant multitude. yet do some men look upon plato's discourses as no better than certain idle words set off with great artifice. however, they admire lycurgus as the principal lawgiver, and all men celebrate sparta for having continued in the firm observance of his laws for a very long time. so far then we have gained, that it is to be confessed a mark of virtue to submit to laws. [ ] but then let such as admire this in the lacedemonians compare that duration of theirs with more than two thousand years which our political government hath continued; and let them further consider, that though the lacedemonians did seem to observe their laws exactly while they enjoyed their liberty, yet that when they underwent a change of their fortune, they forgot almost all those laws; while we, having been under ten thousand changes in our fortune by the changes that happened among the kings of asia, have never betrayed our laws under the most pressing distresses we have been in; nor have we neglected them either out of sloth or for a livelihood. [ ] if any one will consider it, the difficulties and labors laid upon us have been greater than what appears to have been borne by the lacedemonian fortitude, while they neither ploughed their land, nor exercised any trades, but lived in their own city, free from all such pains-taking, in the enjoyment of plenty, and using such exercises as might improve their bodies, while they made use of other men as their servants for all the necessaries of life, and had their food prepared for them by the others; and these good and humane actions they do for no other purpose but this, that by their actions and their sufferings they may be able to conquer all those against whom they make war. i need not add this, that they have not been fully able to observe their laws; for not only a few single persons, but multitudes of them, have in heaps neglected those laws, and have delivered themselves, together with their arms, into the hands of their enemies. . now as for ourselves, i venture to say that no one can tell of so many; nay, not of more than one or two that have betrayed our laws, no, not out of fear of death itself; i do not mean such an easy death as happens in battles, but that which comes with bodily torments, and seems to be the severest kind of death of all others. now i think those that have conquered us have put us to such deaths, not out of their hatred to us when they had subdued us, but rather out of their desire of seeing a surprising sight, which is this, whether there be such men in the world who believe that no evil is to them so great as to be compelled to do or to speak any thing contrary to their own laws. nor ought men to wonder at us, if we are more courageous in dying for our laws than all other men are; for other men do not easily submit to the easier things in which we are instituted; i mean working with our hands, and eating but little, and being contented to eat and drink, not at random, or at every one's pleasure, or being under inviolable rules in lying with our wives, in magnificent furniture, and again in the observation of our times of rest; while those that can use their swords in war, and can put their enemies to flight when they attack them, cannot bear to submit to such laws about their way of living: whereas our being accustomed willingly to submit to laws in these instances, renders us fit to show our fortitude upon other occasions also. . yet do the lysimachi and the molones, and some other writers, [unskillful sophists as they are, and the deceivers of young men,] reproach us as the vilest of all mankind. now i have no mind to make an inquiry into the laws of other nations; for the custom of our country is to keep our own laws, but not to bring accusations against the laws of others. and indeed our legislator hath expressly forbidden us to laugh at and revile those that are esteemed gods by other people? on account of the very name of god ascribed to them. but since our antagonists think to run us down upon the comparison of their religion and ours, it is not possible to keep silence here, especially while what i shall say to confute these men will not be now first said, but hath been already said by many, and these of the highest reputation also; for who is there among those that have been admired among the greeks for wisdom, who hath not greatly blamed both the most famous poets, and most celebrated legislators, for spreading such notions originally among the body of the people concerning the gods? such as these, that they may be allowed to be as numerous as they have a mind to have them; that they are begotten one by another, and that after all the kinds of generation you can imagine. they also distinguish them in their places and ways of living as they would distinguish several sorts of animals; as some to be under the earth; as some to be in the sea; and the ancientest of them all to be bound in hell; and for those to whom they have allotted heaven, they have set over them one, who in title is their father, but in his actions a tyrant and a lord; whence it came to pass that his wife, and brother, and daughter [which daughter he brought forth from his own head] made a conspiracy against him to seize upon him and confine hint, as he had himself seized upon and confined his own father before. . and justly have the wisest men thought these notions deserved severe rebukes; they also laugh at them for determining that we ought to believe some of the gods to be beardless and young, and others of them to be old, and to have beards accordingly; that some are set to trades; that one god is a smith, and another goddess is a weaver; that one god is a warrior, and fights with men; that some of them are harpers, or delight in archery; and besides, that mutual seditions arise among them, and that they quarrel about men, and this so far, that they not only lay hands upon one another, but that they are wounded by men, and lament, and take on for such their afflictions. but what is the grossest of all in point of lasciviousness, are those unbounded lusts ascribed to almost all of them, and their amours; which how can it be other than a most absurd supposal, especially when it reaches to the male gods, and to the female goddesses also? moreover, the chief of all their gods, and their first father himself, overlooks those goddesses whom he hath deluded and begotten with child, and suffers them to be kept in prison, or drowned in the sea. he is also so bound up by fate, that he cannot save his own offspring, nor can he bear their deaths without shedding of tears. these are fine things indeed! as are the rest that follow. adulteries truly are so impudently looked on in heaven by the gods, that some of them have confessed they envied those that were found in the very act. and why should they not do so, when the eldest of them, who is their king also, hath not been able to restrain himself in the violence of his lust, from lying with his wife, so long as they might get into their bedchamber? now some of the gods are servants to men, and will sometimes be builders for a reward, and sometimes will be shepherds; while others of them, like malefactors, are bound in a prison of brass. and what sober person is there who would not be provoked at such stories, and rebuke those that forged them, and condemn the great silliness of those that admit them for true? nay, others there are that have advanced a certain timorousness and fear, as also madness and fraud, and any other of the vilest passions, into the nature and form of gods, and have persuaded whole cities to offer sacrifices to the better sort of them; on which account they have been absolutely forced to esteem some gods as the givers of good things, and to call others of them averters of evil. they also endeavor to move them, as they would the vilest of men, by gifts and presents, as looking for nothing else than to receive some great mischief from them, unless they pay them such wages. . wherefore it deserves our inquiry what should be the occasion of this unjust management, and of these scandals about the deity. and truly i suppose it to be derived from the imperfect knowledge the heathen legislators had at first of the true nature of god; nor did they explain to the people even so far as they did comprehend of it: nor did they compose the other parts of their political settlements according to it, but omitted it as a thing of very little consequence, and gave leave both to the poets to introduce what gods they pleased, and those subject to all sorts of passions, and to the orators to procure political decrees from the people for the admission of such foreign gods as they thought proper. the painters also, and statuaries of greece, had herein great power, as each of them could contrive a shape [proper for a god]; the one to be formed out of clay, and the other by making a bare picture of such a one. but those workmen that were principally admired, had the use of ivory and of gold as the constant materials for their new statues [whereby it comes to pass that some temples are quite deserted, while others are in great esteem, and adorned with all the rites of all kinds of purification]. besides this, the first gods, who have long flourished in the honors done them, are now grown old [while those that flourished after them are come in their room as a second rank, that i may speak the most honorably of them i can]: nay, certain other gods there are who are newly introduced, and newly worshipped [as we, by way of digression, have said already, and yet have left their places of worship desolate]; and for their temples, some of them are already left desolate, and others are built anew, according to the pleasure of men; whereas they ought to have their opinion about god, and that worship which is due to him, always and immutably the same. . but now, this apollonius molo was one of these foolish and proud men. however, nothing that i have said was unknown to those that were real philosophers among the greeks, nor were they unacquainted with those frigid pretensions of allegories [which had been alleged for such things]; on which account they justly despised them, but have still agreed with us as to the true and becoming notions of god; whence it was that plato would not have political settlements admit to of any one of the other poets, and dismisses even homer himself, with a garland on his head, and with ointment poured upon him, and this because he should not destroy the right notions of god with his fables. nay, plato principally imitated our legislator in this point, that he enjoined his citizens to have he main regard to this precept, "that every one of them should learn their laws accurately." he also ordained, that they should not admit of foreigners intermixing with their own people at random; and provided that the commonwealth should keep itself pure, and consist of such only as persevered in their own laws. apollonius molo did no way consider this, when he made it one branch of his accusation against us, that we do not admit of such as have different notions about god, nor will we have fellowship with those that choose to observe a way of living different from ourselves, yet is not this method peculiar to us, but common to all other men; not among the ordinary grecians only, but among such of those grecians as are of the greatest reputation among them. moreover, the lacedemonians continued in their way of expelling foreigners, and would not indeed give leave to their own people to travel abroad, as suspecting that those two things would introduce a dissolution of their own laws: and perhaps there may be some reason to blame the rigid severity of the lacedemonians, for they bestowed the privilege of their city on no foreigners, nor indeed would give leave to them to stay among them; whereas we, though we do not think fit to imitate other institutions, yet do we willingly admit of those that desire to partake of ours, which, i think, i may reckon to be a plain indication of our humanity, and at the same time of our magnanimity also. . but i shall say no more of the lacedemonians. as for the athenians, who glory in having made their city to be common to all men, what their behavior was apollonius did not know, while they punished those that did but speak one word contrary to the laws about the gods, without any mercy; for on what other account was it that socrates was put to death by them? for certainly he neither betrayed their city to its enemies, nor was he guilty of any sacrilege with regard to any of their temples; but it was on this account, that he swore certain new oaths [ ] and that he affirmed either in earnest, or, as some say, only in jest, that a certain demon used to make signs to him [what he should not do]. for these reasons he was condemned to drink poison, and kill himself. his accuser also complained that he corrupted the young men, by inducing them to despise the political settlement and laws of their city: and thus was socrates, the citizen of athens, punished. there was also anaxagoras, who, although he was of clazomente, was within a few suffrages of being condemned to die, because he said the sun, which the athenians thought to be a god, was a ball of fire. they also made this public proclamation, "that they would give a talent to any one who would kill diagoras of melos," because it was reported of him that he laughed at their mysteries. protagoras also, who was thought to have written somewhat that was not owned for truth by the athenians about the gods, had been seized upon, and put to death, if he had not fled away immediately. nor need we at all wonder that they thus treated such considerable men, when they did not spare even women also; for they very lately slew a certain priestess, because she was accused by somebody that she initiated people into the worship of strange gods, it having been forbidden so to do by one of their laws; and a capital punishment had been decreed to such as introduced a strange god; it being manifest, that they who make use of such a law do not believe those of other nations to be really gods, otherwise they had not envied themselves the advantage of more gods than they already had. and this was the happy administration of the affairs of the athenians! now as to the scythians, they take a pleasure in killing men, and differ but little from brute beasts; yet do they think it reasonable to have their institutions observed. they also slew anacharsis, a person greatly admired for his wisdom among the greeks, when he returned to them, because he appeared to come fraught with grecian customs. one may also find many to have been punished among the persians, on the very same account. and to be sure apollonius was greatly pleased with the laws of the persians, and was an admirer of them, because the greeks enjoyed the advantage of their courage, and had the very same opinion about the gods which they had. this last was exemplified in the temples which they burnt, and their courage in coming, and almost entirely enslaving the grecians. however, apollonius has imitated all the persian institutions, and that by his offering violence to other men's wives, and gelding his own sons. now, with us, it is a capital crime, if any one does thus abuse even a brute beast; and as for us, neither hath the fear of our governors, nor a desire of following what other nations have in so great esteem, been able to withdraw us from our own laws; nor have we exerted our courage in raising up wars to increase our wealth, but only for the observation of our laws; and when we with patience bear other losses, yet when any persons would compel us to break our laws, then it is that we choose to go to war, though it be beyond our ability to pursue it, and bear the greatest calamities to the last with much fortitude. and, indeed, what reason can there be why we should desire to imitate the laws of other nations, while we see they are not observed by their own legislators [ ] and why do not the lacedemonians think of abolishing that form of their government which suffers them not to associate with any others, as well as their contempt of matrimony? and why do not the eleans and thebans abolish that unnatural and impudent lust, which makes them lie with males? for they will not show a sufficient sign of their repentance of what they of old thought to be very excellent, and very advantageous in their practices, unless they entirely avoid all such actions for the time to come: nay, such things are inserted into the body of their laws, and had once such a power among the greeks, that they ascribed these sodomitical practices to the gods themselves, as a part of their good character; and indeed it was according to the same manner that the gods married their own sisters. this the greeks contrived as an apology for their own absurd and unnatural pleasures. . i omit to speak concerning punishments, and how many ways of escaping them the greatest part of the legislators have afforded malefactors, by ordaining that, for adulteries, fines in money should be allowed, and for corrupting [ ] [virgins] they need only marry them as also what excuses they may have in denying the facts, if any one attempts to inquire into them; for amongst most other nations it is a studied art how men may transgress their laws; but no such thing is permitted amongst us; for though we be deprived of our wealth, of our cities, or of the other advantages we have, our law continues immortal; nor can any jew go so far from his own country, nor be so aftrighted at the severest lord, as not to be more aftrighted at the law than at him. if, therefore, this be the disposition we are under, with regard to the excellency of our laws, let our enemies make us this concession, that our laws are most excellent; and if still they imagine, that though we so firmly adhere to them, yet are they bad laws notwithstanding, what penalties then do they deserve to undergo who do not observe their own laws, which they esteem so far superior to them? whereas, therefore, length of time is esteemed to be the truest touchstone in all cases, i would make that a testimonial of the excellency of our laws, and of that belief thereby delivered to us concerning god. for as there hath been a very long time for this comparison, if any one will but compare its duration with the duration of the laws made by other legislators, he will find our legislator to have been the ancientest of them all. . we have already demonstrated that our laws have been such as have always inspired admiration and imitation into all other men; nay, the earliest grecian philosophers, though in appearance they observed the laws of their own countries, yet did they, in their actions, and their philosophic doctrines, follow our legislator, and instructed men to live sparingly, and to have friendly communication one with another. nay, further, the multitude of mankind itself have had a great inclination of a long time to follow our religious observances; for there is not any city of the grecians, nor any of the barbarians, nor any nation whatsoever, whither our custom of resting on the seventh day hath not come, and by which our fasts and lighting up lamps, and many of our prohibitions as to our food, are not observed; they also endeavor to imitate our mutual concord with one another, and the charitable distribution of our goods, and our diligence in our trades, and our fortitude in undergoing the distresses we are in, on account of our laws; and, what is here matter of the greatest admiration, our law hath no bait of pleasure to allure men to it, but it prevails by its own force; and as god himself pervades all the world, so hath our law passed through all the world also. so that if any one will but reflect on his own country, and his own family, he will have reason to give credit to what i say. it is therefore but just, either to condemn all mankind of indulging a wicked disposition, when they have been so desirous of imitating laws that are to them foreign and evil in themselves, rather than following laws of their own that are of a better character, or else our accusers must leave off their spite against us. nor are we guilty of any envious behavior towards them, when we honor our own legislator, and believe what he, by his prophetic authority, hath taught us concerning god. for though we should not be able ourselves to understand the excellency of our own laws, yet would the great multitude of those that desire to imitate them, justify us, in greatly valuing ourselves upon them. . but as for the [distinct] political laws by which we are governed, i have delivered them accurately in my books of antiquities; and have only mentioned them now, so far as was necessary to my present purpose, without proposing to myself either to blame the laws of other nations, or to make an encomium upon our own; but in order to convict those that have written about us unjustly, and in an impudent affectation of disguising the truth. and now i think i have sufficiently completed what i proposed in writing these books. for whereas our accusers have pretended that our nation are a people of very late original, i have demonstrated that they are exceeding ancient; for i have produced as witnesses thereto many ancient writers, who have made mention of us in their books, while they had said that no such writer had so done. moreover, they had said that we were sprung from the egyptians, while i have proved that we came from another country into egypt: while they had told lies of us, as if we were expelled thence on account of diseases on our bodies, it has appeared, on the contrary, that we returned to our country by our own choice, and with sound and strong bodies. those accusers reproached our legislator as a vile fellow; whereas god in old time bare witness to his virtuous conduct; and since that testimony of god, time itself hath been discovered to have borne witness to the same thing. . as to the laws themselves, more words are unnecessary, for they are visible in their own nature, and appear to teach not impiety, but the truest piety in the world. they do not make men hate one another, but encourage people to communicate what they have to one another freely; they are enemies to injustice, they take care of righteousness, they banish idleness and expensive living, and instruct men to be content with what they have, and to be laborious in their calling; they forbid men to make war from a desire of getting more, but make men courageous in defending the laws; they are inexorable in punishing malefactors; they admit no sophistry of words, but are always established by actions themselves, which actions we ever propose as surer demonstrations than what is contained in writing only: on which account i am so bold as to say that we are become the teachers of other men, in the greatest number of things, and those of the most excellent nature only; for what is more excellent than inviolable piety? what is more just than submission to laws? and what is more advantageous than mutual love and concord? and this so far that we are to be neither divided by calamities, nor to become injurious and seditious in prosperity; but to contemn death when we are in war, and in peace to apply ourselves to our mechanical occupations, or to our tillage of the ground; while we in all things and all ways are satisfied that god is the inspector and governor of our actions. if these precepts had either been written at first, or more exactly kept by any others before us, we should have owed them thanks as disciples owe to their masters; but if it be visible that we have made use of them more than any other men, and if we have demonstrated that the original invention of them is our own, let the apions, and the molons, with all the rest of those that delight in lies and reproaches, stand confuted; but let this and the foregoing book be dedicated to thee, epaphroditus, who art so great a lover of truth, and by thy means to those that have been in like manner desirous to be acquainted with the affairs of our nation. apion book footnotes [ ] the former part of this second book is written against the calumnies of apion, and then, more briefly, against the like calumnies of apollonius molo. but after that, josephus leaves off any more particular reply to those adversaries of the jews, and gives us a large and excellent description and vindication of that theocracy which was settled for the jewish nation by moses, their great legislator. [ ] called by tiberius cymbalum mundi, the drum of the world. [ ] this seems to have been the first dial that had been made in egypt, and was a little before the time that ahaz made his [first] dial in judea, and about anno , in the first year of the seventh olympiad, as we shall see presently. see kings : ; isaiah : . [ ] the burial-place for dead bodies, as i suppose. [ ] here begins a great defect in the greek copy; but the old latin version fully supplies that defect. [ ] what error is here generally believed to have been committed by our josephus in ascribing a deliverance of the jews to the reign of ptolemy physco, the seventh of those ptolemus, which has been universally supposed to have happened under ptolemy philopater, the fourth of them, is no better than a gross error of the moderns, and not of josephus, as i have fully proved in the authentic. rec. part i. p. - , whither i refer the inquisitive reader. [ ] sister's son, and adopted son. [ ] called more properly molo, or apollonius molo, as hereafter; for apollonins, the son of molo, was another person, as strabo informs us, lib. xiv. [ ] furones in the latin, which what animal it denotes does not now appear. [ ] it is great pity that these six pagan authors, here mentioned to have described the famous profanation of the jewish temple by antiochus epiphanes, should be all lost; i mean so far of their writings as contained that description; though it is plain josephus perused them all as extant in his time. [ ] it is remarkable that josephus here, and, i think, no where else, reckons up four distinct courts of the temple; that of the gentiles, that of the women of israel, that of the men of israel, and that of the priests; as also that the court of the women admitted of the men, [i suppose only of the husbands of those wives that were therein,] while the court of the men did not admit any women into it at all. [ ] judea, in the greek, by a gross mistake of the transcribers. [ ] seven in the greek, by a like gross mistake of the transcribers. see of the war, b. v. ch. . sect. . [ ] two hundred in the greek, contrary to the twenty in the war, b. vii. ch, . sect. . [ ] this notorious disgrace belonging peculiarly to the people of egypt, ever since the times of the old prophets of the jews, noted both sect. already, and here, may be confirmed by the testimony of isidorus, an egyptian of pelusium, epist. lib. i. ep. . and this is a remarkable completion of the ancient prediction of god by ezekiel : , , "that the egyptians should be a base kingdom, the basest of the kingdoms," and that, "it should not exalt itself any more above the nations." [ ] the truth of which still further appears by the present observation of josephus, that these egyptians had never, in all the past ages since sesostris, had one day of liberty, no, not so much as to have been free from despotic power under any of the monarchies to that day. and all this has been found equally true in the latter ages, under the romans, saracens, mamelukes, and turks, from the days of josephus till the present ago also. [ ] this language, that moses, "persuaded himself" that what he did was according to god's will, can mean no more, by josephus's own constant notions elsewhere, than that he was "firmly persuaded," that he had "fully satisfied himself" that so it was, viz. by the many revelations he had received from god, and the numerous miracles god had enabled him to work, as he both in these very two books against apion, and in his antiquities, most clearly and frequently assures us. this is further evident from several passages lower, where he affirms that moses was no impostor nor deceiver, and where he assures that moses's constitution of government was no other than a theocracy; and where he says they are to hope for deliverance out of their distresses by prayer to god, and that withal it was owing in part to this prophetic spirit of moses that the jews expected a resurrection from the dead. see almost as strange a use of the like words, "to persuade god," antiq. b. vi. ch. . sect. . [ ] that is, moses really was, what the heathen legislators pretended to be, under a divine direction; nor does it yet appear that these pretensions to a supernatural conduct, either in these legislators or oracles, were mere delusions of men without any demoniacal impressions, nor that josephus took them so to be; as the ancientest and contemporary authors did still believe them to be supernatural. [ ] this whole very large passage is corrected by dr. hudson from eusebius's citation of it, prep. evangel. viii. , which is here not a little different from the present mss. of josephus. [ ] this expression itself, that "moses ordained the jewish government to be a theocracy," may be illustrated by that parallel expression in the antiquities, b. iii. ch. . sect. , that "moses left it to god to be present at his sacrifices when he pleased; and when he pleased, to be absent." both ways of speaking sound harsh in the ears of jews and christians, as do several others which josephus uses to the heathens; but still they were not very improper in him, when he all along thought fit to accommodate himself, both in his antiquities, and in these his books against apion, all written for the use of the greeks and romans, to their notions and language, and this as far as ever truth would give him leave. though it be very observable withal, that he never uses such expressions in his books of the war, written originally for the jews beyond euphrates, and in their language, in all these cases. however, josephus directly supposes the jewish settlement, under moses, to be a divine settlement, and indeed no other than a real theocracy. [ ] these excellent accounts of the divine attributes, and that god is not to be at all known in his essence, as also some other clear expressions about the resurrection of the dead, and the state of departed souls, etc., in this late work of josephus, look more like the exalted notions of the essens, or rather ebionite christians, than those of a mere jew or pharisee. the following large accounts also of the laws of moses, seem to me to show a regard to the higher interpretations and improvements of moses's laws, derived from jesus christ, than to the bare letter of them in the old testament, whence alone josephus took them when he wrote his antiquities; nor, as i think, can some of these laws, though generally excellent in their kind, be properly now found either in the copies of the jewish pentateuch, or in philo, or in josephus himself, before he became a nazarene or ebionite christian; nor even all of them among the laws of catholic christianity themselves. i desire, therefore, the learned reader to consider, whether some of these improvements or interpretations might not be peculiar to the essens among the jews, or rather to the nazarenes or ebionites among the christians, though we have indeed but imperfect accounts of those nazarenes or ebionite christians transmitted down to us at this day. [ ] we may here observe how known a thing it was among the jews and heathens, in this and many other instances, that sacrifices were still accompanied with prayers; whence most probably came those phrases of "the sacrifice of prayer, the sacrifice of praise, the sacrifice of thanksgiving." however, those ancient forms used at sacrifices are now generally lost, to the no small damage of true religion. it is here also exceeding remarkable, that although the temple at jerusalem was built as the only place where the whole nation of the jews were to offer their sacrifices, yet is there no mention of the "sacrifices" themselves, but of "prayers" only, in solomon's long and famous form of devotion at its dedication, kings .; chronicles . see also many passages cited in the apostolical constitutions, vii. , and of the war, above, b. vii. ch. . sect. . [ ] this text is no where in our present copies of the old testament. [ ] it may not be amiss to set down here a very remarkable testimony of the great philosopher cicero, as to the preference of "laws to philosophy:--i will," says he, "boldly declare my opinion, though the whole world be offended at it. i prefer this little book of the twelve tables alone to all the volumes of the philosophers. i find it to be not only of more weight,' but also much more useful."--oratore. [ ] we have observed our times of rest, and sorts of food allowed us [during our distresses]. [ ] see what those novel oaths were in dr. hudson's note, viz. to swear by an oak, by a goat, and by a dog, as also by a gander, as say philostratus and others. this swearing strange oaths was also forbidden by the tyrians, b. i. sect. , as spanheim here notes. [ ] why josephus here should blame some heathen legislators, when they allowed so easy a composition for simple fornication, as an obligation to marry the virgin that was corrupted, is hard to say, seeing he had himself truly informed us that it was a law of the jews, antiq. b. iv. ch. . sect. , as it is the law of christianity also: see horeb covenant, p. . i am almost ready to suspect that, for, we should here read, and that corrupting wedlock, or other men's wives, is the crime for which these heathens wickedly allowed this composition in money. [ ] or "for corrupting other men's wives the same allowance." none none none this ebook produced by: distributed proofreaders, john williams, and david starner judaism by israel abrahams, m.a. reader in talmudic and rabbinic literature university of cambridge foreword the writer has attempted in this volume to take up a few of the most characteristic points in jewish doctrine and practice, and to explain some of the various phases through which they have passed, since the first centuries of the christian era. the presentation is probably much less detached than is the case with other volumes in this series. but the difference was scarcely avoidable. the writer was not expounding a religious system which has no relation to his own life. on the contrary, the writer is himself a jew, and thus is deeply concerned personally in the matters discussed in the book. the reader must be warned to keep this fact in mind throughout. on the one hand, the book must suffer a loss of objectivity; but, on the other hand, there may be some compensating gain of intensity. the author trusts, at all events, that, though he has not written with indifference, he has escaped the pitfall of undue partiality. i. a. contents i. the legacy from the past ii. religion as law iii. articles of faith iv. some concepts of judaism v. some observances of judaism vi. jewish mysticism vii. eschatology viii. the survival of judaism selected list of books on judaism judaism chapter i the legacy from the past the aim of this little book is to present in brief outline some of the leading conceptions of the religion familiar since the christian era under the name judaism. the word 'judaism' occurs for the first time at about b.c., in the graeco-jewish literature. in the second book of the maccabees (ii. , viii. ), 'judaism' signifies the religion of the jews as contrasted with hellenism, the religion of the greeks. in the new testament (gal. i. ) the same word seems to denote the pharisaic system as an antithesis to the gentile christianity. in hebrew the corresponding noun never occurs in the bible, and it is rare even in the rabbinic books. when it does meet us, _jahaduth_ implies the monotheism of the jews as opposed to the polytheism of the heathen. thus the term 'judaism' did not pass through quite the same transitions as did the name 'jew.' judaism appears from the first as a religion transcending tribal bounds. the 'jew,' on the other hand, was originally a judaean, a member of the southern confederacy called in the bible judah, and by the greeks and romans judaea. soon, however, 'jew' came to include what had earlier been the northern confederacy of israel as well, so that in the post-exilic period _jehudi_ or 'jew' means an adherent of judaism without regard to local nationality. judaism, then, is here taken to represent that later development of the religion of israel which began with the reorganisation after the babylonian exile ( b.c.), and was crystallised by the roman exile (during the first centuries of the christian era). the exact period which will be here seized as a starting-point is the moment when the people of israel were losing, never so far to regain, their territorial association with palestine, and were becoming (what they have ever since been) a community as distinct from a nation. they remained, it is true, a distinct race, and this is still in a sense true. yet at various periods a number of proselytes have been admitted, and in other ways the purity of the race has been affected. at all events territorial nationality ceased from a date which may be roughly fixed at a.d., when the last desperate revolt under bar-cochba failed, and hadrian drew his roman plough over the city of jerusalem and the temple area. a new city with a new name arose on the ruins. the ruins afterwards reasserted themselves, and aelia capitolina as a designation of jerusalem is familiar only to archaeologists. but though the name of hadrian's new city has faded, the effect of its foundation remained. aelia capitolina, with its market-places and theatre, replaced the olden narrow-streeted town; a house of venus reared its stately form in the north, and a sanctuary to jupiter covered, in the east, the site of the former temple. heathen colonists were introduced, and the jew, who was to become in future centuries an alien everywhere, was made by hadrian an alien in his fatherland. for the roman emperor denied to jews the right of entry into jerusalem. thus hadrian completed the work of titus, and judaism was divorced from its local habitation. more unreservedly than during the babylonian exile, judaism in the roman exile perforce became the religion of a community and not of a state; and israel for the first time constituted a church. but it was a church with no visible home. christianity for several centuries was to have a centre at rome, islam at mecca. but judaism had and has no centre at all. it will be obvious that the aim of the present book makes it both superfluous and inappropriate to discuss the vexed problems connected with the origins of the religion of israel, its aspects in primitive times, its passage through a national to an ethical monotheism, its expansion into the universalism of the second isaiah. what concerns us here is merely the legacy which the religion of israel bequeathed to judaism as we have defined it. this legacy and the manner in which it was treasured, enlarged, and administered will occupy us in the rest of this book. but this much must be premised. if the religion of israel passed through the stages of totemism, animism, and polydemonism; if it was indebted to canaanite, kenite, babylonian, persian, greek, and other foreign influences; if it experienced a stage of monolatry or henotheism (in which israel recognised one god, but did not think of that god as the only god of all men) before ethical monotheism of the universalistic type was reached; if, further, all these stages and the moral and religious ideas connected with each left a more or less clear mark in the sacred literature of israel; then the legacy which judaism received from its past was a syncretism of the whole of the religious experiences of israel as interpreted in the light of israel's latest, highest, most approved standards. like the bourbon, the jew forgets nothing; but unlike the bourbon, the jew is always learning. the domestic stories of the patriarchs were not rejected as unprofitable when israel became deeply impregnated with the monogamous teachings of writers like the author of the last chapter of proverbs; the character of david was idealised by the spiritual associations of the psalter, parts of which tradition ascribed to him; the earthly life was etherialised and much of the sacred literature reinterpreted in the light of an added belief in immortality; god, in the early literature a tribal non-moral deity, was in the later literature a righteous ruler who with amos and hosea loved and demanded righteousness in man. judaism took over as one indivisible body of sacred teachings both the early and the later literature in which these varying conceptions of god were enshrined; the law was accepted as the guiding rule of life, the ritual of ceremony and sacrifice was treasured as a holy memory, and as a memory not contradictory of the prophetic exaltation of inward religion but as consistent with that exaltation, as interpreting it, as but another aspect of micah's enunciation of the demands of god: 'what doth the lord require of thee but to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy god?' judaism, in short, included for the jew all that had gone before. but for st. paul's attitude of hostility to the law, but for the deep-seated conviction that the pauline christianity was a denial of the jewish monotheism, the jew might have accepted much of the teaching of jesus as an integral part of judaism. in the realm of ideas which he conceived as belonging to his tradition the jew was not logical; he did not pick and choose; he absorbed the whole. in the jewish theology of all ages we find the most obvious contradictions. there was no attempt at reconciliation of such contradictions; they were juxtaposed in a mechanical mixture, there was no chemical compound. the jew was always a man of moods, and his religion responded to those varying phases of feeling and belief and action. hence such varying judgments have been formed of him and his religion. if, after the mediaeval philosophy had attempted to systematise judaism, the religion remained unsystematic, it is easy to understand that in the earlier centuries of the christian era contradictions between past and present, between different strata of religious thought, caused no trouble to the jew so long as those contradictions could be fitted into his general scheme of life. though he was the product of development, development was an idea foreign to his conception of the ways of god with man. and to this extent he was right. for though men's ideas of god change, god himself is changeless. the jew transferred the changelessness of god to men's changing ideas about him. with childlike naivete he accepted all, he adopted all, and he syncretised it all as best he could into the loose system on which pharisaism grafted itself. the legacy of the past thus was the past. one element in the legacy was negative. the temple and the sacrificial system were gone for ever. that this must have powerfully affected judaism goes without saying. synagogue replaced temple, prayer assumed the function of sacrifice, penitence and not the blood of bulls supplied the ritual of atonement. events had prepared the way for this change and had prevented it attaining the character of an upheaval. for synagogues had grown up all over the land soon after the fifth century b.c.; regular services of prayer with instruction in the scriptures had been established long before the christian era; the inward atonement had been preferred to, or at least associated with, the outward rite before the outward rite was torn away. it may be that, as professor burkitt has suggested, the awful experiences of the fall of jerusalem and the destruction of the temple produced within pharisaism a moral reformation which drove the jew within and thus spiritualised judaism. for undoubtedly the pharisee of the gospels is by no means the pharisee as we meet him in the jewish books. there was always a latent power and tendency in judaism towards inward religion; and it may be that this power was intensified, this tendency encouraged, by the loss of temple and its sacrificial rites. but though the temple had gone the covenant remained. not so much in name as in essence. we do not hear much of the covenant in the rabbinic books, but its spirit pervades judaism. of all the legacy of the past the covenant was the most inspiring element. beginning with abraham, the covenant established a special relation between god and abraham's seed. 'i have known him, that he may command his children and his household after him, that they may keep the way of the lord to do righteousness and judgment' (gen. xviii. ). of this covenant, the outward sign was the rite of circumcision. renewed with moses, and followed in traditional opinion by the ten commandments, the sinaitic covenant was a further link in the bond between god and his people. of this mosaic covenant the outward sign was the sabbath. it is of no moment for our present argument whether abraham and moses were historical persons or figments of tradition. a gamaliel would have as little doubted their reality as would a st. paul. and whatever criticism may be doing with abraham, it is coming more and more to see that behind the eighth-century prophets there must have towered the figure of a, if not of the traditional, moses; behind the prophets a, if not the, law. be that as it may, to the jew of the christian era, abraham and moses were real and the covenant unalterable. by the syncretism which has been already described jeremiah's new covenant was not regarded as new. nor was it new; it represented a change of stress, not of contents. when he said (jer. xxxi. ), 'this is the covenant which i will make with the house of israel, after those days, saith the lord; i will put my law in their inward parts, and in their heart will i write it,' jeremiah, it has been held, was making christianity possible. but he was also making judaism possible. here and nowhere else is to be found the principle which enabled judaism to survive the loss of temple and nationality. and the new covenant was in no sense inconsistent with the old. for not only does jeremiah proceed to add in the self-same verse, 'i will be their god, and they will be my people,' but the new covenant is specifically made with the house of judah and of israel, and it is associated with the permanence of the seed of israel as a separate people and with the divine rebuilding of jerusalem. the jew had no thought of analysing these verses into the words of the true jeremiah and those of his editors. the point is that over and above, in complementary explanation of, the abrahamic and mosaic covenants with their external signs, over and above the call of the patriarch and the theophany of sinai, was the jeremian covenant written in israel's heart. the covenant conferred a distinction and imposed a duty. it was a bond between a gracious god and a grateful israel. it dignified history, for it interpreted history in terms of providence and purpose; it transfigured virtue by making virtue service; it was the salt of life, for how could present degradation demoralise, seeing that god was in it, to fulfil his part of the bond, to hold israel as his jewel, though rome might despise? the covenant made the jew self-confident and arrogant, but these very faults were needed to save him. it was his only defence against the world's scorn. he forgot that the correlative of the covenant was isaiah's 'covenant-people'--missionary to the gentiles and the world. he relegated his world-mission (which christianity and islam in part gloriously fulfilled) to a dim messianic future, and was content if in his own present he remained faithful to his mission to himself. above all, the legacy from the past came to judaism hallowed and humanised by all the experience of redemption and suffering which had marked israel's course in ages past, and was to mark his course in ages to come. the exodus, the exile, the maccabean heroism, the roman catastrophe; prophet, wise man, priest and scribe,--all had left their trace. judaism was a religion based on a book and on a tradition; but it was also a religion based on a unique experience. the book might be misread, the tradition encumbered, but the experience was eternally clear and inspiring. it shone through the roman diaspora as it afterwards illuminated the roman ghetto, making the present tolerable by the memory of the past and the hope of the future. chapter ii religion as law the feature of judaism which first attracts an outsider's attention, and which claims a front place in this survey, is its 'nomism' or 'legalism.' life was placed under the control of law. not only morality, but religion also, was codified. 'nomism,' it has been truly said, 'has always formed a fundamental trait of judaism, one of whose chief aims has ever been to mould life in all its varying relations according to the law, and to make obedience to the commandments a necessity and a custom' (lauterbach, _jewish encyclopedia_, ix. ). only the latest development of judaism is away from this direction. individualism is nowadays replacing the olden solidarity. thus, at the central conference of american rabbis, held in july at indianapolis, a project to formulate a system of laws for modern use was promptly rejected. the chief modern problem in jewish life is just this: to what extent, and in what manner, can judaism still place itself under the reign of law? but for many centuries, certainly up to the french revolution, religion as law was the dominant conception in judaism. before examining the validity of this conception a word is necessary as to the mode in which it expressed itself. conduct, social and individual, moral and ritual, was regulated in the minutest details. as the dayan m. hyamson has said, the maxim _de minimis non curat lex_ was not applicable to the jewish law. this law was a system of opinion and of practice and of feeling in which the great principles of morality, the deepest concerns of spiritual religion, the genuinely essential requirements of ritual, all found a prominent place. to assert that pharisaism included the small and excluded the great, that it enforced rules and forgot principles, that it exalted the letter and neglected the spirit, is a palpable libel. pharisaism was founded on god. on this foundation was erected a structure which embraced the eternal principles of religion. but the system, it must be added, went far beyond this. it held that there was a right and a wrong way of doing things in themselves trivial. prescription ruled in a stupendous array of matters which other systems deliberately left to the fancy, the judgment, the conscience of the individual. law seized upon the whole life, both in its inward experiences and outward manifestations. harnack characterises the system harshly enough. christianity did not add to judaism, it subtracted. expanding a famous epigram of wellhausen's, harnack admits that everything taught in the gospels 'was also to be found in the prophets, and even in the jewish tradition of their time. the pharisees themselves were in possession of it; but, unfortunately, they were in possession of much else besides. with them it was weighted, darkened, distorted, rendered ineffective and deprived of its force by a thousand things which they also held to be religious, and every whit as important as mercy and judgment. they reduced everything into one fabric; the good and holy was only one woof in a broad earthly warp' (_what is christianity?_ p. ). it is necessary to qualify this judgment, but it does bring out the all-pervadingness of law in judaism. 'and thou shalt speak of them when thou sittest in thine house, when thou walkest by the way, when thou liest down and when thou risest up' (deut. vi. ). the word of god was to occupy the jew's thoughts constantly; in his daily employment and during his manifold activities; when at work and when at rest. and as a correlative, the law must direct this complex life, the code must authorise action or forbid it, must turn the thoughts and emotions in one direction and divert them from another. nothing in the history of religions can be cited as a complete parallel to this. but incomplete parallels abound. a very large portion of all men's lives is regulated from without: by the bible and other sacred books; by the institutions and rites of religion; by the law of the land; by the imposed rules of accepted guides, poets, philosophers, physicians; and above all by social conventions, current fashions, and popular maxims. only in the rarest case is an exceptional man the monstrosity which, we are told, every israelite was in the epoch of the judges--a law unto himself. but in judaism, until the period of modern reform, this fact of human life was not merely an unconscious truism, it was consciously admitted. and it was realised in a code. or rather in a series of codes. first came the _mishnah_, a code compiled at about the year a.d., but the result of a pharisaic activity extending over more than two centuries. while christianity was producing the gospels and the rest of the new testament--the work in large part of jews, or of men born in the circle of judaism--judaism in its other manifestation was working at the code known as the _mishnah_. this word means 'repetition,' or 'teaching by repetition'; it was an oral tradition reduced to writing long after much of its contents had been sifted in the discussions of the schools. in part earlier and in part later than the _mishnah_ was the _midrash_ ('inquiry,' 'interpretation'), not a code, but a two-fold exposition of scripture; homiletic with copious use of parable, and legalistic with an eye to the regulation of conduct. then came the _talmud_ in two recensions, the palestinian and the babylonian, the latter completed about a.d. for some centuries afterwards the geonim (heads of the rabbinical universities in persia) continued to analyse and define the legal prescriptions and ritual of judaism, adding and changing in accord with the needs of the day; for tradition was a living, fluid thing. then in the eleventh century isaac of fez (alfasi) formulated a guide to talmudic law, and about a hundred years later ( ) maimonides produced his _strong hand_, a code of law and custom which influenced jewish life ever after. other codifications were made; but finally, in the sixteenth century, joseph caro (mystic and legalist) compiled the _table prepared_ (_shulchan aruch_), which, with masterly skill, collected the whole of the traditional law, arranged it under convenient heads in chapters and paragraphs, and carried down to our own day the rabbinic conception of life. under this code, with more or less relaxation, the great bulk of jews still live. but the revolt against it, or emancipation from it, is progressing every year, for the olden jewish conception of religion and the old jewish theory of life are, as hinted above, becoming seriously undermined. now in what precedes there has been some intentional ambiguity in the use of the word law. much of the misunderstanding of judaism has arisen from this ambiguity. 'law' is in no adequate sense what the jews themselves understood by the nomism of their religion. in modern times law and religion tend more and more to separate, and to speak of judaism as law _eo ipso_ implies a divorce of judaism from religion. the old antithesis between letter and spirit is but a phase of the same criticism. law must specify, and the lawyer interprets acts of parliament by their letter; he refuses to be guided by the motives of the act, he is concerned with what the act distinctly formulates in set terms. in this sense judaism never was a legal religion. it did most assiduously seek to get to the underlying motives of the written laws, and all the expansions of the law were based on a desire more fully to realise the meaning and intention of the written code. in other words, the law was looked upon as the expression of the will of god. man was to yield to that will for two reasons. first, because god is the perfect ideal of goodness. that ideal was for man to revere, and, so far as in him lay, to imitate. 'as i am merciful, be thou merciful; because i am gracious, be thou gracious.' the 'imitation of god' is a notion which constantly meets us in rabbinic literature. it is based on the scriptural text: 'be ye holy, for i the lord am holy.' 'god, the ideal of all morality, is the founder of man's moral nature.' this is professor lazarus' modern way of putting it. but in substance it is the jewish conception through all the ages. and there is a second reason. the jew would not have understood the possibility of any other expression of the divine will than the expression which judaism enshrined. for though he held that the law was something imposed from without, he identified this imposed law with the law which his own moral nature posited. the rabbis tell us that certain things in the written law could have been reached by man without the law. the law was in large part a correspondence to man's moral nature. this rabbinic idea lazarus sums up in the epigram: 'moral laws, then, are not laws because they are written; they are written because they are laws.' the moral principle is autonomous, but its archetype is god. the ultimate reason, like the highest aim of morality, should be in itself. the threat of punishment and the promise of reward are the psychologic means to secure the fulfilment of laws, never the reasons for the laws, nor the motives to action. it is easy and necessary sometimes to praise and justify eudemonism, but, as lazarus adds, 'not a state to be reached, not a good to be won, not an evil to be warded off, is the impelling force of morality, but itself furnishes the creative impulse, the supreme commanding authority' (_ethics of judaism_, i. chap, ii.). and so the rabbi of the third century b.c., antigonos of socho, put it in the memorable saying: 'be not like servants who minister to their master upon the condition of receiving a reward; but be like servants who minister to their master without the condition of receiving a reward; and let the fear of heaven be upon you' (aboth, i. ). clearly the multiplication of rules obscures principles. the object of codification, to get at the full meaning of principles, is defeated by its own success. for it is always easier to follow rules than to apply principles. virtues are more attainable than virtue, characteristics than character. and while it is false to assert that judaism attached more importance to ritual than to religion, yet, the two being placed on one and the same plane, it is possible to find in co-existence ritual piety and moral baseness. such a combination is ugly, and people do not stop to think whether the baseness would be more or less if the ritual piety were absent instead of present. but it is the fact that on the whole the jewish codification of religion did not produce the evil results possible or even likely to accrue. the jew was always distinguished for his domestic virtues, his purity of life, his sobriety, his charity, his devotion. these were the immediate consequence of his law-abiding disposition and theory. perhaps there was some lack of enthusiasm, something too much of the temperate. but the facts of life always brought their corrective. martyrdom was the means by which the jewish consciousness was kept at a glowing heat. and as the jew was constantly called upon to die for his religion, the religion ennobled the life which was willingly surrendered for the religion. the messianic hope was vitalised by persecution. the jew, devotee of practical ideals, became also a dreamer. his visions of god were ever present to remind him that the law which he codified was to him the law of god. chapter iii articles of faith it is often said that judaism left belief free while it put conduct into fetters. neither half of this assertion is strictly true. belief was not free altogether; conduct was not altogether controlled. in the _mishnah_ (sanhedrin, x. ) certain classes of unbelievers are pronounced portionless in the world to come. among those excluded from paradise are men who deny the resurrection of the dead, and men who refuse assent to the doctrine of the divine origin of the torah, or scripture. thus it cannot be said that belief was, in the rabbinic system, perfectly free. equally inaccurate is the assertion that conduct was entirely a matter of prescription. not only were men praised for works of supererogation, performance of more than the law required; not only were there important divergences in the practical rules of conduct formulated by the various rabbis; but there was a whole class of actions described as 'matters given over to the heart,' delicate refinements of conduct which the law left untouched and were a concern exclusively of the feeling, the private judgment of the individual. the right of private judgment was passionately insisted on in matters of conduct, as when rabbi joshua refused to be guided as to his practical decisions by the daughter of the voice, the supernatural utterance from on high. the law, he contended, is on earth, not in heaven; and man must be his own judge in applying the law to his own life and time. and, the talmud adds, god himself announced that rabbi joshua was right. thus there was neither complete fluidity of doctrine nor complete rigidity of conduct. there was freedom of conduct within the law, and there was law within freedom of doctrine. but dr. emil hirsch puts the case fairly when he says: 'in the same sense as christianity or islam, judaism cannot be credited with articles of faith. many attempts have indeed been made at systematising and reducing to a fixed phraseology and sequence the contents of the jewish religion. but these have always lacked the one essential element: authoritative sanction on the part of a supreme ecclesiastical body' (_jewish encyclopedia_, ii. ). since the epoch of the great sanhedrin, there has been no central authority recognised throughout jewry. the jewish organisation has long been congregational. since the fourth century there has been no body with any jurisdiction over the mass of jews. at that date the calendar was fixed by astronomical calculations. the patriarch, in babylon, thereby voluntarily abandoned the hold he had previously had over the scattered jews, for it was no longer the fiat of the patriarch that settled the dates of the festivals. while there was something like a central authority, the canon of scripture had been fixed by synods, but there is no record of any attempt to promulgate articles of faith. during the revolt against hadrian an assembly of rabbis was held at lydda. it was then decided that a jew must yield his life rather than accept safety from the roman power, if such conformity involved one of the three offences: idolatry, murder, and unchastity (including, incest and adultery). but while this decision throws a favourable light on the rabbinic theory of life, it can in no sense be called a fixation of a creed. there were numerous synods in the middle ages, but they invariably dealt with practical morals or with the problems which arose from time to time in regard to the relations between jews and their christian neighbours. it is true that we occasionally read of excommunications for heresy. but in the case, for instance, of spinoza, the amsterdam synagogue was much more anxious to dissociate itself from the heresies of spinoza than to compel spinoza to conform to the beliefs of the synagogue. and though this power of excommunication might have been employed by the mediaeval rabbis to enforce the acceptance of a creed, in point of fact no such step was ever taken. since the time of moses mendelssohn ( - ), the chief jewish dogma has been that judaism has no dogmas. in the sense assigned above this is clearly true. dogmas imposed by an authority able and willing to enforce conformity and punish dissent are non-existent in judaism. in olden times membership of the religion of judaism was almost entirely a question of birth and race, not of confession. proselytes were admitted by circumcision and baptism, and nothing beyond an acceptance of the unity of god and the abjuration of idolatry is even now required by way of profession from a proselyte. at the same time the earliest passage put into the public liturgy was the shema' (deuteronomy vi. - ), in which the unity of god and the duty to love god are expressed. the ten commandments were also recited daily in the temple. it is instructive to note the reason given for the subsequent removal of the decalogue from the daily liturgy. it was feared that some might assume that the decalogue comprised the whole of the binding law. hence the prominent position given to them in the temple service was no longer assigned to the ten commandments in the ritual of the synagogue. in modern times, however, there is a growing practice of reading the decalogue every sabbath day. what we do find in pharisaic judaism, and this is the real answer to harnack (_supra_, p. ), is an attempt to reduce the whole law to certain fundamental principles. when a would-be proselyte accosted hillel, in the reign of herod, with the demand that the rabbi should communicate the whole of judaism while the questioner stood on one foot, hillel made the famous reply: 'what thou hatest do unto no man; that is the whole law, the rest is commentary.' this recalls another famous summarisation, that given by jesus later on in the gospel. a little more than a century later, akiba said that the command to love one's neighbour is the fundamental principle of the law. ben azzai chose for this distinction another sentence: 'this is the book of the generations of man,' implying the equality of all men in regard to the love borne by god for his creatures. another rabbi, simlai (third century), has this remarkable saying: 'six hundred and thirteen precepts were imparted unto moses, three hundred and sixty-five negative (in correspondence with the days of the solar year), and two hundred and forty-eight positive (in correspondence with the number of a man's limbs). david came and established them as eleven, as it is written: a psalm of david--lord who shall sojourn in thy tent, who shall dwell in thy holy mountain? (i) he that walketh uprightly and (ii) worketh righteousness and (iii) speaketh the truth in his heart. (iv) he that backbiteth not with his tongue, (v) nor doeth evil to his neighbour, (vi) nor taketh up a reproach against another; (vii) in whose eyes a reprobate is despised, (viii) but who honoureth them that fear the lord. (ix) he that sweareth to his own hurt, and changeth not; (x) he that putteth not out his money to usury, (xi) nor taketh a bribe against the innocent. he that doeth these things shall never be moved. thus david reduced the law to eleven principles. then came micah and reduced them to three, as it is written: 'what doth the lord require of thee but (i) to do justice, (ii) to love mercy, and (iii) to walk humbly with thy god? then came habbakuk and made the whole law stand on one fundamental idea, 'the righteous man liveth by his faith' (makkoth, b). this desire to find one or a few general fundamental passages on which the whole scripture might be seen to base itself is, however, far removed from anything of the nature of the christian creeds or of the mohammedan kalimah. and when we remember that the pharisees and sadducees differed on questions of doctrine (such as the belief in immortality held by the former and rejected by the latter), it becomes clear that the absence of a formal declaration of faith must have been deliberate. the most that was done was to introduce into the liturgy a paragraph in which the assembled worshippers declared their assent to the truth and permanent validity of the word of god. after the shema' (whose contents are summarised above), the assembled worshippers daily recited a passage in which they said (and still say): 'true and firm is this thy word unto us for ever.... true is it that thou art indeed our god ... and there is none beside thee.' after all, the difference between pharisee and sadducee was political rather than theological. it was not till judaism came into contact, contact alike of attraction and repulsion, with other systems that a desire or a need for formulating articles of faith was felt. philo, coming under the hellenic spirit, was thus the first to make the attempt. in the last chapter of the tract on the creation (_de opifico_, lxi.), philo enumerates what he terms the five most beautiful lessons, superior to all others. these are--(i) god is; (ii) god is one; (iii) the world was created (and is not eternal); (iv) the world is one, like unto god in singleness; and (v) god exercises a continual providence for the benefit of the world, caring for his creatures like a parent for his children. philo's lead found no imitators. it was not for many centuries that two causes led the synagogue to formulate a creed. and even then it was not the synagogue as a body that acted, nor was it a creed that resulted. the first cause was the rise of sects within the synagogue. of these sects the most important was that of the karaites or scripturalists. rejecting tradition, the karaites expounded their beliefs both as a justification of themselves against the traditionalists and possibly as a remedy against their own tendency to divide within their own order into smaller sects. in the middle of the twelfth century the karaite judah hadassi of constantinople arranged the whole pentateuch under the headings of the decalogue, much as philo had done long before. and so he formulates ten dogmas of judaism. these are--(i) creation (as opposed to the aristotelian doctrine of the eternity of the world); (ii) the existence of god; (iii) god is one and incorporeal; (iv) moses and the other canonical prophets were called by god; (v) the law is the word of god, it is complete, and the oral tradition was unnecessary; (vi) the law must be read by the jew in the original hebrew; (vii) the temple of jerusalem was the place chosen by god for his manifestation; (viii) the resurrection of the dead; (ix) the coming of messiah, son of david; (x) final judgment and retribution. within the main body of the synagogue we have to wait for the same moment for a formulation of articles of faith. maimonides ( - ) was a younger contemporary of hadassi; he it was that drew up the one and only set of principles which have ever enjoyed wide authority in judaism. before maimonides there had been some inclination towards a creed, but he is the first to put one into set terms. maimonides was much influenced by aristotelianism, and this gave him an impulse towards a logical statement of the tenets of judaism. on the other side, he was deeply concerned by the criticism of judaism from the side of mohammedan theologians. the latter contended, in particular, that the biblical anthropomorphisms were destructive of a belief in the pure spirituality of god. hence maimonides devoted much of his great treatise, _guide for the perplexed_, to a philosophical allegorisation of the human terms applied to god in the hebrew bible. in his commentary on the _mishnah_ (sanhedrin, introduction to chelek), maimonides declares 'the roots of our law and its fundamental principles are thirteen.' these are--(i) belief in the existence of god, the creator; (ii) belief in the unity of god; (iii) belief in the incorporeality of god; (iv) belief in the priority and eternity of god; (v) belief that to god and to god alone worship must be offered; (vi) belief in prophecy; (vii) belief that moses was the greatest of all prophets; (viii) belief that the law was revealed from heaven; (ix) belief that the law will never be abrogated, and that no other law will ever come from god; (x) belief that god knows the works of men; (xi) belief in reward and punishment; (xii) belief in the coming of the messiah; (xiii) belief in the resurrection of the dead.' now here we have for the first time a set of beliefs which were a test of judaism. maimonides leaves no doubt as to his meaning. for he concluded by saying: 'when all these principles of faith are in the safe keeping of a man, and his conviction of them is well established, he then enters into the general body of israel'; and, on the other hand: 'when, however, a man breaks away from any one of these fundamental principles of belief, then of him it is said that he has gone out of the general body of israel and he denies the root-truths of judaism.' this formulation of a dogmatic test was never confirmed by any body of rabbis. no jew was ever excommunicated for declaring his dissent from these articles. no jew was ever called upon formally to express his assent to them. but, as professor schechter justly writes: 'among the maimonists we may probably include the great majority of jews, who accepted the thirteen articles without further question. maimonides must have filled up a great gap in jewish theology, a gap, moreover, the existence of which was very generally perceived. a century had hardly lapsed before the thirteen articles had become a theme for the poets of the synagogue. and almost every country can show a poem or a prayer founded on these articles' (_studies in judaism_, p. ). yet the opposition to the articles was both impressive and persistent. some denied altogether the admissibility of articles, claiming that the whole law and nothing but the law was the charter of judaism. others criticised the maimonist articles in detail. certainly they are far from logically drawn up, some paragraphs being dictated by opposition to islam rather than by positive needs of the jewish position. a favourite condensation was a smaller list of three articles: (i) existence of god; (ii) revelation; and (iii) retribution. these three articles are usually associated with the name of joseph albo ( - ), though they are somewhat older. there is no doubt but that these articles found, in recent centuries, more acceptance than the maimonist thirteen, though the latter still hold their place in the orthodox jewish prayer books. they may be found in the _authorised daily prayer book_, ed. singer, p. . moses mendelssohn ( - ), who strongly maintained that judaism is a life, not a creed, made the practice of formulating articles of judaism unfashionable. but not for long. more and more, judaic ritual has fallen into disregard since the french revolution. judaism has therefore tended to express itself as a system of doctrines rather than as a body of practices. and there was a special reason why the maimonist articles could not remain. reference is not meant to the fact that many jews came to doubt the mosaic origin of the pentateuch. but there were lacking in the maimonist creed all emotional elements. on the one hand, maimonides, rationalist and anti-mystic as he was, makes no allowance for the doctrine of the immanence of god. then, owing to his unemotional nature, he laid no stress on all the affecting and moving associations of the belief in the mission of israel as the chosen people. before maimonides, if there had been one dogma of judaism at all, it was the election of israel. jehuda halevi, the greatest of the hebrew poets of the middle ages, had at the beginning of the twelfth century, some half century before maimonides, given expression to this in the famous epigram: 'israel is to the nations like the heart to the limbs.' though, however, the creed of maimonides has no position of authority in the synagogue, modern times have witnessed no successful intrusion of a rival. most writers of treatises on judaism prefer to describe rather than to define the religious tenets of the faith. in america there have been several suggestions of a creed. articles of faith have been there chiefly formulated for the reception of proselytes. this purpose is a natural cause of precision in belief; for while one who already stands within by birth or race is rarely called upon to justify his faith, the newcomer is under the necessity to do so. in the pre-christian judaism it is probable that there was a catechism or short manual of instruction called in greek the _didache_, in which the golden rule in hillel's negative form and the decalogue occupied a front place. thus we find, too, modern american jews formulating articles of faith as a proselyte confession. in the central conference of american rabbis adopted the following five principles for such a confession: (i) god the only one; (ii) man his image; (iii) immortality of the soul; (iv) retribution; (v) israel's mission. during the past few months a tract, entitled 'essentials of judaism,' has been issued in london by the jewish religious union. the author, n. s. joseph, is careful to explain that he is not putting forth these principles as 'dogmatic articles of faith,' and that they are solely 'suggestive outlines of belief which may be gradually imparted to children, the outlines being afterwards filled up by the teacher. but the eight paragraphs of these essentials are at once so ably compiled and so informing as to the modern trend of jewish belief that they will be here cited without comment. according then to this presentation, the essentials of judaism are: '(i) there is one eternal god, who is the sole origin of all things and forces, and the source of all living souls. he rules the universe with justice, righteousness, mercy, and love. (ii) our souls, emanating from god, are immortal, and will return to him when our life on earth ceases. while we are here, our souls can hold direct communion with god in prayer and praise, and in silent contemplation and admiration of his works. (iii) our souls are directly responsible to god for the work of our life on earth. god, being all-merciful, will judge us with loving-kindness, and being all-just, will allow for our imperfections; and we, therefore, need no mediator and no vicarious atonement to ensure the future welfare of our souls. (iv) god is the one and only god. he is eternal and omnipresent. he not only pervades the entire world, but is also within us; and his spirit helps and leads us towards goodness and truth. (v) duty should be the moving force of our life; and the thought that god is always in us and about us should incite us to lead good and beneficent lives, showing our love of god by loving our fellow-creatures, and working for their happiness and betterment with all our might. (vi) in various bygone times god has revealed, and even in our own days continues to reveal to us, something of his nature and will, by inspiring the best and wisest minds with noble thoughts and new ideas, to be conveyed to us in words, so that this world may constantly improve and grow happier and better. (vii) long ago some of our forefathers were thus inspired, and they handed down to us--and through us to the world at large--some of god's choicest gifts, the principles of religion and morality, now recorded in our bible; and these spiritual gifts of god have gradually spread among our fellow-men, so that much of our religion and of its morality has been adopted by them. (viii) till the main religious and moral principles of judaism have been accepted by the world at large, the maintenance by the jews of a separate corporate existence is a religious duty incumbent upon them. they are the "witnesses" of god, and they must adhere to their religion, showing forth its truth and excellence to all mankind. this has been and is and will continue to be their mission. their public worship and private virtues must be the outward manifestation of the fulfilment of that mission.' chapter iv some concepts of judaism though there are no accepted articles of faith in judaism, there is a complete consensus of opinion that monotheism is the basis of the religion. the unity of god was more than a doctrine. it was associated with the noblest hope of israel, with israel's mission to the world. the unity of god was even more than a hope. it was an inspiration, a passion. for it the jews 'passed through fire and water,' enduring tribulation and death for the sake of the unity. all the jewish martyrologies are written round this text. in one passage the talmud actually defines the jew as the monotheist. 'whoever repudiates the service of other gods is called a jew' (megillah, a). but this all-pervading doctrine of the unity did not reach judaism as an abstract philosophical truth. hence, though the belief in the unity of god, associated as it was with the belief in the spirituality of god, might have been expected to lead to the conception of an absolute, transcendent being such as we meet in islam, it did not so lead in judaism. judaism never attempted to define god at all. maimonides put the seal on the reluctance of jewish theology to go beyond, or to fall short of, what historic judaism delivered. judaism wavers between the two opposite conceptions: absolute transcendentalism and absolute pantheism. sometimes judaism speaks with the voice of isaiah; sometimes with the voice of spinoza. it found the bridge in the psalter. 'the lord is nigh unto all that call upon him.' the law brought heaven to earth; prayer raised earth to heaven. as was remarked above, jewish theology never shrank from inconsistency. it accepted at once god's foreknowledge and man's free-will. so it described the knowledge of god as far above man's reach; yet it felt god near, sympathetic, a father and friend. the liturgy of the synagogue has been well termed a 'precipitate' of all the jewish teaching as to god. he is the great, the mighty, the awful, the most high, the king. but he is also the father, helper, deliverer, the peace-maker, supporter of the weak, healer of the sick. all human knowledge is a direct manifestation of his grace. man's body, with all its animal functions, is his handiwork. he created joy, and made the bridegroom and the bride. he formed the fruit of the vine, and is the source of all the lawful pleasures of men. he is the righteous judge; but he remembers that man is dust, he pardons sins, and his loving-kindness is over all. he is unchangeable, yet repentance can avert the evil decree. he is in heaven, yet he puts the love and fear of him into man's very heart. he breathed the soul into man, and is faithful to those that sleep in the grave. he is the reviver of the dead. he is holy, and he sanctified israel with his commandments. and the whole is pervaded with the thought of god's unity and the consequent unity of mankind. here again we meet the curious syncretism which we have so often observed. god is in a special sense the god of israel; but he is unequivocally, too, the god of all flesh. moses mendelssohn said that, when in the company of a christian friend, he never felt the remotest desire to convert him to judaism. this is the explanation of the effect on the jews of the combined belief in god as the god of israel, and also as the god of all men. at one time judaism was certainly a missionary religion. but after the loss of nationality this quality was practically dormant. belief was not necessary to salvation. 'the pious of all nations have a part in the world to come' may have been but a casual utterance of an ancient rabbi, but it rose into a settled conviction of later judaism. moreover, it was dangerous for jews to attempt any religious propaganda in the middle ages, and thus the pressure of fact came to the support of theory. mendelssohn even held that the same religion was not necessarily good for all, just as the same form of government may not fit equally all the various national idiosyncrasies. judaism for the jew may almost be claimed as a principle of orthodox judaism. it says to the outsider: you may come in if you will, but we warn you what it means. at all events it does not seek to attract. it is not strange that this attitude has led to unpopularity. the reason of this resentment is not that men wish to be invited to join judaism; it lies rather in the sense that the absence of invitation implies an arrogant reserve. to some extent this is the case. the old-fashioned jew is inclined to think himself superior to other men. such a thought has its pathos. on the other hand, the national as contrasted with the universal aspect of judaism is on the wane. many jewish liturgies have, for instance, eliminated the prayers for the restoration of sacrifices; and several have removed or spiritualised the petitions for the recovery of the jewish nationality. modern reformed judaism is a universalistic judaism. it lays stress on the function of israel, the servant, as a 'light to the nations.' it tends to eliminate those ceremonies and beliefs which are less compatible with a universal than with, a racial religion. modern zionism is not a real reaction against this tendency. for zionism is either non-religious or, if religious, brings to the front what has always been a corrective to the nationalism of orthodox judaism. for the separation of israel has ever been a means to an end; never an end in itself. often the end has been forgotten in the means, but never for long. the end of israel's separateness is the good of the world. and the religious as distinct from the merely political zionist who thinks that judaism would gain by a return to palestine is just the one who also thinks that return is a necessary preliminary to the messianic age, when all men shall flow unto zion and seek god there. reformed jews would have to be zionists also in this sense, were it not that many of them no longer share the belief in the national aspects of the prophecies as to israel's future. these may believe that the world may become full of the knowledge of god without any antecedent withdrawal of israel from the world. if judaism as a system of doctrine is necessarily syncretistic in its conception of god, then we may expect the same syncretism in its theory of god's relation to man. it must be said at once that the term 'theory' is ill-chosen. it is laid to the charge of judaism that it has no 'theory' of sin. this is true. if virtue and righteousness are obedience, then disobedience is both vice and sin. no further theory was required or possible. atonement is reversion to obedience. now it was said above that the doctrine of the unity did not reach judaism as a philosophical truth exactly defined and apprehended. it came as the result of a long historic groping for the truth, and when it came it brought with it olden anthropomorphic wrappings and tribal adornments which were not easily to be discarded, if they ever were entirely discarded. so with the relation of god to man in general and israel in particular. the unchangeable god is not susceptible to the change implied in atonement. but history presented to the jew examples of what he could not otherwise interpret than as reconciliation between god the father and israel the wayward but always at heart loyal son. and this interpretation was true to the inward experience. man's repentance was correlated with the sorrow of god. god as well as man repented, the former of punishment, the latter of sin. the process of atonement included contrition, confession, and change of life. undoubtedly jewish theology lays the greatest stress on the active stage of the process. jewish moralists use the word teshubah (literally 'turning' or 'return,' _i.e._ a turning from evil or a return to god) chiefly to mean a change of life. sin is evil life, atonement is the better life. the better life was attained by fasting, prayer, and charity, by a purification of the heart and a cleansing of the hands. the ritual side of atonement was seriously weakened by the loss of the temple. the sacrificial atonement was gone. nothing replaced it ritually. hence the jewish tendency towards a practical religion was strengthened by its almost enforced stress in atonement on moral betterment. but this moral betterment depended on a renewed communion with god. sin estranged, atonement brought near. jewish theology regarded sin as a triumph of the _yetser ha-ra_ (the 'evil inclination') over the _yetser ha-tob_ (the 'good inclination'). man was always liable to fall a prey to his lower self. but such a fall, though usual and universal, was not inevitable. man reasserted his higher self when he curbed his passions, undid the wrong he had wrought to others, and turned again to god with a contrite heart. as a taint of the soul, sin was washed away by the suppliant's tears and confession, by his sense of loss, his bitter consciousness of humiliation, but withal man was helpless without god. god was needed for the atonement. israel never dreamed of putting forward his righteousness as a claim to pardon. 'we are empty of good works' is the constant refrain of the jewish penitential appeals. the final reliance is on god and on god alone. yet judaism took over from its past the anthropomorphic belief that god could be moved by man's prayers, contrition, amendment--especially by man's amendment. atonement was only real when the amendment began; it only lasted while the amendment endured. man must not think to throw his own burden entirely on god. god will help him to bear it, and will lighten the weight from willing shoulders. but bear it man can and must. the shoulders must be at all events willing. judaism as a theology stood or fell by its belief that man can affect god. if, for instance, prayer had no validity, then judaism had no basis. judaism did not distinguish between the objective and subjective efficacy of prayer. the two went together. the acceptance of the will of god and the inclining of god's purpose to the desire of man were two sides of one fact. the rabbinic judaism did not mechanically posit, however, the objective validity of prayer. on the contrary, the man who prayed expecting an answer was regarded as arrogant and sinful. a famous talmudic prayer sums up the submissive aspect of the jew in this brief petition (berachoth, a): 'do thy will in heaven above, and grant contentment of spirit to those that fear thee below; and that which is good in thine eyes do. blessed art thou, o lord, who hearest prayer.' this, be it remembered, was the prayer of a pharisee. so, too, a very large portion of all jewish prayer is not petition but praise. still, judaism believed, not that prayer would be answered, but that it could be answered. in modern times the chief cause of the weakening of religion all round, in and out of the jewish communion, is the growing disbelief in the objective validity of prayer. and a similar remark applies to the belief in miracles. but to a much less extent. all ancient religions were based on miracle, and even to the later religious consciousness a denial of miracle seems to deny the divine omnipotence. jewish theology from the rabbinic age sought to evade the difficulty by the mystic notion that all miracles were latent in ordered nature at the creation. and so the miraculous becomes interconnected with providence as revealed in history. but the belief in special miracles recurs again and again in judaism, and though discarded by most reformed theologies, must be admitted as a prevailing concept of the older religion. but the belief was rather in general than in special providence. there was a communal solidarity which made most of the jewish prayers communal more than personal. it is held by many that in the psalter 'i' in the majority of cases means the whole people. the sense of brotherhood, in other relations besides public worship, is a perennial characteristic of judaism. even more marked is this in the conception of the family. the hallowing of home-life was one of the best features of judaism. chastity was the mark of men and women alike. the position of the jewish woman was in many ways high. at law she enjoyed certain privileges and suffered certain disabilities. but in the house she was queen. monogamy had been the rule of jewish life from the period of the return from the babylonian exile. in the middle ages the custom of monogamy was legalised in western jewish communities. connected with the fraternity of the jewish communal organisation and the incomparable affection and mutual devotion of the home-life was the habit of charity. charity, in the sense both of almsgiving and of loving-kindness, was the virtue of virtues. the very word which in the hebrew bible means righteousness means in rabbinic hebrew charity. 'on three things the world stands,' says a rabbi, 'on law, on public worship, and on the bestowal of loving-kindness.' some other concepts of judaism and their influence on character will be treated in a later chapter. here a final word must be said on the hallowing of knowledge. in one of the oldest prayers of the synagogue, repeated thrice daily, occurs this paragraph: 'thou dost graciously bestow on man knowledge, and teachest mortals understanding; o let us be graciously endowed by thee with knowledge, understanding, and discernment. blessed art thou, o lord, gracious giver of knowledge.' the intellect was to be turned to the service of the god from whom intelligence emanated. the jewish estimate of intellect and learning led to some unamiable contempt of the fool and the ignoramus. but the evil tendency of identifying learning with religion was more than mitigated by the encouragement which this concept gave to education. the ideal was that every jew must be a scholar, or at all events a student. obscurantism could not for any lengthy period lodge itself in the jewish camp. there was no learned caste. the fact that the bible and much of the most admired literature was in hebrew made most jews bilingual at least. but it was not merely that knowledge was useful, that it added dignity to man, and realised part of his possibilities. the service of the lord called for the dedication of the reason as well as for the purification of the heart. the jew had to think as well as feel he had to serve with the mind as well as with the body. therefore it was that he was always anxious to justify his religion to his reason. maimonides devoted a large section of his _guide_ to the explanation of the motives of the commandments. and his example was imitated. the law was the expression of the will of god, and obeyed and loved as such. but the law was also the expression of the divine reason. hence man had the right and the duty to examine and realise how his own human reason was satisfied by the law. in a sense the jew was a quite simple believer. but never a simpleton. '_know_ the lord thy god' was the key-note of this aspect of jewish theology. chapter v some observances of judaism the historical consciousness of israel was vitalised by a unique adaptability to present conditions. this is shown in the fidelity with which a number of ancient festivals have been maintained through the ages. some of these were taken over from pre-israelite cults. they were nature feasts, and these are among the oldest rites of men. but, as maimonides wisely said eight centuries ago, religious rites depend not so much on their origins as on the use men make of them. people who wish to return to the primitive usages of this or that church have no grasp of the value and significance of ceremonial. here, at all events, we are not concerned with origins. the really interesting thing is that feasts, which originated in the fields and under the free heaven, were observed and enjoyed in the confined streets of the ghetto. the influence of ceremonial is undying when it is bound up with a community's life. 'it is impossible to create festivals to order. one must use those which exist, and where necessary charge them with new meanings.' so writes mr. montefiore in his _liberal judaism_ (p. ). this is precisely what has happened with the passover, pentecost, and the feast of tabernacles. these three festivals were originally, as has been said, nature feasts. but they became also pilgrim feasts. after the fall of the temple the pilgrimages to jerusalem, of course, ceased, and there was an end to the sacrificial rites connected with them all. the only sense in which they can still be called pilgrim feasts is that, despite the general laxity of sabbath observance and synagogue attendance, these three celebrations are nowadays occasions on which, in spring, summer, and autumn, a large section of the jewish community contrives to wend its way to places of public worship. in the jewish liturgy the three feasts have special designations. they are called respectively 'the season of our freedom,' 'the season of the giving of our law,' and 'the season of our joy.' these descriptions are not biblical, nor are they found in this precise form until the fixation of the synagogue liturgy in the early part of the middle ages. but they have had a powerful influence in perpetuating the hold that the three pilgrim feasts have on the heart and consciousness of israel. liberty, revelation, joy--these are a sequence of wondrous appeal. now it is easily seen that these ideas have no indissoluble connection with specific historical traditions. true, 'freedom' implies the exodus; 'revelation,' the sinaitic theophany; 'joy,' the harvest merry-makings, and perhaps some connection with the biblical narrative of israel's wanderings in the wilderness. but the connection, though essential for the construction of the association, is not essential for its retention. 'the passover,' says mr. montefiore (_liberal judaism_, p. ), 'practically celebrates the formation of the jewish people. it is also the festival of liberty. in view of these two central features, it does not matter that we no longer believe in the miraculous incidents of the exodus story. they are mere trappings which can easily be dispensed with. a festival of liberty, the formation of a people for a religious task, a people destined to become a purely religious community whose continued existence has no meaning or value except on the ground of religion,--here we have ideas, which can fitly form the subject of a yearly celebration.' again, as to pentecost and the ten commandments, mr. montefiore writes: 'we do not believe that any divine or miraculous voice, still less that god himself, audibly pronounced the ten words. but their importance lies in themselves, not in their surroundings and origin. liberals as well as orthodox may therefore join in the festival of the ten commandments. pentecost celebrates the definite union of religion with morality, the inseparable conjunction of the "service" of god with the "service" of man. can any religious festival have a nobler subject?' finally, as to tabernacles, mr. montefiore thus expresses himself: 'for us, to-day, the connection with the wanderings from egypt, which the latest [biblical] legislators attempted, has again disappeared. tabernacles is a harvest festival; it is a nature festival. should not a religion have a festival or holy day of this kind? is not the conception of god as the ruler and sustainer of nature, the immanent and all-pervading spirit, one aspect of the divine, which can fitly be thought of and celebrated year by year? thus each of the three great pentateuchal festivals may reasonably and joyfully be observed by liberals and orthodox alike. we have no need or wish to make a change.' and of the actual ceremonial rites connected with the passover, pentecost, and tabernacles, it is apparently only the avoidance of leaven on the first of the three that is regarded as unimportant. but even there mr. montefiore's own feeling is in favour of the rite. 'it is,' he says, 'a matter of comparative unimportance whether the practice of eating unleavened bread in the house for the seven days of the passover be maintained or not. those who appreciate the value of a pretty and ancient symbol, both for children and adults, will not easily abandon the custom.' this is surely a remarkable development. in the christian church it seems that certain festivals are retaining their general hold because they are becoming public, national holidays. but in judaism the hold is to be maintained precisely on the ground that there is to be nothing national about them, they are to be reinterpreted ideally and symbolically. it remains to be seen whether this is possible, and it is too early to predict the verdict of experience. the process is in active incubation in america as well as in europe, but it cannot be claimed that the eggs are hatched yet. on the other hand, zionism has so far had no effect in the opposite direction. there has been no nationalisation of judaism as a result of the new striving after political nationality. many who had previously been detached from the jewish community have been brought back by zionism, but they have not been re-attached to the religion. there has been no perceptible increase, for instance, in the number of those who fast on the ninth of ab, the anniversary of the destruction of the temple. hence, from these and other considerations, of which limited space prevents the specification, it seems on the whole likely that, as in the past so in the future, the festivals of the synagogue will survive by changes in religious significance rather than by any deepening of national association. except that the synagogues are decked with flowers, while the decalogue is solemnly intoned from the scroll of the pentateuch, the feast of pentecost has no ceremonial trappings even with the orthodox. passover and tabernacles stand on a different footing. the abstention from leavened bread on the former feast has led to a closely organised system of cleansing the houses, an interminable array of rules as to food; while the prescriptions of the law as to the bearing of palm-branches and other emblems, and the ordinance as to dwelling in booths, have surrounded the feast of tabernacles with a considerable, if less extensive, ceremonial. but there is this difference. the passover is primarily a festival of the home, tabernacles of the synagogue. in europe the habit of actually dwelling in booths has been long unusual, owing to climatic considerations. but of late years it has become customary for every synagogue to raise its communal booth, to which many jews pay visits of ceremony. on the other hand, the passover is _par excellence_ a home rite. on the first two evenings (or at all events on the first evening) there takes place the _seder_, (literally 'service'), a service of prayer, which is at the same time a family meal. gathered round the table, on which are spread unleavened cakes, bitter herbs, and other emblems of joy and sorrow, the family recounts in prose and song the narrative of the exodus. the service is in two parts, between which comes the evening meal. the hallowing of the home here attains its highest point. unless, indeed, this distinction be allotted to the sabbath. the rigidity of the laws regarding sabbath observance is undeniable. movement was restricted, many acts were forbidden which were not in themselves laborious. the sabbath was hedged in by a formidable array of enactments. to an outside critic it is not wonderful that the jewish sabbath has a repellent look. but to the insider things wear another aspect. the sabbath was and is a day of delight. on it the jew had a foretaste of the happiness of the world to come. the reader who wishes to have a spirited, and absolutely true, picture of the jewish sabbath cannot do better than turn to dr. schechter's excellent _studies in judaism_ (pp. _seq._). as dr. schechter pithily puts it: 'somebody, either the learned professors, or the millions of the jewish people, must be under a delusion.' right through the middle ages the sabbath grew deeper into the affections of the jews. it was not till after the french revolution and the era of emancipation, that a change occurred. mixing with the world, and sharing the world's pursuits, the jews began to find it hard to observe the saturday sabbath as of old. in still more recent times the difficulty has increased. added to this, the growing laxity in observances has affected the sabbath. this is one of the most pressing problems that face the jewish community to-day. here and there an attempt has been made by small sections of jews to substitute a sunday sabbath for the saturday sabbath. but the plan has not prospered. one of the most notable rites of the service of the passover eve is the sanctification with wine, a ceremony common to the ordinary sabbath eve. this rite has perhaps had much to do with the characteristic sobriety of israel. wine forms part of almost every jewish rite, including the marriage ceremony. wine thus becomes associated with religion, and undue indulgence is a sin as well as a vice. 'no joy without wine,' runs an old rabbinic prescription. joy is the hallmark of judaism; 'joyous service' its summary of man's relation to the law. so far is judaism from being a gloomy religion, that it is almost too light-hearted, just as was the religion of ancient greece. but the talmud tells us of a class who in the early part of the first century were known as 'lovers of sorrow.' these men were in love with misfortune; for to every trial of israel corresponded an intervention of the divine salvation. this is the secret of the jewish gaiety. the resilience under tribulation was the result of a firm confidence in the saving fidelity of god. and the gaiety was tempered by solemnity, as the observances, to which we now turn, will amply show. far more remarkable than anything yet discussed is the change effected in two other holy days since bible times. the genius of judaism is nowhere more conspicuous than in the fuller meanings which have been infused into the new year's day and the day of atonement. the new year is the first day of the seventh month (tishri), when the ecclesiastical year began. in the bible the festival is only known as a 'day of blowing the shofar' (ram's horn). in the synagogue this rite was retained after the destruction of the temple, and it still is universally observed. but the day was transformed into a day of judgment, the opening of a ten days' period of penitence which closed with the day of atonement. here, too, the change effected in a biblical rite transformed its character. 'it needed a long upward development before a day, originally instituted on priestly ideas of national sin and collective atonement, could be transformed into the purely spiritual festival which we celebrate to-day' (montefiore, _op. cit._, p. ). but the day is none the less associated with a strict rite, the fast. it is one of the few ascetic ceremonies in the jewish calendar as known to most jews. there is a strain of asceticism in some forms of judaism, and on this a few words will be said later. but, on the whole, there is in modern judaism a tendency to underrate somewhat the value of asceticism in religion. hence the fast has a distinct importance in and for itself, and it is regrettable that the laudable desire to spiritualise the day is leading to a depreciation of the fast as such. but the real change is due to the cessation of sacrifices. in the levitical code, sacrifice had a primary importance in the scheme of atonement. but with the loss of the temple, the idea of sacrifice entirely vanished, and atonement became a matter for the personal conscience. it was henceforth an inward sense of sin translating itself into the better life. 'to purify desire, to ennoble the will--this is the essential condition of atonement. nay, it is atonement' (joseph, _judaism as creed and life_, p. ; cf. _supra_, p. ). this, in the opinion of christian theologians, is a shallow view of atonement. but it is at all events an attempt to apply theology to life. and its justification lies in its success. of the other festivals a word is due concerning two of them, which differ much in significance and in development. purim and chanuka are their names. purim was probably the ancient babylonian saturnalia, and it is still observed as a kind of carnival by many jews, though their number is decreasing. for purim is emphatically a ghetto feast. and this description applies in more ways than one. in the first place, the book of esther, with which the jewish purim is associated, is not a book that commends itself to the modern jewish consciousness. the historicity of the story is doubted, and its narrow outlook is not that of prophetic judaism. observed as mediaeval jews observed it, purim was a thoroughly innocent festivity. the unpleasant taste left by the closing scenes of the book was washed off by the geniality of temper which saw the humours of haman's fall and never for a moment rested in a feeling of vindictiveness. but the whole book breathes so nationalistic a spirit, so uncompromising a belief that the enemy of israel must be the enemy of god, that it has become difficult for modern judaism to retain any affection for it. it makes its appeal to the persecuted, no doubt: it conveys a stirring lesson in the providential care with which god watches over his people: it bids the sufferer hope. esther's splendid surrender of self, her immortal declaration, 'if i perish, i perish,' still may legitimately thrill all hearts. but the carnival has no place in the life of a western city, still less the sectional carnival. the hobby-horse had its opportunity and the maskers their rights in the ghetto, but only there. purim thus is now chiefly retained as a children's feast, and still better as a feast of charity, of the interchange of gifts between friends, and the bestowal of alms on the needy. this is a worthy survival. chanuka, on the other hand, grows every year into greater popularity. this festival of light, when lamps are kindled in honour of the maccabean heroes, has of late been rediscovered by the liberals. for the first four centuries of the christian era, the festival of chanuka ('dedication') was observed by the church as well as by the synagogue. but for some centuries afterwards the significance of the anniversary was obscured. it is now realised as a momentous event in the world's history. it was not merely a local triumph of hebraism over hellenism, but it represents the re-entry of the east into the civilisation of the west. alexander the great had occidentalised the orient. but with the success of the judaeans against the seleucids and of the parthians against the romans, the east reasserted itself. and the newly recovered influence has never again been surrendered. hence this feast is a feast of ideals. year by year this is becoming more clearly seen. and the symbol of the feast, light, is itself an inspiration. the jew is really a very sentimental being. he loves symbols. a good deal of his fondness for ritual is due to this fact. the outward marks of an inner state have always appealed to him. ancient taboos became not only consecrated but symbolical. whether it be the rite of circumcision, or the use of phylacteries and fringed praying garments, or the adfixture of little scrolls in metal cases on the door-posts, or the glad submission to the dietary laws, in all these matters sentiment played a considerable part. and the word sentiment is used in its best sense. abstract morality is well enough for the philosopher, but men of flesh and blood want their morality expressed in terms of feeling. love of god is a fine thing, but the jew wished to do loving acts of service. obedience to the will of god, the suppression of the human desires before that will, is a great ideal. but the jew wished to realise that he was obeying, that he was making the self-suppression. he was not satisfied with a general law of holiness: he felt impelled to holiness in detail, to a life in which the laws of bodily hygiene were obeyed as part of the same law of holiness that imposed ritual and moral purity. much of the intricate system, of observance briefly summarised in this paragraph, a system which filled the jew's life, is passing away. this is largely because jews are surrendering their own original theory of life and religion. modern judaism seems to have no use for the ritual system. the older judaism might retort that, if that be so, it has no use for the modern judaism. it is, however, clear that modern judaism now realises the mistake made by the reformers of the mid-nineteenth century. hence we are hearing, and shall no doubt hear more and more, of the modification of observances in judaism rather than of their abolition. chapter vi jewish mysticism 'judaism is often called the religion of reason. it is this, but it is also the religion of the soul. it recognises the value of that mystic insight, those indefinable intuitions which, taking up the task at the point where the mind impotently abandons it, carries us straight into the presence of the king. thus it has found room both for the keen speculator on theological problems and for the mystic who, because he feels god, declines to reason about him--for a maimonides and a mendelssohn, but also for a nachmanides, a vital, and a luria' (m. joseph, _op. cit._, p. ). used in a vague way, mysticism stands for spiritual inwardness. religion without mysticism, said amiel, is a rose without perfume. this saying is no more precise and no more informing than matthew arnold's definition of religion as morality touched with emotion. neither mysticism nor an emotional touch makes religion. they are as often as not concomitants of a pathological state which is the denial of religion. but if mysticism means a personal attitude towards god in which the heart is active as well as the mind, then religion cannot exist without mysticism. when, however, we regard mysticism as what it very often is, as an antithesis to institutional religion and a revolt against authority and forms, then it may seem at first sight paradoxical to recognise the mystic's claim to the hospitality of judaism. that a religion which produced the psalter, and not only produced it, but used it with never a break, should be a religion, with intensely spiritual possibilities, and its adherents capable of a vivid sense of the nearness of god, with an ever-felt and never-satisfied longing for communion with him, is what we should fully expect. but this expectation would rather make us look for an expression on the lines of the th psalm, in which the law is so markedly associated with freedom and spirituality. judaism, after all, allowed to authority and law a supreme place. but the mystic relies on his own intuitions, depends on his personal experiences. judaism, on the other hand, is a scheme in which personal experiences only count in so far as they are brought into the general fund of the communal experience. but in discussing judaism it is always imperative to discard all _a priori_ probabilities. judaism is the great upsetter of the probable. analyse a tendency of judaism and predict its logical consequences, and then look in judaism for consequences quite other than these. over and over again things are not what they ought to be. the sacrificial system should have destroyed spirituality; in fact, it produced the psalter, 'the hymnbook of the second temple.' pharisaism ought to have led to externalism; in fact, it did not, for somehow excessive scrupulosity in rite and pietistic exercises went hand in hand with simple faith and religious inwardness. so, too, the expression of ethics and religion as law ought to have suppressed individuality; in fact, it sometimes gave an impulse to each individual to try to impose his own concepts, norms, and acts as a law upon the rest. each thought very much for himself, and desired that others should think likewise. we have already seen that in matters of dogma there never was any corporate action at all; in ancient times, as now, it is not possible to pronounce definitely on the dogmatic teachings of judaism. though there has been and is a certain consensus of opinion on many matters, yet neither in practice nor in beliefs have the local, the temporal, the personal elements ever been negligible. in order to expound or define a tenet or rite of judaism it is mostly necessary to go into questions of time and place and person. perhaps, then, we ought to be prepared to find, as in point of fact we do find, within the main body of judaism, and not merely as a freak of occasional eccentrics, distinct mystical tendencies. these tendencies have often been active well inside the sphere of the law. mysticism was, as we shall see, sometimes a revolt against law; but it was often, in judaism as in the roman catholic church, the outcome of a sincere and even passionate devotion to authority. jewish mysticism, in particular, starts as an interpretation of the scriptures. certain truths were arrived at by man either intuitively or rationally, and these were harmonised with the bible by a process of lifting the veil from the text, and thus penetrating to the true meaning hidden beneath the letter. allegorical and esoteric exegesis always had this aim: to find written what had been otherwise found. honour was thus done to the scriptures, though the latter were somewhat cavalierly treated in the process; philo's doctrine (at the beginning of the christian era) and the great canonical book of the mediaeval cabbala, the zohar (beginning of the fourteenth century), were alike in this, they were largely commentaries on the pentateuch. maimonides in the twelfth century followed the same method, and only differed from these in the nature of his deductions from scripture. this prince of rationalists agreed with the mystics in adopting an esoteric exegesis. but he read aristotle into the text, while the mystics read plato into it. they were alike faithful to the law, or rather to their own interpretations of its terms. but further than this,--a large portion of jewish mysticism was the work of lawyers. some of the foremost mystics were famous talmudists, men who were appealed to for decisions on ritual and conduct. it is a phenomenon that constantly meets us in jewish theology. there were antinomian mystics and legalistic opponents of mysticism, but many, like nachmanides ( - ) and joseph caro ( - ), doubled the parts of cabbalist and talmudist. that jewish mysticism comes to look like a revolt against the talmud is due to the course of mediaeval scholasticism. while aristotle was supreme, it was impossible for man to conceive as knowable anything unattainable by reason. but reason must always leave god as unknowable. mysticism did not assert that god was knowable, but it substituted something else for this spiritual scepticism. mysticism started with the conviction that god was unknowable by reason, but it held that god was nevertheless realisable in the human experience. accepting and adopting various neo-platonic theories of emanation, elaborating thence an intricate angelology, the mystics threw a bridge over the gulf between god and man. philo's logos, the personified wisdom of the palestinian midrash, the demiurge of gnosticism, the incarnate christ, were all but various phases of this same attempt to cross an otherwise impassable chasm. throughout its whole history, jewish mysticism substituted mediate creation for immediate creation out of nothing, and the mediate beings were not created but were emanations. this view was much influenced by solomon ibn gabirol ( - ). god is to gabirol an absolute unity, in which form and substance are identical. hence he cannot be attributively defined, and man can know him only by means of beings which emanate from him. nor was this idea confined to jewish philosophy of the greece-arabic school. the german cabbala, too, which owed nothing directly to that school, held that god was not rationally knowable. the result must be, not merely to exalt visionary meditation over calm ratiocination, but to place reliance on inward experience instead of on external authority, which makes its appeal necessarily to the reason. here we see elements of revolt. for, as dr. l. ginzberg well says, 'while study of the law was to talmudists the very acme of piety, the mystics accorded the first place to prayer, which was considered as a mystical progress towards god, demanding a state of ecstasy.' the jewish mystic must invent means for inducing such a state, for judaism cannot endure a passive waiting for the moving spirit. the mystic soul must learn how to mount the chariot (merkaba) and ride into the inmost halls of heaven. mostly the ecstatic state was induced by fasting and other ascetic exercises, a necessary preliminary being moral purity; then there were solitary meditations and long night vigils; lastly, prescribed ritual of proved efficacy during the very act of prayer. thus mysticism had a farther attraction for a certain class of jews, in that it supplied the missing element of asceticism which is indispensable to men more austerely disposed than the average jew. in the sixteenth century a very strong impetus was given to jewish mysticism by isaac luria ( - ). his chief contributions to the movement were practical, though he doubtless taught a theoretical cabbala also. but judaism, even in its mystical phases, remains a religion of conduct. luria was convinced that man can conquer matter; this practical conviction was the moving force of his whole life. his own manner of living was saintly; and he taught his disciples that they too could, by penitence, confession, prayer, and charity, evade bodily trammels and send their souls straight to god even during their terrestrial pilgrimage. luria taught all this not only while submitting to law, but under the stress of a passionate submission to it. he added in particular a new beauty to the sabbath. many of the most fascinatingly religious rites connected now with the sabbath are of his devising. the white sabbath garb, the joyous mystical hymns full of the bride and of love, the special sabbath foods, the notion of the 'over-soul'--these and many other of the lurian rites and fancies still hold wide sway in the orient. the 'over-soul' was a very inspiring conception, which certainly did not originate with luria. according to a talmudic rabbi (resh lakish, third century), on adam was bestowed a higher soul on the sabbath, which he lost at the close of the day. luria seized upon this mystical idea, and used it at once to spiritualise the sabbath and attach to it an ecstatic joyousness. the ritual of the 'over-soul' was an elaborate means by which a relation was established between heaven and earth. but all this symbolism had but the slightest connection with dogma. it was practical through and through. it emerged in a number of new rites, it based itself on and became the cause of a deepening devotion to morality. luria would have looked with dismay on the moral laxity which did later on intrude, in consequence of unbridled emotionalism and mystic hysteria. there comes the point when he that interprets law emotionally is no longer law-abiding. the antinomian crisis thus produced meets us in the careers of many who, like sabbatai zebi, assumed the messianic role. jewish mysticism, starting as an ascetic corrective to the conventional hedonism, lost its ascetic character and degenerated into licentiousness. this was the case with the eighteenth-century mysticism known as chassidism, though, as its name ('saintliness') implies, it was innocent enough at its initiation. violent dances, and other emotional and sensual stimulations, led to a state of exaltation during which the line of morality was overstepped. but there was nevertheless, as dr. schechter has shown, considerable spiritual worth and beauty in chassidism. it transferred the centre of gravity from thinking to feeling; it led away from the worship of scripture to the love of god. the fresh air of religion was breathed once more, the stars and the open sky replaced the midnight lamp and the college. but it was destined to raise a fog more murky than the confined atmosphere of the study. the man with the book was often nearer god than was the man of the earth. the opposition of talmudism against the neo-mysticism was thus on the whole just and salutary. this opposition, no doubt, was bitter chiefly when mysticism became revolutionary in practice, when it invaded the established customs of legalistic orthodoxy. but it was also felt that mysticism went dangerously near to a denial of the absolute unity of god. it was more difficult to attack it on its theoretical than on its practical side, however. the jewish mystic did sometimes adopt a most irritating policy of deliberately altering customs as though for the very pleasure of change. now in most religious controversies discipline counts for more than belief. as salimbene asserts of his own day: 'it was far less dangerous to debate in the schools whether god really existed, than to wear publicly and pertinaciously a frock and cowl of any but the orthodox cut.' but the talmudists' antagonism to mysticism was not exclusively of this kind in the eighteenth century. mysticism is often mere delusion. in the last resort man has no other guide than his reason. it is his own reason that convinces him of the limitations of his reason. but those limitations are not to be overpassed by a visionary self-introspection, unless this, too, is subjected to rational criticism. mysticism does its true part when it applies this criticism also to the current forms, conventions, and institutions. conventions, forms, and institutions, after all, represent the corporate wisdom, the accumulated experiences of men throughout the ages. mysticism is the experience of one. each does right to test the corporate experience by his own experience. but he must not elevate himself into a law even for himself. that, in a sentence, would summarise the attitude of judaism towards mysticism. it is medicine, not a food. chapter vii eschatology that the soul has a life of its own after death was a firmly fixed idea in judaism, though, except in the works of philosophers and in the liberal theology of modern judaism, the grosser conception of a bodily resurrection was predominant over the purely spiritual idea of immortality. curiously enough, maimonides, who formulated the belief in resurrection as a dogma of the synagogue, himself held that the world to come is altogether free from material factors. at a much earlier period (in the third century) rab had said (ber. a): 'not as this world is the world to come. in the world to come there is no eating or drinking, no sexual intercourse, no barter, no envy, hatred, or contention. but the righteous sit with their crowns on their heads, enjoying the splendour of the shechinah (the divine presence).' commenting on this in various places, maimonides emphatically asserts the spirituality of the future life. in his _siraj_ he says, with reference to the utterance of rab just quoted: 'by the remark of the sages "with their crowns on their heads" is meant the preservation of the soul in the intellectual sphere, and the merging of the two into one.... by their remark "enjoying the splendour of the shechinah" is meant that those souls will reap bliss in what they comprehend of the creator, just as the angels enjoy felicity in what they understand of his existence. and so the felicity and the final goal consists in reaching to this exalted company and attaining this high pitch.' again, in his philosophical _guide_ (i. xli.), maimonides distinguishes three kinds of 'soul': ( ) the principle of animality, ( ) the principle of humanity, and ( ) the principle of intellectuality, that part of man's individuality which can exist independently of the body, and therefore alone survives death. even more remarkable is the fact that maimonides enunciates the same opinion in his code (laws of repentance, viii. ). for the code differs from the other two of the three main works of maimonides in that it is less personal, and expresses what the author conceives to be the general opinion of judaism as interpreted by its most authoritative teachers. there can be no question but that this repeated insistence of maimonides has strongly affected all subsequent jewish thought. to him, eternal bliss consists in perfect spiritual communion with god. 'he who desires to serve god from love must not serve to win the future world. but he does right and eschews wrong because he is man, and owes it to his manhood to perfect himself. this effort brings him to the type of perfect man, whose soul shall live in the state that befits it, viz. in the world to come.' thus the world to come is a state rather than a place. but maimonides' view was not accepted without dispute. it was indeed quite easy to cite rabbinic passages in which the world to come is identified with the bodily resurrection. against maimonides were produced such talmudic utterances as the following: 'said rabbi chiya b. joseph, the righteous shall arise clad in their garments, for if a grain of wheat which is buried naked comes forth with many garments, how much more shall the righteous arise full garbed, seeing that they were interred with shrouds' (kethub. b). again, 'rabbi jannai said to his children, bury me not in white garments or in black: not in white, lest i be not held worthy (of heaven) and thus may be like a bridegroom among mourners (in gehenna); nor in black, lest if i am held worthy, i be like a mourner among bridegrooms (in heaven). but bury me in coloured garments (so that my appearance will be partly in keeping with either fate),' (sabbath, a). or finally: 'they arise with their blemishes, and then are healed' (sanh. b). the popular fancy, in its natural longing for a personal existence after the bodily death, certainly seized upon the belief in resurrection with avidity. it had its roots partly in the individual consciousness, partly in the communal. for the resurrection was closely connected with such hopes as those expressed in ezekiel's vision of the re-animation of israel's dry bones (ezek. xxxvii.). thus popular theology adopted many ideas based on the resurrection. the myth of the leviathan hardly belongs here, for, widespread as it was, it was certainly not regarded in a material light. the leviathan was created on the fifth day, and its flesh will be served as a banquet for the righteous at the advent of messiah. the mediaeval poets found much attraction in this idea, and allowed their imagination full play concerning the details of the divine repast. maimonides entirely spiritualised the idea, and his example was here decisive. the conception of the resurrection had other consequences. as the scene of the resurrection is to be jerusalem, there grew up a strong desire to be buried on the western slope of mount olivet. in fact, many burial and mourning customs of the synagogue originated from a belief in the bodily resurrection. but even in the orthodox liturgy the direct references to it are vague and idealised. two passages of great beauty may be cited. the first is taken from the _authorised daily prayer book_ (ed. singer, p. ): 'o my god, the soul which thou gavest me is pure; thou didst create it, thou didst form it, thou didst breathe it into me; thou preservest it within me; and thou wilt take it from me, but wilt restore it unto me hereafter. so long as the soul is within me, i will give thanks unto thee, o lord my god and god of my fathers, sovereign of all works, lord of all souls! blessed art thou, o lord, who restorest souls unto dead bodies.' the last phrase is also extant in another reading in the talmud and in some liturgies: 'blessed art thou, who revivest the dead,' but the meaning of the two forms is identical. this passage, be it noted, is ancient, and is recited every morning at prayer. the second passage is recited even more frequently, for it is said thrice daily, and also forms part of the funeral service. it may be found in the prayer book just quoted on p. : 'thou, o lord, art mighty for ever, thou quickenest the dead, thou art mighty to save. thou sustainest the living with loving-kindness, quickenest the dead with great mercy, supportest the falling, healest the sick, loosest the bound, and keepest thy faith to them that sleep in the dust. who is like unto thee, lord of mighty acts, and who resembleth thee, o king, who killest and quickenest, and causest salvation to spring forth? yea faithful art thou to quicken the dead.' the later history of the doctrine in the synagogue may be best summarised in the words of dr. kohler, whose theological articles in the _jewish encyclopedia_ deserve grateful recognition. what follows may be read at full length in that work, vol. vi. p. : 'while mediaeval philosophy dwelt on the intellectual, moral, or spiritual nature of the soul to prove its immortality, the cabbalists endeavoured to explain the soul as a light from heaven, after proverbs xx. , and immortality as a return to the celestial world of pure light. but the belief in the pre-existence of the soul led the mystics to the adoption, with all its weird notions and superstitions, of the pythagorean system of the transmigration of the soul.' moses mendelssohn revived the platonic form of the doctrine of immortality. thenceforth the dogma of the resurrection was gradually discarded until it was eliminated from the prayer book of the reform congregations. man's future was thought of as the realisation of those 'higher expectations which are sown, as part of its very nature, in every human soul.' the statement of genesis that 'god made man in his own image,' and the idea conveyed in the text ( samuel xxv. ), 'may the soul ... be bound up in the bundle of life with the lord thy god,' which as a divine promise and a human supplication 'filled the generations with comfort and hope, received a new meaning from this view of man's future; and the rabbinical saying (ber. a): "the righteous rest not, either in this or in the future world, but go from strength to strength until they see god in zion," appeared to offer an endless vista to the hope of immortality.' but quite apart from this indefiniteness of attitude as to the meaning of immortality, it is scarcely possible to speak of a jewish eschatology at all. the development of an eschatology occurred in that section of jewish opinion which remained on the fringe. it must be sought in the apocalyptic literature, which has been preserved in greek. the whole subject had but a small attraction for judaism proper. naturally there was some curiosity and some speculation. the day of the lord, with its combination of retribution and salvation, was pictured in various ways and with some elaboration of detail. paradise and hell were mapped out, and the comfortable compartments to be occupied by the saints and the miserable quarters of sinners were specified with the precision of an ordnance survey. purgatory was an institution not limited to the roman catholic church; it had a strong hold on the mediaeval jewish mind. the intermediate state was a favourite escape from the theological necessity of condemning sinners to eternal punishment. the jewish heart could not suffer the pain of conceiving gehenna inevitable. so, one by one, those who might logically be committed there were rescued on various pretexts. in the end the number of the individual sinners who were to suffer eternal torture could be named on the fingers of one hand. by the preceding paragraph it is not implied that jewish literature in hebrew has not its full complement of fancies, horrible and beautiful, regarding heaven and hell. but such fancies were neither dogmatic nor popular. they never found their way into the tenets of judaism as formulated by any authority; they never became a moving power in the life of the jewish masses. it was the poets who nourished these lurid ideas, and poetry which has done so much for the good of religion has also done it many a disservice. judaism, in its prosaic form, accepted the ideas of immortality, retribution, and so forth, but the real interest was in life here, not in life hereafter. we can see how the two were bridged over by the jewish conviction of human solidarity. for twelve months after the death of a father the son recited daily the kaddish prayer (_authorised daily prayer book_, p. ). this was a mere doxology, opening: 'magnified and sanctified be his great name in the world which he hath created according to his will. may he establish his kingdom during your life and during your days, and during the life of all the house of israel, even speedily and at a near time, and say ye amen.' as to the messianic idea of the kingdom of god, something will be said in the next chapter. but this doxology was believed efficacious to save the departed soul when uttered by the living son. the generations were thus bound together, and just as the merits of the fathers could exert benign influence over the erring child on earth, so could the praises of the child move the mercy of god in favour of the erring father in purgatory. it was a beautiful expression of the unbreakable chain of tradition, a tradition whose links were human hearts. in such conceptions, rather than in descriptive pictures of paradise and gehenna, is the true mind of judaism to be discerned. that the first formal sign of grief at the death of a parent should be a doxology will not have escaped notice. god is the righteous judge. thus, in the eschatology of judaism, this idea of judgment predominates. a favourite passage was the mishnic utterance (second century): 'rabbi eleazar said: they that are born are destined to die, and they that die to be brought to life again, and they that live to be judged.' (aboth, iv. ). but in another sense, too, there was judgment at death. the sorrow of the survivors, like the decease of the departed, was to be considered as god's doing, and therefore right. hence in the very moment of the death of a loved one, when grief was most poignant, the survivor stood forth before the congregation and praised god. and so the burial service is named in hebrew 'zidduk ha-din,' _i.e._ 'the justification of the judgment.' a few sentences in it ran thus (_prayer book_, p. ): 'the rock, his work is perfect.... he ruleth below and above, he bringeth down to the grave and bringeth up again.... blessed be the true judge.' and perhaps more than all attempts to analyse beliefs and dogmas, the following prayer, recited during the week of mourning for the dead, will convey to the reader the real attitude of judaism (at least in its central variety) to some of the questions which have occupied us in this chapter. the quotation is made from p. of the same prayer book that has been already cited several times above: 'o lord and king, who art full of compassion, in whose hand is the soul of every living thing and the breath of all flesh, who killest and makest alive, who bringest down to the grave and bringest up again, receive, we beseech thee, in thy great loving-kindness, the soul of our brother who hath been gathered unto his people. have mercy upon him, pardon all his transgressions, for there is not a righteous man upon earth, who doeth good and sinneth not. remember unto him the righteousness which he wrought, and let his reward be with him and his recompense before him. o shelter his soul in the shadow of thy wings. make known to him the path of life: in thy presence is fulness of joy; at thy right hand are pleasures for evermore. vouchsafe unto him of the abounding happiness that is treasured up for the righteous, as it is written, oh how great is thy goodness, which thou hast laid up for them that fear thee, which thou hast wrought for them that trust in thee before the children of men! 'o lord, who healest the broken-hearted and bindest up their wounds, grant thy consolation unto the mourners: put into their hearts the fear and love of thee, that they may serve thee with a perfect heart, and let their latter end be peace. 'like one whom his mother comforteth, so will i comfort you, and in jerusalem shall ye be comforted. thy sun shall no more go down, neither shall thy moon withdraw itself; for the lord shall be thine everlasting light, and the days of thy mourning shall be ended. 'he will destroy death for ever; and the lord will wipe away tears from off all faces; and the rebuke of his people shall he take away from off all the earth: for the lord hath spoken it.' chapter viii the survival of judaism the messianic hope has an intimate connection with eschatology. whereas, however, the latter in so far as it affirmed a resurrection conceived of the immortality of israelites, the former conceived the immortality of israel. it is not necessary here to trace the origin and history of the messianic idea in judaism. that this idea had a strong nationalistic tinge is obvious. the messiah was to be a person of davidic descent, who would be the restorer of israel's greatness. throughout jewish history, despite the constant injunction to refrain 'from calculating the date of the end,' men have arisen who have claimed to be messiahs, and these have mostly asserted their claim on nationalistic pleas. they were to be kings of israel as well as inaugurators of a new regime of moral and spiritual life. but though this is true without qualification, it is equally true that the philosophers of the middle ages tried to remove all materialistic notions from the messianic idea. it is very difficult to assert nowadays whether judaism does or does not expect a personal messiah. a very marked change has undoubtedly come over the spirit of the dream. on the one hand the neo-nationalists deny any messianic hopes. when that great leader, theodor herzl, started a zionistic movement without claiming to be the jewish messiah, he was putting the seal on a far-reaching change in jewish sentiment. dr. j. h. greenstone, who has just published an interesting volume on the _messianic idea in jewish history_, writes (p. ): 'after the first basle congress ( ), when zionism assumed its present political aspect, dr. max nordau, the vice-president of the congress, found it necessary to address an article to the hebrew-reading public, in which he disclaimed all pretensions of messiahship for himself or for his colleague dr. theodor herzl.' we have thus this extraordinary situation. many orthodox jews stood aloof from the zionistic movement because it was not messianic, while many unorthodox jews joined it just because of the movement's detachment from messianic ideas. it may be well to cite dr. greenstone's verdict on the whole question, as the reader may care to have the opinion of so competent an authority whose view differs from that of the present writer. 'sacred as zionism is to many of its adherents, it cannot and will not take the place of the messianic hope. zionism aims at the establishment of a jewish state in palestine under the protection of the powers of europe. the messianic hope promises the establishment, by the jews, of a world-power in palestine to which all the nations of the earth will pay homage. zionism, even in its political aspect, will fulfil only one phase of the jewish messianic hope. as such, if successful, it may contribute toward the full realisation of the hope. if not successful, it will not deprive the jews of the hope. the messianic hope is wider than the emancipation of the jews, it is more comprehensive than the establishment of a jewish, politically independent state. it participates in the larger ideals of humanity, the ideals of perfection for the human race, but it remains on jewish soil, and retains its peculiarly jewish significance. it promises universal peace, an age of justice and of righteousness, an age in which all men will recognise that god is one and his name one. but this glorious age will come about through the regeneration of the jewish people, which in turn be effected by a man, a scion of the house of david, sent by god to guide them on the road to righteousness. the people chosen by god to be his messengers to the world will then be able to accomplish their mission of regenerating the world. this was the messianic hope proclaimed by the prophets and sages, and this is the messianic hope of most jews to-day, the difference between the various sections being only a difference in the details of the hope' (_op. cit._, p. ). dr. greenstone surely cannot mean that the question of a 'personal messiah' is a mere detail of the belief. yet it is on that point that opinion is most divided among jews. the older belief undeniably was what dr. greenstone enunciates. but for this belief, none of what mr. zangwill aptly terms the 'dreamers of the ghetto' would have found the ready acceptance that several of them did when they presented themselves as messiah or his forerunners. and no doubt there are many jews who still cling to this form of the belief. on the other hand, there has been a slow but widespread tendency to reinterpret the whole intention of the messianic hope of judaism. in , and again in , american conferences of liberal rabbis adopted resolutions to the following effect: 'the messianic aim of israel is not the restoration of the old jewish state under a descendant of david, involving a second separation from the nations of the earth, but the union of all children of god in the confession of the unity of god, so as to realise the unity of all rational creatures and their call to moral sanctification.' this view sees in the destruction of the temple and the dispersal of israel not a punishment but a stage in the fulfilment of israel's destiny as revealed to abraham. israel is high-priest, and can only fulfil his mission in the close neighbourhood of those to whom he is elected to minister. this, no less than the non-messianic zionism, is a considerable change from older beliefs. as a messianic hope it transcends the visions of isaiah. the prophet looks forward to an ideal future, a reign of peace and felicity, but the nations are to flow to zion. the significance of the change lies in this. the messianic idea now means to many jews a belief in human development and progress, with the jews filling the role of the messianic people, but only as _primus inter pares_. it is the expression of a genuine optimism. 'character, no less than career,' said george eliot, 'is a process and an unfolding.' so with the character of mankind as a whole. but this idea of development, unfolding, is quite modern in the real sense of the terms; it is something outside the range even of the second isaiah. judaism was never quite sure whether to join the ranks of the '_laudatores temporis acti_,' or to believe that man never is but always to be blest. on the one hand, the person of adam was endowed with perfections such as none of his successors matched. on the other hand, the golden age of judaism, as kenan said, was thrown forward into the future. that on the whole judaism has taken the prospective rather than the retrospective view, is the sole justification for the modern conception of the messianic age which is fast becoming predominant in the synagogue. the synagogue does not share the roman poet's sentiment: 'a race of men baser than their sires gave birth to us, a progeny more vile, who dower the world with offspring viler still'; but the english poet's trust: 'yet i doubt not through the ages one increasing purpose runs, and the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns.' denouncing the 'calculators of the end,' a rabbi said (sanh. b): 'all the computed terms have passed, and the matter dependeth now on repentance and good deeds' (cf. s. singer, the messianic idea in judaism, pp. and ) if, however, israel is not destined to a restoration, if the jewish mission is the propagation of an idea, on what ground is the continued existence of israel as a separate organisation defensible or justified? israel is indestructible, said jehuda halevi in the twelfth century; certainly israel is undestroyed. when frederick the great asked what should make him believe in god, he received in answer, 'the survival of the jews.' dr. guttmann of breslau not long since put forward a similar plea in vindication of the continued significance of judaism. in nature all forms die when their utility is over; in history, peoples succumb when their work in and for the world is complete. shall, he asks, we recognise judaism as the solitary exception, as the unique instance of the survival of the unfit and the unnecessary? the modern apologists for all religions rarely belong to the rank and file. whether it be harnack for christianity or mr. montefiore for judaism, the vindicators stand far above the average of the believers whose faith they are vindicating. the average man needs no defence for a religion which enables him to live and thrive, materially and spiritually. the importance of this consideration is very great. restricting our attention to judaism, it is clear that it still offers ideals to many, prescribes and enforces a moral law, teaches a satisfying doctrine of god. if so, then it is futile to discuss whether judaism is still necessary. can the world afford to surrender a single one of its forces for good? if there are ten millions of men, women, and children who live, and live not ignobly, by judaism, can it be contended that judaism is obsolete? the first, the main justification of judaism is its continued efficiency, its proved power still to control and inspire many millions of human lives. there are more people living as jews to-day, than there were at any previous moment in the world's history. but, like many answers to questions, this reply does not satisfy those who raise the question. i refer exclusively to the doubters among the jews themselves, for if jews were themselves convinced of the justification of the jewish separateness, the rest of the world would be convinced. now, the jews who ask this question are those who are not so completely given over to judaism, that they are blind to the claims of other religions. to them the question is one not of absolute, but of comparative truth. judaism may still be a power, but it may not be a desirable power. the further question therefore arises as to the mission of israel in history to come as well as in history past. history seems contradicted by the claim made by judaism. jews are quick enough to see the weakness of the pretension made by certain sects of dogmatic christianity that it is the last word of religion, that all saving truth was once for all revealed some nineteen centuries ago. history, says the jewish controversialist, teaches no such lessons of finality. forces appear, work their destined course, and then make way for other forces. the world does not stand still; it moves on. then how can judaism claim for itself a permanence, a finality, which it must deny to every other system, to every other influence which has in its turn moulded human destiny? a favourite answer is: judaism is the exception that proves the rule. it _has_ been a permanent force in the world's history. it is argued that jewish ideals have exercised recurrent influence at all important crises. dr. guttmann somewhat rhetorically makes this identical claim. he points to the birth of christianity, the rise of islam, the mediaeval scholasticism, the italian renaissance, the german reformation, the english and american puritanism, the modern humanitarian movement, as exemplifications of the continued power of judaism to mould the minds and souls of men. there is a sense in which this claim is just. it is a valuable support to the jew's allegiance to judaism. but even if dr. guttmann's claim were granted, and it is considerably exaggerated, how does it help? we are all agreed as to the debt which the world owes to greece. that debt is a great one. is it obsolete? surely not. greece has again and again revived its ancient power to inspire men. the world would be a poor one to-day without all that greek culture stands for. greece did not give men enough to live by; hebraism did that. but greece made life more worth living. hellenism is an ever-recurrent force in human civilisation. yet no one argues that because hellenism is still necessary, hellenes are also necessary. who contends that for carrying on greek culture you need greeks? on the contrary, it was the case of greece that gave rise to the profound observation that just as a man must die to live, so peoples must die that men may live through them. renan, who, among the moderns, gave fullest value to this truth, included judaea with greece in the generalisation. certainly as a nation, whether temporarily or irrevocably, judaea perished no less than athens, that a new world might be born. and a new jewish nation would no more be the old judaea of isaiah than the athens of to-day is the athens of pericles, or the rome of to-day the rome of augustus. history does not retrace its steps. athens fell, and with it the athenians. why then, when judaea fell, did the jews remain? greek culture does not need greeks to carry it on; why does jewish culture need jews? the first suggestion to be offered is this:--israel is the protestant people. every religious or moral innovator has also been a protestant. socrates, jesus, luther; isaiah, maimonides, spinoza; all of them, besides their contributions--very unequal contributions--to the positive store of truth, assumed also the negative attitude of protesters. they refused to go with the multitude, to acquiesce in current conventions. they were all unpopular and even anti-popular. the jews as a community have fulfilled, and are fulfilling, this protestant function. they have been and are unpopular just because of their protestant function. they refuse to go with the multitude; they refuse to acquiesce. geiger used this argument very forcibly, from the spiritual point of view, in the early part of the nineteenth century, and anatole leroy-beaulieu (in his book _israel among the nations_) even more forcibly used it at the end of the same century, from the historical point of view. this ingenious french observer cites a suspicion that 'the sons of jacob, as compared with the rest of the human race, represent a higher state of evolution' (p. ). no modern jew would make so preposterous a claim. but when the same writer sees in the jew a _different_ stage of evolution, then he is on the right tack. here is a passage which deserves to be quoted again and again: 'i have little taste, i confess, for uniformity; i leave that to the jacobins. my ideal of a nation is not a monolith, nor a bronze formed at a single casting. it is better that a people should be composed of diverse elements and of many races. if the jew differs from us, so much the better; he is the more likely to bring a little variety into the flat monotony of our modern civilisation' (p. ). and the same argument applies to religions. there is a permanent value to the world in israel's determined, protestant attitude. the handful of protestants who, in elijah's day, refused to bow to baal and to kiss him, were the real saviours of their generation. and though the world to-day is in no need of such salvation, still the jew remains the finest exemplification of the truth that god fulfils himself in many ways, lest one good custom should corrupt the world. then again, judaism seems destined to survive because it represents at once the god-idea and the ethical idea. the liberal jew, as well as the orthodox, believes that no other religion does this in the same way as does judaism. putting it crudely, the jew would perhaps admit that christianity has absorbed, developed, enlarged and purified the hebrew ethics, but he would, rightly or wrongly, think that it has obscured by dogmatic accretions the jewish monotheism. on the other hand, the jew would admit that islam has absorbed and purified the jewish monotheism, but has done less of the flattery of imitation to the hebrew ethics. islam has certainly a pure creed; it freed itself from the entanglements of anthropomorphic metaphors and conceptions of god, which are apparent in the early strata of the hebrew bible, and from which judaism, because of its reverence for the bible, has not emancipated itself yet. but that it can emancipate itself is becoming progressively more clear. and even if we drop comparisons, judaism stands for a life in which goodness and god are the paramount interests. but, beyond all, the jew believes himself to be a witness to god. he thinks that on him, in some real sense, depends the fulfilment of the purposes of god. it may be an arrogant thought, but unlike most boasts it at once humiliates and ennobles, humiliates by the consciousness of what is, ennobles by the vision of what might be. after enumerating certain ethical and religious ideas which, he holds, judaism still has to teach the world, the rev. m. joseph adds: 'but to the jew himself, first of all, these truths are uttered. he is to help to win the world for the highest ideals. but if he is to succeed, he must himself be conspicuously faithful to them. he is the chosen, but his very election binds him to vigorous service of truth and righteousness. "be ye clean, ye that bear the vessels of the lord." only when israel proves by the nobility of his life that he deserves his holy vocation will the accomplishment of his mission be at hand. when all the peoples of the earth shall see that he is worthily called by the name of the lord, the divine name and law will be near to the attainment of their destined empire over the hearts of men' (_judaism as creed and life_, p. ). a community that believes itself to fill this place in the divine purpose deserves to live. its separate existence is a means, not an end; for when all has been said, the one god carries with it the idea of one humanity. the fatherhood of god implies the brotherhood of man. and so, amid all its trust that the long travail of centuries cannot fulfil itself in israel's annihilation, amid all its particularism, there soars aloft the belief in the day when there will be no religions, but only religion, when israel will come together with other communions, or they with israel. and so, thrice daily, in most synagogues of israel, this prayer is uttered: 'we therefore hope in thee, o lord our god, that we may speedily behold the glory of thy might, when thou wilt remove the abominations from the earth, and the idols will be utterly cut off; when the world will be perfected under the kingdom of the almighty, and all the children of flesh will call upon thy name, when thou wilt turn unto thee all the wicked of the earth. let all the inhabitants of the world perceive and know that unto thee every knee must bow, every tongue must swear. before thee, o lord our god, let them bow and fall; and unto thy glorious name let them give honour. let them all accept the yoke of thy kingdom, and do thou reign over them speedily, and for ever and ever. for the kingdom is thine, and to all eternity thou wilt reign in glory; as it is written in thy law, the lord shall reign for ever and ever. and it is said, and the lord shall be king over all the earth; in that day shall the lord be one, and his name one.' modern judaism, in short, claims no finality but what is expressed in that hope. it holds itself ready to develop, to modify, to absorb, to assimilate, except in so far as such processes seem inconsistent with this hope. modern jews think that in some respects the rabbinic judaism was an advance on the biblical; they think further that their own modern judaism is an advance on the rabbinic. judaism, as they conceive it, is the one religion, with a great history behind it, that does not claim the religious doctrines of some particular moment in its history to be the last word on religion. it thinks that the last word is yet to be spoken, and is inspired with the confidence that its own continuance will make that last word fuller and truer when it comes, if it ever does come. selected list of books on judaism [this list does not include works on the early religion of israel, or articles in the standard dictionaries of the bible. for the rest, only works written in english are cited, and for the most part jewish expositions of judaism.] articles in the _jewish encyclopedia_ (new york and london, funk and wagnalls, vols. - ). especially the following: 'articles of faith' (e. g. hirsch); 'atonement' (k. kohler); 'cabala' (l. ginzberg); 'catechisms' (e. schreiber); 'conferences' (d. philipson); 'ethics' (k. kohler, i. broyde and e. g. hirsch); 'eschatology' (k. kohler); 'god' (e. g. hirsch); 'hassidim' (s. m. dubnow); 'immortality' (k. kohler); 'judaism' (k. kohler); 'law, codification of' (l. ginzberg); 'messiah' (m. buttenwieser); 'nomism' (j. z. lauterbach and k. kohler); 'pharisees' (k. kohler); 'keform judaism' (e. g. hirsch and d. philipson); 'resurrection' (k. kohler); 'sabbath' (e. g. hirsch and j. h. greenstone); 'theology' (j. z. lauterbach). m. friedlander.--_the jewish religion_ (kegan paul, ). j. h. greenstone.--_the messiah idea in jewish history_ (philadelphia, jewish publication society of america, ). m. joseph.--_judaism as creed and life_ (london, macmillan, ). n. s. joseph.--_religion, natural and revealed_ (london, macmillan, ). m. lazarus.--_the ethics of judaism_ (london, macmillan; vols., - ) c. g. montefiore.--_hibbert lectures_ (london, williams and norgate, , especially _lectures_ vii.-ix.). ------_liberal judaism_ (london, macmillan, ). s. schechter.--_studies in judaism_ (london, a. and c. black, ). e. schurer.--_a history of the jewish people in the time of christ_ (edinburgh, t. and t. clark, ). s. singer.--_authorised daily prayer book_ (london, eyre and spottiswoode; many editions). the historical bible the makers and teachers of judaism from the fall of jerusalem to the death of herod the great by charles foster kent, ph.d. woolsey professor of biblical literature in yale university with maps and charts preface the period represented by this volume is in many ways the most complex and confusing in israel's history. the record is not that of the life of a nation but of the scattered remnants of a race. it was inevitable that under the influence of their varied environment, the survivors of the jewish race should develop very different beliefs and characteristics. the result is that many different currents of thought and shades of belief are reflected in the literature of this period; some of it is dross, but much of it is purest gold. while the period following the destruction of jerusalem was a reflective and a retrospective age in which the teaching of the earlier priests and prophets gained wide acceptance, it was also a creative era. fully half of the literature of the old testament and all of the important writings of the apocrypha come from these tragic five centuries. although the historical records are by no means complete, the great crises in israel's life are illuminated by such remarkable historical writings as the memoirs of nehemiah, the first book of maccabees, and the detailed histories of josephus. the majority of the writings, however, reveal above all the soul of the race. out of its anguish and suffering came the immortal poems found in isaiah - , the book of job, and the psalter. instead of the distinctly nationalistic point of view, which characterizes practically all of the writings of the pre-exilic period, the interest becomes individual and the outlook universal. during these centuries israel's prophets, priests, and sages became not merely teachers of the nation but of humanity. conspicuous among the great teachers of his day stands the noble sage, jesus the son of sirach, who gleaned out and presented in effective form that which was most vital in the earlier teaching of his race. in his broad, simple faith in god and man, in his emphasis on deeds and character, as well as ceremonial, and in his practical philosophy of life he was a worthy forerunner of the great teacher whose name he bore. this period represents the culmination and fruition of the divine influences at work in israel's early history. it was during this period that judaism was born and attained its full development, israel accepted the absolute rule of the written law, and the scribes succeeded the earlier prophets and sages. out of the heat and conflict of the maccabean struggle the parties of the pharisees and sadducees sprang into existence and won their commanding place in the life of judaism. hence this period is the natural historical introduction to the study of the birth and early development of christianity. it is also the link that binds the revelation found in the old testament to that of the new. the volume of literature coming from this period is so vast that it has been necessary to abridge it at many points in order to utilize that which is most valuable. this has been done by leaving out those passages which are of secondary origin or value, and by preserving at the same time the language and logical thought of the original writers. in the verbose and voluminous writings of josephus the resulting text is in most cases far clearer and more useful; for the repetitious clauses found in the original often obscure the real thought of the writer. no apology or explanation is required for the use of such apocryphal writings as i maccabees, ben sira, the wisdom of solomon, or josephus's histories, for these are required to bridge the two centuries which intervene between the latest writings of the old testament and the earliest writings of the new. they make it possible to study biblical history as an unbroken unit from the days of moses to the close of the first christian century, and thus concretely to emphasize the significant but often the forgotten fact that god was revealing himself unceasingly through the life of his people, and that the bible which records that revelation consists not of two disconnected parts but is one book. to two of my former students, the reverend harold b. hunting and ralph h. pierce, i am under obligation for valuable aid and suggestions in preparing this volume for press. c.f.k. yale university, _october_, . contents the exile and revival of the judean community section xci. the jews in palestine and egypt lam. : - , : - , jer. : - , : - , . i. the significance of the destruction of the hebrew state.--ii. the book of lamentations.--iii. authorship and date of the book.--iv. its real character.--numbers and fortunes of the jews who remained in palestine.-- vi. fortunes of the jews in egypt.--vii. the jewish colony at elephantine. --viii. the temple of jahu at elephantine. section xcii. ezekiel's message to his scattered countrymen. ezek. , : , , , , , , b, - , : - a, : - , : - , , , : - . i. the home of the exiles in babylon.--ii. their new conditions and occupations.--iii. their religious life. iv. the prophecies of ezekiel.-- v. the resurrection of the dead nation.--vi. the divine shepherd.-- vii. ezekiel's plan of the restored temple. section xciii. the closing years of the babylonian rule ii kings : - , isa. : - , : - , : - , , , b, - , ezra : - , : , , : - , i esdr. : - , ezra : - , b. i. the transformation of the jews into a literary people.--ii. the literary activity of the babylonian period.--iii. the holiness code.-- iv. the liberation of jehoiachin and the hopes of the jews.--v. the rule of nabonidus.--vii. rise and conquests of cyrus.--vii. his capture of babylon.--viii. his treatment of conquered peoples. section xciv. the rebuilding of the temple hag. , , ezra : - : . i. the books of ezra and nehemiah.--ii. the chronicler's conception of the restoration.--iii. convulsions in the persian empire.--iv. haggai's effective addresses.--v. the attempt to stop the rebuilding of the temple.--vi. the significance of the restoration of the temple. section xcv. zechariah's visions and encouraging addresses zech. : - : a, - , b- , : - , , : - . i. zechariah's ancestry and point of view.--ii. the book of zechariah. --iii. problems and hopes of the judean community.--iv. zechariah's assurances of jehovah's care.--v. preparations for the crowning of zerubbabel.--vi. disappointment of these patriotic hopes.--vii. zechariah's later exhortations and predictions. section xcvi. israel's training and destiny isa. : - , , , : - , - , : - , - , - , : - . i. the seventy years following the rebuilding of the temple.-- ii. spiritual forces in judaism.--iii. evidences that isaiah - were written in palestine.--iv. their probable date.--v. their literary characteristics.--vi. their theme and purpose.--vii. reasons why jehovah will restore his people. section xcvii. conditions and problems within the judean community mal. : - , , , : - , ps. : - . i. date of the book of malachi.--ii. neglect of the temple service.-- iii. the need of a great moral awakening.--iv. the lot of the faithful.-- v. the problem of suffering in the literature of the period. section xcviii. the problem and teachings of the book of job job , : , , - , , , - , , , : - , - , : - , , , : - b, , , - , : - , - , , , : - , : - , - , , - , : - , - , : , - , - , : - , : - , - , : - , - , , , : - , : - , - a, - , : , - , : , - , - , : - , : , - , : - , , , , : - , : - , : , : , , , - , : - , : - , : - , - , : , , , : - , - , - , : , , , . i. the structure of the book of job.--ii. dates of the different parts.-- iii. the prose story.--iv. the poem of job.--v. progress in job's thought.--vi. significance of the speeches of job. section xcix. the training and mission of the true servant of jehovah isa. : - , : - , : - , . i. the different portraits of jehovah's servant.--ii. the prophet's purpose.--iii. the character and condition of those to whom the prophet appealed.--iv. the task and training of jehovah's servant.--v. methods of jehovah's servant.--vi. realization of the ideal of service. section c. nehemiah's work in rebuilding the walls of jerusalem neh. - , , : - a, : , , - . i. nehemiah's memoirs.--ii. nehemiah's response to the call to service.-- iii. obstacles that confronted him.--iv. his plan of work.--v. the restored walls.--vi. completion and dedication of the walls. section ci. nehemiah's social and religious reforms isa. , : - , neh. , : - . i. cruelty and hypocrisy of the jewish leaders.--ii. nehemiah's method of correcting the social evils in the community.--iii. the historical value of nehemiah .--iv. regulations regarding the temple service.-- v. provisions regarding sabbath observance and foreign marriages.-- vi. significance of nehemiah's work. section cii. traditional account of the adoption of the priestly law ezra : , - , neh. : b- : a, , , - , : - , - . - , : - b i. the ezra tradition.--ii. the historical value of the ezra tradition.-- iii. the facts underlying it.--iv. origin and aims of the priestly laws.--v. their important regulations.--vi. their practical effects. section ciii. the jewish state during the last century of persian rule ps. : - , joel : - , jos. ant. xi, - : . i. prosperity of the judean community.--ii. the growth of the psalter.-- iii. the prophecy of joel.--iv. hopes of the jews.--v. rule of the high priests.--vi. the date of the samaritan schism.--vii. its nature and consequences. the greek and maccabean age section civ. the jews under their greek rulers i mac. : - , jos. ant. xi, : a, e, xii, : b-d, g-j, : a, d, e, : d-f, a-f, b, a-c, a-c. e, a, : a, b, c-e. i. josephus's histories.--ii. alexander's conquests.--iii. the jews in egypt and alexandria.--iv. the rule of the ptolemies.--v. fortunes of the jews of palestine.--vi. conquest of palestine by the seleucids in b.c. section cv. the wise and their teachings prov. : - , : - , - , - , : , , : , : , : , : , - , : , : , : , : , : - , : - , : , : , : , : , : , : , : , : , : , : , : , , : , , : , . i. structure and authorship of the book of proverbs.--ii. date of the different collections.--iii. the wise in israel's early history.-- iv. their prominence in the greek period.--v. their aims.--vi. their methods.--vii. their important teachings. section cvi. the different currents of thought in judaism during the greek period ps. : - , , : - , jonah , : , , , , eccles. : - , : - , - . i. the ritualists.--ii. the legalists.--iii. the disciples of the prophets.--iv. the date and character of the book of jonah.--v. its teachings.--vi. the book of ecclesiastes.--vii. koheleth's philosophy of life. section cvii. the teachings of jesus the son of sirach b. sir. : - , : - , : - , : , , , - , - , : - , : , - , - , : , , - , - . i. date and character of jesus the son of sirach.--ii. his writings.-- iii. the history of the book.--iv. its picture of jewish life.--v. rise of the scribes.--vi. the teachings of ben sira. section cviii. the causes of the maccabean struggle i mac. : - , - . i. the character and contents of i maccabees.--ii. character and contents of ii maccabees.--iii. aggressive character of hellenic culture.-- iv. contrast between hellenism and judaism.--v. apostasy of the jews and perfidy of the high priests.--vi. character of antiochus epiphanes.-- vii. his policy toward the jews. section cix. the effect of persecution upon the jews i mac. , dan. : - , : - . i. the uprising led by mattathias.--ii. party of the hasideans or pious.-- iii. date of the visions in daniel - .--iv. their real character and aim.--v. the four heathen kingdoms and the kingdom of god. section cx. the victories that gave the jews religious liberty i mac. : - , - , . i. the character of judas.--ii. obstacles against which judas contended.-- iii. defeat of apollonius and seron.--iv. the battle of emmaus.--v. the battle at bethsura.--vi. restoration of the temple service.--vii. the new spirit in judaism. section cxi. the long contest for political independence i mac. : - , , , - , , : - , , : - , : - , - , - , : - . i. the political situation.--ii. the jewish attitude toward the heathen reflected in the book of esther.--iii. campaigns against the neighboring peoples.--iv. the battle of beth-zacharias.--v. victories over nicanor.-- vi. the death of judas.--vii. dissensions in the syrian court.-- viii. concessions to jonathan. section cxii. peace and prosperity under simon i mac. : - , - , : - , : - , - , , - , : - , - , - . i. capture and death of jonathan.--ii. character and policy of simon.-- iii. his conquests.--iv. his authority.--v. completion of the psalter.-- vi. the religious life reflected in the later psalms. section cxiii. the rule of john hyrcanus and aristobulus i mac. : - , jos. jew. war, i, : c- b, d, , , jos. ant. xiii, : d, e, jos. jew. war, i, : a, b, jos. ant. xiii, : , a, c, , : a-c, a, e. i. murder of simon.--ii. the syrian invasion.--iii. john's military policy and conquests.--iv. the break with the pharisees.--v. the reign of aristobulus. section cxiv the pharisees, sadducees, and essenes jos. ant. xviii, : , a-c, d, a, b, a, b, jos. jew. war, ii, : - , a-c, b, c, b, . i. influences that gave rise to the jewish parties.--ii. character and beliefs of the pharisees.--iii. of the sadducees.--iv. of the essenes. section cxv. the life and faith of the jews of the dispersion jos. ant. xii, : a, vii, : a, b, : d- e, xiii, : , wisd. of sol. : - , : - : , , : - , - , : - : , : , , : - : , : - . i. conditions of the jews in antioch and asia minor.--ii. in egypt.-- iii. the jewish temple at leontopolis.--iv. translation of the hebrew scriptures into greek.--v. apologetic jewish writings.--vi. the wisdom of solomon.--vii. its important teachings. section cxvi. the decline of the maccabean kingdom jos. jew. war, i, : - c, c, a, c, c, d, : - : . i. the character and policy of alexander janneus.--ii. the effects of his rule.--iii. alexandra's reign.--iv. quarrels between hyrcanus and aristobulus.--v. rome's intervention.--vi. cause of the fall of the jewish kingdom.--vii. political, intellectual, and religious effects of the maccabean struggle. the rule of rome section cxvii. the rise of the herodian house jos. jew. war, i, : , a, - , b, : , a- b, : , a, a, , a, b, : , , , : - , : a, jos. ant. xiv, : , jos. jew. war, i, : , c, : b, , , : , , : , : , , a, : , c, a. i. the fruitless struggle against rome.--ii. antipater's policy.-- iii. herod's early record.--iv. the parthian conquest.--v. herod made king of the jews. section cxviii. herod's policy and reign jos. jew. war, i, : , a, : , , b- a, : , - , a- a, a- a, , : - , : a, d, a-c, d- a, : a, : , a, b, : a, : c, : a, : a, : , , a. i. herod's character.--ii. his attitude toward rome. iii. his building activity.--iv. his attitude toward his subjects.--v. the tragedy of his domestic life.--vi. effects of his reign. section cxix. herod's temple jos. ant. xv, : a, c, a-l, a, g, a-g, h-k, . i. herod's motives.--ii. preparations for the rebuilding of the temple.-- iii. the approaches to the temple.--iv. the organization of the temple. section cxx. the messianic hopes and the religious beliefs of judaism sibyl. oracles, iii, : - , : - , enoch : - , : - , : - , : , . i. the growth of israel's messianic hopes.--ii. the kingly, nationalistic type of messianic hope.--iii. the apocalyptic, catastrophic type.--iv. the ethical and universalistic type.--v. the messianic hopes of judaism at the beginning of the christian era. appendix i. a practical biblical reference library appendix ii. general questions and subjects for special research. list of maps and charts jewish and contemporary chronology from to b.c. the empires of babylonia, persia, and alexander the jewish community in palestine during the persian and greek periods the jerusalem of nehemiah chronology of the maccabean and roman periods palestine during the maccabean period * * * * * the exile and the revival of the judean community section xci. the jews in palestine and egypt [sidenote: lam. : - ] how the lord hath beclouded in his anger the daughter of zion! he hath cast down from heaven to earth the beauty of israel, and he hath not kept in remembrance his footstool in the day of his anger. the lord hath swallowed up without mercy every habitation of jacob, he hath thrown down in his wrath the strongholds of the daughter of judah, he hath struck to the ground, he hath polluted her king and her princes. he hath cut off in the fierceness of his anger all of israel's strength, he hath drawn back his right hand from before the enemy, he hath burnt in jacob like a flame, which devours on all sides. he hath bent his bow as an enemy, he hath stood as an adversary, he hath slain all the desirable men in the tent of zion, he hath poured out his fury as fire [on the daughter of judah]. the lord hath become like an enemy, he hath swallowed up israel, he hath swallowed up all of his palaces, he hath destroyed his fortresses, and he hath multiplied in the daughter of judah sighing and lamentation. [sidenote: lam. : , ] he hath torn down as a vine his dwelling, he hath destroyed his assembling place, he hath caused to be forgotten in zion, fast day and sabbath, and hath spurned in his indignant anger, king and priest. the lord hath rejected his altar, he hath abhorred his sanctuary, he hath given up into the hands of the enemy the ark of the covenant, they have made a din in jehovah's house, as in the solemn feast day. [sidenote: lam. : - ] jehovah hath determined to destroy the wall of zion, he hath stretched out the line, he hath not held back his hand from destroying, he hath made rampart and wall lament, they mourn together, her gates have sunk into the ground, he hath destroyed her defences, her king and her princes are among the heathen, there is no law. her prophets also receive from jehovah no vision. silent, upon the earth sit the elders of zion; they cast dust upon their heads; they are girded with sackcloth; with heads bowed to earth are the daughters of jerusalem. [sidenote: lam. : - ] remember, o jehovah, what has befallen us, look and see our disgrace. our inheritance is turned over to aliens, our homes belong to foreigners. we are orphans and fatherless, our mothers are like widows. we drink our water for money, our wood comes to us by purchase. the yoke upon our necks harasses us, we are weary, but find no rest. we have given the hand to the egyptians, and to the assyrians, that we might be sated with food. our fathers sinned and are no more, while we bear their guilt. [sidenote: lam. : - ] slaves have dominion over us, with none to deliver from their hand. we get our bread at the peril of our lives, because of the sword of the wilderness. our skin becomes hot like an oven, because of the glowing heat of famine. they ravish the women in zion, the virgins in the cities of judah. princes are hanged up by the hand, the person of the elders is not honored. the young men bear up the mill, and the children stumble under the wood. [sidenote: lam. : - ] the elders have ceased from the gate, the young men from their music. the joy of our heart has ceased, our dance is turned into mourning. the crown has fallen from our head; woe to us! for we have sinned. for this reason our heart is faint, for these causes our eyes are dim; for the mountain of zion is desolate; the jackals walk over it. [sidenote: jer. : - ] the word of jehovah also came to jeremiah in tahpanhes, saying, take great stones in thy hand, and bury them in the loose foundation in the brick-covered place before pharaoh's palace door in tahpanhes in the sight of the men of judah; and say to them, 'thus saith, jehovah hosts, the god of israel, "behold, i will send and bring nebuchadrezzar the king of babylon, my servant, and will set his throne upon these stones that you have buried, and he shall spread his royal pavilion over them. and he shall come and shall smite the land of egypt; such as are for death shall be given to death, and such as are for captivity shall be given to captivity, and such as are for the sword shall be given to the sword. and he will kindle a fire in the houses of the gods of egypt, and will burn them and carry them away. and he shall wrap himself in the land of egypt, as a shepherd puts on his mantle, and shall go forth from there in peace. he shall also break the obelisks of heliopolis and the temples of the gods of egypt shall he burn with fire."' [sidenote: jer. : - ] the word that came to jeremiah concerning all the jews who dwelt in the land of egypt, who dwelt at migdol, tahpanhes, memphis, and in upper egypt, saying, thus saith jehovah of hosts, the god of israel, 'ye have seen all the evil that i have brought upon jerusalem and upon all the cities of judah; and behold, they are this day a desolation, and no man dwelleth in them, because of their wickedness which they have committed to provoke me to anger in that they went to offer sacrifices to other gods, that they knew not, neither they nor ye, nor your fathers. however, i constantly sent to them all my servants the prophets, saying, "oh, do not this abominable thing that i hate." but they neither hearkened nor inclined their ear to turn from their wickedness, to offer no sacrifice to other gods. and so my wrath and mine anger was poured forth and was kindled against the cities of judah and the streets of jerusalem, and they were wasted and desolate, as is now the case.' therefore now thus saith jehovah, the god of hosts, the god of israel, 'why do you commit a great crime against yourselves to cut off from you man and woman, infant and sucking child, out of the midst of judah so that ye leave none remaining, in that ye provoke me to anger with the work of your hands, offering sacrifice to other gods in the land of egypt, whither ye have gone to sojourn, that ye may be cut off, and that ye may be an object of cursing and a reproach among all the nations of the earth? have ye forgotten the crimes of your fathers, and the crimes of the kings of judah, and the crimes of their princes, which they committed in the land of judah and in the streets of jerusalem? they are not humbled even to this day, neither have they feared nor walked in my law nor in my statutes that i set before you and before your fathers.' [sidenote: jer. : - , ] 'therefore thus saith jehovah of hosts, the god of israel: "behold, i set my face against you for evil to cut off the remnant of judah in the land of egypt, and they shall fall by the sword and by famine; they shall die, small and great, and they shall be an object of execration, of astonishment, of cursing, and of reproach. for i will punish those who dwell in the land of egypt, as i have punished jerusalem, by the sword, by famine, and by pestilence, so that none of the remnant of judah, who have gone into the land of egypt to reside there, shall escape or be left to return to the land of judah, to which they have a desire to return; for none shall return except as fugitives. and they who escape the sword shall return from the land of egypt to the land of judah, few in number; and all the remnant of judah, who have gone into the land of egypt to sojourn there shall know whose word shall be confirmed, mine or theirs."' i. the significance of the destruction of the hebrew state. the destruction of jerusalem in b.c. resulted in a mighty transformation of the life and thought of israel. it marked the final overthrow of the old hebrew kingdoms, and the gradual rise of that new and important factor in human history known as judaism. for over three centuries the jews who survived the great catastrophe were helpless under the rule of the great world powers which in succession conquered southwestern asia. for the great majority of the jewish race it represented the beginning of that long exile which has continued until the present. scattered from the desert of sahara to the distant land of china, and from the black sea to the indian ocean, the different groups of exiles quickly began to adapt themselves to their changed surroundings and to absorb the new knowledge and the powerful influences which gradually transformed their beliefs and ideals. while their vision was vastly broadened by this contact, the danger and horror of being completely engulfed in the great heathen world bound the faithful more closely together, and in time made judaism the solid, unbreakable rock that has withstood the assaults and the disintegrating forces of the ages. at first the survivors of the great catastrophe were stunned by the blow that had shattered their nation. they lived only in their memories of the past and in their hopes for the future. at last, in the long period of misery and enforced meditation, they began not only to accept but also to apply the eternal principles proclaimed by their earlier prophets. thus amidst these entirely new conditions they gained a broader and deeper faith and were still further trained for the divine task of teaching mankind. ii. the book of lamentations. after describing the destruction of the little kingdom established at mizpah under gedaliah, the hebrew historical records suddenly become silent. this silence is due to the fact that there was little of external interest to record. the real history of this tragic half-century is the record of the anguish and doubts and hopes in the hearts of the scattered remnants of the race. the little book of lamentations expresses dramatically and pathetically the thoughts of the people as they meditated upon the series of calamities which gathered about the great catastrophe of b.c. like the ancient torah, or five books of the law, it contains a quintet of poems. these are very similar in theme and form to many of the psalms of the psalter. in the first four the characteristic five-beat measure, by which the deep emotions, especially that of sorrow, were expressed, is consistently employed. each of these four is also an acrostic, that is, each succeeding line or group of lines begins with a succeeding letter of the hebrew alphabet. this acrostic form was probably adopted in order to aid the memory, and suggests that from the first these poems were written to be used in public. even so the jews of jerusalem to-day chant them on each of their sabbaths beside the foundation walls of the great platform on which once stood their ruined temple. although the artificial character of these poems tends to check the free expression of thought and feeling, it is possible to trace in them a logical progress and to feel the influence of the strong emotions that inspired them. iii. authorship and date of the book. in theme and literary form these poems are so strikingly similar to jeremiah's later sermons that it was almost inevitable that tradition should attribute them to the great prophet of judah's decline. this tradition, to which is due the position of the book of lamentations in the greek and english bibles, cannot be traced earlier than the greek period. the evidence within the poems themselves strongly indicates that they were not written by jeremiah. it is almost inconceivable that he would subject his poetic genius to the rigid limitations of the acrostic structure. moreover, he would never have spoken of the weak zedekiah, whose vacillating policy he condemned, in the terms of high esteem which appear in lamentations : . these poems also reflect the popular interpretation of the great national calamity, rather than jeremiah's searching analysis of fundamental causes. a careful study of lamentations shows that chapters and were probably written by one who was powerfully influenced by ezekiel's thought. they both follow in their acrostic structure an unusual order of the hebrew alphabet, differing in this respect from chapters and . they have so many close points of contact with each other that it is safe to say that they are both from the same author. they reveal an intimate familiarity with events immediately following the destruction of jerusalem and were probably written between and b.c., when jehoiachin was liberated. chapters and follow the regular order of the hebrew alphabet and apparently represent the work of a later author or authors. chapter is full of pathos and religious feeling and is closely parallel in thought to such psalms as and . chapter is a poetic monologue describing the fate and voicing the contrition of the righteous within the judean community. chapter , on the contrary, is in the three-beat measure and lacks the acrostic structure of the preceding chapters. its style and point of view are so different from those of the preceding chapters that it must be the work of another author, who probably lived in the persian period. iv. its real character. the purpose of the book of lamentations was evidently, ( ) to give appropriate expression to the feelings of the jews who survived the destruction of jerusalem, b.c.; ( ) to drive home the great lessons taught by their past history, and thus to arouse true repentance; and ( ) to kindle in turn hopes regarding their future. through them jeremiah and ezekiel live and speak again, but from the point of view of the people. these tragic poems also throw contemporary light upon the horrors of the final siege and capture of jerusalem and upon the fate of those who survived. v. numbers and fortunes of the jews who remained in palestine. the jews actually carried into captivity constituted only a small part of the total population of judah (cf. section xc:ii). the peasants and the inhabitants of the towns outside jerusalem remained undisturbed, except as some of them were doubtless drafted into the army which under zedekiah undertook to defend jerusalem against the chaldeans. from the later record of nehemiah's work the names of many of these towns can be determined. in the north were jericho, geba, mizpah, anathoth, and kirjath-jearim; in the centre, netophah and bethlehem; and in the south tekoa, keilah, and bethzur. the lot of these, who are later known as the people of the land, was pitiable indeed. there are many references in lamentations and ezekiel to the persecutions to which they were subjected by their malignant foes, the moabites and ammonites on the east and the philistines on the west. even more cruel and aggressive were the edomites, who had suffered many wrongs at the hands of the hebrews. it was probably about this time that this half-nomadic people began to be driven northward by the advance of the nabateans, an arab people who came from the south. dislodged from their homes, the edomites took advantage of the weakness of the jews and seized southern judah, including the ancient capital hebron. the doom which ezekiel pronounces upon the edomites in [ ] is because of the revenge that they wreaked upon the jews at this time. it is significant that ezekiel's sermons in the period immediately following the fall of jerusalem contain dire predictions of divine vengeance upon all these foes. after the overthrow of gedaliah's kingdom, the jews who remained in palestine appear to have been left wholly without defences or defenders. ezekiel, in : - , speaks of those who inhabit the waste places in the land of israel, who live in the strongholds and the caves. some of them appear to have turned robbers. foreign settlers came in from every side and in time intermarried with the natives and led them into idolatry. ezekiel sternly condemns their immorality and apostasy. from the references in jeremiah : and ezra : it is clear that even during this reign of terror many of the people continued to offer sacrifices to jehovah at the great altar cut in native rock which stood before the ruins of their temple in jerusalem. priests were also doubtless found in the land to conduct these services. the ancient feasts, however, with their joyous merrymaking and the resulting sense of divine favor, were no longer observed. instead, the people celebrated in sackcloth and ashes the fasts commemorating the successive stages in the destruction of their city (zech. : - ). while their lot was pitiable and their character seemingly unpromising, these people of the land were important factors in the re-establishment of the judean community. vi. fortunes of the jews in egypt. the narrative in jeremiah states definitely that the large proportion of those who had rallied about gedaliah after his death found a temporary asylum on the eastern borders of egypt. here they were beyond the reach of chaldean armies and within the territory of the one nation which offered a friendly asylum to the jewish refugees. most of this later group of exiles settled at the towns of tahpanhes and migdol. the latter means tower and is probably to be identified with an eastern outpost, the chief station on the great highway which ran along the southeastern shore of the mediterranean directly to palestine and syria. the excavations of the egypt exploration fund at tahpanhes, which was the daphnae of herodotus, has thrown much light upon the home of this jewish community. the town was situated in a sandy desert to the south of a marshy lake. it lay midway between the cultivated delta on the west and what is now the suez canal on the east. past it ran the main highway to palestine. its founder, psamtik i, the great-grandfather of hophra, had built here a fort to guard the highway. herodotus states that he also stationed guards here, and that until late in the persian period it was defended by garrisons whose duty was to repel asiatic invasions (ii, ). here the ionian and carian mercenaries, who were at this time the chief defence of the egyptian king, were given permanent homes. by virtue of its mixed population and its geographical position, tahpanhes was a great meeting place of eastern and western civilization. here native egyptians, greek mercenaries, phoenician and babylonian traders, and jewish refugees met on common ground and lived side by side. it corresponded in these respects to the modern port said. probably in remembrance of the jewish colony that once lived here, the ruins of the fort still bear an arab name which means the palace of the jew's daughter. the term palace is not altogether inappropriate, for apparently the fort was occasionally used as a royal residence. many wine-jars, bearing the seals of psamtik, hophra, and amasis, have been found in the ruins. in the northwestern part of these ruins has been uncovered a great open-air platform of brickwork, referred to in jeremiah : - . it was the place of common meeting found in connection with every egyptian palace or private home. when amasis, in b.c., came to the throne of egypt he withdrew the privileges granted by his predecessors to foreigners. the greek colonists were transferred to naukratis, and tahpanhes lost most of its former glory. about this time, if not before, the great majority of the jewish refugees, who had settled in these frontier towns, probably returned to palestine to find homes in its partially depopulated towns. ezekiel from distant babylon appears to have regarded the jews in egypt with considerable hope (ezek. : ). but jeremiah, who knew them better, was keenly alive to their faults. in their despair and rage many of them evidently rejected the teachings of the prophets and became devotees of the aramean goddess, the queen of heaven, mentioned in the recently discovered aramean inscription of zakar, king of hazrak (cf. section lxv:vii). jeremiah's closing words to them, therefore, are denunciations and predictions that they should suffer even in the land of egypt, at the hand of nebuchadrezzar, the same fate that had overtaken their fellow-countrymen at jerusalem. both jeremiah and ezekiel (ezek. ) predicted that nebuchadrezzar would invade and conquer egypt. in b.c. his army actually did appear on the borders of egypt; but how far he succeeded in conquering the land is unknown. the complete conquest of egypt certainly did not come until the persian period under the leadership of the cruel cambyses. vii. the jewish colony at elephantine. jeremiah and ezekiel also refer to the jewish colonists at memphis and at pathros, which is the biblical designation of upper egypt. many of the colonists who had settled there had doubtless fled before the conquests of jerusalem. the presence of a great number of jews in egypt at a later period indicates that even at this early date more exiles were probably to be found in egypt than in babylon. recent discoveries on the island of elephantine in the upper nile, opposite the modern assuan, have thrown new light upon the life of these jewish colonists. these records consist ( ) of a series of beautifully preserved legal documents written in aramaic on papyrus and definitely dated between the years and b.c. they include contracts between the jews residing on the island of elephantine regarding the transfer of property and other legal transactions. they contain many familiar jewish names, such as zadok, isaiah, hosea, nathan, ethan, zechariah, shallum, uriah, and shemaiah. they indicate that by the earlier part of the persian period a large and wealthy colony of jewish traders and bankers was established on this island. they appear to have lived in a community by themselves, but in the heart of the city, side by side with egyptians, persians, babylonians, phoenicians, and greeks, whose property in some cases joined their own. the jews had their own court which ranked equally with the persian and egyptian law courts. even native egyptians, who had cases against the jews, appeared before it. the names of arameans and arabs also appear in its lists of witnesses. from these contemporary documents it is clear that the jews of upper egypt enjoyed great privileges and entered freely into the life of the land. ordinarily they married members of their own race; but the marriage of a jewess with a foreigner is also reported. he appears, however, to have been a proselyte to judaism, another jewess married an egyptian and took oath by the egyptian goddess sati, suggesting that she had nominally at least adopted the religion of her husband. one hebrew also bears the suggestive name of hosea, the son of petikhnum (an egyptian name meaning _gift of the god khnum_). viii. the temple of yahu at elephantine. these aramaic legal documents also contain many references to yahu (the older form of yahweh or jehovah), the god worshipped by the jews, and to yahu's temple situated on king's street, one of the main thoroughfares of the city. these references have been signally confirmed by a most remarkable letter recently discovered by the germans at this site. it was written in november of the year b.c., by the members of the jewish colony at elephantine to bagohi (the bagoas of josephus), the persian governor of judah. it states, among other things, that "already in the days of the kings of egypt our fathers had built this temple in the fortress of elephantine. and when cambyses ( - b.c.) entered egypt he found this temple built, and, though the temple of the gods of egypt were all at that time overthrown, no one injured anything in this temple." it further states that recently (in the year b.c.), in the absence of the persian governor in egypt, the foreigners in elephantine had stirred up a certain minor official to instruct his son, who was commander of a neighboring fortress, to destroy the jewish temple. the aramaic letter was intended to be sent, together with rich gifts, to influence the powerful persian governor of judah, bagohi, to issue an order permitting the jews to rebuild their temple. from this letter we learn that the temple of the god yahu was built of hewn stone with pillars of stone in front, probably similar to those in the egyptian temples, and had seven great gates built of hewn stone and provided with doors and bronze hinges. its roof was wholly of cedar wood, probably brought from the distant lebanon, and its walls appear to have been ceiled or adorned with stucco, as were those of solomon's temple. it was also equipped with bowls of gold and silver and the other paraphernalia of sacrifice. here were regularly offered cereal-offerings, burnt-offerings, and frankincense. the petitioners also promised that, if the persian officials would grant their request, "we will also offer cereal-offerings and frankincense and burnt-offerings on the altar in your name, and we will pray to god in your name, we and our wives and all the jews who are here, if you do thus until the temple is built. and you shall have a portion before the god yahu, the god of heaven, from every one who offers to him burnt-offerings and sacrifices." historical students have long been familiar with the fact that late in the greek period the jews of egypt built a temple to jehovah at leontopolis, in the delta (cf. section cxv:iii); but these recent discoveries open an entirely new chapter in jewish history. they indicate that probably within a generation after the destruction of the jerusalem temple, in b.c., the jewish colonists in egypt built for themselves far up the nile, and possibly at other points in this land of their exile, a temple or temples to jehovah; that they remained loyal to god and the institutions of their race; and that in the midst of cosmopolitan egypt they preserved intact their racial unity. in the light of these discoveries it is also clear that because of their character and numbers and nearness to palestine the jews of egypt, even at this early period, were a far more important factor in the life and development of judaism than they have hitherto been considered. these discoveries also afford definite grounds for the hope that from this unexpected quarter much more valuable material will come to illumine this otherwise dark period of post-exilic jewish history. section xcii. ezekiel's message to his scattered countrymen [sidenote: ezek. : - ] the hand of jehovah was upon me, and he brought me by the spirit and set me down in the midst of the valley; and it was full of bones. and he caused me to pass by them round about; and, behold, there were very many on the surface of the valley; and, lo, they were very dry. and he said to me, son of man, can these bones live? and i answered, o lord jehovah, thou knowest. again he said to me, prophesy over these bones, and say to them, o ye dry bones, hear the word of jehovah. 'thus saith jehovah to these bones: "behold i am about to put breath into you, that ye may live. and i will put sinews on you, and will clothe you with flesh, and cover you with skin, and put breath in you, that ye may live; and know that i am jehovah."' [sidenote: ezek. : - ] so i prophesied as he commanded me: and as i prophesied, there was an earthquake; and the bones came together, bone to its bone. and i beheld, and, lo, there were sinews upon them, and flesh had clothed them, and skin covered them; but there was no breath in them. then he said to me, prophesy to the breath, prophesy, son of man, and say to the breath, 'thus saith jehovah: "come from the four winds, o breath, and breathe upon these slain, that they may live."' so i prophesied as he commanded me, and the breath came into them, and they lived, and stood upon their feet, an exceedingly great host. [sidenote: ezek. : - ] then he said to me, o man, these bones are the whole house of israel; behold, they say, 'our bones are dried up, and our hope is lost; we are completely ruined.' therefore prophesy, and say to them, 'thus saith jehovah: "behold, i will open your graves, and raise you from your graves, o my people; and i will bring you into the land of israel. and ye shall know that i am jehovah, when i have opened your graves, and raised you from your graves, o my people. and i will put my spirit in you, that ye may live, and i will restore you to your own land: that ye may know that i, jehovah, have spoken it and performed it," is the oracle of jehovah.' [sidenote: ezek. : - ] this word also came to me from jehovah: do thou, o man, take a stick, and write upon it, judah and the israelites associated with him: then take another stick, and write upon it, joseph, and all the house of israel associated with him. then join them together, so that they may become one stick in thy hand. and when the children of thy people shall say to thee, 'wilt thou not show us what this means?' say to them, 'thus saith jehovah: "behold, i am about to take the stick of joseph, which is in the hand of ephraim, and the tribes of israel associated with him; and i will unite them with the stick of judah, and make them one stick, and they shall be united in my hand."' and let the sticks on which thou writest be in thy hand before their eyes. and say to them, 'thus saith the lord jehovah: "behold, i am about to take the israelites from among the nations, whither they are gone, and gather them from all sides, and bring them into their own land: and i will make them one nation in the land, upon the mountains of israel; and there shall be one king over them all; and they shall be no longer two nations, neither shall they be divided into two kingdoms any longer; nor shall they defile themselves any more with their idols, nor with their detestable things, nor with any of their transgressions; but i will save them from all their apostasies wherein they have sinned, and will cleanse them; so shall they be my people, and i will be their god."' [sidenote: ezek. : - ] '"and my servant david shall be king over them; and they all shall have one shepherd: they shall also walk in mine ordinances, and observe my statutes, and do them. and they shall dwell in the land that i have given to my servant jacob, wherein their fathers dwelt; and they shall dwell therein, they and their sons, forever. and david my servant shall be their prince forever. moreover i will make a covenant of peace with them; it shall be an everlasting covenant with them; and i will establish them, and multiply them, and set my sanctuary in the midst of them forevermore. my dwelling place also shall be with them; and i will be their god, and they shall be my people. and the nations shall know that i am jehovah who sanctifieth israel, when my sanctuary shall be in the midst of them forevermore."' [sidenote: ezek. : - ] in the twenty-fifth year of our captivity, in the beginning of the year, in the tenth day of the month, in the fourteenth year after the city was taken, on that very day, the hand of jehovah was laid upon me, and he brought me in an inspired vision to the land of israel, and set me down upon a very high mountain, on which was a city-like building toward the south. thither he brought me, and there was a man whose appearance was like the appearance of bronze, with a flaxen line and a measuring reed in his hand; and he was standing in the gateway. and the man said to me, son of man, behold with thine eyes, and hear with thine ears, and give heed to all that i shall show thee; for, in order that thou shouldst be shown it wert thou brought hither; declare all that thou seest to the house of israel. [sidenote: ezek. : ] there was a wall encircling a temple, and in the man's hand a measuring reed six cubits long, each cubit being equal to about twenty-one inches. and he measured the thickness of the building one reed (about ten and one-half feet); and the height one reed. [sidenote: ezek. : - ] then he came to the east gateway and went up its steps and measured the threshold of the gate one reed wide. and each guard-room was one reed long, and one reed broad; and between the guard-rooms were spaces of five cubits; and the threshold of the gate at the vestibule of the gate on the inner side was one reed. then he measured the vestibule of the gate, eight cubits, and its jambs, two cubits; and the vestibule of the gate was on the inner side. and the guard-rooms of the east gate were three on each side; and all three were of the same dimensions; and the posts were on both sides. and he measured the breadth of the entrance to the gateway, ten cubits; and the width of the gate, thirteen cubits; and there was a sill one cubit wide, before the guard-rooms on each side; and the guard-rooms, six cubits on both sides. [sidenote: ezek. : , ] and he measured the gate from the outer wall of the one guard-room to the outer wall of the other, twenty-five cubits wide [about forty-four feet]; door opposite door. and from the front of the gateway at the entrance to the front of the inner vestibule of the gate were fifty cubits. [sidenote: ezek. : , ] then he brought me to the outer court, and there were chambers and a pavement made round about the court; thirty chambers were upon the pavement. and he measured its breadth from the front of the lower gate to the front of the inner court without, one hundred cubits on the east and on the north. [sidenote: ezek. : , b, b] and the north gateway of the outer court, he measured its length and breadth. and its measurements were the same as those of the east gateway. the dimensions of the gateway on the south were also the same as the others. [sidenote: ezek. : - ] he brought me outside the gate and into the inner court, and there were two chambers on the inner court, one by the north gate, facing the south, and the other by the south gate, facing the north. and he said to me, this chamber which faces the south is for the priests who have charge of the temple; and the chamber which faces the north is for the priests who have charge of the altar; they are the sons of zadok, those of the sons of levi who may be near to jehovah to serve him. and he measured the court, a hundred cubits wide, and a hundred cubits broad--a perfect square. the altar was in front of the temple. [sidenote: ezek. : , ] then he brought me into the hall of the temple and measured the jambs, six cubits on each side. and the breadth of the entrance was ten cubits; and the sides of the entrance were five cubits on each side; and he measured its length, forty cubits; and its width, twenty cubits. [sidenote: ezek. : , ] then he went into the inner room and measured the jambs of its entrance, two cubits; and the entrance, six cubits; and the side-walls of the entrance, seven cubits on each side. and he measured its length, twenty cubits, and its breadth, twenty cubits, before the hall of the temple. and he said to me, this is the most holy place. [sidenote: ezek. : - a] then he measured the thickness of the wall of the temple, six cubits; and the width of the side-chambers, four cubits, round about the temple on every side. and the side-chambers were in three stories, one above another, and thirty in each story; and there were abatements all around the walls of the temple that the side-chambers might be fastened to them and not to the walls of the temple. and the side-chambers became wider as they went up higher and higher, for the temple grew narrower higher up; and there was an ascent from the lowest story to the highest through the middle story. and i saw also that the temple had a raised platform round about. [sidenote: ezek. : - ] then he brought me to the east gate. and behold the glory of the god of israel came from the east; and his voice was like the sound of many waters; and the earth shone with his glory. and the vision which i saw was like that which i saw when he came to destroy the city; and the visions were like that which i saw by the river chebar; and i fell on my face. then the glory of jehovah came into the temple through the east gate. and the spirit took me up, and brought me into the inner court; and, behold, the glory of jehovah filled the temple. [sidenote: ezek. : - ] then i heard one speaking to me from the temple, as he stood by me. and he said to me, o man, this is the place of my throne, and the place for the soles of my feet, where i will dwell in the midst of the israelites forever. and the house of israel, they and their kings, shall no more defile my holy name with their idolatry and with the corpses of their kings by placing their thresholds by my threshold, and their door-posts by my door-post, with only a wall between me and them, thus defiling my holy name by the abominations which they have committed; therefore i have destroyed them in mine anger. now let them put away their idolatry, and the corpses of their kings far from me, that i may dwell in the midst of them forever. [sidenote: cor. ezek. : - ] therefore thus saith the lord jehovah, 'no foreigner, consecrated neither in heart nor flesh, of all the foreigners who are among the israelites, shall enter my sanctuary. but those levites who went far from me, when israel went astray, who went astray from me after their idols, shall bear their guilt. yet they shall be ministers in my sanctuary, having oversight at the gates of the temple, and ministering in the temple; they shall slay the burnt-offering and the sacrifice for the people, and they shall stand before them and minister to them. since they were wont to minister to them before their idols and were a stumbling block of iniquity to the house of israel; therefore i have taken a solemn oath against them,' is the oracle of the lord jehovah, 'and they shall bear their guilt. and they shall not approach me to act as priests to me, so as to come near any of my sacred things, or to those which are most sacred; but they shall bear their shame and the punishment for the abominations which they have committed; i will make them responsible for the care of the temple, for all its service, and for all that shall be done therein. [sidenote: cor. ezek. : - ] but the priests, the levites, the sons of zadok, who took charge of my sanctuary when the israelites went astray from me, shall come near to me to minister to me, and they shall stand before me to offer to me fat and blood,' is the oracle of the lord jehovah. 'they shall enter my sanctuary, and they shall approach near to my table to minister to me, and they shall keep my charge. [sidenote: cor. ezek. : - ] and they shall teach my people the difference between the sacred and the common, and instruct them how to discern between the clean and the unclean. and in a controversy they shall act as judges, judging it according to my ordinances. and they shall keep my laws and my statutes in all my appointed feasts; and they shall maintain the sanctity of my sabbaths.' [sidenote: cor. ezek. : - ] when ye allot the land as inheritance, ye shall offer as a special gift to jehovah, a sacred portion of the land, five thousand cubits long, and twenty thousand cubits wide; it shall be sacred throughout its entire extent. and out of this area shalt thou measure off a space twenty-five thousand cubits long and ten thousand cubits wide, and on it shall the most holy sanctuary stand. it is a holy portion of the land; it shall belong to the priests who are the ministers in the sanctuary, who draw near to minister to jehovah; and it shall be a place for their houses, and an open space for the sanctuary. out of this a square of five hundred cubits shall be for the sanctuary, with an open space fifty cubits wide around it. and a space twenty-five thousand cubits long and ten thousand wide shall belong to the levites, the ministers of the temple; it shall be their possession for cities in which to dwell. [sidenote: cor. ezek. : - ] and as the possession of the city, ye shall assign a space five thousand cubits wide, and twenty-five thousand long, beside the sacred reservation; it shall belong to the whole house of israel. and the prince shall have the space on both sides of the sacred reservation and the possession of the city, on the west and on the east, and of the same length as one of the portions of the tribes, from the west border to the east border of the land. it shall be his possession in israel; and the princes of israel shall no more oppress my people, but shall give the land to the house of israel according to their tribes. i. the home of the exiles in babylon. from the references in the contemporary writers it is possible to gain a reasonably definite idea regarding the environment of the jewish exiles in babylon. ezekiel describes the site as "a land of traffic, a city of merchants, a fruitful soil, and beside many waters," where the colony like a willow was transplanted [ : ]. the kabaru canal (the river chebar of ezekiel) ran southeast from babylon to nippur through a rich alluvial plain, intersected by numerous canals. beside it lived a dense agricultural population. on the tells or artificial mounds made by the ruins of earlier babylonian cities were built the peasant villages. ezekiel speaks of preaching to the jewish colony of tel-abib (storm-hill), and the lists of those who later returned to judah contain references to those who came from tel-melah (salt-hill) and tel-harsha (forest-hill). ii. their condition and occupations. it is probable that these mounds were not far from each other and that the adjacent fields were cultivated by the jewish colonists. thus they were enabled, under even more favorable conditions than in judah, to continue in their old occupations and to build houses and rear families as jeremiah had advised (jer. ; section lxxxvii: ). in babylonia, as at elephantine, so long as they paid the imperial tax and refrained from open violence they were probably allowed to rule themselves in accordance with their own laws. the elders of the different families directed the affairs of the community and acted as judges, except in the case of capital offences which were punished in the name of nebuchadrezzar (jer. ). thus for a long time the exiles constituted a little judah within the heart of the babylonian empire, maintaining their racial integrity even more completely than the jews resident in egypt. babylonia was the scene of an intense commercial activity. the opportunities and allurements of the far-reaching traffic which passed up and down the great rivers and across the neighboring deserts were eventually too strong for the jews to resist. hence in babylonia, as in egypt, they gradually abandoned their inherited agricultural habits and were transformed into a nation of traders. in the recently discovered records of the transactions of the famous babylonian banking house which flourished during the earlier part of the persian period, under the direction of succeeding generations of the murashu family, are found many familiar jewish names. these indicate that within a century after the fall of jerusalem many sons of the exiles had already won a prominent place in the commercial life of that great metropolis. iii. their religious life. with this transformation in their occupation came a great temptation to forget their race and to lose sight of its ideals. the temptation was all the greater because their capital city and temple were in ruins and the belief was widely held that jehovah had forsaken his land and people and retired to his "mount in the uttermost parts of the north" (isa. : ezek. : ). their actual experiences had proved so fundamentally different from their hopes that there was undoubtedly in the minds of many a dread doubt as to whether jehovah was able to fulfil his promises. false prophets were also present to mislead the people (jer. : - ezek. : - : - ). there is also no indication that the jews of babylon ever attempted to build a temple to jehovah in the land of their captivity. hence there were no ancient festivals and public and private sacrifices and impressive ceremonials to kindle their religious feelings and to keep alive their national faith. instead, the imposing religion of the babylonians, with its rich temples, its many festivals, its prosperous and powerful priesthood, and its elaborate ritual must have profoundly impressed them and led them to draw unfavorable comparisons between it and the simple services of their pre-exilic temple. nevertheless, in spite of these temptations, there were many who proved themselves loyal to jehovah. prayer and fasting and sabbath observance took the place of sacrificial rites. a strong emphasis is laid by ezekiel on the sabbath. [sidenote a: ezekiel : - ; ezekiel : ; ezekiel : ] from this time on it became one of the most important and characteristic institutions of judaism. under the influence of the new situation it lost much of its original, philanthropic, and social character and became instead a ceremonial institution. in faithfully observing it the exiles felt that even in captivity they were paying homage to their divine king. the more it took the place of the ancient feasts and sacrifices, the more they forgot that the sabbath was god's gift to toiling man rather than man's gift to god. from the babylonian exile, also, probably dates that custom of assembling on the sabbath to read the ancient scriptures which represents the genesis of the later synagogue and its service. iv. the prophecies of ezekiel. the priest-prophet ezekiel was the interpreter, pastor, and guide of the babylonian exiles. he met their problems and proposed the solutions which became the foundation principles of later judaism. his prophecies fall naturally into four distinct groups: ( ) chapters to , which recount his call and deal with the issues at stake in the different judean communities in the critical years between the first and second captivities. they represent the prophet's work between the years and b.c. ( ) chapters to , include seven oracles regarding ammon, moab, edom, philistia, tyre, and egypt, the nations which had taken part in the destruction of jerusalem or else, like egypt, had lured judah to its ruin. the complete destruction of these foes is predicted, and chapter concludes with a weird picture of their fate, condemned by jehovah to dwell in sheol, the abode of the shades. ( ) chapters to contain messages of comfort and promise to ezekiel's fellow-exiles in babylonia and in the distant lands of the dispersion. they are dated between the years and b.c. ( ) chapters to present ezekiel's plan for the restored temple and service and for the redistribution of the territory of canaan, and his belief that judah's fertility would be miraculously increased. this plan is definitely dated in the year b.c., two years before the prophet's death. v. the resurrection of the dead nation. ezekiel dealt with the problems of his fellow-exiles concretely and from a point of view which they could readily understand. he fully realized that if the faith of the people was to be saved in this crisis a definite hope, expressed in objective imagery, must be set before them. with the same inspired insight that had prompted jeremiah to purchase his family estate in the hour of jerusalem's downfall, ezekiel saw that jehovah would yet restore his people, if they would but respond to the demands of this crisis. his message was, therefore, one of hope and promise. in the memorable chapter in which he pictures a valley filled with dry bones, he aimed to inspire their faith by declaring that jehovah was not only able but would surely gather together the dismembered parts of the nation and impart to it new life and activity. the prophet was clearly speaking of national rather than of individual resurrection. like jeremiah, he anticipated that the tribes of the north and south would again be united, as in the days of david, and that over them a scion of the davidic house would rule as jehovah's representative. he also assured them that jehovah would come again to dwell in the midst of his purified and restored people. vi. the divine shepherd. in the thirty-fourth chapter ezekiel deals with the same theme under a different figure. first he traces the cause of the exile to the inefficiency and greed and oppression of the earlier shepherds, the rulers like jehoiakim, who had scattered rather than gathered and led the people intrusted to them. now jehovah himself, the great shepherd of the people, will arise and gather his flock, and lead them back to their home and give them a rich pasture. over them he will appoint a descendant of david, but this prince shall be shorn of his ancient kingly power. ezekiel also presents in his characteristic, symbolic form the promise that jehovah will now fulfil the popular hopes and destroy the wicked foes who have preyed upon his people, and thus vindicate his divine rulership of the world. in one passage judah's worst foes, the edomites, represent aggressive heathendom. again, in a still more impressive picture, suggested by an experience in his own childhood when the dread scythians swept down from the north, he portrays the advance of the mysterious foes from the distant north under the leadership of gog ( , ). when they are already in the land of palestine, the prophet declares, jehovah will terrify them with an earthquake, so that in panic they shall slay each other, as did the midianites in the days of gideon, until they shall all fall victims of jehovah's judgment. ezekiel thus revived in the changed conditions of the exile that popular conception of the day of jehovah which the earlier prophets had refused to countenance. it was the prophet's graphic way of declaring that jehovah would prepare the way for the return of his people, if they would but respond when the opportune moment should arrive. later judaism, however, and especially the apocalyptic writers, interpreted literally and developed still further this picture of jehovah's great judgment day until it became a prominent teaching of later jewish and christian thought. similarly ezekiel declared that the barren lands of judah would be miraculously transformed and rendered capable of supporting the great numbers of the exiles who should return. in this respect ezekiel became the father of the later priestly school to which belongs the author of the book of chronicles, in whose thought the events of israel's history came to pass, not through man's earnest effort and in accordance with the established laws of the universe, but through special divine interposition. it is difficult to determine whether ezekiel himself was simply endeavoring to state dramatically that jehovah would fully anticipate the needs of his people, or whether he did actually anticipate a series of prodigious miracles. vii. ezekiel's plan of the restored temple. ezekiel, being a true prophet, fully realized that the fundamental question regarding the future of his race was not whether they would be restored to their home but whether or not they would guard against the mistakes and sins of the past and live in accord with jehovah's just demands. the solution of this question which he proposes reveals his priestly training. with infinite pains and detail he develops the plan of a restored temple and ritual. the details were doubtless in part suggested by his remembrance of the temple at jerusalem and in part taken from the great temples of babylon. by means of this elaborate picture he declared his firm conviction that his race would surely be restored. his chief purpose, however, was to impress upon the minds of his people the transcendent holiness of jehovah and the necessity that he be worshipped by a holy people. the entire plan of the temple, of the ritual, and even of the allotment of the territory of canaan was intended to enforce this idea. his plan, if adopted, was calculated to deliver the people from the temptations and mistakes of the past. with this end in view jehovah's sacred abode was guarded with massive double walls and huge gateways. only the priests were allowed to enter the inner court, and a sharp distinction was made between the priests who were the descendants of zadok and the levites whose fathers had ministered at the many sanctuaries scattered throughout the land of israel. the territory immediately adjacent to the temple was assigned to the priests and levites, and its sanctity was further guarded on the east and west by the domains of the prince. his chief function was, not to rule, as had the selfish and inefficient tyrants who had preceded him, but to provide the animals and the material requisite for the temple service. the territory on the north and the south of the temple was assigned to the different tribes of israel. no political or social problems clouded the prophet's vision. the entire energies of priest, levite, prince, and people were to be devoted to the worship of the holy one, whose restored and glorified sanctuary stood in their midst. thus it was that ezekiel reversed the ideals of the pre-exilic hebrew state and presented that programme which with many modifications was adopted in principle at least by the post-exilic judean community. in place of the monarchy appeared the hierarchy; instead of the king the high priest became both the religious and the civil head of the nation. soon the davidic royal line disappeared entirely, and the interests of the people centred more and more about the temple and its ritual. although ezekiel's vision was not and could not be fully realized, except by a series of miracles, this devoted priest-prophet of the exile was in a large sense the father of judaism. section xciii. the closing years of the babylonian rule [sidenote: ii kings : - ] now it came to pass in the thirty-seventh year of the captivity of jehoiachin king of judah, in the twenty-seventh day of the twelfth month, evil-merodach king of babylon, in the year in which he became king, ( b.c.) lifted up jehoiachin king of judah from prison to a position of honor. and he spoke kindly to him and placed his seat above the seats of the kings who were with him in babylon, and changed his prison garments. and jehoiachin ate with him continually as long as he lived. and for his support a continual allowance was given him by the king, each day a portion, as long as he lived. [sidenote: isa. : - ] the people who have been walking in darkness see a great light, those who dwell in the land of deepest gloom, upon them a light shines. thou multipliest the exultation, thou makest great the rejoicing, they rejoice before thee as men rejoice at harvest time, as men are wont to exult when they divide spoil. [sidenote: isa. : , ] for the burdensome yoke and the crossbar on his shoulder, the rod of his taskmaster, thou breakest as in the day of midian. for every boot of the warrior with noisy tread, and every war-cloak drenched in the blood of the slain will be completely burned up as fuel for the flame. [sidenote: isa. : , ] for a child is born, to us a son is given, and dominion shall rest upon his shoulder; and his name will be wonderful counsellor, godlike hero, ever-watchful father, prince of peace. to the increase of his dominion and to the peace there shall be no end, on the throne of david and throughout his kingdom, to establish and uphold it by justice and righteousness henceforth and forever. the jealousy of jehovah will accomplish this. [sidenote: isa. : , ] a sprout shall spring from the stock of jesse, and a shoot from his roots shall bear fruit. the spirit of jehovah shall rest upon him. a spirit of wisdom and insight, a spirit of counsel and might, a spirit of knowledge and the fear of jehovah. [sidenote: isa. : - ] he will not judge according to what his eyes see, nor decide according to what his ears hear; but with righteousness will he judge the helpless, and with equity will he decide for the needy in the land. he will smite an oppressor with the rod of his mouth, and with the breath of his lips will he slay the guilty. righteousness will be the girdle about his loins, and faithfulness the band about his waist. [sidenote: isa. : - ] then the wolf will be the guest of the lamb, and the leopard will lie down with the kid; the calf and the young lion will graze together, and a little child shall be their leader. the cow and the bear shall become friends, their young ones shall lie down together, and the lion shall eat straw like the ox; the suckling will play about the hole of the asp, and the weaned child will stretch out his hand toward the viper's nest. [sidenote: isa. : , ] men shall not harm nor destroy in all my holy mountain; for the earth shall have been filled with knowledge of jehovah as the waters cover the sea. and it shall come to pass in that day, that the root of jesse who is to stand as a signal to the peoples-- to him shall the nations resort, and his resting-place shall be glorious. [sidenote: isa. : - ] upon a treeless mountain lift up a signal, raise a cry to them, wave the hand that they may enter the princely gates. i myself have given command to my consecrated ones, to execute my wrath, i have also summoned my heroes, my proudly exultant ones. hark, a tumult on the mountains, as of a mighty multitude! hark, an uproar of kingdoms, of gathered nations! it is jehovah of hosts mustering the martial hosts. [sidenote: isa. : - ] i will punish the earth for its wickedness, and the wicked for their iniquity, i will still the arrogance of the proud, and lay low the presumption of tyrants. behold, i stir up against them the medes, who consider not silver, and take no pleasure in gold, on children they will look with no pity, they have no compassion on the fruit of the womb, and babylon, the most beautiful of kingdoms, the proud glory of the chaldeans, shall be, as when god overthrew sodom and gomorrah. it shall be uninhabited forever, and tenantless age after age; no nomad shall pitch there his tent, nor shepherds let their flocks lie down there, but wild cats shall lie there, and their houses shall be full of jackals; ostriches shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there, howling beasts shall cry to each other in its castles, and wolves in its revelling halls; its time is near at hand, its day shall not be extended. [sidenote: ezra : - ] in the first year of cyrus the king, cyrus the king made a decree: concerning the house of god in jerusalem--this house shall be rebuilt, where they offer sacrifices and bring him offerings made by fire. its height shall be sixty cubits and its breadth sixty cubits, it shall be constructed with three layers of huge stones and one layer of timber. and let the expenses be paid out of the king's treasury. also let the gold and silver vessels of the house of god, which nebuchadrezzar took from the temple at jerusalem and brought to babylon, be restored and brought again to the temple which is at jerusalem, each to its place, and you shall put them in the house of god. [sidenote: ezra : , ] now the gold and silver vessels of the house of god which nebuchadrezzar took from the temple at jerusalem and brought to the temple in babylon, those cyrus the king took out of the temple in babylon, and they were delivered to one by the name of sheshbazzar, whom he had made governor. and he said to him, take these vessels; go, put them in the temple at jerusalem, and let the house of god be rebuilt in its place. [sidenote: ezra : , ; i esdr. : - ] then the heads of the fathers' houses of judah and benjamin, and the priests and the levites, even all whose spirit god had stirred to go up to build the temple of jehovah which is at jerusalem, arose. and all those who were about them supplied them with silver vessels, with gold, with goods, and with beasts, and with precious things, besides all that was voluntarily offered. these are the names or the men who went up, according to their tribes, by their genealogy. of the priests the sons of phinehas, the son of aaron: jeshua the son of jozadak, the son of seriah. and there rose up with him zerubbabel the son of shealtiel of the house of david, of the family of peres, of the tribe of judah; in the second year of cyrus king of persia in the first day of the month nisan. [sidenote: ezra : - , b] then jeshua the son of jozadak, and his kinsmen the priests, and zerubbabel the son of shealtiel and his kinsmen arose and built the altar of the god of israel, to offer burnt-offerings on it, as prescribed in the law of moses the man of god. and they set up the altar in its place; for fear, because of the peoples dwelling in the land, had come upon them, but they plucked up courage and offered burnt-offerings to jehovah, even burnt-offerings morning and evening. and they kept the feast of booths as it is prescribed, and offered the fixed number of daily burnt-offerings according to the direction for each day; but the foundation of the temple of jehovah was not yet laid. i. the transformation of the jews into a literary people. the destruction of jerusalem transformed the jewish peasants of palestine into a literary race. before the final destruction of jerusalem they had lived together in a small territory where communication was easy and the need of written records but slight. the exile separated friends and members of the same families, and scattered them broadcast throughout the then known world. the only means of communicating with each other in most cases was by writing, and this necessity inevitably developed the literary art. the exiles in babylonia and egypt were also in close contact with the two most active literary peoples of the ancient world. in countries where almost every public or private act was recorded in written form, and where the literature of the past was carefully preserved and widely transcribed, it was inevitable that the jews should be powerfully influenced by these examples. furthermore, the teachers of the race, prophets and priests alike, prevented by the destruction of the temple from employing their former oral and symbolic methods of instruction, resorted, as did the priest ezekiel, to the pen. thus the religious thought and devotion of the race began to find expression in its literature. the incentives to collect the earlier writings of the priests and prophets were also exceedingly strong, for the experiences and institutions of their past, together with their hopes for the future, were the two main forces that now held together the jewish race. fortunately, the more intelligent leaders realized, even before b.c., that the final catastrophe was practically certain, and therefore prepared for it in advance. the decade between the first and second captivities also gave them an opportunity to collect the more important writings of their earlier prophetic and priestly teachers, while the judean state was still intact and while these earlier writings could be readily consulted. ii. the literary activity of the babylonian period. the literary work of this period took three distinct forms: ( ) the collection, compilation, and editing of earlier historical writings. it was probably during this period that the narratives of judges, of samuel, and kings, which carried the history down into the exile itself, received their final revision. ( ) earlier writings were revised or supplemented so as to adapt them to the new and different conditions. thus the sermons of the pre-exilic prophets, as for example those of amos and isaiah, were then revised and supplemented at many points. these earlier prophets had predicted doom and destruction for their nation; but now that their predictions had been realized what was needed was a message of comfort and promise. the fulfilment of their earlier predictions had established their authority in the minds of the people. the purpose of the later editors was evidently to put in the mouth of these earlier prophets what they probably would have said had they been present to speak at the later day to their discouraged and disconsolate countrymen. studied in the light of these two fundamentally different points of view, the glaring inconsistencies which appear in the prophetic books are fully explained and the consistency of the earlier prophets vindicated. the third form of literary activity is represented by the writings of ezekiel. with the authority of a prophet, he dealt directly with the problem of his day, and the greater part of his book consists of the records of his prophetic addresses or of epistles which he sent to his scattered fellow-countrymen, even as jeremiah wrote from judah a letter to the distant exiles in babylon. his new constitution for the restored jewish state was also based on earlier customs and laws, but was adapted to the new needs of the changed situation. he was not the only one to undertake this task. other priests gathered earlier groups of oral laws and put in written form the customs and traditions of the pre-exilic temple. at the same time they modified these earlier customs so as to correct the evils which past experience had revealed. iii. the holiness code. the chief product of the literary activity of the earlier part of the exile is the collection of laws found in the seventeenth to the twenty-sixth chapters of leviticus. because of its strong emphasis on the holiness of jehovah and on the necessity that he be worshipped by a people both ceremonially and morally holy, it is now commonly designated as the holiness code. in theme, in point of view, in purpose, and in literary form it has many close points of contact with the writings of ezekiel. in its original unity it evidently came from the period and circle of thought in which the great priest-prophet lived. his sermons, however, suggest that he was acquainted with its main teachings. in distinguishing sharply between the jerusalem priests and the ministering levites, and in prohibiting the marriage of a priest with a widow, ezekiel shows that his work represented a slightly later stage in the development of israel's religious standards. the most probable date, therefore, for the holiness code is the decade between the first and second captivity ( - b.c.). like every ancient lawbook the holiness code contains many laws and regulations which evidently come from a much earlier period in israel's history. some of its enactments are very similar to those of the primitive codes of exodus - . in spirit it is closely related to the book of deuteronomy. it also reproduces many of the laws found in this earlier code. both codes represent the fruitage of the teaching of the pre-exilic prophets and priests. each contains ceremonial, civil, and moral laws; but the emphasis on the ritual is more pronounced in the holiness code. it consists of ten or eleven distinct groups of laws. in leviticus and are found certain short decalogues. they probably represent the united efforts of the judean prophets and priests during the assyrian period to inculcate the true principles of justice, service, and worship in the minds of the people. some of the laws in these earlier decalogues are the noblest examples of old testament legislation: duties to others [sidenote: kindness to the needy] i. thou shalt not wholly reap the corners of thy fields. ii. thou shalt not gather the gleanings of thy harvest. iii. thou shalt not glean thy vineyard. iv. thou shalt not gather the fallen fruit of thy vineyard. v. thou shalt leave them for the poor and the resident alien. [sidenote: honesty in business relations] vi. ye shall not steal. vii. ye shall do no injustice, in measures of length, weight or of quantity. viii. ye shall not deal falsely with one another. ix. ye shall not lie to one another. x. ye shall not swear falsely by my name. justice to all men [sidenote: toward dependents] i. thou shalt not oppress thy neighbor. ii. thou shalt not rob thy neighbor. iii. the wages of a hired servant shall not remain with thee all night until the morning. iv. thou shalt not curse the deaf. v. thou shalt not put a stumbling-block before the blind. [sidenote: toward equals] vi. thou shalt not do injustice in rendering a judicial decision. vii. thou shalt not show partiality to the poor. viii. thou shalt not have undue consideration for the powerful. ix. thou shalt not go about as a tale-bearer among thy people. x. thou shalt not seek the blood of thy neighbor [by bearing false testimony in court]. attitude toward others [sidenote: in the heart] i. thou shalt not hate thy fellow-countryman in thy heart. ii. thou shalt warn thy neighbor and not incur sin on his account. iii. thou shalt not take vengeance. iv. thou shalt not bear a grudge against the members of thy race. v. thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. iv. the liberation of jehoiachin and the hopes of the jews. the liberation of jehoiachin, the grandson of josiah, from the babylonian prison where he had been confined since the first capture of jerusalem was the one event in the babylonian period deemed worthy of record by the biblical historians. the occasion was the accession of nebuchadrezzar's son evil-merodach (babylonian, amil-marduk). the act possessed little political importance, for the jews were helpless in the hands of their babylonian masters; but it evidently aroused the hopes of the exiles, and especially that type of hope which centred in the house of david. ezekiel, in his ideal programme, assigned to the davidic prince only minor duties in connection with the temple, and transferred the chief authority to the high priest and his attendants. but it is evident that ezekiel did not fully voice the hopes of the majority of the exiles. the late passage in ii samuel : , which contains the promise to david: thy house and kingdom shall always stand firm before me, thy throne shall be established forever, expresses the prevailing belief in the days immediately preceding the exile. the national hopes which looked to the descendants of the house of david for fulfilment were inevitably modified, however, by the experiences of the exile and strengthened by the liberation of jehoiachin. the rule of such kings as manasseh and jehoiakim had revealed the overwhelming evils that unworthy rulers, even though of the house of david, could bring upon their subjects. josiah's reign, on the other hand, established new and higher standards. the noble ethical and social ideals of amos, hosea, and isaiah had not wholly failed to awaken a response. all of these varied influences are traceable in the two prophecies found in isaiah : - and : - . embodying as they do many of the social principles for which isaiah contended, it was natural that these anonymous writings should afterward be attributed to that great statesman-prophet. jehovah, however, was the one supreme king whom isaiah acknowledged; and it was difficult to find in his strenuous life a logical or historical setting for these kingly oracles. they also imply that the royal house of judah had been struck down, and that the new king is to rise out of a background of gloom and is to inaugurate an entirely new era. the character and rule of this king of popular hopes reflect many of the traits of david and josiah; but his aims and methods are in accord with the moral and social standards of the great pre-exilic prophets. they portray a temporal ruler; but the spirit which actuates him and the principles which guide him are noble and unselfish. as subsequent history clearly shows, the prophet or prophets who painted these portraits apparently hoped that a son or grandson of jehoiachin would realize them. it is exceedingly probable in the light of the later predictions of haggai and zechariah (sections xciv, xcv) that these prophecies were written not long after the birth of zerubbabel. the kingdom over which he was to rule and to which he was to bring perfect justice and peace was the prophetic counterpart of ezekiel's priestly plan of the restored and redeemed community. the ethical ideals thus concretely set forth were never fully realized in israel's troubled history; but they remain as valid and commanding to-day as they were far back in the babylonian period. the abolition of all the insignia of war, the high sense of official responsibility, the protection of the weak by the strong, and the reign of perfect peace and harmony throughout all the earth are the goals for which all earnest, consecrated souls in every age and race are striving. it is natural and proper that the christian church should see in jesus the fullest and truest realization of these ancient kingly ideals. v. the rule of nabonidus. the successors of nebuchadrezzar proved weak and inefficient. his dissolute son, amil-marduk, was soon murdered by his brother-in-law nergalsharuzur (gk. neriglissar). this ruler is probably the nergal-sharezer of jeremiah : who directed the final capture and destruction of jerusalem in b.c. after reigning four years he died, leaving the babylonian empire to his young son, who soon fell a victim to a conspiracy of his nobles. they placed on the throne a certain nabuna'id, who is known to the greek historians as nabonidus. he appeared to be more interested in excavating ancient ruins and in rebuilding old temples than in ruling his subjects. by his arbitrary religious policy and his neglect of the popular gods of the babylonians, he completely alienated the loyalty of his people. during the latter part of his reign, which extended from to b.c., he left the government largely in charge of his son belsharuzur, the belshazzar of the story in daniel. vi. rise and conquests of cyrus. while the babylonian empire was sinking into decay, the median kingdom on the north and east experienced a sweeping revolution. its cause was the discontent of the older median population under the rule of the more barbarous umman-manda. these later scythian conquerors had, under their king cyaxares, broken the power of assyria and fallen heir to its eastern territory. the older elements found a leader in cyrus, the king of anshan, a little state among the mountains of elam, northeast of babylonia. from contemporary inscriptions it appears that the followers of astyages, who succeeded cyaxares to the median throne, rebelled against their king and delivered him over into the hands of cyrus. as soon as cyrus became master of the median empire, he proved an able commander, a skilful politician, and a wise statesman. recognizing that he could hold in control the diverse and turbulent elements in his heterogeneous kingdom only as he kept them actively occupied, he at once entered upon a series of campaigns which in the end left him undisputed master of southwestern asia. in b.c., two years after he became king of media, he crossed the tigris and conquered mesopotamia, which had been held for a time by the babylonians, apparently he did not assume the title king of persia until . appreciating the great strength of babylon, he did not at first attempt its capture, but began at once by intrigue to pave the way for its ultimate overthrow. in he set out on a western campaign against croesus, the king of lydia, the ancient rival of media. after a quick and energetic campaign, sardis, the rich lydian capital, was captured, and cyrus was free to advance against the opulent greek colonies that lay along the eastern shores of the aegean. these in rapid succession fell into his hands, so that by b.c. he was in a position to advance with a large victorious army against the mistress of the lower euphrates. vii. his capture of babylon. the campaigns of cyrus were naturally watched with keen interest by the jewish exiles in babylonia. the songs in isaiah , , and : - , and jeremiah : - , voice their joyous expectation of babylon's impending humiliation. in a contemporary inscription cyrus has given a vivid account of the fall of the capital. early in october of the year b.c. he assembled a large army on the northern borders of babylonia. here a battle was fought in which the babylonians were completely defeated. the town of sippar quickly surrendered to cyrus's general, and two days later the persian army entered babylon. the record states that the gates of the mighty city were opened by its inhabitants, and cyrus and his followers were welcomed as deliverers. king nabonidus was captured and banished to the distant province of carmania, northeast of the persian gulf. in the words of cyrus: "peace he gave the town; peace he proclaimed to all the babylonians." in the eyes of the conquered, he figured as the champion of their gods, whose images he restored to the capital city. the temples as well as the walls of babylon were rebuilt, and the king publicly proclaimed himself a devoted worshipper of marduk and nebo, the chief gods of the babylonians. thus from the first the policy of cyrus in treating conquered peoples was fundamentally different from that of the babylonians and assyrians. they had sought to establish their power by crushing the conquered rather than by furthering their well-being; but cyrus, by his many acts of clemency, aimed to secure and hold their loyalty. viii. his treatment of conquered peoples. cyrus showed the same wisdom in his treatment of the many petty peoples who had been ground down under the harsh rule of babylon. in one of his inscriptions he declares: "the gods whose sanctuaries from of old had lain in ruins i brought back again to their dwelling-places and caused them to reside there forever. all of the citizens of these lands i assembled and i restored them to their homes" (cyrus cyl., , ). in the light of this statement it is clear that the jews, in common with other captive peoples, were given full permission to return to their homes and to rebuild their ruined temple. the decree of cyrus recorded in the aramaic document preserved in ezra : - is apparently the jewish version of the general decree which he issued. it is also possible that he aided the vassal peoples in rebuilding their sanctuaries; for such action was in perfect accord with his wise policy. he also intrusted the rulership of different kingdoms as far as possible to native princes. in the greek book of i esdras has been preserved a list (which has fallen out of the biblical book of ezra) of those who availed themselves of cyrus's permission to return to palestine. it includes simply the priest jeshua, or joshua, the lineal heir of the early jerusalem priestly line of zadok, and zerubbabel, a descendant of the judean royal family. they doubtless took with them their immediate followers and were probably accompanied by a few exiles whose loyalty impelled them to leave the attractive opportunities in babylon to face the dangers of the long journey and the greater perils in palestine. from jeremiah : and haggai : it appears that a rude altar had been built on the sacred rock at jerusalem and that religious services were held on the site of the ruined temple soon after its destruction in b.c. with the gifts brought back by zerubbabel and his followers, daily sacrifices were probably instituted on the restored altar under the direction of the priest joshua (cf. hag. : - ). in the light, however, of the oldest records it is clear that the revival of the judean community in palestine was gradual and at first far from glorious. the jews were a broken-hearted, poverty-stricken, persecuted people, still crushed by the great calamity that had overtaken their nation. the general return of the exiles was only a dream of the future, and, despite the general permission of cyrus, the temple at jerusalem still lay in ruins. section xciv. the rebuilding of the temple [sidenote: hag. : - ] in the second year of darius the king, in the first day of the sixth month, this word of jehovah came by haggai the prophet: speak to zerubbabel the son of shealtiel, governor of judah, and to joshua the son of jehozadak the high priest, saying, 'thus saith jehovah of hosts, "this people say: the time has not yet come to rebuild the temple of jehovah."' then this word of jehovah came by haggai the prophet: is it a time for you yourselves to dwell in your own ceiled houses, while this temple lies in ruins? now therefore, thus saith jehovah of hosts, 'consider your past experiences. ye sow much, but bring in little; ye eat, but ye do not have enough; ye drink, but ye are not filled; ye clothe yourselves, but not so as to be warm; and he who earneth wages, earneth wages in a bag with holes.' [sidenote: hag. : - ] thus saith jehovah of hosts, 'consider your experiences. go up to the mountains, and bring wood and rebuild the temple; then i will be pleased with it, and i will reveal my glory,' saith jehovah. 'ye looked for much, and it came to little; and when ye brought it home, i blew upon it. why?' saith jehovah of hosts. 'because of my temple that lieth in ruins, while ye are running each to his own house. therefore the heavens withhold the dew, and the earth withholdeth its fruit. and i have called forth a drought upon the land and upon the mountains, and upon the grain and the new wine and the oil and upon that which the ground bringeth forth, and upon men and animals, and upon all the labor of the hands.' [sidenote: hag. : - a] then zerubbabel the son of shealtiel and joshua the son of jehozadak the high priest, with all the rest of the people, obeyed the command of jehovah their god and the words of haggai the prophet, as jehovah their god had sent him to them. the people also feared before jehovah. and jehovah stirred up the spirit of zerubbabel the son of shealtiel, governor of judah, and the spirit of joshua the son of jehozadak the high priest, and the spirit of all the rest of the people, so that they came and worked on the temple of jehovah of hosts, their god, in the twenty-fourth day of the sixth month. [sidenote: hag. : b- : ] in the second year of darius the king, on the twenty-first day of the seventh month, this word from jehovah came by haggai the prophet: speak to zerubbabel son of shealtiel, governor of judah, and to joshua, the son of jehozadak, the high priest, and to all the remnant of the people, saying, 'who is left among you that saw this temple in its former glory? and how do you see it now? is it not in your eyes as nothing? yet now be strong, o zerubbabel,' is the oracle of jehovah; 'and be strong, o joshua, son of jehozadak, the high priest, and be strong, all ye people of the land,' is the oracle of jehovah, 'and work, for i am with you,' is the oracle of jehovah of hosts, 'and my spirit abideth in your midst; fear not.' [sidenote: hag. : - ] for thus saith jehovah of hosts: 'yet a little while, and i will shake the heavens, and the earth, and the sea, and the dry land. and i will shake all nations, and the precious things of all nations shall come; and i will fill this temple with glory,' saith jehovah of hosts. 'the silver is mine, and the gold is mine,' is the oracle of jehovah of hosts. 'the later glory of this temple shall be greater than the former,' saith jehovah of hosts; 'and in this place will i grant prosperity,' is the oracle of jehovah of hosts. [sidenote: hag. : - ] in the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month, in the second year of darius, this word of jehovah came by haggai the prophet: thus saith jehovah of hosts: 'ask of the priests a decision, saying, "if one bear holy flesh in the skirt of his garment, and with his skirt touch bread, or pottage, or wine, or oil, or any food, shall it become holy?"' and the priests answered and said, no. then said haggai, if one that is unclean by reason of a dead body touch any of these, shall it be unclean? and the priests answered and said, it shall be unclean. then answered haggai and said, so is this people and so is this nation before me, is the oracle of jehovah; and so is every work of their hands; and that which they offer there is unclean. [sidenote: hag. : - ] and now, i pray you, think back from this day, before a stone was laid upon a stone in the temple of jehovah; how were ye? when ye came to a heap of twenty measures, there were but ten; when ye came to the wine vat to draw out fifty vessels, there were but twenty. i smote with blasting and with mildew and with hail all the work of your hands; yet ye turned not to me, is the oracle of jehovah. think back from this day, think! is the seed yet in the granary, yea, the vine and the fig tree and the pomegranate and the olive tree have not brought forth; from this day will i bless you. [sidenote: hag. : - ] this word of jehovah came the second time to haggai in the twenty-fourth day of the month: speak to zerubbabel, governor of judah, and say: 'i will shake the heavens and the earth; and i will overthrow the throne of kingdoms; and i will destroy the strength of the kingdoms of the nations; and i will overthrow the chariots, and those who ride in them; and the horses and their riders shall come down, each by the sword of his brother. [sidenote: hag. : ] 'in that day,' is the oracle of jehovah of hosts, 'i will take thee, o zerubbabel, my servant, the son of shealtiel,' is jehovah's oracle, 'and will make thee as a seal-ring, for i have chosen thee,' is the oracle of jehovah of hosts. [sidenote: ezra : - ] at that time tattenai, the governor of the province beyond the river, and shethar-bozenai and their associates came to them, and spoke thus to them, who gave you permission to build this temple and to finish this wall? and who are the builders who are carrying this through? but the eye of their god was upon the elders of the jews, so that they did not make them cease, until a report should come to darius and a written decision concerning it be returned. [sidenote: ezra : - ] then darius the king made a decree, and search was made in the archives where the official documents from babylon had been deposited. and at ecbatana, the royal palace in the province of media, a roll was found, and in it was thus written: a record: in the first year of cyrus the king, cyrus the king made a decree: 'concerning the house of god at jerusalem, let the house be rebuilt, where they offer sacrifices and bring him offerings made by fire; its height shall be sixty cubits, and its breadth sixty cubits. it shall be constructed with three layers of huge stones and one layer of timber; and let the expenses be paid out of the king's treasury. also let the gold and silver vessels of the house of god, which nebuchadnezzar took from the temple at jerusalem and brought to babylon, be restored and brought to the temple which is at jerusalem, each to its place; and you shall put them in the house of god.' [sidenote: ezra : - ] now therefore, tattenai, governor of the province beyond the river, shethar-bozenai, and the rulers of the province beyond the river, go away from there; let the work of this house of god alone; let the elders of the jews rebuild this house of god in its place. moreover i make a decree in regard to what you shall do for these elders of the jews for the building of this house of god: that out of the king's wealth from the tribute of the province beyond the river the expenses be exactly paid to these men, and that without delay. and whatever is needed, both young bullocks and rams and lambs for burnt-offerings to the god of heaven, also wheat, salt, wine, and oil, according to the direction of the priests at jerusalem, let it be given to them day by day without fail, that they may regularly offer sacrifices of sweet savor to the god of heaven, and pray for the life of the king and of his sons. also i have made a decree, that whoever shall make this command invalid, a beam shall be pulled out from his house, and he shall be impaled upon it, and his house shall for this be made a refuse heap. and the god who hath caused his name to dwell there shall overthrow all kings and peoples who shall put forth their hand to make invalid the command or to destroy the house of god at jerusalem. exactly will it be executed. [sidenote: ezra : , ] then tattenai, the governor of the province beyond the river, and shethar-bozenai, and their associates did exactly as darius the king had given command. and the elders of the jews built and prospered. and they finished the building according to the command of the god of israel and according to the decree of cyrus and darius. i. the books of ezra and nehemiah. the books of ezra and nehemiah are the chief sources of information regarding jewish history during the persian period. they fall into nine general divisions: ( ) the return of the babylonian exiles and the revival of the judean community, ezra - ; ( ) the rebuilding of the temple, - ; ( ) ezra's expedition and the priestly reformation, - , and nehemiah - ; ( ) nehemiah's work in rebuilding the walls, nehemiah : - : ; ( ) census of the judean community, : - ; ( ) measures to secure the repopulation of jerusalem, ; ( ) genealogy of the priests and levites, : - ; ( ) dedication of the walls, : - ; and ( ) nehemiah's later reform measures, : - : . it is evident that ezra and nehemiah were originally one book, and that they come from the same author as i and ii chronicles. this important fact is demonstrated by the presence of the same marked characteristics of thought and literary style in both of these books. the closing verses of ii chronicles are also repeated verbatim at the beginning of ezra. throughout these books the interest is religious and ceremonial rather than civil and national. they constitute in reality a history of the jerusalem temple and its institutions. the whole may properly be designated as the "ecclesiastical history of jerusalem." it traces the history of jerusalem and the southern kingdom from the earliest times to the close of the persian period. its author, who is commonly known as the chronicler, evidently lived during the earlier part or middle of the greek period. certain characteristics of his literary style and point of view indicate that he wrote about b.c. his peculiarities and methods of writing are clearly revealed by a comparison of the older parallel history of samuel-kings with the books of chronicles. in general he lacks the historical spirit and perspective of the earlier prophetic historians. he also freely recasts his record of earlier events in order to bring it into accord with the traditions current in his own day. above all he aimed to establish the authority and prestige of the jerusalem temple, and to prove that jehovah "was not with israel" (ii chron. : ), which was represented in his day by the hated samaritans. the hatred engendered by the samaritan feud explains many of the peculiarities of the chronicler. he was, in fact, an apologist rather than a historian. thus post-exilic institutions, as, for example, the temple song service with its guilds of singers, are projected backward even to the days of david, and the events of early hebrew history are constantly glorified. the numbers found in the earlier, prophetic sources are magnified, and at every point it is easy to recognize the influence of the chronicler's familiarity with the splendor and magnificence of the great persian and greek empires, and of his desire to inspire his fellow-jews with national pride and with loyalty to their religious institutions. ii. the chronicler's conception of the restoration. fortunately the chronicler did not depend entirely upon traditions current in his day, or upon his own conceptions of the early history, but quoted freely from earlier sources. as a result a large portion of the prophetic history of samuel and kings is reproduced verbatim in i and ii chronicles. for the persian period, regarding which he is our chief authority, he apparently quoted from three or four documents. in ezra : - is found a brief description in aramaic of the opposition of judah's neighbors to the rebuilding of the walls, probably in the days of nehemiah. in ezra and there is another long quotation from an aramaic document that describes a similar attempt to put a stop to the rebuilding of the temple in the days of haggai and zechariah. the chronicler evidently believed that the second temple was rebuilt, not by the people of the land to whom haggai and zechariah spoke, but by jewish exiles who on the accession of cyrus had returned in great numbers from babylon. he assumed that judah had been depopulated during the babylonian exile, and that the only people left in palestine were the heathen and the hated samaritans. he also pictures the return of the exiles, not as that of a handful of courageous patriots, but of a vast company laden with rich gifts and guarded by persian soldiers. a careful examination of ezra , which purports to contain the list of the , exiles who returned immediately after b.c., quickly demonstrates that, like its duplicate in nehemiah : - , its historical basis, if it has any outside the fertile imagination of the chronicler, is a census of the judean community. this census was taken, not at the beginning, but rather at the end of the persian period. thus in the list of the leaders appear the names not only of joshua and zerubbabel, but also of nehemiah and ezra (azariah). certain leaders, such as mordecai and bigvai, bear persian names which clearly imply that they lived far down in the persian period. the family of the high priest joshua already numbers nine hundred and ninety-three. in this census are also included the inhabitants of many towns outside jerusalem, as, for example, jericho, gibeon, and bethlehem. moreover, certain towns are mentioned, such as lud and ono, which were not added to the judean community until the latter part of the persian period. in view of these facts and the unmistakable implications in the sermons of haggai and zechariah that in their day there had been no general return of their kinsmen from babylon, the prevailing popular interpretation of this period of israel's history is clearly untenable and misleading. if there was a general return of exiles from babylon, it certainly did not come until after the walls had been rebuilt under the inspiring leadership of nehemiah. the jews to whom haggai and zechariah preached, and who rebuilt the second temple, were the people of the land who had survived the destruction of jerusalem, or else had returned from their temporary refuge on the borders of the land of egypt. iii. convulsions in the persian empire. after a brilliant and successful reign cyrus died in b.c., leaving his vast empire to his son cambyses. the new king lacked the wisdom and statesmanship of his father, but inherited his love of conquest. most of his short reign was devoted to the conquest of egypt. from their hill-tops the jews doubtless witnessed the march of the great armies of persia, and were forced to contribute to their support. it was a period of change and transition, when old empires went down in ruin and new forces gained the ascendancy. on his return from egypt, cambyses, finding a pretender contending for the throne, committed suicide, thus leaving the empire without any legitimate head. during this crisis, in the autumn of b.c., a persian noble, darius, was raised to the kingship by conspirators, who had slain the pretender. darius claimed relationship with the persian royal family, and strengthened his position by marrying atossa, the daughter of cyrus. the beginning of his reign was signalized by a series of revolts throughout the whole extent of the empire. in susiana a certain athrina proclaimed himself king. in babylonia a native prince rallied his countrymen and assumed the title of nebuchadrezzar iii. the median revolt was led by a certain pharaortes; while among the persians themselves a pretender, who claimed to be a son of cyrus, gained a wide following. fortunately for darius there was no concerted action among the leaders of these different rebellions, so that he was able to subdue them in succession; but to the ordinary on-looker the task seemed well-nigh impossible. not until the spring of did darius become fully master of the situation. iv. haggai's effective addresses. it was in the autumn of b.c., when the rebellions in the persian empire were at their height, that haggai made his stirring appeal to the members of the judean community. from the references in his addresses and in those of his contemporary, zechariah, it is evident that he and his hearers were profoundly influenced by these great world movements. the situation seemed to give promise not only of deliverance from persian rule, but an opportunity at last to realize the national hopes of the jewish race. haggai's message was simple, direct, and practical. according to the beliefs universally accepted in his day his logic was unanswerable. on the one hand jehovah, through poor crops and hard times, had plainly showed his displeasure with his people in judah. the reason was obvious; although they had built comfortable houses for themselves, jehovah's temple still lay in ruins. if they would win his favor, it was plainly their duty to arise and rebuild his sanctuary. the upheavals in the persian empire also gave promise that, if they were true to their divine king, he would at last fulfil the predictions voiced by their earlier prophets. the words of haggai, uttered in september of , met with an immediate response. work was begun on the temple in october of the same year. when the energy and enthusiasm of the builders began to wane, the prophet appeared before them again in november of with the declaration that jehovah was about to overthrow the great world powers and to destroy the chariots, horses, and riders of their persian masters, "each by the sword of his brother." he also voiced the popular expectations that centred in zerubbabel, who had already been appointed governor of judah. the prophet declared boldly that this scion of the house of david would be jehovah's seal-ring, the earthly representative of that divine power which was about to work great revolutions in the history of the world. during the same period zechariah also uttered his messages of encouragement and spurred the people on to continued efforts (section xcv). v. the attempt to stop the rebuilding of the temple. the aramaic document preserved in ezra and describes in detail an attempt of the persian governor, who ruled over the province west of the euphrates, to put a stop to the temple building. the narrative, the letter, and decrees which it contains reveal at many points their jewish origin. while the tradition may be comparatively late, its circumstantial character favors the conclusion that it preserves the memory of a definite historical event. the action of the jews in rebuilding their temple was in perfect accord with the policy of cyrus and also of darius, as is shown by contemporary inscriptions. the attempt, therefore, to stop the building of the temple failed; and in b.c., four years after the work was begun, it was completed. vi. the significance of the restoration of the temple. the rebuilding of the jerusalem temple appears to have been of immediate significance chiefly to the jews of palestine. the jews of egypt, or at least those of elephantine, had their own temple. from zechariah : - it is evident that the jewish exiles in babylon sent certain gifts to the jerusalem temple; but the hundreds of miles of desert that intervened made communication exceedingly difficult, so that except at rare intervals there was apparently little interchange between babylonia and palestine. for all jews, however, the rebuilding of the temple meant that at last they had a common rallying-place, and that jehovah was again being worshipped by his own people at his traditional place of abode. in a sense it bridged the seventy years that had intervened since the destruction of the pre-exilic hebrew state, and made it possible to revive the ancient religious customs. in time it attracted from the lands of the dispersion patriotic jews whose interest was fixed upon the ceremonial side of their religious life. it also furnished a centre about which gradually grew up a hierarchy with an increasingly elaborate ritual, and a body of laws which ultimately became the characteristic features of judaism. section xcv. zechariah's visions and encouraging addresses [sidenote: zech. : - ] in the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month [february], in the second year of darius [ b.c.], this word of jehovah came to the prophet zechariah, the son of berechiah, the son of iddo: i saw in the night and there was a man standing among the myrtle trees that were in the valley-bottom, and behind him there were horses, red, sorrel, and white. then said i, o my lord, what are these? and the angel who talked with me said to me, i will show you what these are. and the man who was standing among the myrtle trees answered and said, these are they whom jehovah hath sent to go to and fro through the earth. and they answered the angel of jehovah who was standing among the myrtle trees and said, we have gone up and down through the earth and behold, all the earth is still and at peace. [sidenote: zech. : - ] then the angel of jehovah answered and said, o jehovah of hosts, how long hast thou no pity on jerusalem and the cities of judah with which thou hast been wroth these seventy years? and jehovah answered the angel who was talking with me with good words, even comforting words. so the angel who was talking with me said to me, proclaim now, 'thus saith jehovah of hosts: "i am jealous for jerusalem and for zion with a great jealousy. but with great wrath am i wroth with the arrogant nations; for i was only a little angry [with israel], but they helped to make greater the calamity." therefore, thus saith jehovah: "i am turning to show mercy to jerusalem; my temple shall be built in it," saith jehovah of hosts, "and a measuring line shall be stretched over jerusalem. proclaim again, thus saith jehovah of hosts: my cities shall yet overflow with prosperity; and jehovah shall yet comfort zion and choose jerusalem."' [sidenote: zech. : , ] now i lifted up mine eyes and looked, and there were four horns. and i said to the angel who was talking with me, 'what are these?' and he assured me, 'these are the horns with which he scattered judah.' [sidenote: zech. : , ] then jehovah showed me four smiths. and i said, what are these coming to do? and he said, these are the horns which scattered judah, so that none lifted up his head; but these are come to terrify them, to strike down the horns of the nations, which lifted up their horn against the land of judah to scatter it. [sidenote: zech. : - ] then i lifted up mine eyes, and looked, and there was a man with a measuring line in his hand. then i said, where are you going? and he said to me, to measure jerusalem, to see what is its breadth and length. thereupon the angel who talked with me stood still, and another angel went out to meet him, and said to him, run, speak to this young man, saying, 'jerusalem shall be inhabited as villages without walls, because of the multitude of men and cattle in her midst. for i,' saith jehovah, 'will be a wall of fire round about her, and i will be the glory in the midst of her.' [sidenote: zech. : - ] ho, ho, flee from the land of the north, is jehovah's oracle. for i have spread you abroad as the four winds of the heavens, is jehovah's oracle. ho, escape to zion, ye who dwell in babylon. for thus saith jehovah of hosts to the nations which plundered you: he that toucheth you toucheth the apple of mine eye. for, behold, i am about to shake my hand over them, and they shall be a spoil to those who served them; and ye shall know that jehovah of hosts hath sent me. [sidenote: zech. : - ] sing and rejoice, o daughter of zion, for, lo, i come, and i will dwell in the midst of thee, is jehovah's oracle. and many nations shall join themselves to jehovah in that among day, and shall be his people, and he will dwell in the midst of thee, and thou shalt know that jehovah of hosts hath sent me to thee. and jehovah shall inherit judah as his portion in the holy land, and he shall yet comfort zion and choose jerusalem. be silent, all flesh, before jehovah; for he hath waked up out of his holy habitation. [sidenote: zech. : - ] then he showed me joshua, the high priest, standing before the angel of jehovah and the adversary standing at his right hand to accuse him. and the angel of jehovah said to the adversary, jehovah rebuke thee, o adversary; yea, jehovah, who hath chosen jerusalem, rebuke thee. is not this a brand plucked out of the fire? now joshua was clothed with filthy garments and was standing before the angel. [sidenote: zech. : - ] and [the angel] answered and spoke to those who stood before him, saying, take the filthy garments from off him, clothe him with robes of state; set a clean turban upon his head. so they set a clean turban upon his head, and clothed him with garments; and the angel of jehovah was standing by. [sidenote: zech. : - ] and the angel of jehovah testified to joshua, saying, thus saith jehovah of hosts: 'if thou wilt walk in my ways, and if thou wilt keep my charge, then thou also shalt rule my house and shalt also keep my courts and i will give thee a place of access among these who stand by. hear now, o joshua the high priest, thou and thy associates who sit before me; for they are men who are a sign; for behold, i am about to bring forth my servant the branch. for, behold, the stone that i have set before joshua; upon one stone are seven facets: behold, i will engrave it,' saith jehovah of hosts, 'and i will remove the iniquity of that land in one day. in that day,' saith jehovah of hosts, 'ye shall each invite his neighbor under the vine and under the fig tree.' [sidenote: zech. : - ] then the angel who talked with me came again and waked me, as a man who is wakened out of his sleep. and he said to me, what seest thou? and i said, i see midst there a candlestick, all of gold, with a bowl upon the top of it, and its seven lamps upon it; there are seven pipes to each of the lamps, which are upon the top of it, and two olive trees by it, one on the right side of the bowl, and the other on its left side. and i spoke and said to the angel who talked with me, what are these, my lord? then the angel who talked with me answered and said to me, knowest thou not what these are? and i said, no, my lord. then he answered and spoke to me, saying, the eyes of jehovah, which rove to and fro through the whole earth. [sidenote: zech. : - ] then i answered, and said to him, what are these two olive trees upon the right side of the candlestick and upon its left side? and he answered me and said, knowest thou not what these are? and i said, no, my lord. then said he, these are the two anointed ones, who stand by the lord of the whole earth. [sidenote: zech. : b- ] this is the word of jehovah regarding zerubbabel, not by might, nor by power, but by my spirit, saith jehovah of will i make the great mountain before zerubbabel a plain; and he shall bring forth the top stones with shoutings of, 'grace, grace, to it.' moreover this word of jehovah came to me: the hands of zerubbabel have laid the foundations of this temple; his hands shall also finish it; and ye shall know that jehovah of hosts hath sent me to you. for who hath despised the day of small things? for they shall rejoice, and shall see the plummet in the hand of zerubbabel. [sidenote: zech. : - ]. now this word of jehovah came to me: take of them of the captivity, even of heldai, of tobijah, of jedaiah and of josiah the son of zephaniah who have come from babylon, yea, take of them silver and gold in order to make a crown and set it on the head of zerubbabel the son of shealtiel. [sidenote: zech. : - ] thou shalt also say to them: 'thus saith jehovah of hosts: "behold, the man whose name is the branch; and he shall grow up out of his place; and he shall build the temple of jehovah; and he shall bear the glory and shall sit and rule upon his throne; and joshua the son of jehozadak shall be a priest upon his right, and the counsel of peace shall be between them both. and the crown shall be to heldai and tobijah and jedaiah, and josiah the son of zephaniah, as a memorial in the temple of jehovah. and they who are far off shall come and build in the temple of jehovah; and ye shall know that jehovah of hosts hath sent me to you. and this shall come to pass, if ye will diligently obey the voice of jehovah your god."' [sidenote: zech. : - ] in the fourth year of king darius, on the fourth day of the ninth month, the city of bethel sent sharezer and regemmelech and their men, to entreat the favor of jehovah, and to speak to the priests of the house of jehovah of hosts, and to the prophets, saying, should i weep in the fifth month [in memory of the destruction of the temple] separating myself, as i have done these many years? then this word of jehovah of hosts came to me: speak to all the people of the land, and to the priests, saying, 'when ye fasted and mourned in the fifth and in the seventh month [when gedaliah was murdered], even these seventy years, did ye at all fast to me, even to me? and when ye eat and when ye drink, do ye not eat for yourselves, and drink for yourselves? [sidenote: zech. : - ] should ye not hear these words which jehovah cried by the former prophets, when jerusalem was inhabited and in prosperity, and her cities round about her, and the south country, and the lowland were inhabited? execute true judgment, and show kindness and pity each to his brother; and oppress not the widow nor the fatherless, the resident alien nor the poor; and let none of you devise evil against your brother in his heart. but they refused to heed, and turned a stubborn shoulder, and stopped their ears, that they might not hear. yea, they made their hearts as an adamant lest they should hear the teaching, and the words which jehovah of hosts had sent by his spirit through the former prophets. therefore there came great wrath from jehovah of hosts. and even when i cried they would not hear, so when they cried i did not hear, saith jehovah of hosts. and i scattered them by a whirlwind among the nations which they did not know. thus the land was left desolate behind them, so that no man passed to or fro; for they made the pleasant land a desolation. [sidenote: zech. : - ] now this word of jehovah of hosts came to me: thus saith jehovah of hosts, 'i cherish for zion a great jealousy, and i am jealous for her with great indignation.' thus saith jehovah, 'i have returned to zion, and will dwell in the midst of jerusalem; and jerusalem shall be called, "the city of truth;" and the mountain of jehovah of hosts, "the holy mountain." thus saith jehovah of hosts: 'old men and old women shall again sit in the broad places of jerusalem, each man with his staff in his hand because of old age. and the streets of the city shall be full of boys, and of girls playing in its broad places.' [sidenote: zech. : - ] thus saith jehovah of hosts: because it seemeth impossible to the remnant of this people, is it impossible for me? saith jehovah of hosts. thus saith jehovah of hosts: i am about to rescue my people, from the land of the east and the land of the west, and i will bring them and they shall dwell in the midst of jerusalem. and they shall be my people in truth and righteousness, and in turn i will be their god. i. zechariah's ancestry and point of view. haggai's contemporary, the prophet zechariah, was evidently a priest. in the genealogy of nehemiah : , it is stated that he belonged to the priestly family of iddo. this conclusion is confirmed by the character of his prophecies. like the priest-prophet ezekiel he is exceedingly fond of apocalyptic symbolism. he is also deeply interested in the priesthood and in its ceremonial purity. furthermore, it is exceedingly probable that he was a descendant of one of the many priests carried as exiles to babylon. this is shown by his keen interest in and exact knowledge of the great political movements that were then shaking the persian empire. his conception of jehovah is also strongly influenced by the analogies drawn from the persian court. in his thought israel's god is a transcendental ruler, who communicates with his subjects not directly, but through angelic messengers, and who, like the persian kings, is dependent for information regarding his great kingdom upon the reports of the different members of his heavenly court. thus zechariah marks a wide departure from the simple theology of the pre-exilic prophets who thought of jehovah as dwelling in the midst of his people and communicating directly with all who turned to him in faith. ii. the book of zechariah. the book which records the prophet's sermons contains four distinct divisions: ( ) an exhortation addressed to the people in december, , three months after haggai first appealed to them to rise and rebuild the temple, zechariah : - ; ( ) symbolic visions dealing with the problems in the judean community, : - : ; ( ) practical counsel, exhortations, and promises, : - : ; ( ) a later appendix coming from a prophet who probably lived during the earlier part of the maccabean period, - . all of zechariah's recorded sermons probably date from the three or four years between and b.c., during which the temple was being rebuilt. they throw a remarkably clear light upon an exceedingly critical and significant period in the life of the jews of palestine. they are also in many ways the best old testament source for the study of the unfolding of israel's messianic hopes. iii. problems and hopes of the judean community. four or five practical problems confronted and disturbed the temple-builders. the first was: would jerusalem and the temple, still without walls, be protected from the attack of the hostile foes that encircled them. a second and larger question was: what was to be the outcome of the great tempest through which the persian empire was passing, and did it mean for the jews deliverance from the powerful conquerors who for centuries had oppressed and crushed them? the third was: would the necessarily modest service of the restored temple, already sadly polluted by heathen hands, be acceptable to jehovah? another problem was: what were the relations and the respective duties of zerubbabel and joshua, the civil and religious authorities in the community? it was also inevitable that at this time the hope of securing their independence under the leadership of zerubbabel should come prominently to the front. to each of these problems zechariah addressed himself, and his book records his convictions and public utterances. iv. zechariah's assurances of jehovah's care. in his initial vision concerning the angelic horsemen he recognizes that the storms that have swept over the persian empire are beginning to subside, but he tells his fellow-laborers that, if they persist, jehovah's temple shall be rebuilt and that the lands about jerusalem shall again be sold to eager buyers, and the cities of judah shall enjoy their former prosperity, for "jehovah will surely comfort zion." in the vision of the four horns and of the four smiths whose mission it is to smite the horns, he assures the people that jehovah in his good time and way will overthrow the nations that now wrong and oppress them. although there is no promise that jerusalem will be surrounded by walls, he declares that it shall enjoy a prosperity and a growth which no walls can confine, and that jehovah himself will be its protection, as well as its glory, that he will gather the scattered exiles, and that they, together with the nations which shall acknowledge jehovah's rule, shall yet come streaming back to judah. in his next vision the prophet graphically presents a scene in jehovah's court. joshua the priest, representing the ceremonial service of the polluted temple, is charged by the adversary with uncleanness. here for the first time in hebrew literature we catch a glimpse of satan, who is regarded not as hostile to god but as the prosecuting attorney of heaven. as in the prologue of the book of job, he is an accredited member of the divine hierarchy. his task is to search out and report to jehovah the misdeeds of men. in zechariah's vision, however, the divine judge acquits joshua of the charge, and causes him to be clad with clean garments, thus proclaiming the divine approval of the modest yet devoted service of the judean community. v. preparations for the crowning of zerubbabel. regarding zerubbabel, zechariah declares, in language highly figurative, that he shall yet be crowned and rule over a happy and prosperous people. he is spoken of as jehovah's servant, the branch. the term is probably original with zechariah, although again used in the supplementary passages in jeremiah : and : . the word is akin to the term "shoot of the house of jesse" used in isaiah , to describe a certain scion of the house of david, who in all probability was the young zerubbabel. zechariah's figure describes the prince as an offshoot of the same royal tree. the obscure passage seems to mean that upon the stone, with its seven facets, which was to be set in the crown prepared for the head of zerubbabel, jehovah himself would engrave a fitting title. in zechariah's fifth vision he defined the relations between the civil and priestly authorities. the golden candlestick represented the temple and its service. the two olive trees beside it stood for zerubbabel, the civil ruler, and for joshua, the high priest. the duty of each was to contribute his part toward the support of the temple service. they were both jehovah's messiahs, that is, men anointed as a symbol of the task which each was to perform. in this connection zechariah declared that jehovah would remove all obstacles from before zerubbabel, and that he who had begun the work should live to see its completion. in an address recorded in the latter part of the sixth chapter of his prophecy (intentionally revised by a later scribe), zechariah threw aside all symbolism and gave directions to make a crown for the head of zerubbabel from the silver and gold that had been brought as a gift by a deputation from the jews of babylon. he also plainly predicted that this descendant of david should sit on the throne of judah and that joshua the priest should be his minister like the priests in the pre-exilic kingdom. vi. disappointment of these patriotic hopes. with zechariah's prediction that zerubbabel should reign on the throne of judah the descendants of the house of david suddenly and forever disappear from old testament history. whether the jews made the attempt to shake off the yoke of persia or whether zerubbabel was quietly set aside cannot be determined. contemporary history states that within at least six months after zechariah voiced the patriotic hopes of his people the authority of darius was fully established throughout the empire. he at once began thoroughly to organize the vast realm. post roads bound together the distant provinces, and satraps, appointed largely from the ranks of the royal family, unified the whole empire and held it under firm control. as a rule persian governors were substituted for the native princes. with the institution of this policy zerubbabel may well have been quietly set aside. the event evidently made a profound impression upon the messianic expectations of the jews. henceforth, for three or four centuries, the temporal, kingly type of messianic hope, which had been inspired by the glories of the reign of david, entirely disappeared. it was not revived until the military victories of the maccabean era had again brought prominently to the front this phase of national glory (cf. section cxvi). as a result of these disappointments israel's hopes were universalized and spiritualized. jehovah, instead of a scion of the house of david, was henceforth regarded as the one supreme king of israel. vii. zechariah's later exhortations and predictions. in chapters and , which conclude the original sermons of zechariah, the apocalyptic language with which he clothed his earlier predictions regarding the future of the judean community disappeared, and he spoke as did amos and haggai, plainly and directly regarding the questions which were then stirring the people. when a deputation came from the north to inquire whether or not, now that the temple was being rebuilt, they should continue to observe their fasts in memory of the destruction of jerusalem and the death of gedaliah, the prophet raised the searching question of whether their motive in these services was to please jehovah or to please themselves. he then went on to declare that the only effective way to serve jehovah was by deeds of justice and kindness, especially to the dependent classes in the community, and that the horrors of the exile had come because their fathers had failed to worship jehovah by righteous deeds. the prophet concludes with a brilliant picture of the coming restoration of jerusalem and of the peace and prosperity which should be the lot of all, because jehovah was about to gather his scattered people from the east and the west and to establish them in the midst of his sacred city. other nations should eagerly come to jerusalem to seek the favor of jehovah and to ally themselves with his faithful followers, the jews. in a prophecy, preserved in micah : - and isaiah : - (which probably comes from this period) the same thought is nobly expressed: it shall come to pass in the latter days, that the mountain of jehovah shall be established, even the house of our god on the top of the mountain, and it shall be lifted above the hills. all the nations shall flow to it, and many peoples shall go and say, come, let us go up to jehovah's mount, to the house of the god of jacob, that he may instruct us in his ways, and that we may walk in his paths. for from zion proceeds instruction, and jehovah's word from jerusalem. section xcvi. israel's training and destiny [sidenote: isa. : , ] comfort ye, comfort ye my people, saith your god, speak tenderly to jerusalem, and declare to her, that her hard service is accomplished, her guilt is expiated that she hath received from jehovah's hand double for all her sins. [sidenote: isa. : , ] a voice is proclaiming: in the wilderness prepare the way of jehovah, make straight in the desert a highway for our god! let every mountain and hill sink down, and every valley be lifted up, and the crooked be made straight and the rough ridges a plain. [sidenote: isa. : - ] a voice is saying, proclaim! and i said, what shall i proclaim? all flesh is grass and all its beauty like a flower of the field. grass withers, flower fades, when jehovah's breath blows eternal upon it, grass withers, flower fades, but the word of our god endureth forever. [sidenote: isa. : ] to a high mountain, get thee up, zion's herald of good news; lift up mightily thy voice, jerusalem's herald of good news. lift up fearlessly, say to the cities of judah: behold your god! [sidenote: isa : , ] behold, jehovah cometh in might, and his arm is maintaining his rule; behold, his reward is with him and his recompense is before him, as a shepherd he will tend his flock, with his arm he will gather it, the lambs in his bosom he will bear, the ewe-mothers he will lead. [sidenote: isa. : ] who hath measured in the hollow of his hand the waters, and ruled off the heavens with a span, or enclosed the dust of the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains in scales, and the hills in a balance? [sidenote: isa. : , ] who hath determined the spirit of jehovah, and as his counsellor advised him? with whom hath he consulted for enlightenment, and to be instructed in the right, and to be shown the way of discernment? [sidenote: isa. : , ] lo the nations! as a drop from a bucket, and as dust on a balance are they reckoned. lo the isles! as a mote he uplifteth, and lebanon is not enough for fuel, and its wild beasts for a burnt-offering. all the nations are as nothing before him, they are reckoned by him as void and nothingness. [sidenote: isa. : - ] to whom then will ye liken god, and what likeness place beside him? an image! a craftsman cast it, and a smelter o'erlays it with gold. he who is too poor to do this chooses a tree that is not decayed, seeks for himself a skilled craftsman, to set up an image that shall not totter. [sidenote: isa. : , ] do ye not know? do ye not hear? hath it not been told you from the beginning? have ye not been aware from the founding of the earth? it is he who is enthroned above the vault of the earth, and its inhabitants are as locusts; who stretcheth out the heavens as a thin veil, and spreadeth them out like a habitable tent. [sidenote: isa. : , ] it is he who bringeth princes to naught, the rulers of the earth he maketh as waste. scarcely have they been planted, scarcely have they been sown, scarcely hath the stock taken root in the earth, but he bloweth upon them and they wither, and a whirlwind carries them away like stubble. [sidenote: isa. : , ] to whom then will ye liken me that i should equal him? saith the holy one. lift up your eyes on high and see: who hath created these? he who bringeth forth their host by number, and calleth each by his name; of the many mighty and strong, not one is missing. [sidenote: isa. : - ] why sayest thou, o jacob, and speakest, o israel: my way is hid from jehovah and my right is unnoticed by my god? hast thou not known? hast thou not heard? an everlasting god is jehovah. the creator of the ends of the earth. he fainteth not, neither is weary, his wisdom cannot be fathomed, he giveth vigor to the fainting, and upon the powerless he lavisheth strength. young men may faint and grow weary, and the strongest youths may stumble, but they who trust in jehovah renew their vigor, they mount on pinions like eagles, they run but are never weary, they walk but never faint. [sidenote: isa. : - ] listen to me in silence, ye coastlands, let the peoples come near; then let them speak; together let us approach the tribunal. who raised up that one from the east whose steps victory ever attended, giving up peoples before him, and letting him trample down kings? his sword made them as dust, and his bow like driven stubble; he pursued them, passing on in safety, not treading the path with his feet. who hath wrought and accomplished this? he who called the generations from the beginning, i, jehovah, who am the first, and with those who come after i am the same. [sidenote: isa. : - ] and thou, israel, my servant jacob, whom i have chosen, offspring of abraham, my friend, thou, whom i brought from the ends of the earth, and called from its most distant parts; to whom i said, thou art my servant, i have chosen and have not rejected thee. fear not, for i, indeed, am with thee, be not terrified, for i am thy god. i will strengthen thee; yea, i will help thee; yea, i will uphold thee with my righteous hand. [sidenote: isa. : ] behold, my servant whom i uphold, my chosen, in whom i take delight; i have put my spirit upon him, that he may set forth law to the nations. [sidenote: isa. : - b] he will not cry aloud nor roar, nor let his voice be heard in the street. a crushed reed he will not break, and a dimly burning wick he will not quench. [sidenote: isa. : c- ] faithfully will he set forth law; he will not lose vigor nor be crushed, until he establish law in the earth, and for his teaching the coastlands are waiting. [sidenote: isa. : - ] thus saith the one god, jehovah, he who spread out the heavens and stretched them forth, who created the earth and its products, who giveth breath to the people upon it, and spirit to those who walk upon it: i, jehovah, have called thee in righteousness, i have taken thee by the hand and kept thee, i have made thee a pledge to the people, a light to the nations, to open eyes that are blind, to bring captives out from confinement, from the prison house dwellers in darkness. [sidenote: isa. : - ] ye who are deaf hear, and ye blind look up that ye may see, who is blind but my servants, deaf as their rulers? much have ye seen, without observing it, though your ears were open, ye did not hear. [sidenote: isa. : , ] jehovah was pleased for his righteousness' sake to make his teaching great and glorious, yet it is a people spoiled and plundered, they are all snared in holes, and hidden in prison houses, they have become a spoil, with none to rescue, an object of plunder, with none to say, restore. [sidenote: isa. : - ] who among you will give ear to this, will attend and hear for time to come? who gave up jacob to plunderers, and israel to those who spoiled him, and poured out upon him the heat of his anger, and his violence like a flame, so that it scorched him round about, but he knew it not, and it burned him, but he laid it not to heart? [sidenote: isa. : - ] and now thus saith jehovah, he who created thee, o jacob, and formed thee, fear not, o israel, for i redeem thee, i call thee by name, thou art mine. when thou passeth through the waters, i will be with thee, through the rivers, they shall not overflow thee; when thou goest through the fire, thou shalt not be scorched, neither shall the flame burn thee. [sidenote: isa. : , ] for i, jehovah, am thy god. i, israel's holy one, am thy deliverer; i give egypt as thy ransom, ethiopia and seba for thee. because thou art precious in mine eyes, art honored and i love thee, i will give lands in thy stead, and peoples for the sake of thy life. [sidenote: isa. : - ] fear not for i am with thee, from the east i will bring thine offspring, and from the west i will gather thee; i will say to the north, give up! and to the south, withhold not! bring my sons from afar, and my daughters from the ends of the earth, every one who is called by my name, whom for my glory i have created and formed. [sidenote: isa. : , ] ye are my witnesses, is jehovah's oracle, and my servants whom i have chosen, that ye may acknowledge and believe me, and that ye may perceive that i am ever the same, before me no god was formed, nor shall there be after me, i, even i, am jehovah, and beside me there is no deliverer. [sidenote: isa. : , ] it was i who announced and brought deliverance, and i declared, and there was no strange god among you, ye are my witnesses, is jehovah's oracle, i am god, yea, from henceforth the same; and there is none who can snatch from my hand, when i work, who can reverse it? [sidenote: isa. : , ] thus saith jehovah, your redeemer, israel's holy one, for your sake i have sent to babylon, and have brought them all down as fugitives. even the chaldeans with their piercing cries of lamentation, it is i, jehovah, your holy one, the creator of israel, your king. [sidenote: isa. : - ] but thou, o jacob, hast not called upon me, nor hast thou wearied thyself about me, o israel; thou hast not brought me the sheep of thy burnt-offerings, nor honored me with thy sacrifices. with offerings i have not burdened thee, nor with incense wearied thee. thou broughtest me no sweet cane with thy money, nor with the fat of thy sacrifices sated me. rather thou hast only burdened me with thy sins, and wearied me with thine iniquities. [sidenote: isa. : - ] but it is i alone who blot out thy transgressions, and i do not remember thy sins. remind me, let us plead together, do thou set forth the matter that thou mayest be justified: thy first father sinned, and thy mediators rebelled against me. thy rulers profaned my sanctuary, and i gave up jacob to the ban, and israel to revilings! [sidenote: isa. : - b] but now hear, o jacob, my servant, israel whom i have chosen; thus saith jehovah, thy maker, even he who formed thee from the womb, who helpeth thee: fear not, my servant jacob, and thou, jeshurun, whom i have chosen; for i will pour water upon the thirsty land and streams upon the dry ground. [sidenote: isa. : c- ] i will pour out my spirit upon thy children, and my blessing upon thy descendants, so that they shall spring up as grass in the midst of waters, as willows by water-courses. one shall say, "i am jehovah's," and another shall call himself, "jacob," and another will inscribe on his hand, "jehovah's," and receive the surname, "israel."' i. the seventy years following the rebuilding of the temple. regarding the seventy years which intervened between the rebuilding of the temple in b.c. and the appearance of nehemiah in the biblical historians are silent. this silence is probably because there were no important political events in the life of the judean community to be recorded. during the latter part of his reign darius bridged the hellespont and undertook the conquest of the western world. later, under the reign of his son xerxes, the mighty hordes of eastern warriors were turned back, and the growing weakness of the great persian empire was revealed. in egypt rebelled, and persian armies marched along the eastern shore of the mediterranean, probably levying heavy taxes for their support upon the jews as well as upon the other peoples of palestine. the suppression of the rebellion in egypt illustrated how impossible it was for any of the eastern peoples to withstand even the decadent power of the persian empire. in palestine the jews were still the prey of their hostile neighbors. no walls protected the temple and city of jerusalem. the jews were probably ground down under their greedy persian governors. with the disappearance of zerubbabel the local control fell naturally into the hands of the high priest and his followers, whose civil authority from this time on constantly increased. the words of ii isaiah well describe the lot of the jews of palestine during this period: it is a people spoiled and plundered, they are all snared in holes, and hidden in prison houses. they have become a spoil, with none to rescue, an object of plunder, with none to say, restore. ii. spiritual forces in judaism. the political horizon furnished little to inspire the disappointed and persecuted jews. their eyes were still blinded by the brilliant hopes that had stirred them at the time when the temple was rebuilt. the quenching of these hopes had left them in deeper darkness than before. there seemed no rift in the clouds that overshadowed them. even their priestly rulers were selfish and inconsiderate. for the faithful few who rose above the discouragements and obstacles that confronted them, however, this period of deepest gloom was lighted by a faith that shines through and glorifies most of the later books of the old testament. from the psalms and prophecies of the period it is evident that there were a few who in the midst of these discouraging circumstances found peace and joy. as they meditated upon the experiences of their race, and read and pondered the writings of the earlier prophets, they began to appreciate not only the real significance of their past history but the meaning of the present affliction. the chief spokesman of these immortal heroes of the faith was the prophetic author of isaiah - . iii. evidences that isaiah - were written in palestine. only recently have careful students of isaiah - begun to realize that the point of view in all of these chapters is not distant babylon but jerusalem. the repeated references in chapter and following to conditions in jerusalem have led all to recognize their palestinian origin. the evidence, however, regarding chapters - is almost equally convincing. the vocabulary and literary figures employed throughout are those peculiar to the agricultural life of palestine and not to the commercial civilization of babylon. the problems also are those of the judean community. the class to whom the prophet addresses his messages is evidently the same as that to which haggai and zechariah speak. jerusalem, not a jewish colony in babylon, is the constant object of the prophet's appeal. babylon is only one of the distant lands of the dispersion. it is from jerusalem that the prophet ever views the world. thus in : , he declares in the name of jehovah: fear not, for i am with thee. from the east i will bring thine offspring, and from the west i will gather them; i will say to the north, give up! and to the south, withhold not! bring my sons from afar, and my daughters from the ends of the earth. interpreted in the light of their true geographical setting, these prophecies gain at once a new and clearer meaning. iv. their probable date. the reference in : , to the offerings brought by the people to jehovah's temple clearly implies that it had already been built. furthermore, the charges preferred against the judean community are very similar to those in the book of malachi, which is generally assigned to the period immediately preceding the arrival of nehemiah in b.c. (cf. section xcvii). from the parallels in chapter and elsewhere it is evident that jehovah's messiah in : is not cyrus but israel, the messianic nation, to which jehovah in earlier days under david and his successors gave repeated victories and far-extended authority. the presence of the name cyrus seems without reasonable doubt to be due to a later scribe, who thus incorrectly identified the allusion. it is supported neither by the metrical structure nor the context of the passages in which it is found. furthermore, the ideas in isaiah - are almost without exception those which zechariah had already voiced in germinal form, especially in his latest prophecies preserved in chapters and . they are here more fully and far more gloriously expanded, indicating that their author lived perhaps a generation later than zechariah. the years between and furnish the most satisfactory setting for these prophecies. in a very true sense, however, like many of the psalms, they are timeless. the question of their exact date is comparatively unimportant except as it throws light upon their interpretation. v. their literary characteristics. the prophecies in isaiah - are psalms, sharing the characteristics of all lyric hebrew poetry. each is complete in itself and yet closely related to the others both in content and literary form. their nobility of theme, their breadth of outlook, their wealth of rich and glowing figures, and their finished literary character give them an incontestable place among the greatest writings of the old testament. while there is a powerful argument running through them all, the logic is not cumulative but rather moves in a spiral, frequently returning to the same subject but having a gradual onward movement. it is the characteristic oriental method of thinking, which is the opposite of that of the western world. these poems are grouped into three cycles which apparently represent the prophet's thinking during succeeding periods. the first cycle is included in - . chapter is a recapitulation of the thought of the preceding, and furnishes a natural conclusion to the first collection. the second group is in - . the note of suffering is here more prominent, and the portrait of the ideal type of servant which jehovah desires in order to realize his purpose in human history is developed in greater detail (cf. section xcix). the third group, in - , is by many assigned to another prophet and to a much later period. while the general theme of the group is different and implies a somewhat changed historical background, the characteristic ideas and literary forms of - also recur here. from the study of israel's past and future the prophet turns to the closer consideration of the problems in palestine. the historical allusions are for the most part in accord with the conditions which nehemiah found in jerusalem in b.c. vi. their theme and purpose. the poems deal with one theme, the destiny of the chosen people. the prophet first reviews their past history to illustrate jehovah's purpose that was being realized through israel. he notes the different ways in which jehovah had trained and prepared them for their great task. in the light of the new situation and his enlarged acquaintance with the world the prophet then proceeds to define the task that awaits his people. while he does not break entirely away from the popular expectation that the scattered exiles would yet be restored to jerusalem to participate in the universal kingdom that was there to be established, he fully appreciates the larger significance of israel's mission. he recognizes that it is worldwide. he sees that the jewish race is called not merely to receive honors and material blessings but also to serve suffering and needy mankind. the disappointments and afflictions through which it is passing are but a part of the divine training for that nobler spiritual service. the servant israel is called to be a witness to all the nations, faithfully to set forth jehovah's teachings until his law is established in all the earth. thus the prophet interprets israel's past, present, and future in its vital relation to the universal life of humanity, and declares that israel is destined to be a prophet nation and to reveal jehovah's character to all mankind. vii. reasons why jehovah will restore his people. the prophet opens with a declaration that jerusalem's period of forced service is over, that she has paid double for the sins of the past, and that jehovah is about to remove all obstacles and restore and exalt his oppressed people. he then gives the reasons for his strong conviction: ( ) jehovah is incomparably superior to the forces of nature, to the nations that hold israel in bondage, and to the heathen gods whose images are shaped by the hand of man. all the powers of heaven and earth are under his control. he is the creator and supreme ruler of the universe, able to remove all obstacles and to give strength and might to those who put their trust in him. ( ) through his leadership of his people in the past, through their victories over their powerful foes, and in all the experiences of their national life he has shown his power to guide and deliver. ( ) toward israel, his servant, he stands in a unique relation, for he has chosen and trained his people for a great service in behalf of all the world. therefore he who is able and eager to deliver will not fail his people in their hour of need. ( ) their present affliction is but a part of that training which is essential before they can perform their task as jehovah's servant; that task is tenderly to espouse the cause of those who are crushed, to open eyes that are blind, to bring captives out of their confinement, and, as a faithful teacher, to inspire all mankind with love for israel's god. the prophet's aim was clearly to encourage his despondent people, to show them the deeper meaning of their present afflictions, to open their eyes to jehovah's gracious purpose, to give to the entire race a goal for which to live and strive, and, above all, to arouse them to effective action. doubtless the prophet thought only of the problems of the men of his day, but in his interpretation of jehovah's worldwide purpose and in the faith and devotion which his words inspire he gave to all mankind a universal, undying message. section xcvii. conditions and problems within the judean community [sidenote: mal. : - ] a son honoreth his father, and a servant feareth his master; if then i am a father, where is mine honor? and if i am a master, where is the one who fears me? saith jehovah to you, o ye priests, who despise my name. but ye say, 'wherein have we despised thy name?' ye offer upon mine altar bread that is polluted and ye say, 'wherein have we polluted it?' in that ye say, 'the table of jehovah is contemptible.' and that when ye offer the blind for sacrifice, 'it is no harm!' and that when ye offer the lame and the sick, 'it is no harm!' present it now to thy governor; will he be pleased with it? or will he receive thee favorably? saith jehovah of hosts. and now entreat the favor of god with such an offering, that he may be gracious to us, would i receive any of you favorably? saith jehovah of hosts. [sidenote: mal. : , ] o that there were those among you who would shut the doors, that ye might not kindle fire on mine altar in vain! i have no pleasure in you, saith jehovah of hosts, neither will i accept an offering at your hand. for from the rising of the sun even to its setting my name is sacred among the nations, and in every place they offer to my name a pure offering; for my name is great among the nations, saith jehovah of hosts. [sidenote: mal. : , ] 'the table of jehovah is polluted, and its food is contemptible.' ye say also, 'behold what a weariness is it!' and ye have scorned me; and ye have brought the blind, the lame and the sick. should i accept this at your hand? saith jehovah of hosts. but cursed be the deceiver, who has in his flock a male, and vows, and sacrifices to the lord a blemished thing; for i am a great king, and my name is feared among the nations. [sidenote: mal. : - ] and now, o ye priests, this command is for you. if ye will not hear, and if ye will not lay it to heart, to give glory to my name, saith jehovah of hosts, then i will send the curse upon you, and i will curse your blessings; behold, i will cut off your arm, and will spread offal upon your faces, even the offal of your feasts, and ye shall know that i have sent this command to you, that my covenant with levi may be preserved, saith jehovah of hosts. [sidenote: mal. : - ] my covenant with him was to give life and peace; and i gave them to him that he might revere me; and he revered me, and stood in awe of my name. the true instruction was in his mouth, and unrighteousness was not found in his lips; he walked with me in peace and uprightness, and turned many away from iniquity. for the priest's lips should keep knowledge, and men should seek the law at his mouth; for he is the messenger of jehovah of hosts. [sidenote: mal. : , ] but ye are turned aside out of the way; ye have caused many to stumble in the law; ye have corrupted the covenant of levi, saith jehovah of hosts. therefore have i also made you contemptible, and base before all the people, according as ye have not kept my ways, and have had no respect for me in imparting the law. [sidenote: mal. : , , ] have we not all one father? hath not one god created us? why do we deal faithlessly with one another, profaning the covenant of our fathers? and this ye do also: ye cover the altar of jehovah with tears, so that he regardeth not the offering any more, neither receiveth it acceptably from your hand. yet ye say, why? because jehovah hath been witness between thee and the wife of thy youth, against whom thou hast dealt faithlessly, though she is thy companion, and the wife of thy covenant. [sidenote: mal. : , ] therefore give heed to your spirit, and let none deal faithlessly with the wife of his youth, for i hate putting away, saith jehovah, the god of israel, and him who covers his garment with violence; therefore take heed to your spirit, that ye deal not faithlessly. [sidenote: mal. : ] ye have wearied jehovah with your words. yet ye say, how have we wearied him? in that ye say, everyone that doeth evil is good in the sight of jehovah, and he delighteth in them; or where is the god of justice? [sidenote: mal. : - ] behold, i am about to send my messenger, and he shall prepare the way before me; and the lord, whom ye seek, will suddenly come to his temple; but who can endure the day of his coming? and who shall stand when he appeareth? for he is like a refiner's fire, and like fullers' lyes; and he will sit as a refiner and purifier, and he will purify the sons of levi, and refine them as gold and silver; and they shall offer offerings in righteousness. then shall the offerings of judah and jerusalem be pleasant to jehovah, as in the days of old, and as in former years. [sidenote: mal. : , ] and i will come near to you to judgment; and i will be a swift witness against the sorcerers, and against the adulterers, and against those who sware to that which is false, and against those who oppress the hireling, the widow, and the fatherless, who turn aside the resident alien from his right, and fear not me, saith jehovah of hosts. for i, jehovah, change not; but ye have not ceased to be sons of jacob. [sidenote: mal. : - ] from the days of thy fathers ye have turned aside from my statutes, and ye have not kept them. turn to me and i will turn to you, saith jehovah. but ye say, 'wherein shall we turn?' will a man rob god? yet ye robbed me. but ye say, 'wherein have we robbed thee?' in tithes and gifts. ye are cursed with a curse, for ye rob me. [sidenote: mal. : - ] bring ye the whole tithe into the store-house, that there may be provision in mine house; and test me thereby, if i will not open to you the windows of heaven, and pour you out a blessing, until there is more than enough. i will rebuke for your sakes the devourer that he destroy not the fruit of the ground, neither shall the vine fail to ripen its fruit in the field, and all nations shall call you happy, for ye shall be a delightsome land, saith jehovah of hosts. [sidenote: mal. : - ] your words are hard upon me, saith jehovah. ye say, 'what have we said against thee?' ye have said, 'it is useless to serve god, and what gain is it to us to have kept his charge, and that we have walked in funeral garb before him? even now we call the proud happy, yea, those who work iniquity thrive, yea, they tempt god and escape.' [sidenote mal. : - ] such things those who feared jehovah spoke to one another, and jehovah gave heed, and heard, and a book of remembrance was written before him, regarding those who feared jehovah, and those who keep in mind his name; and they shall be mine, saith jehovah of hosts, in the day that i make up mine especial treasure. and i will spare them, as a man spares his son who serves him. then shall ye return and discern between the righteous and the wicked, between him who serves god and him who serves him not. [sidenote: mal. : - ] for behold the day is coming that shall burn like a furnace, and all the proud and those who work iniquity shall be stubble, and the day that is coming shall burn them up, saith jehovah of hosts, so that there shall be left them neither root nor branch. but to you who fear my name there shall arise the sun of righteousness with healing on his wings, and ye shall go forth and leap like calves out of the stall. and ye shall tread down the wicked, for they shall be as ashes under the soles of your feet, in the day in which i begin to execute, saith jehovah of hosts. [sidenote: ps. : - ] my god, why dost thou forsake me, far from my salvation is my groaning by day i call, but thou answerest not, and by night there is no respite for me. yet thou, o my god, art the holy one, enthroned on israel's songs of praise. in thee our fathers trusted, they trusted, and thou didst deliver them; to thee they cried, and were delivered, in thee they trusted and were not ashamed. [sidenote: ps. : - ] but i am a worm and no man, reproached by men and despised by the people. whoever sees me derideth me, they sneer as they toss the head: "he depended upon jehovah, let him deliver him, let him save him, since he delighteth in him!" [sidenote: ps. : - ] yet it was thou who took me from the womb, who made me safe on my mother's breast; on thee was i cast from birth, thou art my god from my mother's womb. be not far from me, for there is distress, draw nigh, for there is no helper. [sidenote: ps. : - ] many bulls encompass me, mighty ones of bashan beset me round, they open their mouths at me, like a ravening, roaring lion. as water i am poured out, yea, all my bones are out of joint, my heart hath become like wax, it is melted within my body, my palate is dried up like a potsherd, and my tongue cleaveth to my jaws; in the dust of death thou dost lay me, for dogs circle me about, the assembly of evil-doers enclose me; they pierce my hands and my feet, i can count all my bones; they stare, they gloat over me. they divide my garments among them, and for my clothing they cast lots! i. date of the book of malachi. malachi in the hebrew means my messenger, and the word was apparently taken from the opening verse of the third chapter. like many of the writings of the post-exilic period, the book, therefore, is anonymous. its date, however, may be determined from its contents. the reference to the desolation of the land of the edomites suggests that it was written late in the persian period after the edomites had been driven out from mount seir by the nabateans and had found a home on the southern borders of judah. the priests in the judean community had become corrupt and the temple service was neglected, indicating that they had lost the early enthusiasm which followed the rebuilding of the sanctuary. the judean community was discouraged and a spirit of doubt and questioning prevailed in the minds of those who were faithfully striving to serve jehovah. the prophecy is an exact picture of conditions as nehemiah found them, so that the book of malachi may be dated not far from b.c. ii. neglect of the temple service. the prophet's method is akin to that of zechariah. evidently the early reverence for the word of the prophet has disappeared. instead of bare assertions, each conclusion is supported by detailed arguments. the author of malachi is also deeply interested in the ritual and regards the preservation of its purity as essential to the religious life of the judean community. he charges the priests with failure to observe the ceremonial laws, especially in allowing the people to bring for sacrifice animals that are blind, lame, and sick. these acts are evidence of the religious apathy that had seized even the religious leaders of the people. the prophet declares boldly that under the guise of religion the priests are robbing jehovah. above all they are faithless to their responsibilities as the appointed teachers of the people. in : - he presents the clearest picture extant of the task of the priest as teacher. his duty was to instruct the people, to help them to overcome temptation, and to make very clear to them the way of duty. this ideal, the prophet declares, was realized by earlier priests, but now those who are the appointed religious guides are misleading the people. iii. the need of a great moral awakening. the evils which the prophet denounced were not confined to the priests. the old semitic law regarding divorce was exceedingly lax. a husband could lead his wife to the door of his tent and tell her to be gone, thereby severing their marriage relation. the deuteronomic law sought to relieve this injustice by providing that the husband must place in the hand of his wife, as she departs, a document stating the grounds on which he had divorced her. by the middle of the fifth century b.c. divorce had evidently become exceedingly common in palestine. the prophet denounced it on the basis of its injustice and cruelty. he also maintained that marriage was a solemn covenant before jehovah between man and wife, and that he who disregarded it dealt faithlessly and was the especial object of divine displeasure. traces of the old heathenism still remained in judah, and the dependent, oppressed classes received little pity from the selfish, heartless rulers. in the face of these evils the prophet declared that jehovah would surely send a messenger to punish and to reform priest and people. the prophecy was evidently based on a clear recognition that jehovah was ever working to train and uplift his people, and that a period of degeneration must surely be followed by a period of reform. in the work of nehemiah the prophet's hopes were in part fulfilled, but the larger fulfilment of the underlying principle was realized in the thorough-going reformatory work of john the baptist and in that of the great teacher. in a later appendix to the prophecy of malachi this theme is still further developed. the promise is made that another prophet, with the zeal of the great reformer elijah, would come and prepare the way for a new and nobler era. iv. the lot of the faithful. in the prophecy of malachi is first voiced the despairing cries and doubts of those of the faithful who failed to rise above the effect of the existing social and religious evils. they are the righteous or afflicted who also speak through certain of the earlier psalms of the psalter (e.g., - , ). it was a period when the man who did right and was faithful to the demands of the law was thereby condemned to poverty and persecution at the hands of the corrupt priests and rulers. worse than that, their poverty and wretchedness were interpreted, according to the current belief of the day, as convincing evidence of jehovah's displeasure because of their sins. it was a time when wickedness triumphed and innocence suffered, and when the question whether or not a righteous god ruled the universe rose persistently in the minds of the faithful. the author of malachi recognizes and seeks to meet these doubts: ye have said, it is useless to serve god, and what gain is it to us to have kept his charge, and that we have walked in funeral garb before him? even now we call the proud happy, verily those who work iniquity thrive, yea, they tempt god and escape. here the problem is the same as that of the book of job. to these doubts the prophet could only reply that jehovah will keep a record of the faithful and in his good time will reward them. v. the problem of suffering in the literature of the period. as was natural, this problem of innocent suffering was prominent in the literature of the period. it became especially insistent at this time, because it had ceased to be the problem of the community, and had become that of individuals or of a class. while the nation rested under the shadow of misfortune, a solution of the problem was found in the consciousness of national guilt and in the hope that the affliction would be but temporary. the old dogma that virtue was always rewarded and wickedness punished continued to satisfy israel's leaders. when, however, a considerable class in the community were conscious that they had committed no crimes worthy of the bitter persecutions and calamities that overtook them, and that it was often just because of their virtue and the steadfastness with which they clung to the nobler ideals of their race that they were thus assailed, the current interpretations of evil were no longer satisfactory. when in time many of them went down to the grave crushed by affliction and the objects of the taunts and revilings of their wicked pursuers, the insufficiency of the current explanation of misfortune was tragically demonstrated. to their minds sheol or the grave offered no solution, for, as among all early aryan and semitic peoples, it was thought of as the dark, passionless, joyless abode of the shades. in most of the psalms of this period the poets who speak in behalf of the afflicted class, like the author of malachi, expressed the hope that jehovah would speedily come to their deliverance and signally vindicate and reward them. the heroism and fidelity that they represent can only be fully appreciated in the light of this discouraging period when evil was regnant. it was apparently at this time that the great poet, who speaks through the book of job, presented, with the spirit and method of a modern philosopher, the lot of these innocent sufferers. he also proved for all time that misfortune is not always the evidence of guilt, and that the current doctrine of proportionate rewards and the explanations that were adduced to support it were in certain cases absolutely untenable. section xcviii. the problem and teachings of the book of job [sidenote: job : - ] there was a man in the land of uz, whose name was job. and that man was blameless and upright; he feared god and turned away from evil. and seven sons and three daughters were born to him. his possessions also included seven thousand sheep, three thousand camels, five hundred yoke of oxen, five hundred she asses, and an exceedingly large number of servants; so that this man was the greatest of all the peoples of palestine. and his sons were accustomed to hold a feast in one another's house each on his day. and they were wont to send and invite their three sisters to eat and drink with them. and when the days of their feasting were over, job used to send and sanctify them, and he rose up early in the morning, and offered burnt-offerings according to the number of them all; for job said, perhaps my sons have sinned, and renounced god in their hearts. thus job did continually. [sidenote: job : - ] now on a certain day when the sons of god came to present themselves before jehovah, satan also came among them. and jehovah said to satan, whence comest thou? then satan answered jehovah, and said, from going to and fro in the earth, and walking up and down on it. and jehovah said to satan, hast thou considered my servant job? for there is none like him on the earth, a blameless and upright man who fears god, and turns away from evil. then satan answered jehovah, and said, doth job fear god for nought? hast thou not made a hedge about him, and about his household, and about all that he hath, on every side? thou hast blessed the work of his hands, and his possessions are increased in the land. but put forth thy hand now, and touch all that he hath, and he will curse thee to thy face. [sidenote: job : ] then jehovah said to satan, behold all that he hath is in thy power; only put not forth thy hand upon him. so satan went forth from the presence of jehovah. [sidenote: job : - ] now on a certain day when his sons and daughters were eating and drinking in their eldest brother's house, a messenger came to job and said, the oxen were plowing and the asses were feeding beside them, when the sabeans suddenly attacked and captured them, and they have slain the servants with the edge of the sword; and i alone have escaped to tell you. while that one was yet speaking, another came and said, the fire of god has fallen from heaven, and has burned up the sheep and the servants, and consumed them; and i alone have escaped to tell you. while that one was yet speaking, another came and said, the chaldeans made three bands, and raided the camels and took them away, and they have slain the servants with the edge of the sword; i alone have escaped to tell you. while that one was yet speaking, another came and said, your sons and your daughters were eating and drinking in their eldest brother's house, when there came a great wind from over the wilderness, and smote the four corners of the house, and it fell upon the young men, and they are dead. i alone have escaped to tell you. [sidenote: job : - ] then job arose, and tore his robe, and shaved his head, and fell upon the ground and worshipped; and he said: naked i came from my mother's womb, and naked shall i return thither! jehovah gave and he hath taken away; blessed be the name of jehovah! in all this job sinned not, nor reviled god. [sidenote: job : - ] and on a certain day when the sons of god came to present themselves before jehovah, satan came also to present himself before jehovah. and jehovah said to satan, whence comest thou? and satan answered jehovah, and said, from going to and fro in the earth, and from walking up and down on it. and jehovah said to satan, hast thou considered my servant job? for there is none like him in the earth, a blameless and upright man, one who fears god, and turns away from evil; and he still remains steadfast in his piety, although thou incitest me against him, to destroy him without cause. and satan answered jehovah, and said, skin for skin, yea, all that a man hath will he give for his life. but put forth thy hand now, and touch his bone and his flesh; surely he will curse thee to thy face. and jehovah said to satan, behold, he is in thy power: only spare his life. [sidenote: job : , ] so satan went forth from the presence of jehovah, and smote job with a malignant eruption from the sole of his foot to his crown. and he took a potsherd with which to scrape himself; and he sat among the ashes. [sidenote: job : , ] then said his wife to him, do you still remain steadfast in your piety? curse god, and die. but he said to her, you speak like one of the foolish women. we receive good at the hand of god, shall we not also receive evil? in all this did not job sin with his lips. [sidenote: job : - ] now when job's three friends heard of all this evil that was come upon him, they came each from his own place: eliphaz the temanite, and bildad the shuhite, and zophar the naamathite; and they made an appointment together to come to show their sympathy for him and to comfort him. and when they lifted up their eyes afar off and knew him not, they raised their voice and wept; and all tore their robes, and sprinkled dust upon their heads toward heaven. so they sat down with him on the ground seven days and seven nights, without any one speaking a word to him, for they saw that his pain was very great. [sidenote: job : , , - , - ] then job began to speak and said: why did i not die before birth? why did i not expire when my mother bore me? for now would i have lain down and been quiet, i would have slept, then had i been at rest, with kings and counsellors of the earth, who built up ruins for themselves; or with princes who possessed gold, who filled their houses with silver. there the wicked cease from raging, and the weary are at rest. there the prisoners have peace as well, they hear not the voice of the taskmaster. the small and the great are there, and the servant is free from his master. [sidenote: job : - , , ] why is light given to the suffering, and life to those in anguish, who long for death but it comes not, and search for it more than treasures, who rejoice with great exultation, and are glad when they can find the grave? for the thing which i feared has come upon me, and that of which i was afraid has overtaken me. no peace nor quiet, have i, no rest, but trembling seizes me. [sidenote: job : - ] then answered eliphaz the temanite, and said: if one tries to speak with you, will you be impatient, but who can restrain himself from speaking? behold, you have instructed many, and have strengthened feeble hands. your words have upheld him who was falling, and you have made tottering knees strong. but now, that it is come to you, you are impatient, it touches yourself and you lose courage. is not your piety, your trust, your hope the integrity of your ways? remember now who, being innocent, perished? or where have the upright been destroyed? [sidenote: job : - ] can mortal man be righteous before god? can a man be pure before his maker? behold, he trusteth not in his own servants, and his angels he chargeth with error; how much more the dwellers in clay houses, whose foundation is laid in the dust? [sidenote: job : - , , ] happy is the man whom god correcteth, therefore reject not the chastening of the almighty. for he causeth pain and bindeth up; he woundeth and his hands heal. he will deliver you out of six troubles, yea, in seven, no evil shall touch you, in famine he will redeem you from death, and in war from the power of the sword. you shall be hid from the scourge of the tongue; you shall not be afraid of destruction when it comes. at destruction and want you shall laugh, and you need not fear the beasts of the earth. you shall come to your grave in a ripe old age, as a sheaf garnered in its season. lo this, we have searched out, so it is; hear it and know it yourself. [sidenote: job : - b] then job answered and said: oh, that my bitterness were weighed, all my calamity laid in the scales! then would it be heavier than the sand of the seas; for this reason my words are rash. for the arrows of the almighty are within me, their poison my spirit drinks up. [sidenote: job : - ] oh that i might have my request, and that god would grant that for which i long: even that it would please god to crush me, and that he would let loose his hand and cut me off! then this would be my consolation, i would exult in pain that spares not. [sidenote: job : - ] what strength have i still to endure? and what is mine end that i should be patient? is my strength the strength of stones? or is my body made of brass? behold there is no help in me, and wisdom is driven quite from me. [sidenote: job : , , - ] kindness from his friend is due to one in despair, even though he forsakes the fear of the almighty. my brothers have been as deceptive as a brook, as the channel of brooks that disappear. for now you are nothing, you see a terror and are afraid. did i say, 'give to me?' or, 'offer a present to me of your wealth?' or, 'deliver me from a foeman's hand?' or, 'redeem me from the oppressor's power?' [sidenote: job : - ] teach me and i will hold my peace, and make plain to me wherein i have erred. how agreeable are upright words! but what does a reproof from you reprove? do you think to reprove mere words, when the speeches of the desperate are as wind? you fall upon a blameless man, and you make merchandise of your friend. now therefore be pleased to look upon me; for surely i will not lie to you. turn ere you let injustice be done, yea, turn again, my cause is righteous. is there injustice on my tongue? can not my taste discern what is evil? [sidenote: job : - ] has not man a hard service on earth? and are not his days like the days of a hireling? as a slave who sighs for the shadows of the evening, and as a hireling who looks for his wages, so am i given months of misery, and wearisome nights are appointed me. when i lie down, i say: 'when shall i arise, and the night be gone?' and i am full of unrest until the dawn. my flesh is clothed with worms and clods of dust; my skin hardens, then breaks out again. my days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle, and are spent without hope. [sidenote: job : , ] as the cloud is consumed and vanishes away, so he who goes down to sheol shall come up no more, he shall return no more to his house, nor shall his place know him any more. [sidenote: job : , ] therefore i will not refrain my mouth; i will speak in the bitterness of my spirit. am i a sea, or a sea-monster, that thou shouldest set a watch over me? when i say, "my bed shall comfort me, my couch shall ease my complaint;" then thou frightest me with dreams, and terrifiest me through visions: so that i myself choose strangling, and death rather than my pains. i loath life, i would not live always, let me alone, for my days are as a breath, what is man, that thou exaltest him, that on him thou directest thy thought, that thou visitest him each morning, and testest him each moment? [sidenote: job : , ] if i have sinned, what have i done to thee, o watcher of men? why hast thou set me as thy target? and why am i a burden to thee? and why dost thou not pardon my transgression and take away mine iniquity? for now i shall lie down in the dust, when thou shalt seek me, i shall not be. [sidenote: job : - ] then answered bildad the shuhite and said, how long will you speak these things? and the words of your mouth be like a mighty wind? doth god pervert justice? or doth the almighty pervert righteousness? [sidenote: job : - ] if your children sinned against him, and he delivered them to the consequences of their guilt; you should earnestly seek god, let him take his rod away from me, and let not his terror make me afraid, then would i speak and not fear him, for in myself i am not thus fearful. [sidenote: job : - ] remember that as clay thou hast fashioned me, and wilt thou again turn me into dust? hast thou not poured me out as milk? and curdled me like a cheese? thou hast clothed me with a skin and with flesh, and knit me together with bones and with sinews. thou hast granted me life and favor, and thy care hath preserved my breath. yet these things thou didst hide in thy heart; i know that this is thy plan: if i sin, then thou watchest me, and if i be just, yet i cannot lift up my head! [sidenote: job : - ] are not the days of my life few enough? let me alone, that i may have a little cheer, before i go whence i shall not return, to the land of darkness and of gloom, the land dark as blackness, gloom without a gleam or ray of light. [sidenote: job : , - ] then answered zophar, the naamathite, and said: shall the multitude of words be unanswered? can you find the depths of god? can you reach the perfection of the almighty? it is high as heaven; what canst thou do? deeper than sheol; what can you know? its measure is longer than the earth, and broader than the sea. [sidenote: job : - ] if you set your heart aright, and stretch out your hands toward him; if iniquity be in thy hand, put it far away, and let not unrighteousness dwell in your tent. then you shall lift up your face without spot; and you shall be steadfast, and have no fear. and make your supplication to the almighty. if you are pure and upright, then he will prosper your righteous habitation. [sidenote: job : - ] then job answered and said: verily i know that it is so, but how can a man be made just with god? if he be pleased to contend with him, he cannot answer him one of a thousand. he is wise in mind and mighty in strength; who has defied him, and remained unharmed? he who removeth mountains and they know it not, and overturneth them in his anger, who shaketh the earth out of its place, so that its pillars tremble, who commandeth the sun and it rises not, and on the stars placeth his seal. [sidenote: job : - , ] if i called and he answered me, i would not believe that he had heard my voice. he who crusheth me with a tempest, prey of and multiplieth my wounds without cause. he will not permit me to take my breath, but filleth me with bitterness, if we speak of the strength of the mighty, lo it is he! and if of justice, who will summon him? though i am righteous, my own mouth condemns me, though i am perfect, it would prove me to be perverse. the earth is given into the hand of the wicked; he covereth the faces of its judges; if not he, then who is it? [sidenote: job : - ] if i wash myself with snow, and cleanse my hands with lye, yet thou plunge me into the filth, prove and mine own friends will abhor me. for he is not a man as i am, that i should answer him, that we should come together in judgment, there is no arbiter betwixt us, to lay his hand upon us both. [sidenote: job : - ] then job answered and said: no doubt but you are the people, and wisdom shall die with you! but i have a mind as well as you, and who does not know these things? [sidenote: job : - ] will you speak what is wrong for god? and will you talk deceitfully for him? will you show favor to him? will you contend for god? would it be well, should he search you out? or as one deceives a man, will you deceive him? he will surely reprove you, if secretly you show favor. shall not his majesty overawe you, and dread of him fall upon you? your memorable sayings are proverbs of ashes, your defences are defences of clay! [sidenote: job : - ] hold your peace that i may speak, and let come to me what will. i take my flesh in my teeth, and put my life in my hand. behold he will slay me; i have no hope, but i will defend my ways before him. no godless man would come before him. give careful heed to my speech, and let my declaration be in your ears. behold now, i have prepared my case, i know that i shall be justified. [sidenote: job : - ] withdraw thy hand far from me; and let not thy terror make me afraid. then call and i will answer, or let me speak, and answer thou me. how many are my iniquities and sins? make me know my transgression and my sin. why dost thou hide thy face, and regard me as thine enemy? wilt thou harass a wind blown leaf? and wilt thou pursue the dry stubble? [sidenote: : - ] for there is hope of a tree, if it will be cut down, that it will sprout again, and that its shoot will not cease. though its root grow old in the earth, and its stock die in the ground; by the scent of water it will bud, and put forth its branches like a plant. but man dies and is laid low: yea, a man expires, and where is he? [sidenote: job : - , , ] oh, that thou wouldst hide me in sheol, that thou wouldst keep me in secret, until thy wrath be past, that thou wouldst appoint over me a time, and remember me! if a man might die, shall he live again! all the days of my hard service would i wait, until my release should come. thou wouldst call and i myself would answer thee; thou wouldst long for the work of thy hands. but the mountain surely falls, and the rock moves from its place, the water wears away the stones, its floods wash away the dust of the earth. [sidenote: job : - ] then answered eliphaz the temanite and said: verily, you do away with the fear of god, and hinder devotion before god. for your wickedness inspires your speech, and you choose the tongue of the crafty. your own mouth condemns you, and not i; and your own lips testify against you. [sidenote: job : - a, b] then answered job and said: i have heard many such things; troublesome comforters are you all. is there no end to vain words? if you were only in my place, i could join words together against you! [sidenote: job : - a] god delivereth me to the ungodly, and casteth me into the hands of the wicked. i was at ease, and he shattered me, he seized me by the neck and dashed me to pieces, he hath also set me up as his target, his arrows encompass me round about. [sidenote job : - ] o earth, cover not my blood, and let my cry have no resting place. even now behold my witness is in the heaven, and he who voucheth for me is on high. he will be found to be my friend, to god my eye pours out its tears. and he will maintain the right of a man with god, and between a man and his neighbor! [sidenote: job : , - ] then answered bildad the shuhite, and said: the light of the wicked is put out, and the flame of his fire does not shine, the light is darkened in his tent, and his light above him is put out. the steps of his strength are shortened, and his own counsel shall cast him down. [sidenote: job : - ] then job answered and said: my brothers keep far from me, and my acquaintances are like strangers to me. my kinsmen have ceased to know me, even the guests in my house have forgotten me. my maids regard me as a stranger, i am an alien in their sight. [sidenote: job : - ] oh, that my words were now written! oh, that they were inscribed in a book! that with an iron pen and lead they were engraved in a rock forever! but i indeed know that my vindicator liveth, and at last he will stand upon the earth: and after this, my skin, is destroyed, then i shall behold god, whom i myself shall see on my side, mine eyes shall behold, and not a stranger. [sidenote: job : - ] then answered zophar the naamathite, and said: not so do my thoughts give answer to me, because of this my haste is mine! i have heard the reproof which puts me to shame; but with wind void of understanding you answer me. have you not known this from of old, since man was placed upon the earth, that the exulting of the wicked is short, and the joy of the godless but for a moment? [sidenote: job: : , - ] then answered job and said: why do the wicked live, grow old, and attain great power? their descendants are established in their sight, and their offspring before their eyes. their households are secure from terror, and the rod of god is not upon them. [sidenote: job : - ] then eliphaz the temanite answered, and said, is a man of any account to god? surely a wise man is of account to himself. is it any pleasure to the almighty that you are righteous? or is it gain to him that you are upright? is it because of your fear of him that he reproveth you, that he entereth into judgment with you? is not your wickedness great? and there is no end to your iniquities. [sidenote: job : , , ] if you return to the almighty and humble yourself, if you remove unrighteousness far from your tents. you shall make your prayer to him, and he will hear you, and you shall pay your vows. you shall also decree a thing, and it shall be established for you. and light shall shine upon your ways. [sidenote: job : - ] then job answered and said, even now my complaint is bitter, my stroke is heavier than my groaning. oh, that i knew where i might find him! that i might come even to his throne! i would set forth my cause before him, and fill my mouth with arguments. i would know the words which he would answer me, and understand what he would say to me. would he contend with me in the greatness of his power? verily he would give heed to me. [sidenote: job : - ] then answered bildad the shuhite, and said, dominion and terror are with him; he maketh peace in his high places. is there any number to his armies? and upon whom does not his light arise? how then can man be just with god? or how can he be clean who is born of woman? [sidenote: job : , : , , ] then job answered and said, as god liveth, who hath taken away my right, and the almighty, who hath made my life bitter, surely my lips do not speak unrighteousness, nor does my tongue utter falsehood, far be it from me that i should grant that you are right; until i die i will not give up my innocence. [sidenote: job : - ] [then zophar answered and said]: let mine enemy be as the wicked, and let him who rises up against me be as the unrighteous. for what is the hope of the godless, when god requireth his life? will god hear his cry, when trouble comes upon him? [sidenote: job : - ] and job again took up his parable and said, oh, that i were as in the months of old, as in the days when god watched over me, when his lamp shined upon my head, and by his light i walked through darkness; as i was in the prime of my life, when god put a covering over my tent, when the almighty was yet with me, and my children were about me. [sidenote: job : - ] but now my soul is poured out within me; days of affliction have taken hold of me. the night bores through my bones, and my gnawing pains rest not. by reason of great wasting my garment is crumpled together; it binds me about as the collar of my coat. he hath cast me into the mire, and i am become like dust and ashes. i cry to thee but thou dost not answer me. i stand up, but thou dost not regard me. thou art turned to be cruel to me; with the might of thy hand thou persecutest me. [sidenote: job : - ] if i have walked with falsehood, and my foot has hasted to deceit; let me be weighed in a just balance, that god may know my integrity. if my step has turned out of the way, and my heart followed my inclination, and if any spot besmirches my hands; then let me sow, and let another eat, and let the produce of my field be uprooted. [sidenote: job : - ] oh, that there was someone to hear me! see, here is my signature, let the almighty answer me! and the indictment which my adversary has written! surely i would carry it on my shoulder; i would bind it to me as a crown; i would declare to him the number of my steps, as a prince would i draw near to him. [sidenote: job : - ] then jehovah answered job out of the storm, and said, who is this that darkeneth counsel by words that lack knowledge? gird up thy loins now like a man, and let me ask of thee and inform thou me. where wast thou when i laid the foundations of the earth? declare, if thou hast understanding. who determined its measures that thou knowest? or who stretched out the line upon it? on what were its foundations fastened? or who laid its corner-stone, when the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of god shouted for joy? [sidenote: job : - ] or who shut up the sea with doors, when it broke forth, and issued out of the womb; when i made clouds its garments, and thick mists its swaddling-bands, and marked out for it my bound, and set bars and doors, and said, here shalt thou come, but no further; and here shall thy proud waves stop? [sidenote: job : - ] canst thou hunt the prey for the lioness, or satisfy the appetite of the young lions, when they couch in their dens, and abide in the covert to lie in wait? who provideth at evening his prey, when his young ones cry to god, and wander to seek for food? [sidenote: job : , ] will the fault-finder contend with the almighty? he who argueth with god, let him answer it. wilt thou even annul my judgment? condemn me, that thou mayest be justified, or hast thou an arm like god? and canst thou thunder with a voice like him? [sidenote: job : , , , , ] then job answered jehovah and said: i know that thou canst do all things, and that no purpose of thine can be restrained. therefore, i have uttered that which i did not understand; things too wonderful for me, which i knew not. i have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear, but now mine eye seeth thee, therefore i loath [my words], and repent in dust and ashes. i. the structure of the book of job. like most of the books of the old testament, job is, without reasonable doubt, the work of several different writers. the prose introduction ( - ), with its corresponding conclusion ( : - ), was probably once an independent story. the words of jehovah in the epilogue ( : ) clearly implies that, as in and , job had endured the test and had meekly submitted to the afflictions which satan, with the divine approval, had sent upon him, and that on the other hand his friends, like his wife, had urged him to curse god and die. the language and phrases of this prose story are radically different from those in the poem which constitutes the main body of the book. the unique explanation of why job was afflicted that is given in the opening chapters is also completely ignored in the poetic dialogues ( - ). likewise the problem of whether or not job fears god for naught, raised in the prologue, is not taken up again except in the concluding prose epilogue. in the prose story job's piety conforms to the popular standards, while in the poetic sections he is measured by the loftier ethical principles laid down by the pre-exilic prophets (cf. chap. ). in form, therefore, in aim, and in content, the prose story differs fundamentally from the great dramatic poem which constitutes the real book of job. the main body of the book is found in chapters - , - , : - : , and : - . at a few points the original order has apparently been disarranged and later hands have frequently supplemented the older sections, but the literary unity of the whole is obvious. in three cycles of speeches the problem of innocent suffering is fully developed and the current solutions presented. in conclusion the voice of jehovah comes to job calling him forth from himself to the contemplation of the larger universe which manifests the divine wisdom and rulership. the elihu speeches in - are evidently from a still later author or authors who wished to rebuke job's seeming impiety and the failure of his friends to bring forth a satisfactory explanation of the suffering of the innocent. its independence is shown by the presence of many aramaic words, by the lack of literary vigor, and by the frequent repetitions, which distinguish it sharply from the writings of the author of the main body of the book. elihu and his contributions are also completely ignored in the rest of the book and at points where, if they were original, certain references would be almost inevitable. these speeches, in fact, are simply a fuller development of the argument of eliphaz found in the fifth chapter. they also incorporate many suggestions drawn from the speeches of jehovah in chapters and . ii. dates of the different parts. the classic hebrew style and the absence of aramaic words indicate that the prose story is the oldest section of the book. it also reasserts in modified form the dogma current far down into the persian period, that if the righteous but patiently bear affliction they will surely in the end be richly rewarded. it contains a message well adapted to the needs and beliefs of the jewish people during the calamities of the babylonian period. its conception of satan as the prosecuting attorney of heaven, and of jehovah as a transcendental ruler surrounded by a hierarchy of angels, is closely akin to that which first appears in the second chapter of zechariah. the references to job in ezekiel : , , as one of the three heroes of popular tradition famous for their piety, implies the existence during the exile of a story closely akin to if not identical with the one found in the prologue and epilogue of the book of job. such a story was probably current long before the days of ezekiel, but in its present form it was not committed to writing until the latter part of the babylonian or the beginning of the persian period. the first part of this story was evidently used by the author as an introduction to the great dramatic poem. he thereby deliberately protested against the solution of the problem of innocent suffering suggested by the ancient story. the poem itself cannot be dated earlier than the middle of the persian period. in it the great ethical and social standards of the pre-exilic prophets are fully accepted. its marvelous breadth of vision also implies an advanced stage in israel's thinking. the problem of suffering with which it deals is not merely that of the nation but of the individual or of a class within the judean community. it is precisely the problem that confronted the author of malachi and to which he refers in : - . it is the same problem that bulks largely in the psalms of this period and finds its noblest solution in isaiah . all its affinities, therefore, confirm the conclusion that it comes from the middle of the fifth century b.c. and is probably slightly older than isaiah - , which presents a more fundamental treatment of the problem of human suffering. the author still holds the old, prophetic conception of the universe ( : - ), and is unaffected by the priestly thought and tendencies which became especially prominent during the closing years of the persian period. the elihu speeches and the supplemental poem in description of wisdom in , and of the behemoth and leviathan in : - : , probably come from the greek period. iii. the prose story. in the prose story job is pictured as a man of superlative piety and prosperity. according to the popular standards of the earlier day he lived a blameless life. his afflictions came simply as a means of demonstrating the unselfish character of his piety. in rapid succession he is stripped of all his possessions and afflicted by the vilest of all diseases, apparently the loathsome tubercular leprosy. even his wife tempts him to curse god and die, but he fully meets the test, and, according to the testimony of the concluding epilogue, receives jehovah's approval and is restored to the joys of family, reputation, and riches. it is obvious that, as in the stories found in the opening chapters of genesis, this is a popular narrative freely adjusted to the ends which the story-teller wished to attain. the incidents recorded are not in keeping with the ordinary experiences of life, but belong rather to the realm of popular fancy. as a reference in ezekiel implies, it was probably, like the similar stories regarding noah and daniel, a heritage from the common semitic lore. in fact, a recently discovered babylonian tablet tells of a famous king of nippur, tâbi-utul-bêl by name, whose experiences and spirit corresponds closely to those of the hero of this prose story. the message of the prose story of job, as it was sent out to the jewish race, was that it was not always possible to understand the reason why the righteous were afflicted, but that if they faithfully met the test restoration to jehovah's approval, with the honor and reputation that necessarily follow, were assured. to the nation such a message was not without its practical application and value, but it failed completely to meet the individual problems that became pathetically insistent during the middle of the fifth century b.c. iv. the poem of job. in the later poetic version of the story (which begins with the third chapter) job himself is the embodiment of the problem of innocent suffering. his friends' suppositions and condemnations add still another burden to his weight of woe. more intolerable, however, than loss of possessions, health, and reputation is his sense of being forsaken and condemned by jehovah. job cannot shake himself entirely free from the belief, which had been inculcated in his mind from earliest infancy, that calamity was a sign of divine displeasure, and therefore of sin on the part of the victim. in the series of monologues and dialogues between job and his friends he voices every phase of the great problem and makes it concrete and objective. with marvellous psychological truth and insight the author has presented the different phases of feeling through which an innocent sufferer in job's position naturally passes. at times job is intemperate in his speech and at other times he yields to despondency; again his faith overleaps all obstacles and he holds for the moment a clear belief in the ultimate vindication not only of himself but of jehovah's justice. his friends, on the other hand, formulate at length the current explanation of suffering. job in his sharp retorts makes clear the inapplicability of the arguments and the limitations of the dogmas which they constantly reassert. in the concluding speeches of jehovah the author with masterly skill takes job out of his little circle into the larger world of nature, and brings him face to face with the evidences of jehovah's might, wisdom, and gracious rulership of the great universe and of the complex life of those who inhabit it. above all, job learns to know god, not through the testimony of others, but by direct personal experience, and this knowledge begets humility and trust. v. progress in job's thought. the thought of the book of job is characteristically oriental. instead of moving straight on from premises to conclusion it constantly reverts to the same themes yet advances along independent, parallel lines. its progress is not objective, as is usually the case in a drama, but almost entirely subjective. these parallel lines of progress are: ( ) the conviction gradually crystallizing into certainty that the current explanations of suffering are in certain cases inadequate and false. while viewed from one point of view this conclusion is merely negative, it nevertheless opened the eyes of job and his generation to a larger conception of jehovah and a far broader interpretation of the universe and of the laws which regulate it. the second is that he is guilty of no crime commensurate with the calamity which had overtaken him. overwhelmed by misfortune and the reiterated charges of his friends, only through a superhuman struggle did job ultimately attain the unshaken conviction that he was indeed innocent in the sight of god and man. the third line of progress is that, if not in the present life, in that beyond the grave his reputation would not only be vindicated but he himself would be fully conscious of that vindication. as is illustrated by the third chapter, job in common with his race still shared the belief that for the ordinary individual life beyond the grave was a shadowy existence, far removed from jehovah's presence. this conception of the life after death was inherited by the israelites from their semitic ancestors, and was held in common by most ancient peoples, both of the east and of the west. the babylonians believed, however, that certain favored mortals, as, for example, the hero of the flood, were transported to the abode of the gods, there to enjoy blessed individual immortality. the same belief is the foundation of the hebrew stories regarding enoch and elijah. this belief was apparently the germ which in time developed, as in the twelfth chapter of daniel, into the widespread conviction that the grave would not hold those who had been loyal to jehovah, but that he would surely raise them again to a glorious life. in the book of job it is possible to trace the birth-pangs of this broader hope. conscious of his innocence and confronted by the grave, job repeatedly voices the deep conviction that god, because he is just, will raise his afflicted servant from the grave and accord to him that justice which seems excluded from his present life. this solution of the problem of innocent suffering is not given the central place by the author of the book of job. it is safe, however, to conjecture that if the appearance of jehovah had not furnished to the author's mind a more satisfactory conclusion, the vindication after death would have been the solution offered. at several points job approaches very close to the belief in individual immortality which became a commonly accepted tenet in the trying days of the maccabean struggle. the fourth line of progress is that jehovah, after all, must be just and that he will right the seeming wrongs of life. in his opening speeches job gives free vent to the anguish and impatience that fills his tortured mind. with a boldness strangely foreign to hebrew thought, he charges jehovah with injustice and speaks of him as a cruel monster that watches man, his helpless prey, and takes cruel pleasure in the pain which he inflicts. as the discussion progresses job's mind becomes calmer, and the conviction that god, after all, is just comes more clearly to expression. his strong utterances gradually yield to this quieter mood. even before he hears the voice of jehovah, job has attained an attitude of trust, though he is still groping in darkness. thus with marvelous fidelity to human nature and experience the author of the book of job would have made a great contribution to the problem with which he was dealing even had he not added the concluding speeches of jehovah. vi. significance of the speeches of jehovah. to many western readers the concluding speeches of jehovah are unsatisfying. they lack the emphasis on jehovah's love and that divine tenderness in addressing the heroic sufferer which to us would seem to have been a satisfactory conclusion to the great drama. this element is furnished in characteristically concrete form by the epilogue of the book, in which job's prosperity is restored in double measure and he is personally assured of jehovah's favor. the severe and realistic author of the great poem, however, knew that in ordinary life such solutions are rare. in the speeches of jehovah he does not introduce an altogether new element, but emphasizes motifs already developed in the earlier dialogues. the effect of these speeches upon job are threefold: ( ) they rebuke his over-accentuated individualism. ( ) they reveal the fundamental contrast between the infinite god and finite man. in the light of this revelation job plainly recognizes his presumption and folly in attempting, with his limited outlook, to comprehend, much less to criticise, the mighty ruler of all the universe. ( ) after job had thus been led out of himself into personal companionship with god he was content to trust his all-wise guide, even though he recognized his own inability to fathom the mysteries of the universe or to solve the problem of innocent suffering. thus the great contributions of the book of job to the problem of suffering are: ( ) a clear and scientific presentation of the problem; ( ) a bold sweeping aside of the insufficient current theological explanations; ( ) a vastly enlarged conception of jehovah's character and rule; and ( ) that attitude of faith which comes from a personal experience of god and which trusts unreservedly, even though it cannot see or divine the reason why, and in that trust finds peace and joy. although the thought of the book of job is profound, and it deals in a masterly manner with a fundamental human problem, it is more than a mere philosophical discussion. its primary aim is to set forth the vital truth that god is not to be found through current theological dogmas or intellectual discussions, but through personal experience. this is the dominant note throughout the book. the greatest calamity that overtakes job in his hour of deepest distress is the sense of being shut away from god's presence. oh! that i knew where i might find him, that i might come even to his throne! as he looks back fondly to the happy days of old the fact that stands forth above all others is that the almighty was yet with me. looking forward to a possible vindication after death his hope centres in the belief that thou wouldst call and i myself would answer thee; thou wouldst long for the work of thy hands. when at last jehovah answered job out of the storm, it was not so much the thought expressed as the fact that god had spoken directly to him that brought penitence and peace: i have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear, but now mine eye seeth thee. therefore i loath my words, and repent in dust and ashes. section xcix. the training and mission of the true servant of jehovah [sidenote: isa. : - ] hearken to me, ye coastlands, and listen, ye distant peoples: he hath called me from the womb, from my mother's lap made mention of my name. he hath made my mouth like a sharp sword, in the shadow of his hand he hid me, he made me a polished arrow, in his quiver he concealed me, and he said to me, thou art my servant, israel, in whom i will glorify myself. [sidenote: isa. : ] but i said, i have labored in vain, i spent my strength for nothing and vanity, nevertheless my right is with jehovah, and my recompense with my god. [sidenote: isa. : , ] and now, thus saith jehovah, (he who formed from birth to be his servant, to bring jacob back to him, and that israel might be gathered to him; for i was honored in the sight of jehovah, and my god became my strength): it is too little a thing to be my servant, to raise up the tribes of jacob, and to restore the survivors of israel; therefore i will make thee the light of the nations, that thy salvation may reach to the ends of the earth. [sidenote: isa. : ] thus saith jehovah, the redeemer of israel, his holy one, to him who is heartily despised, to the one abhorred of the people, a servant of rulers: kings shall see and arise, princes and they shall do homage, because of jehovah who is faithful, the holy one of israel who hath chosen thee. [sidenote: isa. : - b] thus saith jehovah, in a time of favor i answer thee, and in a day of deliverance i help thee, and i make thee a pledge to the people, to raise up the [ruined] land, to reapportion the desolate heritages, saying to those who are bound, 'go forth,' to those in darkness, 'show yourselves!' [sidenote: isa. : c- ] they shall pasture along all ways, even oh all the bare hills shall they graze. they shall not be hungry nor thirsty, neither shall the glowing heat nor the sun smite them, for he who hath pity on them shall lead them, and to gushing fountains will he guide them. and i will make all mountains a road, and highways shall be built up. [sidenote: isa. : , ] behold, these come from afar, and these from the north and west, and these from the land of the syenites! shout with joy, o heavens, and exult, o earth! let the mountains break forth into shouts of joy! for jehovah hath had pity on his people, and will show mercy to his afflicted ones. [sidenote: isa. : - ] the lord jehovah hath given me the tongue of a trained disciple? to give to the fainting a word of help, he waketh me early, early he waketh me, that i may listen as a disciple. the lord jehovah hath opened mine ear, and i have not been wilful nor turned back rebelliously. [sidenote: isa. : , ] my back i gave to smiters and my cheek to those who plucked the beard, my face i hid not from insult and spitting, for my lord jehovah is my helper; so that i am not confounded. therefore i have set my face like flint, and i know that i shall not be put to shame. [sidenote: isa. : , ] he is near who justifieth me, who will contend with me? let us stand up together! who is the adversary to oppose my cause? let him draw near to me! behold the lord jehovah is my helper; who is he that can harm me? lo, they shall all fall to pieces like a garment, the moth shall consume them. [sidenote: isa. : ] who among you feareth jehovah, let him hearken to the voice of his servant? who walked in darkness, having no light, let him trust in the name of jehovah and rely on his god? [sidenote: isa. : - ] behold, my servant shall prosper, he shall be raised up and highly exalted. even as many were appalled at him, so shall many nations tremble, kings will close their mouths before him, when what has not been told them they see, and what they have not heard they perceive. [sidenote: isa. : - b] who believed what has been reported to us, and to whom was jehovah's might revealed? for he grew up before us as a young shoot, and as a root out of dry ground. [sidenote: isa. : c-f] he had no form that we should regard him, nor appearance that we should delight in him. his appearance was more disfigured than any man's and his form than any human being's. [sidenote: isa. : ] he was despised and forsaken of men, a man of suffering and acquainted with sickness; like one for whom men hide their face, he was despised so that we esteemed him not. [sidenote: isa. : ] surely our sickness he himself bore, and our sufferings--he carried them, yet we ourselves esteemed him stricken, smitten of god and afflicted. [sidenote: isa. : ] but he was wounded for our transgressions, crushed because of our iniquities; the chastisement for our well-being was upon him, and through his stripes healing came to us. [sidenote: isa. : ] all of us, like sheep, had gone astray, we had turned each to his own way; while jehovah made to light upon him the guilt of us all. [sidenote: isa. : ] yet when afflicted he opened not his mouth; like a lamb led to the slaughter, and like a sheep dumb before her shearers, so he opened not his mouth. [sidenote: isa. : ] by an oppressive judgment was he taken away, yet who of his generation considered that he had been cut off from the land of the living; for our transgressions had been stricken to death? [sidenote: isa. : ] and his grave was made with the wicked, and among evil-doers his burial mound, although he had done no violence, neither was deceit in his mouth. [sidenote: isa. : - b] yet jehovah was pleased to crush him; through giving himself as an offering for guilt, he shall see posterity and length of days, and the pleasure of jehovah will be realized in his hands; out of his own suffering he shall see light, he shall be satisfied with his knowledge. [sidenote: isa. : c- ] my righteous servant shall make many righteous, and himself will bear the burden of their iniquities. therefore i will give him a portion among the great, and with the strong shall he divide spoil, because he poured out his life-blood, and was numbered with transgressors, and himself bore the sins of many, and interposed for transgressors. i. the different portraits of jehovah's servant. isaiah - contains three distinct portraits of the ideal servant of jehovah. each in turn develops characteristics suggested in the preceding. these descriptions are interspersed with exhortations addressed to jehovah's servant israel and assurances that god will fully restore jerusalem and bring back her scattered children. these three portraits of the type of servant that jehovah required to realize his purpose in human history, together with the earlier portrait in : - , supplement each other. in the first of these four ( : - ) the prophetic qualities of the servant are especially emphasized. like the earlier prophets, he will not fail nor be discouraged until he has established justice in the earth. his task is to open blind eyes and to deliver prisoners from the darkness of ignorance and sin in which they were sitting. in the second picture ( : - a) the world-wide mission of the servant is emphasized. he is called not only to gather the outcasts of israel, but also as an apostle to bring light to all the nations of the earth. in this passage for the first time appears that note of suffering and ignominy which is the lot of the true servant of jehovah. in the third portrait ( : - ) the servant is pictured as a disciple, attentively listening to the divine teachings, learning the lessons which will fit him in turn to become a teacher of men. the last and fullest picture ( : - : ) describes at length his suffering. a strong contrast is drawn between his present shame and ignominy and the future glory and victory which he will achieve through his voluntary and complete self-sacrifice. these pictures embody the prophet's ideal, and they can be fully understood only in the light of their historical background. ii. the prophet's purpose. in his earlier poems this great unknown prophet dealt largely with the interpretation of israel's past history and the proclamation of the coming deliverance ( - ). his chief aims in chapters - may be briefly epitomized as follows: ( ) to interpret the inner meaning of the period of adversity through which the jewish race was then passing; ( ) to make absolutely clear the character and quality of the service that jehovah required of his chosen people, if they were to realize his purpose in human history; ( ) to inspire them all to make the needed sacrifices and thus to prove themselves true servants of jehovah; ( ) especially to make plain to the innocent and faithful sufferers in the judean community the real meaning and value of their present shame and suffering, if bravely and voluntarily borne. iii, character and condition of those to whom the prophet appealed. from the allusions in the prophecies themselves it is possible to determine the classes that the prophet had in mind. in : his address is to the coast lands and the distant peoples who lived at the extremities of israel's horizon. it is not probable, however, that he anticipated that his message in its present form would go out as it has to all races and nations; rather his attention was fixed on the scattered members of his own race, those who lived in the north and the west and in the distant city of syene, far up the nile ( : ). in : he clearly identifies the nation israel as jehovah's servant, whom he makes declare: jehovah said to me, thou art my servant, israel, in whom i will glorify myself. it is evident, however, that the prophet has especially in mind the judean community amidst which he lived and for which he worked. in , as elsewhere, he calls upon this group of discouraged jews to enlarge their tent, for their period of punishment is over and their foundation and walls are about to be rebuilt. at last they shall cease to tremble at the fury of the oppressor. in : - he addresses jerusalem directly and gives a vivid picture of its condition before the appearance of nehemiah: rouse thee! rouse thee! stand up, o jerusalem, who hast drunk at jehovah's hand the cup of his wrath! the bowl of reeling thou hast drunken, hast drained! there is none to guide thee of all the sons whom thou hast borne, and none to take thee by the hand of all the sons whom thou hast reared. these two things have befallen thee--who can condole with thee? desolation and destruction, famine and the sword--who can comfort thee? iv. the task and training of jehovah's servant. the term servant means literally slave, not in the western sense, but in that of the ancient east, where a slave was often a privileged member of society. in many a hebrew household the slaves, next to the children, enjoyed the protection and consideration of the master of the household. he was under obligation to guard their welfare and interests. on the other hand, slaves, like eleazar in the story of abraham (gen. ) faithfully cared for the interests of their master and spared no effort to carry out his commands. semitic usage had also given the term slave a significant meaning. the faithful officials of all oriental kings called themselves his servants or slaves. it was the common term expressing, on the one hand, confidence and protection, and on the other, devotion, loyalty, and service. most of israel's patriarchs, kings, and prophets are spoken of as the servants or slaves of jehovah. haggai, in his address to zerubbabel, called him jehovah's servant. in deuteronomy : the people of israel are called the servants of jehovah, and, as has been noted, in the prophecies of the ii isaiah they are frequently referred to as the servant of jehovah. the term, therefore, was well chosen to express that complete devotion and loyalty to jehovah which the prophet aimed to evoke from his fellow-countrymen. it was also free from the kingly associations and material interpretation that were connected with the word messiah. the prophet's aim was to present so vividly the task and methods of the true servant of jehovah that all would recognize a personal call to duty. he emphasizes three distinct yet related elements in the mission of the servant. they were: ( ) to free the prisoners from their captivity, whether imprisoned by walls of stone or brick or under the tyranny of fears and false ideas. ( ) to restore the scattered tribes of israel and thus to lay the foundations for a renewed national life that would furnish concrete evidence to all the world of jehovah's power to deliver. ( ) to go beyond the narrow bounds of their race and to bring to the nations that were groping in the darkness of heathenism the knowledge and truth that had been imparted to israel. thus the unknown prophet laid the foundations for that kingdom of god, that dominion of god in nature and in the minds of men that was the guide and inspiration of all later prophets and the goal for whose realization the great teacher and prophet of nazareth labored and died. the prophet places great emphasis upon the training of jehovah's servant. he declares that from birth jehovah formed him to be his servant. in [ : - ] he is spoken of as a trained disciple attentively listening to the words of his divine teacher, never rebelling at the bitterness of the needful discipline, but ever seeking to prepare himself to give to the fainting a word of help. the steadfastness with which he endures shame and bitter wrongs is the evidence of his ability as a disciple and an essential part in his preparation for his exalted mission. v. methods of jehovah's servant. in accomplishing his task the servant is to use definite instruction, but his teaching is to be illustrated by his own character and attitude. by the voluntary, uncomplaining endurance of ignominy and suffering he is to do jehovah's work and win the grateful recognition, not only of his divine master, but of all succeeding generations. through a keen analysis of life the prophet had attained to a clear appreciation of the inestimable value of voluntary self-sacrifice. he saw that it was the most effective means of uplifting the race and leading mankind to accept god's mastery over their minds and lives. the truth here presented is illustrated in human experience as clearly to-day as in the past. the self-denying service of parents is absolutely essential if their children are to attain to the noblest manhood and womanhood. only through the self-sacrificing labors of those who love their fellow-men can social evils be removed and society attain its highest development. the low standards in the business and professional world can be raised only as certain men, with the spirit and courage of the ancient prophets, make their own personal interests and popularity subservient to the rigorous demands of justice. it is the law of life that he who would elevate the standards of his associates and thus lead men to the fullest realization of the divine ideals must ordinarily do it in the face of opposition, ignominy, and seeming failure. it is this quiet, heroic self-sacrifice--the heroism of the commonplace--that the great prophet proclaims is the absolutely essential characteristic of jehovah's servant. despised by his contemporaries, the victim of persecution and calamity, he must do his task, leaving the reward and the appreciation to jehovah and to the enlightened sense of later generations. vi. realization of the ideal of service. the portrait is so concrete that the question naturally arises, who was the servant of whom the prophet was speaking? undoubtedly the tragic experiences of such prophets as jeremiah suggested many elements in the picture. for half a century that faithful servant of jehovah suffered, often shrinkingly, yet voluntarily, a constant martyrdom. upon him fell the persecutions of his countrymen. yet in the life of later judaism those principles for which he lived and died gained acceptance and application. of him it may be truly said: he was numbered with trangressors, and himself bore the sins of many, and interposed for transgressors. the unknown author of these immortal poems spoke out of the depth of his own painful experience and doubtless in a large degree realized the ideals of service which he thus effectively set forth. those of his contemporaries who, amidst persecution and insults, in their lives embodied the ideals of the earlier prophets were crushed like jeremiah because of the iniquities of others; but by thus pouring out their life-blood they brought healing to their race. nehemiah, in responding to the call of service and in turning his back upon the allurements of the persian court in order to rebuild the city of his fathers, proved himself a faithful servant of jehovah. with true insight the christian church has always recognized that in the character and life of jesus is found the only complete realization of this ancient ideal of service. with the immortal chapters of the ii isaiah he was clearly familiar, and from them he doubtless received many suggestions regarding his divine mission and the methods by which it was to be accomplished. their author was clearly speaking to his contemporaries; but in portraying the way in which jehovah's purpose in human history could alone be realized he presented an ideal which has a permanent significance in the thought of the human race, paul rightly recognized that the same responsibility to make this ideal a reality rested upon him, and all who would serve god, when he quoted the words of : (cf. acts : ): "i have set thee for a light of the gentiles that thou shouldst be for salvation to the uttermost parts of the earth." section c. nehemiah's work in rebuilding the walls of jerusalem [sidenote: neh. : - ] now in the month of chislev [november-december, b.c.], i was in shushan the royal palace, when hanani, one of my kinsmen came, together with certain men from judah, and i asked them concerning the jews who had escaped, who were left from the captivity, and concerning jerusalem. and they said to me, the survivors who are left from the captivity there in the provinces are in great misfortune and reproach, and the wall of jerusalem is broken down and its gates have been destroyed by fire. [sidenote: neh. : - b] now when i heard these statements i sat down and wept, and mourned certain days; and i fasted and made supplication before the god of heaven, and i said, 'i beseech thee, o jehovah, the god of heaven, the great and terrible god, who keepeth the covenant and showeth kindness to them who love and keep his commands; let thine ears now be attentive and thine eyes open, to hear the supplication of thy servant, which i am now making before thee, day and night, for the israelites thy servants, while i confess the sins of the israelites, which we have sinned against thee, as i also and my father's house have sinned. we have dealt very wickedly against thee, and have not kept the commandments, nor the statutes, nor the ordinances, which thou didst command thy servant moses. remember, i beseech thee, the word which thou didst command thy servant moses, saying, "if ye trespass i will scatter you abroad among the peoples; but if ye return to me, and keep my commands and do them, then, though your outcasts were at the ends of the earth, yet will i gather them thence and will bring them to the place that i have chosen, there to cause my name to dwell." now these are thy servants and thy people, whom thou hast redeemed by thy great power and by thy strong hand. o lord, i beseech thee, let thine ear be attentive to the supplication of thy servant, and to the supplications of thy servants, who delight to fear thy name; and give success to thy servant this day, and grant him mercy in the sight of this man. [sidenote: neh. : c- : ] now i was cupbearer to the king. and it came to pass in the month of nisan, in the twentieth year of artaxerxes the king, when i had charge of the wine, that i took up the wine and gave it to the king, and i had not beforetime been sad. and the king said to me, 'why is your countenance sad, since you are not sick? this is nothing else but sorrow of heart.' then i was greatly afraid, and i said to the king, 'let the king live forever: why should not my countenance be sad, when the city, the place of my fathers' sepulchres, lies in ruins, and its gates have been destroyed by fire?' and then the king said to me, 'for what do you make request? so i prayed to the god of heaven. and i said to the king, 'if it please the king, and if your servant has found favor in your sight, that you would send me to judah, to the city of my fathers' sepulchres, that i may rebuild it.' and the king said to me (and the queen was also sitting by him), 'for how long will your journey be? and when will you return?' then it pleased the king to send me; for i set him a time. moreover i said to the king, 'if it please the king, let official letters be given me to the governors of the province beyond the river, that they may let me pass through until i come to judah, and a letter to asaph the keeper of the king's park, that he may give me the timber to make beams for the gates of the castle, which belongs to the temple, and for the wall of the city, and for the house that i shall enter. and the king granted me this, according to the hand of my god which kindly cared for me. [sidenote: neh. : - ] then i came to the governors of the province beyond the river, and gave them the king's official letters. now the king had sent with me military officers and horsemen. and when sanballat, the horonite, and tobiah, the ammonite slave, heard of it, it troubled them exceedingly, that one had come to seek the welfare of the israelites. so i came to jerusalem and was there three days. and i arose in the night, together with a few of my followers, and i told no man what my god had put into my heart to do for jerusalem, neither was there any beast with me, except the beast upon which i rode. and i went out by night through the valley gate, toward the dragon's well and to the dung gate, and investigated carefully the walls of jerusalem, which were broken down, and where its gates had been destroyed by fire. then i went on to the fountain gate and to the king's pool, but there was no place for the beast that was under me to pass. then i went up in the night by the brook kidron and investigated carefully the wall; then i turned back and entered by the valley gate, and so returned. and the rulers did not know where i went or what i did, neither had i as yet told it to the jews nor to the priests nor to the nobles nor to the rulers nor to the rest who did the work. [sidenote: neh. : - ] then i said to them, 'you see the bad condition in which we are, how jerusalem lies in ruins and its gates are destroyed by fire. come and let us rebuild the wall of jerusalem, that we be no more an object of reproach.' and i told them of the hand of my god, which had kindly cared for me, as also of the king's words that he had spoken to me. and they said, 'let us rise up and build.' so they strengthened their hands for the good work. but when sanballat, the horonite, and tobiah, the ammonite slave, and geshem the arabian heard it, they jeered at us and despised us, and said, 'what is this thing that you are doing? will you rebel against the king?' then i answered and said to them, 'the god of heaven, he will give us success, for we his servants will proceed to build; but you shall have no portion nor right nor memorial in jerusalem.' [sidenote: neh. : , ] then eliashib the high priest rose up with his kinsmen the priests and built the sheep gate; they laid its beams and set up the doors, even to the tower of the hundred, and to the tower of hananel. and next to him the men of jericho built. and next to them zaccur the son of imri built. [sidenote: neh. : - ] and the fish gate the sons of hassenaah built; they laid its beams, and set up its doors, its bolts, and its bars. and next to them meremoth and meshullam and zadok and the tekoites repaired the wall; but their nobles did not bend their necks in the service of their lord. [sidenote: neh. : - ] and the old gate joida repaired; they laid its beams, and set up its doors, its bolts, and its bars. and next to them melatiah the gibeonite and jadon the meronothite, the men of gibeon and of mizpah, which belongs to the jurisdiction of the governor of the province beyond the river, repaired. next to him uzziel, one of the goldsmiths, repaired. and next to him hananiah, one of those who prepare sweet ointments, repaired. and they fortified jerusalem even to the broad wall. and next to them rephaiah, the ruler of half the district of jerusalem, repaired. and next to them jedaiah repaired opposite his house. and next to him hattush and malchijah and hasshub repaired another section, even to the tower of the furnaces. and next to him shallum, the ruler of half the district of jerusalem, together with its dependencies, repaired. [sidenote: neh. : , ] the valley gate hanun and the inhabitants of zanoah repaired; they built it, and set up its doors, its bolts, and its bars, and also built a thousand cubits of the wall to the dung gate. and the dung gate malchijah, the ruler of the district of beth-haccherem, together with his sons, repaired. [sidenote: neh. : - ] and the fountain gate shallun, the ruler of the district of mizpah, repaired; and he built it, and covered it, and set up its doors, its bolts, and its bars, and he also built the wall of the pool of siloam by the king's garden, even to the stairs that go down from the city of david. after him nehemiah, the ruler of half the district of bethzur, repaired to the place opposite the sepulchres of david, even to the pool that was made and to the house of the warriors. after him rehum the son of bani repaired. next to him hashabiah, the ruler of half the district of keilah, repaired for his district. after him their kinsmen bennui, the ruler of half the district of keilah, repaired. and next to him ezer, the ruler of mizpah, repaired another section opposite the ascent to the armory at the bend in the wall. after him baruch repaired from the bend in the wall to the door of the house of eliashib the high priest. after him meremoth repaired another section, from the entrance to the house of eliashib even to the end of the house of eliashib. and after him the priests, the men of the plain of the jordan, repaired. after them benjamin and hasshub repaired opposite their house. after them azariah repaired beside his own house. after him binnui repaired another section, from the house of azariah to the bend in the wall and to the corner. after him palal repaired opposite the bend and the upper tower that stands out from the royal palace of the king, which is toward the court of the guard. after him pedaiah repaired, to the place opposite the water gate toward the east and the tower that stands out. after him the tekoites repaired another section, opposite the great tower that stands out and to the wall of ophel. and the temple servants dwelt in ophel. [sidenote: neh. : - ] above the horse gate the priests repaired, each one opposite his own house. after them zadok the son of immer repaired opposite his own house. after him shemaiah the son of shechaniah, the keeper of the east gate, repaired. after him hananiah the son of shelemiah and hanum the sixth son of zalaph repaired another section. after him meshullam the son of berschiah repaired opposite his chamber. after him malchijah, one of the goldsmiths, repaired as far as the house of the temple servants and of the merchants, opposite the gate of the watch tower and to the ascent of the corner. and between the ascent of the corner and the sheep gate the goldsmiths and the merchants repaired. [sidenote: neh. : - ] now when sanballat heard that we were rebuilding the wall, his anger was aroused and he was very indignant, and mocked the jews. and he spoke before his kinsmen and the army of samaria and said, 'what are these feeble jews doing? will they leave it to god? will they sacrifice? will they complete it in a day? will they revive the stones out of the heaps of rubbish, although they are burned? now tobiah the ammonite was with him, and he said, 'even that which they are building, if a fox should go up on it, he would break down their stone wall!' hear, o our god--for we are despised--and turn back their reproach upon their own head and give them up as an object of spoil in a land of captivity, and cover not their iniquity and let not their sin be blotted out from thy sight, for they have provoked thee to anger before the builders. [sidenote: neh. : - ] so we built the wall; and all the wall was joined together to half its height, for the people were eager to work. but when sanballat and tobiah and the arabians and the ammonites and the ashdodites, heard that the restoration of the walls of jerusalem was progressing, so that the breaches began to be stopped, they were very angry. and they all conspired together to come and fight against jerusalem and to produce a panic therein. [sidenote: neh. : - ] but we made supplication to our god, and set a watch as a protection against them day and night. then the judean community said, 'the strength of the burden-bearers is broken, for there is much rubbish; so that we shall not be able to rebuild the wall. and our adversaries have said, "they shall neither know nor see, until we come into their midst and slay them and bring the work to a standstill."' and it came to pass that when the jews who dwelt by them came, they said to us ten times, 'from all the places where they dwell they will come up against us.' therefore i stationed in the lowest parts of the space behind the wall, in the protected places, i set there the people by their families with their swords, their spears, and their bows. and when i saw their fear, i rose up and said to the nobles and to the rulers and to the rest of the people, 'be not afraid of them. remember the lord, who is great and terrible, and fight for your kinsmen, your sons and your daughters, your wives and your homes.' [sidenote: neh. : - ] and when our enemies heard that their plan was known to us and god had brought it to nought, we all of us returned to the wall, each to his own work. and from that time on, while half of my servants were engaged in the work, half of them held the lances, the shields, the bows, and the coats of mail; and the rulers stood behind all the house of judah. those who built the wall and those who bore burdens were also armed, each with one of his hands engaged in the work, and with the other was ready to grasp his spear; and each of the builders had his sword girded by his side, and so builded. and he who sounded the trumpet was by me. and i said to the nobles and to the rulers and to the rest of the people, 'the work is great and extensive, and we are separated upon the wall far from each other. in whatever place you hear the sound of the trumpet, gather there to us; our god will fight for us.' so we were active in the work, while half of them held the lances from the gray of morning until the stars came out. also i said at that time to the people, let each man with his servant lodge in jerusalem, that they may be a guard to us by night and may labor by day. so neither i, nor my kinsmen, nor my servants, nor the men of the guard who accompanied me, not one of us took off our clothes, each had his spear in his hand. [sidenote: neh. : - ] now when it was reported to sanballat and to tobiah and to geshem the arabian and to the rest of our enemies, that i had rebuilt the wall and that there was no breach was left in it--though even to that time i had not set up the doors in the gates--sanballat and geshem sent to me, saying, 'come, let us meet together in one of the villages on the plain of ono.' but they planned to do me injury. so i sent messengers to them, saying, 'i am doing a great work, so that i cannot come down; why should the work cease, while i leave it and come down to you?' and they sent to me in this way four times, and i gave them the same answer. then sanballat sent his servant to me in the same way the fifth time with an open letter in his hand, in which was written, 'it is reported among the nations, and gashmu confirms it, that you and the jews plan to rebel, and that this is the reason you are building the wall, and that you would be their king, and that you also have appointed prophets to preach of you at jerusalem, saying, "there is a king in judah." and now it will be reported to the king to this effect. come now, therefore, and let us take counsel together.' then i sent to him, saying, 'no such things have been done as you say, but you have devised them in your own mind.' for they all would have made us afraid, thinking, 'their hands shall be weakened from the work, that it may not be done.' but now, o god, strengthen thou my hands. [sidenote: neh. : - ] and when i went to the house of shemaiah the son of delaiah, the son of mehetabel, who was shut up at home, he said, 'let us meet together in the house of god, within the temple, and let us shut the doors of the temple: for they are coming to slay you in the night; yes, in the night they are coming to slay you!' and i said, 'should such a man as i flee? and how could anyone like me [a layman] enter the chief room of the temple and still live? i will not enter.' then i perceived and it was clear that god had not sent him; but he pronounced this prophecy against me, because tobiah and sanballat had hired him, that i should be alarmed and act accordingly and sin; and it would have given them occasion for an evil report, that they might reproach me. remember, o my god, tobiah and sanballat according to these their acts, and also the prophetess noadiah and the rest of the prophets who would have made me afraid. [sidenote: neh. : , ] so the wall was finished in the twenty-fifth day of the month elul, in fifty-two days. and when all our enemies heard, all the surrounding nations feared and fell in their own esteem, for they perceived that this work had been done by our god. [sidenote: neh. : - ] moreover in those days the nobles of judah sent many letters to tobiah, and those of tobiah came to them. for many in judah had taken oath to him, because he was the son-in-law of shechaniah the son of arah and his son jehohanan had taken the daughter of meshullam, the son of berechiah, as wife. also they praised his good deeds before me and reported my words to him. then tobiah sent letters to make me afraid. [sidenote: neh. : - ] now when the wall had been built and i had set up the doors, and the porters and the singers and the levites had been appointed, i placed my brother hanani and hananiah the commander of the castle in charge of jerusalem; for he was a faithful man, and more god-fearing than many. and i said to them, 'let not the gates of jerusalem be opened until the sun is hot; and while watchmen are still on guard, let them shut the doors and bar them. also appoint watches consisting of the inhabitants of jerusalem, every one in his watch and each opposite his own house.' [sidenote: neh. : , a] now the city was wide and large; but there were few people in it, and the households were not large. therefore my god put it into my mind to gather together the nobles and the rulers and the people. [sidenote: neh. : , , - ] then i had the rulers of judah take their position upon the wall, and i appointed two great companies that gave thanks, and the first went to the right hand upon the wall toward the dung gate. and behind them went hoshaiah and half of the nobles of judah. and by the fountain gate, they went straight up the stairs of the city of david, at the ascent of the wall, above the house of david, even to the water gate on the east. and the other company of those who gave thanks went to the left, and i after them, with the half of the nobles of the people, upon the wall, above the tower of the furnaces, even to the broad wall, and above the gate of ephraim and by the old gate and by the fish gate and the tower of hananel and the tower of the hundred, even to the sheep gate; and they stood in the gate of the guard. so the two companies of those who gave thanks in the house of god took their position, and i, and the half of the rulers with me. i. nehemiah's memoirs. fortunately the author of the books of ezra and nehemiah has quoted at length in the opening chapters of nehemiah from the personal memoirs of the noble patriot through whose activity the walls of jerusalem were restored. they are the best historical records in the old testament and they shed clear, contemporary light upon this most important period in the evolution of judaism. the narrative is straightforward and vivid. it lights up the otherwise dark period that precedes nehemiah and enables the historian to bridge with assurance the century that intervened before the apocryphal book of i maccabees throws its light upon the course of israel's troubled history. the detailed description of the rebuilding of the walls in nehemiah is probably from the chronicler, but it reveals an intimate acquaintance with the topography and the later history of judah's capital. ii. nehemiah's response to the call to service. the presence of a deputation from jerusalem (including nehemiah's kinsman hanani) in the distant persian capital of susa was not a mere accident. nehemah's response to their appeal and the epoch-making movement which he inaugurated reveal the presence of an impelling force. probably back of all this movement was the work of the great prophet who speaks in isaiah - . in all that nehemiah did that influence may be seen. in the fervent and patriotic prayer that he uttered on learning of conditions in jerusalem he used the term servant or servants of jehovah eight times in six short verses. it also echoes the phraseology and thought of the ii isaiah. the king under whom nehemiah served was evidently artaxerxes i. in nehemiah : - the chronicler states that eliashib, the high priest in the days of nehemiah, was the grandson of joshua, who shared in the rebuilding of the temple in b.c. eliashib was also the great-grandfather of jaddua, who was high priest in jerusalem in b.c., when alexander conquered palestine. references in the recently discovered elephantine letters, as well as in the history of josephus, confirm the conclusion that nehemiah set out upon his expedition in the spring of b.c. like all those who ministered personally to the persian kings, he was probably a eunuch and still a young man. the true piety which is revealed in his prayer, the courage shown by his daring to appear with sad face in the presence of the absolute tyrant who ruled the eastern world, and his tact in winning the king's consent to his departure indicate that he was a man of rare energy and ability. artaxerxes i was famous for his susceptibility to the influence of court favorites. the queen referred to in : was probably the queen-mother amestris, who exercised commanding authority in the persian court. without the royal consent and the resources and authority granted him, nehemiah could hardly have accomplished the large task which he undertook. the arduous journey of fifteen hundred miles over mountains and barren deserts was enough to daunt a man reared in the luxury of an oriental court, but nehemiah was inspired by an ideal of service which recognized no obstacles. iii. obstacles that confronted him. the high-priestly rulers do not appear to have welcomed nehemiah with enthusiasm. some of them, at least, later sought to undermine his work. it is not difficult to infer the reason for their apathy. intrenched wealth and authority are usually conservative, especially if conscious that their position is easily assailable. as the sequel proved, these leaders of the community were simply intent upon self-aggrandizement, even at the expense of the dependent members of the community. a revolutionizing work like that proposed by nehemiah was certain to affect their vested interests and to reveal their cruel selfishness. certain of their families had also intermarried with neighboring chieftains; and they were quite content with the existing conditions. a second obstacle was the opposition of the hostile peoples who surrounded the little judean community. on the east the ammonites had apparently pressed in and occupied the ancient hebrew territory as far as the jordan. tobiah, the ammonite, who figures prominently in nehemiah's narrative, was probably one of their local chiefs. gashmu, the arabian, represented the half-civilized bedouin tribes that had invaded the territory of judea from the south and east during the period of weakness following the destruction of jerusalem. possibly he belonged to the edomites who then held hebron and all of the southern part of judea. nehemiah also refers to the descendents of israel's ancient foes, the philistines, living in the city of ashdod. on the north the superior resources of samaria had asserted themselves, and these survivors of the ancient israelites who lived among the hills of ephraim had grown into a powerful nation that overshadowed the struggling judean community. these northerners, however, still worshipped at jerusalem and were closely allied with the jews. at their head was sanballat, the horonite, who probably came from bethhoron, in southwestern samaria. each of these peoples inherited the feeling of hostility with which their fathers had regarded the people of judah, and looked with suspicion upon any movement to re-establish jerusalem's former strength and prestige. furthermore, the men of the judean community itself lacked courage and training. with inefficient helpers and with opponents within and without the community, nehemiah's task seemed well-nigh impossible. that he succeeded in the face of all these obstacles in rebuilding the walls in the incredibly short period of fifty-two days is only explained by his superlative skill, devotion, and energy. iv. nehemiah's plan of work. fortunately nehemiah possessed resources as well as tact. he quickly disarmed the opposition and won at least the nominal support of the leaders by entertaining one hundred and fifty of them as his guests. thus he was able to place them under personal obligation to him, to keep them under close surveillance, and to command their co-operation. in the second place he appealed to them and to the people by means of eloquent addresses which reveal his enthusiasm and devotion. furthermore, he did not depend upon the reports of others, but personally studied the situation. his secret mid-night ride down through the valley gate to the southwest of jerusalem and thence eastward along the hinnom valley to the point where it joins the kidron, and from there up the valley, gave him most accurate information regarding conditions. in most cases the ancient foundations of the city walls still remained. the first need was to remove the rubbish and where stones had fallen to replace them. the towers required certain timbers, which were cut probably from the royal domains to the south of the city. nehemiah enlisted all members of the community both within and without jerusalem. he organized them under their local leaders and set them to the task in which each was most interested. thus the heads of the different villages, the elders of the leading families, the guilds of workmen, and even the priests, were all put to work and inspired by the spirit of natural rivalry as well as common loyalty. nehemiah himself with his immediate followers directed the work, and instituted a strict military rule which secured both efficiency and protection. v. the restored walls. in the light of recent excavations at jerusalem it is possible to follow nehemiah's work in detail. in the destruction of the walls by the chaldeans the city had suffered most on the north where it was nearly level and protected by no descending valleys. just north of the temple area a little valley ran up from the kidron, leaving but a narrow neck of land connected directly with the plateau on the north. here two great towers were restored that probably occupied the site of the later roman tower of antonia. thence the wall ran westward across the upper tyropoean valley, which was here comparatively level. numerous bands of workmen were assigned to this part of the work. the gate of the old wall was probably identical with the corner gate at the northwestern end of the city. the ephraim gate a little further to the southwest apparently corresponded to the modern joppa gate. from this point a broad wall ran to the western side of the city where the hill descended rapidly into the valley of hinnom, making its defence easy. at the southwestern end of the city stood the tower of the furnaces and the valley gate of which the foundations have recently been laid bare. the gate itself was narrow, being only eight feet wide, but the wall was here nine feet in thickness. the eighteen hundred or two thousand feet of wall along the valley of hinnom was evidently practically intact, for its repair was intrusted to but one group of workmen. across the southern end of the tyropoean valley the ground was almost level, so that a strong wall was required. excavations have shown that it was twenty feet thick at its base and supported by six strong buttresses. the fountain gate, through which ran the main street down the tyropoean valley out into the valley of the kidron, was the chief southern gate of the city. it was nine feet wide and defended by a tower about forty-five feet square. portions of this ancient thoroughfare, with its stones, worn smooth by the feet of the inhabitants of the ancient city, have here been uncovered. just above the pool of siloam, which was within the city walls, was the king's garden. thence the hill of ophel ascended rapidly making necessary the stairs mentioned in nehemiah . the wall on the southeast was readily repaired, for it ran along the sloping western side of the kidron valley. the water gate probably led down to the virgin's fount, and the horse gate further to the north opened directly from the kidron valley to the public buildings that occupied the site of solomon's palace immediately to the south of the temple. it is the space to-day occupied by the southern end of the temple area, which was thus extended in the days of herod. opposite the northeastern end of the temple area the wall curved westward until it reached the great towers that guarded the northern end of the city. vi. completion and dedication of the walls. under the inspiration of nehemiah's leadership, and as a result of the constant fear of attack, the building of the walls proceeded rapidly and without interruption. to the threats of hostile foes nehemiah paid little heed. trained in the persian court, he saw at once their murderous purpose when they requested a conference in southwestern samaria on the border of the plain of ono. through the treacherous prophets in the judean community they sought to play upon his fears and to lead him to compromise himself by taking refuge in the sacred precincts of the temple, but his courage, as well as his high respect for the sanctuary, delivered him from the plot. the cry that he was himself aspiring to the kingship and that his acts were treason against persia did not daunt him, and when, in response to their malicious reports, the order finally came from the persian king to cease working, the walls were already rebuilt. apparently nehemiah's original leave of absence was for but a short period. his kinsman hanani, who had headed the original deputation to susa, and a certain hananiah were by him placed in charge of the city. to protect it against sudden attack its gates were closed at night and not opened until the middle of the following forenoon. effective measures were also instituted to increase its population. when the work of rebuilding the walls was complete, nehemiah arranged for their public dedication. starting from the valley gate on the southwestern side of the city, one half of the nobles and the people marched along the southern and eastern wall, while nehemiah with the other half of the people proceeded along the western and northern wall. finally meeting on the northern side of the temple area, the two companies blended their voices in thanksgiving to jehovah who at last had made it possible for them to worship him in his sanctuary secure from attack. nehemiah had reorganized the judean community, rebuilt their walls, and inspired them with a new sense of self-respect; thus he made possible that genuine revival of the judean state that took place during the succeeding centuries. he, like ezekiel, haggai, zechariah, and the ii isaiah, was indeed one of the makers of judaism. ben sira with true insight declared ( : ): the memorial of nehemiah is great, who raised up for us the walls that were fallen, and set up the gates and bars, and raised up our homes again. section ci. nehemiah's social and religious reforms [sidenote: isa. : , ] thus saith jehovah, guard justice and practice righteousness. for my deliverance is near at hand, and my righteousness is soon to be revealed. happy the man who practices, the mortal who holds fast to it, keeping the sabbath so as not to profane it, and keeping his hand from evil. [sidenote: isa. : - ] let not the foreigner who hath joined himself to jehovah say, 'jehovah will surely separate me from his people.' and let not the eunuch say, 'behold i am a dry tree.' for thus saith jehovah to the eunuchs, 'those who keep my sabbaths, and choose that in which i delight, and hold fast to my covenant, i will give them in my house and walls a monument, and a name better than sons and daughters, an everlasting name will i give them which cannot be cut off. [sidenote: isa. : - ] and the foreigners who join themselves to jehovah to minister to him, and to love the name of jehovah, to be his servants, every one who keeps the sabbath so as not to pollute it and faithfully abides by my covenant-- them will i bring to my holy mountain and make joyful in my house of prayer; their burnt-offerings and sacrifices will be accepted upon my altar; for my house shall be called a house of prayer for all peoples. it is the oracle of jehovah, who gathereth the outcasts of israel, 'i will gather still others to him in addition to those already gathered.' [sidenote: isa. : - ] o all ye wild beasts of the field come to devour, all ye wild beasts of the forest! my watchmen are all blind, they know not how to give heed, they are all dumb dogs which cannot bark, dreaming, lying down, loving to slumber. and the dogs are greedy, they know not how to be satisfied, they all turn to their own way, each for his own profit [saying], come, i will get wine, and we will drink our fill of strong drink, and to-morrow shall be as to-day, an exceedingly great day! [sidenote: isa. : - ] cry with full throat, be not silent! like a trumpet lift up thy voice, make known to my people their transgression, and to the house of jacob their sin. me indeed they consult daily, and to know my ways is their delight. as a nation that hath done righteousness, and hath not forsaken the law of its god! they ask me regarding righteous judgments, to draw near to god is their delight! 'why have we fasted and thou seest not, mortified ourselves and thou dost not notice?' behold, on your fast day ye follow your own pleasure, and ye exact all money lent on pledge. behold ye fast for strife and contention, and to smite the poor with the fist. your fasting to-day is not such as to make your voice heard on high. [sidenote: cor. isa. : - ] can such be the fast which i choose, a day when a man mortifies himself? to droop one's head like a bulrush, and to lie down in sackcloth and ashes? wilt thou call this a fast, and a day acceptable to jehovah? is not this the fast that i choose: to loose the fetters of injustice, to untie the bands of violence, to set free those who are crushed, to tear apart every yoke? [sidenote: cor. isa. : - ] is it not to share thy bread with the hungry, and to bring the wanderers to thy home? when thou seest the naked, to cover him, and not hide thyself from thine own flesh? then shall thy light break forth as the dawn, thy restoration quickly spring forth, and thy righteousness shall go before thee, the glory of jehovah shall be thy reward; then when thou callest jehovah will answer, when thou criest out he will say, here am i. if from thy midst thou remove the yoke, the finger of scorn, and mischievous speech, and bestow thy bread upon the hungry, and satisfy the soul that is afflicted; then shall thy light shine forth in darkness, and thy gloom shall be as noonday, jehovah will lead thee continually, and will satisfy thy soul in parched lands, and thy strength will he renew, thou shalt be like a watered garden, as a fountain whose waters fail not. thy sons shall rebuild the ancient ruins, thou shalt rear again the foundations of olden days; and men shall call thee, repairer of ruins, restorer of ruined places for inhabiting. [sidenote: neh. : - ] then there was a loud complaint from the common people and their wives against their fellow-countrymen the jews. for there were those who were saying, 'we must give our sons and our daughters in pledge to secure grain that we may eat and live.' some also there were who were saying, 'we must mortgage our fields and our vineyards and our houses, that we may get grain because of the dearth.' there were also those who were saying, 'we have borrowed money for the king's tribute. yet now our flesh is as the flesh of our brothers, our children as their children; but now, we must ring our sons and our daughters into slavery, and some of our daughters have already thus been brought into bondage, neither is it in our power to help it, for our fields and our vineyards belong to the nobles.' [sidenote: neh. : - ] then i was very angry when i heard their complaint and these statements. and i took counsel with myself, and contended with the nobles and rulers, and said to them, 'you exact usury each of his brother.' and i held a great assembly against them. and i said to them, 'we ourselves have, according to our ability, redeemed our fellow-countrymen the jews, who have been sold to the heathen; and would you yourselves sell your fellow-countrymen, and should they sell themselves to us?' then they were silent and could not find a word to say. therefore i said, 'the thing that you are doing is not good. ought you not to walk in the fear of our god, because of the reproach of the heathen our enemies? for i also, my kinsmen and my servants, lend them money and grain. let us, therefore, leave off this usury. restore to them this day their fields, their vineyards, their oliveyards, and their houses, also the usury of the money and of the grain, of the new wine, and of the oil, that you exact from them.' [sidenote: neh. : , ] then they said, 'we will restore them and will demand nothing from them; we will do just as you say.' then i called the priests and took an oath of them, that they would do according to this promise. also i shook out the fold of my garment, and said, 'so may god shake out every man from his house and from the fruit of his labor, who does not fulfil this promise; even thus may he be shaken out and emptied.' and all the assembly said, 'so may it be.' and they praised jehovah. and the people did according to this promise. [sidenote: neh. : - ] moreover from the time that i was appointed to be their governor in the land of judah, from the twentieth year ( b.c.) even to the thirty-second year ( ) of artaxerxes the king, that is for twelve years, i and my kinsmen had not eaten the bread which was due me as governor. but the former governors who were before me were a source of expense to the people, and took of them bread and wine, and also forty shekels of silver each day; and furthermore their servants oppressed the people. but i did not so, because of the fear of god. i also devoted myself to this work on the wall, and we did not buy any land; and all my servants were gathered there for the work. also the jews and the rulers, a hundred and fifty men, besides those who came to us from among the surrounding nations, were at my table. now that which was prepared for each day was one ox and six choice sheep and fowls. these were prepared at my expense, and once in ten days wine in abundance for all the people. yet with all this i did not demand the bread which was due me as governor, because the public service rested heavily upon this people. remember to my credit, o my god, all that i have done for this people. [sidenote: neh. : - ] now before my return from the king, eliashib the priest, who was appointed over the chambers of the house of our god, being related to tobiah, had prepared for him a great chamber, where formerly they had stored the cereal-offerings, the incense, the vessels, and the tithes of grain, the new wine, and the oil. but during this time i had not been at jerusalem; for in the thirty-second year of artaxerxes king of babylon i went to the king. then after some time i asked leave of the king, and i came to jerusalem and discovered the crime that eliashib had committed for the sake of tobiah, in preparing him a chamber in the court of the house of god. and it displeased me greatly; therefore i cast all the household possessions of tobiah out of the chamber. then i gave command that they should cleanse the chambers, and i brought there again the vessels of the house of god, with the cereal-offerings and the incense. [sidenote: neh. : - ] and i perceived that the portions of the levites had not been given them; so that the levites and the singers, who performed the service had each fled to his field. then i contended with the rulers and said, 'why is the house of god forsaken?' and i gathered them together and placed them at their posts. and all judah brought the tithe of the grain and the new wine and the oil into the store-rooms. and i appointed in charge of the store-rooms: shelemiah the priest and zadok the scribe, and pedaiah the levite; for they were considered faithful, and their business was to distribute to their kinsmen. remember me, o my god, concerning this and forget not all my good deeds that i have done for the house of my god, and for its services. [sidenote: neh. : - ] at that time i saw in judah some men treading wine-presses on the sabbath and bringing in heaps of grain and loading asses, as also wine, grapes, figs, and all kinds of burdens, and that they were bringing them into jerusalem on the sabbath; and i warned them when they sold provisions. tyrians also dwelt therein, who brought in fish and all kinds of wares, and sold on the sabbath to the inhabitants of judah and in jerusalem. then i contended with the nobles of judah and said to them, 'what evil thing is this that you are doing, and thereby profaning the sabbath? did not your fathers do thus and did not our god bring all this calamity upon them and upon us and upon this city? yet you bring more wrath upon israel by profaning the sabbath.' accordingly, when it began to be dark, the gates of jerusalem were shut before the sabbath; and i gave command that they should not be opened until after the sabbath. and i placed some of my servants in charge of the gates, and commanded that no burden should be brought in on the sabbath. so the merchants and sellers of all kinds of wares spent the night without jerusalem once or twice. then i warned them and said to them, 'why do you spend the night before the wall? if ye do so again, i will lay hands on you.' from that time forth they came no more on the sabbath. remember, o my god, this also to my credit and show me mercy according to the greatness of thy loving-kindness. [sidenote: neh. : - ] at that time also i saw the jews who had married women of ashdod, of ammon, and of moab. and their children spoke half in the language of ashdod, but none of them could speak in the jews' language, but according to the language of each people. and i contended with them and cursed them and struck some of them and pulled out their hair and made them swear by god, saying, 'you shall not give your daughters to their sons nor take their daughters as wives for your sons or for yourselves. did not solomon king of israel sin by these acts? yet among many nations there was no king like him, and he was beloved by his god, and god made him king over all israel; nevertheless foreign women led him into sin. shall it also be reported of you that you do all this great evil, to trespass against our god in marrying foreign women?' [sidenote: neh. : , ] and one of the sons of joiada, the son of eliashib the high priest, was the son-in-law of sanballat the horonite; therefore i chased him from me. remember them, o my god, because they have defiled the covenant of the priesthood and of the levites. [sidenote: neh. : , ] thus i cleansed them from all foreigners and fixed the duties for the priests and the levites, each for his appointed task, and the bringing of wood for the service at appointed times, and the first-fruits. remember it, o my god, to my credit. i. cruelty and hypocrisy of the jewish leaders. the fifty-sixth chapter of isaiah presents a sharp contrast: on the one hand a high ideal of justice toward the oppressed and tolerance toward all foreigners who sincerely desired to unite in jehovah's worship; on the other the sordid selfishness of the jewish leaders, who disregarded their responsibilities and thought of religion only as a round of ceremonial observances. the situation is very similar to that in northern israel in the days of amos. the ii isaiah stands on the same platform as did his predecessors of the assyrian period. he strips fearlessly from the rulers of the community the mantle of hypocrisy with which they sought to cover their shame. in clearest terms he declares that their first duty to god is to loose the fetters of injustice and to share their bread with the hungry. this stirring prophetic message is the natural introduction to the reformatory work of nehemiah. ii. nehemiah's method of correcting the social evils in the community. nehemiah's address recorded in the fifth chapter of his memoirs completes the picture suggested in isaiah and . the poor had been compelled by their poverty to sell their children into slavery to the rich and ruling class. in order to pay their personal taxes they had also mortgaged their inherited fields, vineyards, and houses. doubtless much of the tax thus raised went into the pockets of their rulers, who preyed mercilessly upon the helpless and needy. these crimes directly violated the laws of deuteronomy (cf. deut. : , ), as well as those in the older book of the covenant (ex. - ). nehemiah's position, therefore, when he demanded that these evils be righted, was unassailable. in the spirit and with the methods of the earlier prophets he gathered together the people, probably within the precincts of the temple court, and plainly and unsparingly denounced their acts. there is much in common between this later jewish layman and the shepherd amos. each spoke on the basis of close personal observation and experience; but nehemiah possessed many advantages over the prophets who had preceded him. his own personal example lent force to his words. although it was his right as governor, he had exacted no tribute from the judean community. even though the opportunity had probably offered itself, he steadily refused to take their hereditary land from the poor who applied to him for loans of money or grain. instead of enslaving his countrymen, he had lost no opportunity to free those who had been forced by misfortune or poverty into slavery. he had also entertained lavishly rich and poor alike, and thus given to all an example of practical charity. his authority as persian governor doubtless carried great weight with the cringing, greedy leaders at jerusalem. above all, the force of his personality was irresistible. it is easy to imagine the powerful impression which his words made upon them. the restoration of their lands and the freeing of their children were undoubtedly mighty factors in arousing the men of jerusalem to those herculean efforts which alone made possible the rebuilding of the walls in the brief period of fifty-two days. iii. the historical value of nehemiah . in his _composition of ezra-nehemiah_ (pp. - ) professor torrey, of yale, maintains that this chapter is a pure creation of the chronicler. certainly its phraseology and the subjects with which it deals are characteristic of the chronicler, but on the whole it is probable that he has here simply recast what was originally an extract from the memoirs of nehemiah. some of the phrases peculiar to the chronicler are loosely connected with the context. the nucleus which remains has the vigorous style of nehemiah and many of his peculiar idioms. its courageous, assertive spirit is very different from that of the other writings of the chronicler. it is also doubtful whether this later writer, with his strong, priestly interests, would have made nehemiah, the layman, a religious reformer and therefore in a sense the rival of ezra. above all, the work attributed to nehemiah in this chapter is in harmony with his spirit and attitude, as revealed in the unquestioned extracts from his memoirs. already, as stated in : , he had told sanballat and tobiah that they should have no portion or memorial in jerusalem. he had already shown himself keen in righting wrongs within the community. zeal in preserving the sanctity of the sabbath and in opposing heathen marriages was characteristic rather of the jews of the dispersion than of those of palestine. it is probable, therefore, that this chapter records nehemiah's work when he revisited jerusalem some time after b.c., although it must be frankly confessed that the historical evidence is far from conclusive and that the entire account of this second visit, including the chronological data in : and the reference to the expulsion of sanballat in : , may possibly be due to the chronicler's desire to discredit the samaritans and to enlist the authority of nehemiah in support of the later priestly laws and customs. iv. regulations regarding the temple service. the expulsion of tobiah the ammonite from the room which had been assigned him in the temple by eliashib, the high priest, was apparently due to two reasons, first because tobiah was _persona non grata_ to nehemiah and had already shown himself a dangerous foe to the jews. the second and chief reason was because the room was needed for storing the offerings that were brought in for the support of the temple officials. these offerings were presented in accordance with the demands of the deuteronomic regulation, which at this time was the code acknowledged by the judean community (deut. : . : , , ). the narrative adds that, with his practical knowledge of affairs, nehemiah appointed a representative committee consisting of a priest, a scribe, and a levite, and to them he intrusted the task of receiving and distributing the temple tithes to their kinsmen. v. provisions regarding sabbath observation and foreign marriages. far away from the temple, and therefore unable to participate in the distinctive feasts and ceremonials that distinguished the religious life of their race, and confronted by the constant danger of being absorbed by the heathen among whom they found themselves, the jews of the dispersion placed strong emphasis on two institutions. the one was the observation of the sabbath and the other was the preservation of the purity of their blood by abstaining from all marriage alliances with their gentile neighbors. in palestine, where they were able to revive the ancient feasts in connection with the temple, and where the danger of absorption was not so imminent, their practices in these regards appear to have been much more lax. not only had the priests set the example by contracting foreign marriages, but apparently about this time the author of the beautiful story of ruth, by citing the tradition regarding the moabite ancestry of their illustrious king david, voiced the belief of many in the community that such marriages were permissible. nehemiah, however, rigorously opposed this tendency. he also appreciated the menace to the dignity and character of the temple service, if the commercial pursuits of ordinary days were carried into the sabbath. his measure, therefore, in closing the gates and thus excluding all traders, was both sane and effective. in setting his face strongly against foreign marriages he was simply enforcing the laws found in deuteronomy : , and : , which forbade the hebrews to intermarry with the people of the land. vi. significance of nehemiah's work. in rebuilding the walls of jerusalem nehemiah prepared the way for that revival of the jewish state which characterized the closing years of the persian period. more important still was his work in re-establishing a close relation between the jews of the dispersion and those of palestine. he himself was the connecting link between them, and his activity prepared the minds of the palestinian jews for the acceptance of those new principles that were strongly held by leaders like himself. he also enforced the ethical and social ideals of the earlier prophets, and ably advocated the principles that are fundamental in the late priestly laws. above all, in his own personality as a prophetic layman, he held up before his race an example of patriotism, self-sacrifice, efficiency, and devotion to the service of jehovah which made a profound and lasting impression upon his own and later generations. section cii. the traditional account of the adoption of the priestly law [sidenote: ezra : , - ] in the reign of artaxerxes king of persia, ezra, a descendant of aaron, went up from babylon; and he was a scribe skilled in the law of moses, which jehovah, the god of israel, had given. and the king granted him all his request, inasmuch as the hand of jehovah his god was upon him. and some of the israelites, and of the priests, the levites, the singers, the porters, and the temple servants went up to jerusalem [with him]. and he came to jerusalem in the fifth month, which was in the seventh year of the king. for on the first day of the first month he began the journey from babylon, and on the first day of the fifth month he came to jerusalem, since the good hand of god was with him. for ezra had set his heart to seek the law of jehovah, and to observe it and to teach in israel statutes and ordinances. [sidenote: neh. : b, : - ] and when the seventh month drew near, all the people gathered themselves together as one man to the broad place that was before the water gate. and they spoke to ezra the priest and scribe to bring the book of the law of moses, which jehovah had commanded israel. and ezra the priest brought the law before the assembly of men and women, and all who could hear with understanding, upon the first day of the seventh month. and he read from it before the open place that was before the water gate, from early morning until mid-day, in the presence of the men and women and of those who could understand; and all the people were attentive to the book of the law. and ezra the priest and scribe stood upon a wooden pulpit, which they made for the purpose and opened the book in the sight of all the people--for he was above all the people--and when he opened it all the people stood up. and ezra blessed jehovah, the great god. and all the people answered, amen, amen, while they lifted up their hands and bowed their heads and worshipped jehovah with their faces to the ground. [sidenote: neh. : - ] then ezra the priest, the scribe, and the levites who taught the people said to all the people, this day is holy to jehovah your god; mourn not, nor weep; for all the people when they heard the words of the law. then he said to them, go away, eat the fat, and drink the sweet, and send portions to him for whom nothing is prepared, for this day is holy to our lord; and do not be troubled, for the joy of jehovah is your bulwark. so the levites quieted all the people, saying, be still, for the day is holy, and do not be troubled. and all the people went away to eat and drink and to send portions and to make a great rejoicing, for they had understood the words which had been made known to them. [sidenote: neh. : - ] and on the second day the heads of fathers' houses of all the people, the priests and the levites were gathered together to ezra the scribe, in order to gain an insight into the words of the law. and they found written in the law, how jehovah had commanded by moses that the israelites should dwell in booths at the feast in the seventh month; and that they should proclaim aloud in all their cities and in jerusalem: go forth to the mount and bring olive branches and branches of wild olive and myrtle and palm branches and branches of thick trees to make booths, as it is prescribed. so the people went out and brought them, and made themselves booths, each man upon the roof of his house and in their courts and in the courts of the house of god and in the open space at the water gate and in the open space at the ephraim gate. and all the assembly of those who had come back from the captivity made booths and lived in the booths; for since the days of joshua the son of nun to that day the israelites had not done so. and there was very great gladness. and day by day, from the first to the last day, he read in the book of the law of god. and they celebrated the feast seven days, and on the eighth day, as was the custom, there was a concluding solemn assembly. [sidenote: neh. : - ] now in the twenty-fourth day of this month the israelites were assembled with fasting, and with sackcloth and earth upon their heads. and the children of israel had separated themselves from all foreigners, and stood and confessed their sins and the iniquities of their fathers. and they stood up in their place and read in the book of the law of jehovah their god a fourth part of the day; and another fourth part they confessed and worshipped jehovah their god. [sidenote: neh. : - ] and ezra said, thou art jehovah, even thou alone; thou hast made heaven and the heaven of heavens with all their host, the earth and all things that are on it, the seas and all that is in them, and thou preservest them all and the host of heaven worshippeth thee. thou art jehovah the god, who didst choose abraham and bring him forth out of ur of the chaldees, and didst give him the name abraham, and find his heart faithful before thee and make a covenant with him to give the land of the canaanites to his descendants, and hast performed thy words, for thou art righteous. [sidenote: neh. : - ] now therefore, our god, the great, the mighty, and the terrible god, who keepest covenant and kindness, let not all the affliction seem little before thee, that hath come on us, on our kings, our nobles, our priests, our prophets, our fathers, and on all thy people, since the days of the kings of assyria to this day. however thou art just in all that has come upon us; for thou hast done right, but we have done wickedly, neither have our kings, our nobles, our priests, nor our fathers, kept thy law nor heeded thy commands and thy testimonies with which thou didst testify against them. for they have not served thee in the time of their kingly rule, and in spite of thy great goodness that thou gavest them, they have not turned from their wicked deeds. behold, we this day are slaves, and as for the land that thou gavest to our fathers to eat its fruit and enjoy its good gifts, see we are only slaves in it. and it yieldeth a great income to the kings whom thou hast set over us because of our sin; also they have power over our bodies and over our cattle, at their pleasure, and we are in great distress. [sidenote: neh. : ] moreover in addition to all this we made a fixed covenant and wrote it out, and our nobles, our levites, and our priests were enrolled upon the sealed document. [sidenote: neh. : - ] and all those who had separated themselves from the peoples of the lands to the law of god, their wives, their sons, and their daughters, every one who had knowledge and insight, strongly supported their kinsmen, their nobles, and entered into a solemn obligation and took oath to walk in god's law, which was given by moses the servant of god, and to observe and do all the commands of jehovah our lord, and his ordinances and his statutes; and that we would neither give our daughters to the peoples of the land nor take their daughters as wives for our sons; and that, if the peoples of the land should bring wares or any grain on the sabbath day to sell, we would not buy of them on the sabbath or on a holy day; and that on the seventh year we would leave the land uncultivated and would refrain from the exaction of any debt. [sidenote: neh. : - ] we also imposed upon ourselves the obligation to give yearly the third part of a shekel for the service of the house of our god, for the bread that was set forth, and for the continual burnt-offering, for the sabbaths, the new moons, the fixed feasts, and the holy things, and for the sin-offerings to make atonement for israel, and for all the work of the house of our god. and we cast lots, the priests, the levites, and the people, for the wood-offering, to bring it into the house of our god, according to our father's houses, at appointed times year by year, to burn upon the altar of jehovah our god, as it is prescribed in the law; and to bring the earliest products of our ground, and the first of all fruit of every kind of tree year by year, to the temple of jehovah; also the first-born of our sons and of our cattle, as is prescribed in the law, and the firstlings of our herds and of our flocks, to bring to the house of god to the priests who minister in the house of our god; and that we should bring the first bread baked of our dough, the fruit of every kind of tree, the new wine and the oil, to the priests, in the chambers of the house of our god; and the tithes of our ground to the levites; and that they, the levites, should receive the tithes in all the cities of our agricultural districts. and that the priest the son of aaron should be with the levites, when the levites shall bring up the tithe of the tithes to the house of our god, to the chambers, into the store-house. for the israelites and the sons of levi shall bring the gifts of grain, of new wine, and of oil, into the chambers, where are the vessels of the sanctuary, and the priests who minister and the porters and the singers, and that we would not neglect the house of our god. i. the ezra tradition. the tradition regarding ezra and his work presents many difficult problems. part of it is found in the heart of the book of nehemiah; while another part is now found in the second half of the book of ezra. it is not entirely clear whether this dislocation is due to the chronicler, who desired to give ezra, the priest and scribe, the precedence before nehemiah, the layman, or to the mistake of a scribe. a recent writer (professor torrey, in _composition of ezra-neh_.) has shown convincingly that the ezra story in its present form is at least from the school to which the chronicler belonged, if not from his own pen. not only does it abound in the characteristic phrases of this voluminous editor, but it also reflects at many points his peculiar conception of the history of this period. ezra is described as a descendant of aaron and "a scribe skilled in the law of moses." his work as interpreter of the law, which he is represented as bringing in his hand, is typical of the scribes, who were becoming the chief teachers of judaism in the days of the chronicler (the greek period). the decree of artaxerxes found in the seventh chapter of ezra suggests at every point its late jewish origin. it confers upon ezra, the scribe, royal authority far eclipsing that given by artaxerxes to nehemiah, his favorite. a sum representing more than three million dollars is placed at ezra's disposal. at his summons seventeen hundred priests, levites, singers, and servants of the temple rally about the standard of the faithful scribe. he is represented as going under the royal protection to palestine to instruct the judean community, to reform its abuses, and to institute the rule of the law of moses which he bore in his hand. he first holds a great synagogue service in which the law is read and interpreted to the people. they are then bidden to observe the feast of booths or tabernacles in accordance with its regulations. later, when he discovers that the people of the land have entered into foreign marriages, he tears his clothes and hair and sits for hours overwhelmed by the great crime that rests upon the community. when the people are gathered about him, he upbraids them for their laxness and secures the appointment of a commission with himself at the head to investigate and put an end to these evil practices. when after three months the community has been purified from this foreign element, the people are again assembled to listen to the reading of the law. then ezra utters a fervent prayer in which he sets forth jehovah's leadership of his people in the past and the disasters which have come as a result of their sins. after this public petition for jehovah's forgiveness, the people through their nobles, levites, and priests subscribe in writing to the regulations imposed by the lawbook that ezra had brought. its more important regulations are also recapitulated. they are to refrain from foreign marriages, to observe strictly the sabbath laws, and also the requirements of the seventh year of release, to bring to the temple the annual tax of one-tenth of a shekel and the other dues required for its support and for the maintenance of the priests and levites. ii. the historical value of the ezra tradition. recognizing that the ezra tradition comes from the hand of the chronicler, certain old testament scholars are inclined to regard it as entirely unhistorical. it can no longer be regarded as a strictly historical record. like ii chronicles , it is shot through with the ideas current during the greek period. with no desire to deceive, but with nothing of the modern historical spirit, the chronicler freely projects the institutions, ideas, and traditions of his own day into these earlier periods. the result is that he has given not an exact or reliable historical record, but his own conception of the way in which the course of history should have unfolded. the ezra tradition also lacks the support not only of contemporary testimony, but also of all the jews who wrote during the next few centuries. ben sira in his review of israel's heroes speaks in highest terms of nehemiah, but knows nothing of ezra's work. even the comparatively late jewish tradition reflected in the opening chapters of ii maccabees attributes to nehemiah the re-establishment of the temple service and the collection of the sacred writings of his race. at many points the ezra tradition is also inconsistent with the straightforward contemporary record contained in nehemiah's memoirs. the real question is whether or not there is a historical nucleus in the ezra story, and if so, what are the facts which it reflects. iii. the facts underlying the ezra tradition. the later records make it clear that during the latter part of the persian period the attitude of the jews in palestine toward their neighbors became more and more exclusive. nehemiah appears to have given a great impetus to the movement which ultimately resulted in the samaritan schism and the high wall that henceforth separated jew and gentile. the emphasis on the strict observation of the sabbath grew stronger and stronger, until at the beginning of the greek period the jews of jerusalem preferred to fall before the sword of their foes rather than fight on the sabbath day (cf. section ciii). the ritual of the temple became even more elaborate, and its income was greatly increased during the latter part of the persian period. the extension of the territory of the judean community implied that its numbers were increased by the return of loyal jews attracted by the security offered by its walls and by the new spirit that animated the jews of palestine. the priestly laws which were formulated to meet the new needs of the judean community appear to have been written in palestine and by those closely connected with the temple service, but in the emphasis upon the sabbath and in their endeavor to prevent marriage with foreigners they suggest the presence and influence of jews who had returned from the land of the dispersion. it is possible that among those who thus returned was the priest ezra, and he may have been at the head of one of these groups of returning exiles. in the days of josiah the code contained in the newly discovered book of the covenant was presented to the people in a public assembly and adopted and enforced by the king, who acted as the representative of the people (section lxxxiii:iii). it is probable that in the small judean community new regulations gained acceptance in the same way, except that the people were represented by their nobles and priests rather than by a king. the tradition of ezra, therefore, is typical of the great movement that shaped the life of judaism in the century immediately following the work of nehemiah. iv. origin and aims of the priestly laws. the late priestly laws which moulded the life of judaism are found in the books of exodus, leviticus, and numbers. they do not constitute a unified code, but rather are made up of a series of smaller groups of laws, the older nucleus being the holiness code found in chapters - of leviticus (cf. section xciii:iii). in some cases variants of the same law are found in different groups. certain of these laws simply reiterate in slightly different form those already found in the primitive and deuteronomic codes; but in general they supplement these earlier codes. the formulation, collection, and codification of these later laws apparently continued until toward the latter part of the persian period when the samaritan schism (section ciii) fixed them in their present form. to these laws was prefixed, as an introduction, the priestly history that opens with the account of creation in the first chapter of genesis and briefly traces israel's history to the settlement in canaan. the interest of these late priestly historians is, like that of the chronicler, in the origin of institutions. thus the object of the first chapter of genesis is to give the traditional origin and authority of the sabbath. the account of the flood culminates in a covenant embodying the command that man shall not eat of the blood of sacrificial animals; the priestly stories regarding abraham aim to give the origin of the rite of circumcision. israel's early experiences in the wilderness furnish the setting for the giving of the law at sinai. in this way the late editors of these opening books of the old testament connect all of israel's legislation with moses and aim to establish its divine authority. v. their important regulations. the central aim in all these late priestly laws was similar to that of ezekiel: it was to make israel a holy people and to prevent them from falling again into the sins to which were attributed the overwhelming disasters that had overtaken them. this aim they sought to accomplish: ( ) by making the temple and its services the centre of the life of the people and through ceremonial barriers and regulations to shield it from everything that might pollute it; ( ) by rendering the temple service attractive; ( ) by insuring through rigid ceremonial laws the purity of its priesthood; ( ) by preserving the ceremonial cleanliness of the people through strict laws regarding the food which they ate and elaborate provisions for their purification in case they were contaminated by contact with that which was regarded as unclean; ( ) by prohibiting absolutely all marriages with the heathen; and ( ) by emphasizing the rigid observation of the sabbath and other distinctive institutions. in general these late priestly laws represented a return to the older and more primitive conception of religion, and defined duty in terms of ceremonial rather than moral acts. vi. their practical effects. later judaism represents to a great extent the result of the rigid enforcement of these regulations. its life was centralized more and more about the temple. in its services the people found their chief interest and joy. the numbers of the priests and levites were also greatly increased. to the older temple dues many new ones were added. thus each man brought to the temple the first-born of his flock. even his oldest son must be redeemed within a month after his birth by a gift of five shekels (which represented in modern currency between three and four dollars). of every animal slain the shoulder, two joints, and the stomach went to the priests. of the vintage and oil and grain they received about one-fiftieth. in addition a tithe was turned over to the levites. part of the wool in every sheep-shearing, as well as a part of the bread which they baked, found its way to the temple. in addition a large income came through the vows made by the people or the conscience money which was paid either in currency or gifts. although the priests had no temporal authority by which to enforce these laws, it is evident that the people bore their heavy burdens gladly and brought willingly their offerings, that they might thereby win a definite assurance of jehovah's favor. the law was to them a source of joy rather than a burden. their love for it steadily grew until two centuries later during the maccabean persecutions there were many who were ready to lay down their lives for it. section ciii. the jewish state during the last century of persian rule [sidenote: ps. : - ] thy loving-kindness, o jehovah, is in the heavens, thy faithfulness reacheth to the skies, thy righteousness is like the mighty mountains, thy judgments are like the great deep; thou preservest man and beast. how precious is thy loving-kindness, o god! and the sons of men put their trust in the shadow of thy wings. they are fully satisfied with the rich things of thy house, and thou makest them drink of thy river of delights. for with thee is the fountain of life, and in thy light shall we see light. o continue thy loving-kindness to those who know thee, and thy righteousness to the upright in heart. [sidenote: joel : , b] the word of jehovah, which came to joel, the son of pethuel: blow a horn in zion, sound an alarm in my holy mountain, let all the inhabitants of the land tremble, for the day of jehovah comes, for near is the day of darkness and gloom, the day of cloud and thick darkness! [sidenote: joel : c- ] like the light of dawn scattered over the mountains, a people great and powerful; its like has not been from of old, neither shall be any more after it, even to the years of coming ages. before them the fire devours, and behind them a flame burns; like the garden of eden is the land before them, and after them it is a desolate desert, yea, nothing escapes them. their appearance is as the appearance of horses, and like horsemen they run. like the sound of chariots on the tops of the mountains they leap, like the crackle of flames devouring stubble, like a mighty people preparing for battle. peoples are in anguish before them, all faces glow with excitement. [sidenote: joel : - ] like mighty men they run, like warriors they mount up a wall, they march each by himself, they break not their ranks, none jostles the other, they march each in his path, they fall upon the weapons without breaking, they scour the city, they run on the wall, they climb up into the houses, like a thief they enter the windows. [sidenote: joel : - ] earth trembles before them, heaven quakes, the sun and the moon become dark, and the stars withdraw their shining; and jehovah uttereth this voice before his army, for his host is exceedingly great, yea, mighty is he who performs his word, for great is the day of jehovah, it is very terrible, who can abide it? [sidenote: joel : - ] but now this is the oracle of jehovah: turn ye to me with all your heart, and with fasting and weeping and mourning. rend your hearts and not your garments, and turn to jehovah your god; for he indeed is gracious and merciful, slow to anger and plenteous in love, and relenteth of the evil. who knows but he will turn and relent, and leave a blessing behind him, a cereal and drink-offering for jehovah your god? [sidenote: joel : - ] blow a horn in zion, sanctify a fast, summon an assembly, gather the people, make holy the congregation, assemble the old men, gather the children, and the infants at the breast, let the bridegroom come forth from his chamber, and the bride from her bridal tent. between the porch and the altar, let the priests, the ministers of jehovah, weep aloud, let them say, spare, o jehovah, thy people, and make not thine heritage an object of reproach, for the heathen to mock them. why should it be said among the nations, where is their god? [sidenote: joel : - ] then jehovah became jealous for his land, and took pity upon his people, and jehovah answered and said to his people, behold, i will send you corn, and wine, and oil, and ye shall be satisfied therewith; i will not make you again an object of reproach among the nations, i will remove far from you the northern foe, and i will drive him into a land barren and desolate, his van to the eastern sea, and his rear to the western sea, and a stench from him shall arise. [sidenote: joel : - ] fear not, o land, exult, and rejoice for jehovah hath done great things. fear not, o beasts of the field, for the pastures of the wilderness are putting forth new grass, for the trees bear their fruit, fig tree and vine yield their strength. be glad, then, ye sons of zion, and rejoice in jehovah your god, for he hath given you the early rain in just measure, and poured down upon you the winter rain, and sent the latter rain as before. the threshing floors shall be full of grain, and the vats shall overflow with new wine and oil. [sidenote: joel : - ] i will make restoration to you for the years which the swarmer hath eaten, the devourer, the destroyer, and the shearer, my great army which i sent among you, and ye shall eat your food and be satisfied, and praise the name of jehovah your god, who hath dealt so wonderfully by you, and ye shall know that i am in the midst of israel, that i am jehovah your god and none else, and my people shall nevermore be abashed. [sidenote: joel : , ] and it shall come to pass afterwards, that i will pour out my spirit upon all flesh, and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see visions, and even upon thy male and female slaves, in those days i will pour out my spirit. [sidenote: (jos. ant. xi, : )] when eliashib the high priest was dead, his son judas succeeded him in the high priesthood. then, when he was dead, his son johanan assumed that dignity. it was on his account that bagoses, the general of artaxerxes [mnemon], desecrated the temple and imposed tribute on the jews, that at public expense they should pay for every lamb fifty shekels. the reason for this was as follows: jeshua was the brother of johanan. bagoses, who was jeshua's friend, promised to secure for him the high priesthood. trusting, therefore, in this support, jeshua quarrelled with johanan in the temple and so provoked his brother that, in his anger, johanan slew him. on this account the people were enslaved and the temple desecrated by the persians. for when bagoses, the general of artaxerxes, knew that johanan, the high priest of the jews had slain his own brother jeshua in the temple, he immediately came against the jews and began in anger to say to them, have you dared commit a murder in your temple! and when he attempted to go into the temple they tried to prevent him doing so; but he said to them, am i not purer than he who was slain in the temple? and when he had said these words, he went into the temple. thus bagoses made use of this pretext and punished the jews seven years for the murder of jeshua. [sidenote: (jos. ant. xi, : )] now when johanan had departed this life, his son jaddua succeeded to the high priesthood. he had a brother whose name was manasseh. and there was a certain sanballat who was sent to samaria by darius, the last king of persia. this man, knowing that jerusalem was a famous city and that its kings had given great trouble to the assyrians and the people of coele-syria, willingly gave his daughter, whose name was nicaso, in marriage to manasseh, thinking that this marriage alliance would be a pledge that the nation of the jews would continue their good will toward him. [sidenote: (jos. ant. xi, : a-c)] the elders of jerusalem, complaining loudly that the brother of jaddua, the high priest, though married to a foreigner, was sharing with him the high priesthood, took sides against jaddua; for they regarded this man's marriage as an encouragement to those who were eager to transgress by marrying foreign wives and that this would be the beginning of a closer association with foreigners. therefore they commanded manasseh to divorce his wife or else not to approach the altar. the high priest himself joined with the people in their indignation and drove his brother from the altar. [sidenote: (jos. ant. xi, : d-g)] then manasseh went to his father-in-law, sanballat, and told him that, although he loved his daughter, nicaso, he was not willing to be deprived on her account of his priestly dignity, since it was the greatest dignity in their nation and had always continued in the same family. thereupon sanballat promised him not only to preserve for him the honor of his priesthood but also to procure for him the power and dignity of a high priest and to make him governor of all the places which he himself ruled, if he would retain his daughter as his wife. he also told him that he would build him a temple like that at jerusalem upon mount gerizim, which is the highest of all the mountains in samaria. moreover he promised that he would do this with the approval of darius, the king. manasseh, being elated with these promises, remained with sanballat, thinking that he would gain a high priesthood as the gift from darius, for sanballat was then well advanced in years. now there was a great disturbance among the people of jerusalem because many of the priests and levites were entangled in such marriages, for they all revolted to manasseh, and sanballat offered them money and distributed among them land for cultivation and dwelling places also. he did all this in order in every way to gratify his son-in-law. i. prosperity of the judean community. behind their restored walls the jews of jerusalem enjoyed a sense of security and peace that had not been theirs since the days of josiah. at last they were free to develop the limited resources of little judah and gradually to extend their territory northwestward over the fertile plain of sharon. at the most their numbers and territory were small. the memories of their glorious past and their hopes for the future were their chief inspiration. the belief that in supporting faithfully the service of the temple and in conforming to the definite demands of the ritual they were winning jehovah's favor was to them an unfailing source of comfort and thankfulness. in the rich services of the temple and in the contemplation of jehovah's character and deeds they found true joy. these feelings are expressed in certain of the psalms, as, for example, psalm , which probably comes from this period. in their weakness they looked up in confidence and gratitude to jehovah who ruled supreme in the heavens, and who was able and eager to preserve those who "put their trust in the shadow of his wings." their one prayer was that his loving-kindness would continue to protect them. ii. the growth of the psalter. nehemiah's work apparently gave an impulse not only to the development of the law and the temple ritual, but also inspired poets to voice their own feelings and those of the community in certain of the psalms now found in the psalter. it also encouraged them to collect the earlier religious songs of their race. the result of their work is the first edition of the hebrew psalter. in its present form the psalter, like the pentateuch, is divided into five books with a general introduction consisting of psalms and and a concluding doxology (ps. ). at the end of each of these divisions are shorter doxologies or brief epilogues (e.g., : : : : ). the psalter itself is a library containing a great variety of poems written at different periods, from many different points of view and by many different poets. like the priestly code and the book of proverbs, it consists of a collection of smaller collections. thus many psalms in the first half of the psalter are repeated wholly or in part in later psalms. psalm , for example, is identical with psalm , except that in jehovah is used as the designation of the deity and in elohim (or god). the problem of determining the date of the individual psalms and of the different collections is exceedingly difficult, both because the superscriptions were clearly added by later editors who thought thereby to connect the psalm with an earlier writer or historic incident, and because the psalms themselves contain few historical allusions. a great majority of them reflect the teachings of the pre-exilic prophets or, like the book of proverbs, come from the lips of the sages and deal with universal human problems. some were written by priests or levites for use in connection with the song service of the temple. because of this timeless quality, however, an appreciation of them does not depend upon an exact knowledge of their authorship or historical background. it is possible that a few of the psalms in the first part of the psalter come from the pre-exilic period, but the great majority reflect the problems, the hopes, the fears, and the trials of the faithful who lived under the shadow of the second temple. while the superscriptions clearly do not come from the original psalmists themselves, they do record the conclusions of the editors who made the earliest collections. the oft-recurring title "psalm to david" either means that by the editor it was attributed to david as the author, or is a general designation of psalms that were recognized to be comparatively early. the two great davidic collections, - and - , were apparently collected not long after the rebuilding of the walls of jerusalem. they are deeply influenced by the inspiring teachings of the ii isaiah. they are remarkably free from that ceremonialism which became a powerful force in judaism during the last century of the persian rule. psalm : , , for example, echoes the noble ethical teachings of the great prophets: thou desirest not sacrifice, else would i give it, thou delightest not in burnt offering, the sacrifice of god is a broken heart, a broken and a contrite heart, o god, thou wilt not despise. they represent, therefore, the oldest edition of the psalter and the songs which were probably sung by the temple singers and the people as they went up to the temple on the great feast days during the closing years of the persian period. iii. the prophecy of joel. for a brief moment the clear light of contemporary prophecy is turned upon the judean community by the little book of joel. the immediate occasion was the invasion of a great swarm of locusts which swept into judea either from the desert or from the mountains in the north. it contains in : the first old testament reference to the greeks. from : it is evident that the jewish race has already been widely scattered. in : the hope is expressed that the time will soon come when strangers shall no longer pass through jerusalem. the temple, however, and the city walls ( : ) have already been rebuilt, indicating that the prophecy followed the work of nehemiah. the priests are exceedingly prominent in the life of the community, and joel, though a prophet, places great emphasis upon the importance of the ritual. when the community is threatened by the swarms of locusts, whose advance he describes with dramatic imagery, he calls upon the people to sanctify a fast and to summon an assembly, and commands the priests to cry aloud to jehovah for deliverance. iv. hopes of the jews. in his prophecy joel has given a very complete description of the hopes which the people entertained regarding the coming day of jehovah. it is the same day of jehovah that zephaniah described (section lxxxi:v) and yet the portrait is very different. a divine judgment is to be pronounced, not upon jehovah's people, but upon their foes. here joel reveals the influence of ezekiel's graphic descriptions found in the thirty-eighth and thirty-ninth chapters of his prophecy. vividly he describes the advance of israel's hereditary foes. with full panoply of war they are pictured as advancing to the valley of jehoshaphat, the valley of judgment (popularly identified with the kidron), where jehovah is to pass sentence upon them. then suddenly, as the harvester puts the sickle in the grain, they shall be cut down and utterly destroyed. also in the prophet's imagination above this carnage rises jerusalem, an impregnable fortress for the people of israel, holy and no longer polluted by the presence of heathen invaders. peace and prosperity shall then be the lot of jehovah's people. above all he will pour out his purifying, enlightening spirit upon all classes, so that young and old, slave and free, shall be inspired by the consciousness of his message and presence in their hearts. v. rule of the high priests. the few facts that have been preserved regarding the external history of the judean community during the last century of the persian rule are in striking contrast to the inner life and hopes of the people. at their head were the high priests, whose names we know, eliashib, johanan, and jaddua. they constituted a hereditary aristocracy intrenched in the temple, which controlled not only the religious but also the civil life of the jews. like all hierarchies it lacked the corrective influence of a superior civil authority. the one safeguard of popular liberties, however, was the written law, which was fast becoming the absolute authority in the life of the community. to it the people could appeal even against the decisions of the priests. it therefore kept alive that inherited democratic spirit which had been the priceless possession of israel through all its history. there is every reason for accepting the detailed account which josephus has given of the quarrel between the high priest johanan and his brother joshua which resulted in the murder of the latter within the sacred temple precincts. such an opportunity would naturally be improved by the greedy persian official to impose an onerous tax upon the jews. the elephantine letter establishes the fact that johanan was high priest in b.c. and that baghohi (of which bagoses is the jewish equivalent) was the persian satrap. it thus directly confirms the testimony of josephus. references in late greek writings (solinus xxxv, ; syncellus i, ) suggest that the jews about b.c. were involved with the phoenicians in the rebellion against persia. these historians state that at this time jericho was captured and destroyed and that a part of the jewish people were transported to the province of hyrcania at the south of the caspian sea. the rebellion was instigated by tachos, the ruler of egypt, who about not only shook off the rule of persia, but invaded syria and stirred up the phoenicians to defy the persian king. artaxerxes iii, popularly known as ochus, proved, however, the last ruler who was able to revive the waning power of the persian empire. at his accession he slew all the members of the royal family, and throughout his reign ( - b.c.) he trusted chiefly to the unsheathed sword to maintain his authority. in b.c. he finally succeeded in collecting a huge army with which he invaded syria and besieged sidon. its king betrayed his city into the hands of the persians, only to be murdered by the treacherous ochus. the citizens of sidon, recognizing that they would receive no mercy from the hands of their conqueror, shut themselves up in their homes and then burned them over their heads. according to the greek historians forty thousand phoenicians perished in this revolt. vi. the date of the samaritan schism. josephus has given an unusually full and detailed account of the final schism between the jews and samaritans. he dates it under the high priesthood of jaddua, who died shortly after the close of the persian period. he implies, therefore, that the schism took place not long before b.c., when alexander the great conquered palestine. this is also in keeping with the fact that the elephantine letter written in b.c. knows nothing of a division between jew and gentile. the fact that at the time of the division the defecting priests took from jerusalem the pentateuch in its final form strongly confirms the conclusion (as professor torrey has pointed out in his _ezra studies_, pp. - ) that the sanballat who ruled over the samaritan community was not the contemporary of nehemiah, but his grandson, who as an old man was ruling in samaria at the time when alexander conquered the east. vii. the nature and consequences of the schism. the schism between jew and samaritan was but a revival of the ancient rivalry which dated from the days when the israelites had first settled in canaan. the destruction of samaria in and the strong policy of josiah had apparently led the samaritans to look to the temple at jerusalem as the chief sanctuary of the land. shechem, however, and mount gerizim, which rises abruptly on the south, enjoyed traditions which dated from the earliest days of israel's history. the sacred oak and altar at shechem figured even in the patriarchal period. at the temple of baal-berith in shechem apparently both canaanites and israelites worshipped during the days of the settlement. according to the samaritan version of deuteronomy : , mount gerizim, not ebal or jerusalem, was the place where the israelites, after entering canaan, were first commanded to rear an altar to jehovah, and to inscribe upon it the laws given to moses. even in the jewish version of deuteronomy : and : mount gerizim is the mountain of blessing. in the light of these passages such commands as, for example, that in deuteronomy : , would naturally be interpreted by the samaritans as a reference to gerizim rather than to jerusalem. the destruction of the judean capital and temple gave a great incentive to the revival of these ancient traditions and a new prestige to the northern sanctuary. until the close of the persian period, however, the samaritans evidently regarded jerusalem as an important shrine and worshipped there side by side with the jews. the ultimate schism appears to have come as a result of the growing jealousy with which certain of the jews regarded foreign marriages. the marriage of manasseh, the brother of jaddua the high priest, to nicaso, the daughter of sanballat ii, and his ultimate expulsion by the jews blew into a flame the smouldering jealousy and opposition that had long existed between the two communities. as josephus recounts, sanballat, in order to satisfy his son-in-law, ceded lands and special rights to him and to the other jerusalem priests, who were attracted by these offers, and ultimately built the famous temple on mount gerizim over which manasseh and his descendants presided. in many ways the temple and service on mount gerizim appear to have been duplicates of those at jerusalem. the same law was recognized by both communities; they shared together the same traditions and the same ideals; and yet their subsequent history illustrates the psychological truth that of all forms of hatred that between brothers is the most venomous and lasting. the bitter rivalry and growing hatred that resulted from this act are reflected even in the wisdom teachings of ben sira (b. sir. : , , ). they also fundamentally color the writings of the chronicler. the strenuous efforts that he made to discountenance the claims of the samaritans reveals the intensity of the feud even in the greek period (cf. ii chron. : - ). his zeal in trying to prove that the rebuilders of the jerusalem temple were of jewish extraction was doubtless inspired by the samaritan charge that during the babylonian and persian periods they had freely intermarried with the heathen population of the land. he was compelled to admit that even the high priestly families had been guilty of this sin, but asserted that the foreign wives were later divorced or else the offenders were expelled from jerusalem. in the light of the oldest records it appears that the samaritans were able to establish almost as pure a lineage as the jews. naturally during the succeeding years the ancient breach continued to widen until it was beyond all healing. * * * * * the greek and maccabean age section civ. the jews under their greek rulers [sidenote: mac. : - ] now after alexander the macedonian, the son of philip, who came from the land of the greeks, had smitten darius king of the persians and medes, he reigned in his place as the first ruler of the syrian kingdom. he fought many battles, and won many strongholds, and slew the kings of the earth; he went on to the ends of the earth; and took spoils from a multitude of nations. and when the earth was at peace before him, he was exalted and his heart was lifted up; he gathered an exceedingly great army, and ruled over countries and peoples and principalities; and they became tributary to him. [sidenote: jos. ant. xi, : a, c] now when alexander was dead, the government was divided among his successors. it was about this time that jaddua the high priest died and onias, his son, took the high priesthood. [sidenote: jos. ant. xii, : b-d] alexander's empire was divided among many: antigonus gained possession of the province of asia; seleucus of babylon and the surrounding nations; lysimachus governed the hellespont, and cassander held macedonia; ptolemy, the son of lagus, got egypt. while these princes ambitiously contended with one another, each for his own kingdom, there were continual and protracted wars. and the cities suffered and lost many of their inhabitants in these days of distress, so that all syria experienced at the hands of ptolemy, the son of lagus, the opposite of what is implied by his title of saviour. he also captured jerusalem by means of deceit and treachery; for, coming into the city on a sabbath day, as if to offer sacrifices, he without difficulty gained possession of the city, since the jews did not oppose him, for they did not suspect him to be their enemy, and that day they always spent in rest and quietness. and when he had gained possession of it, he ruled over it in a cruel manner. [sidenote: jos. ant. xii, : g-j] and when ptolemy had taken many captives both from the mountainous parts of judea and the places about jerusalem and samaria and mount gerizim, he led them all into egypt and settled them there. and since he knew that the people of jerusalem were most faithful in keeping their oaths and covenants, he distributed many of them among garrisons. at alexandria he gave them equal privileges as citizens with the macedonians themselves. he also required them to take oath that they would be faithful to his descendants. and not a few other jews went into egypt of their own accord, attracted both by the goodness of the soil and ptolemy's generosity. however, there were disorders between their descendants and the samaritans because of their resolve to preserve that manner of life which was transmitted to them by their forefathers. they accordingly contended with each other; those from jerusalem said that their temple was holy and they resolved to send their sacrifices there, but the samaritans were determined that they should be sent to mount gerizim. [sidenote: jos. ant. xii, : a] when alexander had reigned twelve years and after him ptolemy soter forty years, ptolemy philadelphus next had the kingdom of egypt and held it thirty-nine years. [sidenote: jos. ant. xii, : d, e, : d-f] now when onias i. the high priest died, his son simon succeeded him. when he died and left only a young son called onias, simon's brother eleazer took the high priesthood. after eleazar's death, his uncle manasseh assumed the priesthood, and after he died, onias ii. received that honor. this onia was lacking in sense and was a great lover of money; for that reason he did not pay the tax of twenty talents of silver for the people, which his forefathers had paid out of their own estates to the kings of egypt. thus he aroused the anger of king ptolemy euergetes, the father of philopator. euergetes sent an ambassador to jerusalem and complained that onias did not pay the taxes and threatened that if he did not receive them, he would parcel out their land and send soldiers to live upon it. when the jews heard this message of the king they were filled with dismay, but onias was so avaricious that nothing of this kind made him ashamed. [sidenote jos. ant. xii, : a-f] there was a certain joseph, young in years, but of great reputation among the people of jerusalem for dignity and exact foresight. his father's name was tobias and his mother was the sister of onias the high priest. she informed him of the coming of ptolemy's ambassador. thereupon joseph came to jerusalem and reproved onias for not taking thought for the security of his countrymen and for bringing the nation into dangers by not paying this money. onias's answer was that he did not care for his authority, that he was ready, if it were possible, to lay down his high priesthood, and that he would not go to the king, for he cared nothing at all about these matters. joseph then asked him if he would give him leave to go as ambassador on behalf of the nation. he replied that he would. so joseph went down from the temple and treated ptolemy's ambassador in a hospitable manner. he also presented him with rich gifts and feasted him magnificently for many days and then sent him to the king before him and told him that he would soon follow him. [sidenote: jos. ant. xii, : b, a-c] now it happened that at this time all the principal men and rulers of the cities of syria and phoenicia went up to bid for the taxes; for every year the king sold them to the most powerful men of each city. and when the day came on which the king was to let the farming of the taxes of the cities, the taxes of coele-syria, phoenicia, judea and samaria amounted altogether to eight thousand talents. thereupon joseph accused the bidders of having agreed together to estimate the value of the taxes at too low a rate and he promised that he would give twice as much for them, and for those who did not pay he would send the king their entire possessions, for this privilege was sold together with the taxes. the king was pleased to hear this offer, and because it increased his revenues he said he would confirm the sale of the taxes to him. [sidenote: jos. ant. xii, : a-c, , a] and joseph took with him two thousand soldiers from the king, for he desired to have assistance in order to compel those who refused in the city to pay. and when the people of askelon refused to pay anything, he seized about twenty of their principal men and slew them, and gathered what they had and sent it all to the king and informed him what he had done. ptolemy admired the spirit of the man, commended him for what he had done and gave him permission to do as he pleased. by these means he amassed great wealth and made vast profits by this farming of taxes. and he made use of the wealth he had thus secured in order to support his authority. this good fortune he enjoyed for twenty-two years; and he became the father of seven sons by one wife. he had also another son whose name was hyrcanus. [sidenote: jos. ant. xii, : a, b] now in the reign of antiochus the great, who ruled over all asia, the jews, as well as the inhabitants of coele-syria, suffered greatly, and their land was sorely harassed, for while antiochus was at war with ptolemy philopator and his son ptolemy, who was called epiphanes, these nations suffered equally both when he was defeated and when he was victorious. so they were like a ship in the storm which is tossed by the waves on both sides. [sidenote: jos. ant. xii, : c-e] but at length when antiochus had beaten ptolemy he seized judea. and when philopator was dead, his son sent out against the inhabitants of coele-syria a great army under scopas, general of his forces, and took many of their cities and especially our people, who, when he attacked them, went over to him. but soon afterwards antiochus overcame scopas in a battle fought at the fountains of the jordan and destroyed a great part of his army. and afterwards, when antiochus subdued those cities of coele-syria which scopas had captured, and samaria among them, the jews of their own accord went over to him and received him into jerusalem and gave plentiful provisions to all his army and readily assisted him when he besieged the garrison which was in the citadel at jerusalem. i. josephus's histories. the greek period began with alexander's conquest of palestine in and extended to the maccabean uprising in b.c. for the external history of this period the writings of the historian josephus are the chief sources. this famous jewish writer was born in a.d., and apparently lived till about the close of the reign of domitian in . according to his own testimony he was the son of a priest named mattathiah. until he was sixteen he studied under the jewish rabbis. he then spent three years with the jewish sect known as the essenes. at the age of nineteen he joined the party of the pharisees. his point of view in general is that of this dominant popular party. he was able to read latin, but wrote his histories in greek. at the age of twenty-six he went to rome where he spent three years. returning to palestine at the beginning of the great rebellion against rome, he was appointed revolutionary governor of the important province of galilee. the appointment was unfortunate, for he proved both incompetent and unreliable. in a.d. he and his followers were shut up by vespasian in the galilean city, jotapata. during the siege he vainly tried to desert to the enemy. at the fall of the city he was captured, but his life was spared by vespasian. in time he ingratiated himself with titus and also incurred the hostility of his countrymen by trying to persuade them to lay down their arms. he spent the latter part of his life in rome, devoting himself to study and writing. as a result of his long residence at rome under the patronage of the roman emperors, he was powerfully influenced by the greek and roman philosophical schools. josephus was the great apologist of his race. his chief aims in writing his histories were: ( ) to excuse his own acts in connection with the great rebellion; ( ) to show why the overwhelming calamity had overtaken his race; and ( ) to answer the attack of their gentile foes by tracing the remarkable history of his people, and by presenting in attractive form their beliefs, institutions, and laws. of his two great historical works the one entitled _the jewish war_ was issued probably between and a.d. it opens with the beginnings of the maccabean struggle, and traces the history, with increasing detail, to the destruction of jerusalem and the suppression of the jewish revolt at gyrene, two or three years before the book was written. his second great work was issued in a.d. under the title of _the antiquities of the jews_. in twenty books it traces israel's history from the earliest beginnings to the opening years of the jewish war ( a.d.). the first half of this extensive history is based on the author's free paraphrase of the greek version of the old testament. for the latter half he draws largely from the apocryphal book of i maccabees and from the writings of contemporary greek and jewish historians. chief among these are polybius, nicolaus of damascus, and strabo. at certain points, where earlier sources fail him, he employs popular romances and late traditions. the result is that the different parts of his history are of widely varying values. all must be carefully tested by the canons of historical criticism. after due allowance has been made for his apologetic purpose and his well-known tendencies, a large and valuable body of historical facts remain with which it is possible at many otherwise obscure points to reconstruct the course of israel's history. ii. alexander's conquests. in many ways alexander's conquest was the most significant and far-reaching event in the history of asia. the causes of this great movement were, first, the fact that the limited territory of greece and macedonia gave to the powerful hellenic civilization little opportunity for local expansion. compelled, therefore, to break these narrow bonds, it naturally spread in the direction of least resistance. in the second place the decadent persian empire, with its fabulous riches and almost limitless plains, was a loadstone that lured on greek adventurers to attempt feats that seemed incredible. the third reason was alexander's inherited lust for conquest. his father, philip of macedon, had long been accumulating the resources which made it possible for his son to realize his ambitious dreams. the fourth reason was alexander's desire to make the world more glorious by the diffusion of hellenic culture, ideas, and institutions and by binding all races together into one great, harmonious family. his brilliant conquests are a familiar chapter in the world's history. at issus, at the northeastern end of the mediterranean, he won, in b.c., the decisive battle which left him in possession of the western part of the huge persian empire. by he was master of palestine. tyre, the commercial mistress of the eastern mediterranean, and gaza, the key to egypt, alone offered resistance. the persian kings by their onerous taxation and cruel policy had completely destroyed the loyalty of their western subjects. in the symbolic pictures of the book of daniel alexander is regarded as the "fourth beast, terrible and fearful and exceedingly strong. and it had great iron teeth. it devoured and broke in pieces, and stamped the rest with its feet" ( : , , : - ). josephus has preserved a popular tradition regarding the meeting between alexander and the white-robed jerusalem priests and the homage paid by the conqueror to the god of the jews. it bears on its face evidence of its unhistorical character. as a matter of fact, the first goal of alexander's conquest was the rich land of egypt. not being possessed of a navy, he entered it through its one vulnerable point, the wady tumilat, that ran from the isthmus of suez to the nile delta. by b.c. he was master of the nile valley, and thence turned eastward, conquering in succession the different provinces of the great empire, until before his death in b.c. his empire extended from the mediterranean to the indus, and in the northeast far up toward central asia. alexander's conquests were significant because they represented the victory of greek ideas and culture as well as of arms. in each country conquered he usually succeeded in hellenizing the native peoples. greek cities, settled by his veterans and the horde of migratory greeks that followed in his wake, were founded at strategic points throughout the vast empire. as recent excavations have shown, greek art and ideas continued even after the death of alexander to sweep eastward across asia, until they profoundly influenced the culture and ideas in such distant nations as china and japan. iii. the jews in egypt and alexandria. the crown of alexander's constructive work was the building of alexandria in egypt. selecting a narrow strip of coast, protected on the south by the low-lying lake mareotis and on the north by the mediterranean, he built there a magnificent greek city. on the south it was connected by canal with the canopic arm of the nile. alexander thus diverted to this new metropolis the rich trade of the red sea and the nile. a mile distant was the island of pharos, which was connected with the mainland by a great moll. on either side, protected from the storms, were the eastern and western harbors, large enough to accommodate the merchant-men and navies of the ancient world. on the west was the native egyptian quarter. in the centre, opposite the island of pharos, was the greek and official quarter. in the northeastern part of the city was the jewish quarter. here the jews lived together under the rule of their law; they were also represented in the civic council by their own leaders. when ptolemy, the son of lagus, became governor of egypt and, after the death of alexander, subjected palestine, he carried back to alexandria many jewish captives, and attracted others by the special privileges which he granted them. in them he recognized valuable allies in developing the commercial resources of alexandria and in maintaining his rule over the native egyptians. here in time the jews became wealthy and powerful and developed a unique civilization. from the beginning of the greek period the number of the jews in egypt equalled, if it did not surpass, that of the jews in palestine. while they maintained close connection with the jews in palestine and remained true to their scriptures, they were profoundly influenced by their close contact with the civilization and ideas of the greek world. iv. the rule of the ptolemies. the long-continued rule of the ptolemies in egypt is one of the most astonishing phenomena in this remarkable period in human history. far outnumbered by the native population, involved in almost constant war with their fellow-greeks, they succeeded by sheer audacity and vigilance in maintaining their authority during the many crises through which they passed. egypt's natural defences also made its conquest by outside powers exceedingly difficult. alexandria with its fleet commanded egypt's one entrance by the sea. in order to protect its eastern gateway, the isthmus of suez, it was essential that the ptolemies should control palestine. southern palestine also commanded the great commercial highway that led southward and eastward to arabia and babylonia. alexandria's ancient rivals, tyre and sidon, also lay on the borders of palestine, and it was essential that they be under the control of egypt, if alexandria was to remain the mistress of the eastern mediterranean. furthermore, palestine and the lebanons (known to josephus as coele-syria, that is, hollow syria), alone of the countries adjacent to egypt, possessed the timber required for the building of alexandria's navies and merchant-men. hence ptolemy, the son of lagus, and his successors spared no effort to maintain their control over the lands lying along the eastern mediterranean. in the division of the empire which followed the death of alexander three rivals struggled in turn for this coveted territory: ptolemy, in the south; antigonus, who soon became master of asia minor and northern syria; and seleucus, to whom fell the tigris-euphrates valley and the more distant eastern provinces. in the decisive battle of ipsus in b.c. the overshadowing power of antigonus was broken and the control of southwestern asia was divided between seleucus and ptolemy. by the treaty that was made after the battle, coele-syria was given to ptolemy; but seleucus and his descendants, who were known as the seleucids or the seleucidae, soon attempted to wrest it from egypt, and during the following century frequently, with varying success, renewed the attempt. in and again in they were for a brief period masters of palestine, but during most of this period it was held by the ptolemies. v. fortunes of the jews of palestine. josephus's figure of a ship in a storm, smitten by the waves on either side, well describes the lot of the jews of palestine during the greek period. they were in turn victimized and courted by the rival kings of egypt and syria. the jews, on the whole, favored the rule of the ptolemies, who had made many concessions to their kinsmen in egypt. the presence of many jews in egypt also made this relation more natural. as a rule the ptolemies during the intervals of peace left the jews of palestine largely to themselves, as long as they paid the heavy tribute that was exacted. it was, however, one of the most corrupt periods in human history. the ptolemaic court was rich, profligate, and constantly degenerating. the popular story of joseph the tax-collector (which josephus recounts at length), while largely fanciful, vividly reflects the conditions and spirit of the age. joseph, who evidently belonged to one of the leading families of jerusalem, by his energy and effrontery secured the valuable right of farming the taxes of palestine. by the iniquitous methods then in vogue, he succeeded in amassing a great fortune. the splendid ruins of arak el-emir on the heights of southern gilead, east of the jordan, represent the huge castle and town built by his son hyrcanus and testify to the wealth of this jewish adventurer. the stories that josephus relates regarding joseph indicate that the materialism and sensuality which were regnant in alexandria had penetrated even into the province of judea. the one bright spot in the political history of this period is the reign of the high priest simon, known as the just. he appears to have devoted himself to developing, so far as was in his power, the interests and resources of the palestinian jews and to have lifted the temple service to a state of magnificence that received the unqualified commendation of jesus, the son of sirach. vi. conquest of palestine by the seleucids in b.c. seleucus nikanor transferred the western capital of his empire, known as syria (a shortened form of the ancient name assyria), to antioch, near the northeastern end of the mediterranean. this city was situated at the point where the orontes breaks through the lebanons and where the great roads from the euphrates and coele-syria converge and run westward to its seaport, seleucia. it was built in the midst of a fertile valley, partly on an island in the river and partly on its northern bank. not having natural defences, the city depended for protection upon its broad, encompassing walls. to this new capital was attracted a diverse native, greek, and jewish population. by virtue of its strategic position and its commercial and political importance, it soon became one of the great cities of the eastern mediterranean. it occupied the natural site on the eastern mediterranean seaboard for the capital of a great empire. shut in by the sea on the west and the desert on the east, syria's natural line of expansion was north and south. not until b.c., however, under the rule of antiochus the great, did it secure permanent control of palestine. the degenerate house of the ptolemies made several ineffectual attempts to win back their lost province, but henceforth palestine remained under the rule of syria. the personal attractions of antiochus the great, the specious promises which he made, and disgust because of the corrupt rule of egypt inclined the jews of palestine to welcome this change of rulers. the court at antioch, however, soon became almost as corrupt as that of egypt, and the jews were the victims of the greed and caprice of the syrian despots. meantime the insidious greek culture and vices were influencing and largely undermining the character of the jewish rulers. judaism was unconsciously facing a supreme crisis in its history. section cv. the wise and their teachings [sidenote: pr. : - ] that men may learn wisdom and instruction, may understand intelligent discourses, may receive instruction in wise conduct, in justice, judgment and equity; that discretion may be given to the inexperienced, to the youth knowledge and a purpose; that the wise man may hear and increase in learning, and the intelligent man may receive counsel, that he may understand proverb and parable, the words of the wise and their riddles. [sidenote: pr. : - ] does not wisdom call? and understanding raise her voice? on the top of high places by the way, in the midst of the street she stands, beside the gateways in front of the city, at the entrance of the gates she cries aloud: to you, o men, i call, and my appeal is to the sons of men. o inexperienced, acquire discretion, and ye stupid, gain understanding. hear, for i speak true things, and the utterance of my lips is right. [sidenote: pr. : ] pride and arrogance and evil conduct and false speech do i hate. [sidenote: pr. : - ] with me is counsel and practical knowledge; with me understanding and might. by me kings do reign, and rulers decree justice. by me princes rule, and nobles judge the land. [sidenote: pr. : ] i love those who love me, those who seek me diligently shall find me. [sidenote: pr. : - ] riches and honor are with me, lordly wealth and prosperity. my fruit is better than gold, yea, than fine gold, and my increase than choice silver. i walk in the way of righteousness, in the midst of the paths of justice, that i may endow those who love me with wealth, and that i may fill their treasuries. [sidenote: pr. : - ] jehovah formed me as the beginning of his creation, the first of his works of old, in the primeval past was i formed, in the beginning, before the earth was, when there were no depths, i was brought forth, when there were no fountains full of water. before the mountains were settled, before the hills were brought forth, when he had not as yet made the earth, nor the first of the dust of the world. [sidenote: pr. : , , ] when he established the heavens, i was there, when he marked off the vault on the face of the deep, made fast the fountains of the deep, when he set to the sea its bound, when he marked out the foundations of the earth, then i was at his side as a foster-child; and i was daily full of delight, sporting in his presence continually, sporting in his habitable earth. [sidenote: pr. : - ] and my delight is with the sons of men; now therefore, my sons, hearken to me, hear instruction that you may be wise, and reject it not. happy is the man who hearkens to me, happy are they who walk in my ways, watching daily at my gates, waiting at the posts of my doors. for he who finds me finds life, and obtains favor from jehovah. [sidenote: pr. : - , : ] the teaching of the wise is a fountain of life that man may avoid the ways of death. walk with the wise and you will become wise, but he who associates with fools shall smart for it. a wise man is better than a strong man, and a man who has knowledge than he who has strength. [sidenote: pr. : ] a wise man has regard for the well-being of his beast, but the heart of the wicked is cruel. [sidenote: pr. : ] love not sleep lest you come to poverty; open your eyes and you shall have plenty. [sidenote: pr. : ] if you find honey, eat what is sufficient for you, lest you be surfeited with it and vomit it up. [sidenote: pr. : - ] who cries, woe? who, alas? who has contentions? who, complaining? who has dullness of eyes? they who linger long over wine, they who go about tasting mixed wine. look not upon the wine when it is red, when it sparkles in the cup. at last it bites like a serpent, and stings like an adder. your eyes shall see strange things, and your mind shall suggest queer things. you shall be like one sleeping at sea, like one asleep in a great storm. "they have struck me, but i feel no pain; they have beaten me, but i feel it not; i will seek it yet again. when shall i awake from my wine?" [sidenote: pr. : , : ] do you see a man hasty in his words? there is more hope for a fool than for him. a man has joy from the utterance of his mouth, and a word in due season, how good it is! [sidenote: pr. : , : ] a man's wisdom makes him slow to anger, and it is his glory to pass over transgression. he who is slow to anger is better than the mighty, and he who rules his spirit than he who takes a city. [sidenote: pr. : - ] my son, give me your attention, and let your eyes give careful heed to my ways. for a harlot is a deep well, and an adultress is a narrow pit. yea, she lies in wait as a robber, and increases the faithless among men. [sidenote: pr. : - ] let your eyes look right straight forward, and let your gaze be straight before you. let the path of your feet be level, and let all your ways be stable. turn not to the right hand nor to the left, keep your foot away from evil. [sidenote: pr. : ] the simpleton believes everything, but the prudent man looks well to where he walks. [sidenote: pr. : , : ] do you see a man wise in his own conceit? there is more hope of a fool than him. let another man praise you and not your own mouth; some other, and not your own lips. [sidenote: pr. : , : ] keep your heart above all that you guard, for out of it are the issues of life. the righteousness of the upright shall save them, but the treacherous are caught by their own desire. [sidenote: pr. : ] to do what is just and right is more acceptable to jehovah than sacrifice. [sidenote: pr. : ] a soft answer turns away wrath; but a harsh word stirs up anger. [sidenote: pr. : ] withhold not good from your neighbor, when it is in your power to do it. say not to your neighbor, "go, and come again, and to-morrow i will give," when you have it by you. [sidenote: pr. : , : ] he who despises his neighbor, sins, but he who has pity on the poor, happy is he. he who has pity on the poor, lends to jehovah, and his good deed will yet pay him. [sidenote: pr. : - ] if your enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat, and if he be thirsty, give him water to drink; for you will heap coals of fire upon his head, and jehovah will reward you. [sidenote: pr. : - ] my son, reject not the instruction of jehovah, and do not grow weary of his reproof, for whom jehovah loveth he reproveth, even as a father the son in whom he delights. [sidenote: pr. : - ] trust in jehovah with all your heart, and depend not upon your own understanding. in all your ways know him well, and he will make plain your path. i. structure and authorship of the book of proverbs. the book of proverbs is in reality a collection of originally independent groups of proverbs. in its present form it consists of nine general divisions: ( ) the preface defining the aims of the book, : - . ( ) a general introduction describing the characteristics and value of the wisdom teaching, : - : . ( ) a large collection designated as the proverbs of solomon, : - : . the fact that ten proverbs are repeated in practically the same words indicates that it, like the book of proverbs as a whole, is made up of smaller collections. in chapters - the prevailing type of the poetic parallelism is antithetic or contrasting, while in the remainder of the book the synonymous or repeating parallelism prevails. ( ) a supplemental collection, : - : . this is introduced by the suggestive superscription, "incline your ear and hear the words of the wise." ( ) a shorter appendix, : - , with the superscription, "these also are from the wise." ( ) the second large collection of proverbs, - . this bears the superscription, "these also are the proverbs of solomon which the men of hezekiah, king of judah, transcribed." it contains several proverbs found in the first large collection, and evidently represents later gleanings from the same field. ( ) the words of agur, . of agur nothing is known beyond his name, which may be simply typical. the latter part of the chapter contains a collection of numerical enigmas which may or may not have been associated at first with the opening section. ( ) the words of king lemuel, : - . ( ) a description of the ideal hebrew housewife, : - . the contents of these collections as well as their superscriptions clearly indicate that these proverbs represent the work of many different wise men, living at different periods and writing from different points of view. few, if any, can be confidently attributed to solomon. even the proverbs in the large collection, : - : , which are definitely designated as the proverbs of solomon, emphasize monogamy and denounce rulers who oppress their subjects. many of the proverbs in these larger solomonic collections give practical advice regarding the bearing of a subject in the presence of the king, and few of them fit in the mouth of the splendor-loving monarch, who by his foreign marriages and grinding taxation exerted a baleful influence upon the political and religious life of israel. the great majority of the proverbs reflect the noble ethical teachings of the prophets. clearly the term proverbs of solomon is simply a late designation of early proverbs the authorship of which, like that of most popular maxims, had long since been forgotten. ii. date of the different collections. the preface and general introduction to the book of proverbs reflect the immorality and evils that characterized both the persian and greek periods. their background is the corrupt life of the city. the tendency to personify wisdom is also one of the marks of later jewish thought. it is probable, therefore, that this part of the book of proverbs was added by a late editor who lived during the greek period. the oldest collection in the book is clearly to be found in : - : . the evils which it describes, the oppression of the poor and dependent by the rich and powerful, existed throughout most of israel's history, but were especially prominent in the days of the divided kingdom immediately before the destruction of jerusalem. the references to the king imply that the proverb writers had in mind hebrew rulers. in general their rule is just and they enjoy the respect of their subjects. the prevailing occupation of the people is agriculture. commerce is just beginning to develop. the exile has not yet cast its shadow over hebrew life and thought. the majority of these proverbs clearly represent the fruitage of the teachings of the pre-exilic prophets, and many of them come from the days immediately before the final destruction of jerusalem. from the occasional references to the scoffers, the absence of allusions to idolatry, and the fact that monogamy is here assumed, we may infer that some of them at least come from the persian or even the greek periods. it is probable that this large collection was not made until the latter part of the persian or the early part of the greek period. the appendices in : - : contain many repetitions of proverbs found in the larger collection. the prevalence of intemperance, the existence of a merchant class, and the allusions to exiled jews (e.g., : ) point rather clearly to the dissolute greek period as the age when these small collections were made. the word meaning "transcribe," that is found in the superscription to the second large collection ( - ), is peculiar to the late hebrew, and implies that this superscription, like those of the psalms, was added by a late jewish scribe. the literary form of these proverbs is more complex than those of the other large collection. the kings are feared by their subjects, but figure now as oppressors rather than champions of the people. while this collection may contain a few proverbs coming from the period before the final destruction of jerusalem, it is probable that, like the smaller appendices to the first large collection, they were not gathered until the early part of the greek period. the long appendices in chapters - are clearly late. the note of doubt in the opening section of is closely akin to that which recurs in the book of ecclesiastes. it is also based on isaiah : and : . aramaisms and the acrostic form in : - imply that the background was the late persian or early greek period. the history of the book of proverbs is therefore reasonably clear. its original nucleus was probably a small group of popular proverbs that had been transmitted orally from the days before the final destruction of jerusalem. these, together with proverbs which first became current during the persian period, were collected some time in the days following the work of nehemiah. to these was added in the greek period the smaller appendices in : - : . possibly the same editor joined to them the large collection found in - . he or some wise man in the greek period prefixed the elaborate introduction in chapters - . to the whole was added the appendices in chapters and . it is probable that by the middle of the greek period, or at least before b.c., the book of proverbs was complete in its present form. iii. the wise in israel's early history. long before b.c. the scribes of ancient egypt were busy collecting "the words of counsel of the men of olden time." many of these ancient maxims still survive. the best-known is that which bears the title "the wisdom of ptah-hotep." the desire to preserve and transmit the results of practical experience is the common motive that underlies the work of the wise. it is that which inspires the teachers of all ages. the ancients were keenly alive to the importance of instruction and training. all that is significant in the civilizations of the past is, in a sense, the result of this teaching motif. in early israel there were many men and women famous for their ability to give wise counsel. in his stormy career joab, david's valiant commander, frequently profited by the counsel of certain wise women (sections liii: - lix: ). david's friend hushai, by his wily counsel at the time of absalom's rebellion, saved the king's life. the narrative in ii samuel declares that the counsel of ahithophel was esteemed almost as highly as the divine oracle. for his keen insight and acute decisions, as well as for his witty utterances, solomon gained a reputation which made him in the thought of later generations the father of all wisdom literature. in a significant passage found in jeremiah : the three classes of israel's teachers are brought into sharp contrast. in urging that the prophet be put to death his foes declared: "teaching will not perish from the priest, nor counsel from the wise, nor the word from the prophet." from references in isaiah and jeremiah it is evident that before the final destruction of the hebrew state the counsel of the wise was chiefly political and secular, and often not in accord with the higher ideals of the great pre-exilic prophets. iv. their prominence in the greek period. the transformation of the wise into religious as well as secular teachers apparently came after the destruction of jerusalem. it was the result of a variety of forces which have already been studied. the destruction of the hebrew state and the resulting prominence of the individual led the wise to turn their attention from questions of political to those of personal import. the result is that the word "israel" is found nowhere in the book of proverbs. the teachings there found are both individual and universal and apply to gentile as well as jew, to the present as well as the past. the gradual disappearance of the prophets during the latter part of the persian period, and the fact that the priests ever devoted themselves more and more to the ritual and less to teaching, left a great need in the life of judaism which called to the front the wise. at the same time the problems of the individual became more and more complex and insistent. especially was this true during the greek period when hellenic civilization, with its corrupting influences, swept over palestine and the lands of the dispersion. it was a period when the principles enunciated by the earlier prophets had been in general adopted by the jewish race. the task, however, of interpreting these principles simply and practically into the every-day life of the people was left to these lovers and teachers of men, the wise. the evidence of the voluminous writings of ben sira, as well as of the books of proverbs and ecclesiastes, makes it quite clear that it was during the greek period, and possibly in part under the intellectual stimulus of greek thought, that the wise attained their greatest prominence and influence. v. the aims of the wise. the aims of the wise are in part defined in the remarkable preface to the book of proverbs, which was intended primarily to describe the purpose of the collection of proverbs which embodies their teachings. four distinct classes commanded their attention: ( ) the ignorant, those who were unacquainted with the moral, religious, and practical heritage received from preceding generations. ( ) the inexperienced, those who had not yet learned in the school of life the art of adjusting themselves successfully to their environment. ( ) the scoffers, who openly rejected the counsel of the sages. and ( ) the disciples who were eager to learn and profit by the teachings of the wise. the definite aims of the wise must be inferred from their teachings. they were concerned with the development of the individual, not the nation. their first aim was to instruct the ignorant in the fundamental moral and religious principles already laid down by earlier priests and prophets. in the words of the preface to the book of proverbs they taught, that men may learn wisdom and instruction, may understand intelligent discourses, may receive instruction in wise dealing, in justice, judgment, and equity. their second aim was to point out the pitfalls that lay in the path of the inexperienced, and to save them from moral wreck by inspiring within them right ideals and ambitions. this aim is also well stated in the preface to the book of proverbs: that discretion may be given to the inexperienced, to the youth knowledge and a purpose. the third aim of the wise was to educate the receptive and all who came to them in the attitude of disciples. this aim corresponded very closely to that of the modern educator. again the preface to the book of proverbs clearly expresses this educational ideal: that the wise man may hear and increase in learning, and the intelligent man may receive counsel. that he may understand a proverb and parable, the words of the wise and their riddles. the wise, therefore, sought not merely to instruct, but to educate; that is, to develop sane, happy, and efficient men and women. they sought to train those who would have not only knowledge and experience, but also the ability to apply these successfully in the varied relations of life. above all, they endeavored to educate not parts of a man, but the whole man. hence their interest and the subjects that they treat are as broad as human experience. the wise were keenly alive to the importance of youthful education. the proverb: train up a child in the way in which he should go, and even when he is old he will not depart from it, voices the fundamental principle upon which all effective education is based. they recognized that in the plastic days of childhood and youth ideals and character and efficiency could best be developed, and that education was not the work of a moment, but a gradual, progressive development. primary education, however, they intrusted to parents, and in many proverbs emphasized the responsibility which every parent owed to his child. they also counselled parents regarding the training of their children. the maxims: the rod of correction gives wisdom, but a child left to himself brings disgrace to his mother. chastise your son while there is still hope, and set not your heart on his destruction. he who spares his rod hates his son, but he who loves him chastises him, express their appreciation of the importance of discipline in the early training of the child. it is not clear at what age the wise took up the instruction of the young. possibly it was at about the age of twelve, when the individual passed from childhood to adolescence, with its increasing dangers and possibilities. many of their teachings are especially adapted to the problems of this tempestuous period. vi. the methods of the wise. in attaining their aims the wise men of israel employed a variety of methods. proverbs such as, every purpose is established by counsel, and by wise guidance make thou war, suggest that, as in the days before the exile, they were still active in connection with the civic, social, and national life of the people, and that by influencing public policies they conserved the moral welfare of the individual as well as the state. many references to "wisdom's voice crying aloud in the public places" suggest that, like the earlier prophets, the wise men at times taught in public, in the market-places, in the open spaces within the city gates, or wherever men were gathered together. they appear also to have taught in private, by wise counsel delivering the individual disciple who resorted to them from the perils that beset his path, or aiding him by prudent advice in solving successfully his individual problems. in : - ben sira has given a vivid sketch of the schools of the wise, which are clearly the forerunners of the later rabbinical schools: my son, if you wish, you will be instructed, and if you pay attention, you will become prudent. if you are willing to hear, you will receive, and if you listen attentively, you will be wise. stand in the assembly of the elders, and whoever is wise, stick close to him. be willing to listen to every discourse, and let no illuminating proverbs escape you. if you see a man of insight, hasten to him, and let your foot wear out his threshold. let your mind dwell upon the law of the most high, and meditate continually on his commands. thus he will enlighten your mind, and teach you the wisdom you desire. it requires little imagination to picture these ancient prototypes of our modern universities. like all oriental teachers, the wise doubtless sat cross-legged, with their disciples in a circle about them. they trusted largely to question and answer, and poured out from their own and their inherited experience wise maxims such as would guide the simple and inexperienced and develop efficient manhood. viii. their important teachings. in the opening chapters of proverbs the wise describe the character and value of that wisdom which represents their teaching as a whole. in chapters and "wisdom" is personified. inasmuch as the hebrew word for "wisdom" is feminine, it is spoken of as a woman. chapter describes, in a form intended to arrest the attention of the most inattentive, the feast that wisdom offers to her guests. this is contrasted with folly's banquet, and the consequences to those who participated in these rival banquets are clearly presented. in the practical teachings of the wise no question that vitally concerned the individual man was considered beneath their attention. like the wise modern teacher they made no distinction between the religious and the secular. everything that influenced man's acts and ideals possessed for them profound religious import. while the proverbial epigrammatic form of their teaching was not conducive to a logical or complete treatment of their theme, yet in a series of concise, dramatic maxims they dealt with almost every phase of man's domestic, economic, legal, and social life. they presented clearly man's duty to animals, to himself, to his fellow-men, and to god. if utilitarian motives were urged in the great majority of cases, it is because they sought to reach their pupils on their own level. although their ideals sometimes fell below those of the great prophets, and especially those of the great teacher of nazareth, the importance of their work in establishing individual standards of right and wrong, in keeping alive in concrete form the principles of the earlier prophets, and in preparing their race for the crises through which it was soon to pass cannot be overestimated. as effective teachers of the individual they have an intensely practical and significant message for all men in the stream of life to-day as well as in the past. section cvi. the different currents of thought in judaism during the greek period [sidenote: ps. : - ] the law of jehovah is perfect, restoring the soul; the testimony of jehovah is trustworthy, making wise the simple, the precepts of jehovah are right, rejoicing the heart, the commandment of jehovah is pure, enlightening the eyes. the fear of jehovah is clean, enduring forever, the judgments of jehovah are true and altogether just, they are of more value than gold, yea, than much fine gold, sweeter than honey and the droppings from the honey-comb. by them is thy servant warned; in keeping them is great reward. who can discern his errors; cleanse thou me from secret faults, also from the presumptuous restrain thy servant; let them not have dominion over me. then shall i be perfect and cleared from great transgression. let the words of my mouth be acceptable and the meditation of my heart, in thy sight, o jehovah, my rock and my redeemer. [sidenote: ps. : - ] jehovah is our refuge and strength, an ever present help in trouble. therefore we fear not, though the earth be moved, and though the mountains totter into the heart of the sea; the seas roar, their waters foam, mountains shake with the swelling of its stream. jehovah of hosts is with us, the god of jacob is our refuge. [sidenote: ps. : - ] his brooks make glad the city of jehovah, the holy dwelling place of the most high. jehovah is in the midst of her, she cannot totter; jehovah will help her at the turn of the morn. nations raged, kingdoms tottered, when he uttered his voice the earth melted. jehovah of hosts is with us, the god of jacob is our refuge. [sidenote: ps. : - ] come, behold the works of jehovah, what desolations he hath made in the earth. he is about to make wars to cease unto the end of the earth. the bow he breaketh, and dasheth the spear in pieces; he burneth the chariots with fire. be still, and know that i am jehovah; i shall be exalted among the nations, i shall be exalted on the earth. jehovah of hosts is with us, the god of jacob is our refuge. [sidenote: ps. : - ] all the ends of the earth will remember and will turn to jehovah, and all the families of the nations will worship in his presence; for the dominion belongs to jehovah and he rules over the nations. verily, him alone will all the prosperous of the earth worship. before him all those about to go down to the dust will bow, a seed will serve him, it will be told to a generation to come; and they will declare his righteousness that he hath accomplished to a people yet to be born. [sidenote: jonah : - ] now this word of jehovah came to jonah the son of amittai: arise, go to that great city, nineveh, and preach against it; for their wickedness has come up before me. but jonah rose up to flee to tarshish from the presence of jehovah. and he went down to joppa and found a ship going to tarshish; so he paid the fare and embarked to go with them to tarshish from the presence of jehovah. [sidenote: jonah : - ] but jehovah sent a furious wind upon the sea, and there was a mighty tempest, so that the ship threatened to break in pieces. then the sailors were afraid and cried, each to his own god; and they cast into the sea the wares that were in the ship, in order to lighten it. but jonah had gone down into the bottom of the ship; and he lay fast asleep. and the captain of the ship came and said to him: what are you doing asleep? call on your god, perhaps that god will think on us that we perish not. and they said to one another, come, let us cast lots, that we may know for whose sake this evil has come upon us. so they cast lots and the lot fell upon jonah. [sidenote: jonah : - ] then they said to him, tell us, what is your occupation, and whence do you come? what is your country and of what people are you? and he said to them, i am a hebrew, and a worshipper of jehovah, the god of heaven, who hath made the sea and the dry land. then the men were exceedingly afraid, and said to him, what is this you have done? for they knew that he was fleeing from the presence of jehovah, for he had told them. [sidenote: jonah : - ] then they said to him, what shall we do to thee, that the sea may be calm for us? for the sea grew more and more stormy. and he said to them, take me up and throw me into the sea; so shall the sea be calm for you, for i know that for my sake this great storm has overtaken you. but the men rowed hard to get back to the land; but they could not, for the sea grew more and more stormy against them. [sidenote: jonah : , ] therefore they cried to jehovah, and said, we beseech thee, o jehovah, we beseech thee, let us not perish for this man's life, neither bring innocent blood upon us, for thou art jehovah; thou hast done as it pleaseth thee. so they took up jonah, and threw him into the sea; and the sea ceased from its raging. then the men feared jehovah exceedingly, and they offered a sacrifice to jehovah, and made vows. [sidenote: jonah : - : , ] then jehovah prepared a great fish to swallow jonah and jonah was in the belly of this fish three days and three nights. thereupon jonah prayed to jehovah his god, out of the belly of the fish. and jehovah spoke to the fish, and it threw up jonah upon the dry land. [sidenote: jonah : - ] and the word of jehovah came to jonah the second time, saying, arise, go to that great city, nineveh, and preach to it what i shall tell thee. so jonah rose and went to nineveh, as jehovah said. now nineveh was a great city before god, of three days' journey. and jonah began by going through the city a day's journey, and he cried, and said, forty days more and nineveh shall be overthrown. [sidenote: jonah : - ] and the people of nineveh believed god; and they proclaimed a fast, and put on sackcloth, from the greatest of them to the least of them. and when word came to the king of nineveh, he rose from his throne, and took off his robe, and dressed in sackcloth, and sat in the dust. and he made proclamation and published in nineveh: by the decree of the king and his nobles: man, beast, herd, and flock shall not taste anything; let them neither eat nor drink water; but let them clothe themselves with sackcloth, both man and beast, and let them cry mightily to god, and turn each from his evil way, and from the act of violence which they have in hand. who knows but that god may relent, and turn from his fierce anger, that we perish not? [sidenote: jonah : ] and god saw their works, how they turned from their evil way; and god relented of the evil which he said he would do to them, and did it not. [sidenote: jonah : - ] but it displeased jonah greatly, and he was angry. and he prayed to jehovah, and said, ah now, jehovah, was not this what i said when i was yet in mine own country? therefore i hastened to flee to tarshish; for i knew that thou art a god, gracious and merciful, slow to anger, and abounding in love, and relenting of evil. therefore, o jehovah, take now, i beseech thee, my life from me; for it is better for me to die than to live! and jehovah said, doest thou well to be angry? then jonah went out of the city, and sat down before the city, and there made him a booth, and sat under it, until he might see what would become of the city. [sidenote: jonah : - ] and jehovah god prepared a gourd, and made it to come up over jonah, that it might be a shade over his head. so jonah rejoiced exceedingly over the gourd. but as the dawn appeared the next day god prepared a worm and it injured the gourd, so that it withered. and when the sun arose, god prepared a sultry east wind. and the sun beat upon the head of jonah, so that he was faint, and begged for himself that he might die saying, it is better for me to die than to live. and god said to jonah, is it well for thee to be angry about the gourd? and he said, it is well for me to be angry, even to death! and jehovah said, thou carest for a gourd, for which thou hast not troubled thyself, nor hast thou brought it up--a thing that came in a night and hath perished in a night. shall i, indeed, not care for the great city, nineveh, in which there are one hundred and twenty thousand human beings who know not their right hand from their left; besides much cattle? [sidenote: eccles. : - ] i, koheleth, was king over israel in jerusalem. and i applied my mind to searching out and exploring wisdom, all that is done under heaven: it is an evil task that god hath given the children of men at which to toil. i have seen all the works that are done under the sun; and behold, the whole is vanity and a striving after wind. the crooked cannot be made straight; and the wanting cannot be numbered. i communed with myself, saying, behold, i have increased and gathered wisdom more than all who were before me in jerusalem, and my mind has abundantly beheld wisdom and knowledge. and i applied my mind to know wisdom and knowledge, madness and folly: i know that this also is a striving after wind. for in much wisdom is much trouble, and he who increases knowledge, increases pain. [sidenote: eccles. : - ] i said in my mind, come now, i will test you with pleasure; so look upon what is attractive; and, behold, this also is vanity. i said of laughter, it is mad; and of pleasure, what does it do? i searched in my mind, how to stimulate my flesh with wine, while my mind was guiding with wisdom, and how to lay hold on folly, until i should see what is good for the children of men to do under the heavens all the days of their life. i did great works: i built for myself houses; i planted for myself vineyards; i made for myself gardens and parks, and i planted trees in them, every kind of fruit-tree. i made for myself pools of water, to water a grove springing up with trees. i bought male and female slaves and had slaves born in my house; also i had great possessions of herds and flocks, more than all who had been before me in jerusalem. i also gathered for myself silver and gold, and the treasure of kings and of provinces. i secured for myself male and female singers, and the delights of the sons of men, mistresses of all kinds. and i grew more wealthy than all who were before in jerusalem; also my wisdom remained with me. and nothing that my eyes craved did i keep from them; i did not deny my heart any joy, for my heart rejoiced because of all my labor. then i looked on all the works that my hands had wrought, and on the labor that i had labored to do; and, behold, all was vanity and a striving after wind, and there was no gain under the sun. [sidenote: eccles. : - ] and i turned to behold wisdom and madness, and folly; for what can the man do who comes after the king? even that which has been done already. then i saw that wisdom excels folly, as far as light excels darkness. the wise man's eyes are in his head, but the fool walks in darkness: yet i know that the same fate overtakes them all. then i said in my heart, as is the fate of a fool so will be my fate; so why have i then been more wise? then i said in my heart that this also is vanity. for of the wise man, even as of the fool, there is no remembrance for ever, inasmuch as in the days to come all will have been already forgotten. and how the wise man dies even as the fool! so i hated life, because the work that is done under the sun is evil to me; for all is vanity and a striving after wind. [sidenote: eccles. : - b] there is nothing better for a man than that he should eat and drink, and find his pleasure in his labor. this also i saw that it is from the hand of god. for who can eat, or who can have enjoyment without him? this is also vanity and a striving after wind. i. the ritualists. liberty of thought as well as speech was from the first characteristic of israel's life and thought. it was one of the many valuable heritages that the hebrews brought with them from the free life of the desert. their close contact with the outside world, and especially with hellenic life and thought during the greek period, increased this sense of freedom. the result is that many different currents of thought are reflected in the old testament writings that come from this age. most familiar and easiest understood is the ritualistic type. it is represented by the chronicler, who lived and wrote some time between and b.c. for him all life and interest centred about the temple and its services. in general the vision of the ritualists was turned toward the past rather than the present and the future. in the traditions regarding the origin of the temple and its institutions, in keeping the ceremonial law, in participating in the formal ritual, and in joining their songs with those of the temple singers they found an escape from the pettiness of the age and attained that peace and joy which is expressed in many of the psalms of the psalter. ii. the legalists. closely related to the ritualists were those whose interests were all fixed in the study of the law and the teachings of the earlier priests. they regarded the written laws as a complete guide to conduct and the embodiment of jehovah's supreme message to his race. psalms like the fragment found in : - voice their convictions: the law of jehovah is perfect, restoring the soul, the judgments of jehovah are true and altogether just. by them is thy servant warned; in keeping them is great reward. they emphasized not merely external acts and words, but inner motives. in character and in conduct they were noble products of that religion which israel had inherited from the past. by them were probably treasured stories such as are found in the first chapters of the book of daniel. the detailed references in chapter to the marriage of antiochus theos and the daughter of ptolemy philadelphus in b.c. and to the murder of antiochus by his former wife laodicea, together with the absence of allusions to subsequent events, indicate that these stories were probably committed to writing somewhere between and b.c. their aim was clearly to emphasize the supreme importance of fulfilling faithfully the demands of the law, even in the face of bitter opposition and persecution, and the certainty that jehovah would deliver those who were loyal to him. their teachings were especially adapted to inspire the tried and tempted jews of the dispersion, who were sorely persecuted by the heathen among whom they lived. the dramatic picture of men who dared face the fiery furnace or the hungry lions rather than depart from the demands of the law undoubtedly proved a great inspiration to the jews of the greek period. iii. the disciples of the prophets. throughout the centuries that followed the destruction of jerusalem the great ethical prophets of the pre-exilic period had never been without spiritual disciples. they faithfully studied and applied in their own lives the principles laid down by their earlier guides. although the influence of the contemporary prophets constantly waned, yet the spirit of those earlier champions of the faith lived in the hearts of their followers. in many of the psalms of the psalter amos and isaiah and jeremiah speak in terms adapted to the changed problems of the jews of the greek period. in psalm the trust in jehovah which isaiah advocated has become a living force in the life of the psalmist and of the class in behalf of which he spoke. in the background one hears the march of the multitude armed by alexander for world-conquest and the din of conflict as army met army; but over all stands jehovah, protecting his sanctuary and people, supreme in the lives of men and nations. the narrow, nationalistic, messianic hopes have long since been abandoned, and instead jehovah is recognized as the one supreme being whose kingdom or dominion includes all the nations of the earth. in imagination these disciples of the prophets saw the time when rich and poor, jew and gentile, should bow before jehovah and be united in loyalty to him. thus arose that highest conception of the kingdom of god which is the foundation of jesus' teaching. iv. the date and character of the book of jonah. from those who sat at the feet of the earlier prophets came one of the most remarkable books of the old testament. in literary form the little book of jonah is closely akin to the stories in the opening chapters of genesis and the first half of the book of daniel. its many aramaic words, its quotations from the late book of joel, its universalism, and its missionary spirit all indicate that it comes either from the closing years of the persian or from the earlier part of the greek period. the story of jonah, like many similar stories in the old testament, was probably known to the semites centuries before it was employed by the author of the book to point his great prophetic teaching. in the familiar greek story of hercules, hesione, the daughter of the trojan king, is rescued by the hero from a sea-monster which held her in its stomach three days. an old egyptian tale coming from the third millennium b.c. tells of an egyptian who was shipwrecked and after floating three days was swallowed by a great sea-monster and thus carried to the land. from india comes the tradition of a man who went to sea contrary to the commands of his mother. while on the way the ship was seized by an unknown power and not allowed to proceed until the offender was three times selected by lot and then cast overboard. v. teachings of the book of jonah. the value and message of the book of jonah have in the past been largely overlooked because the true literary character of the book has been misunderstood. it was never intended by its author to be regarded as a historical narrative. its hero jonah, the son of amittai, according to ii kings : , lived during the reign of jeroboam ii ( - b.c.), and predicted the wide extension of the territory of southern israel; but the jonah of the story is evidently a type of the jew of the persian and greek periods. by showing the pettiness of his attitude toward the heathen the author sought to broaden the vision and quicken the conscience of his fellow-jews. the portrait is remarkably vivid and suggestive. jonah fled from jehovah's land and took refuge in the sea, not because he feared the ninevites, but, as he plainly declares later, because he feared that, if he did preach to the assyrian foes of his race, jehovah would repent and spare them. in the scene in the midst of the raging tempest the piety of the heathen sailors and their zeal in sparing the guilty israelite stand forth in favorable contrast to jonah's action in refusing to carry out jehovah's command. the ninevites, clad in sackcloth, repenting for their sins, and craving jehovah's forgiveness, are far more attractive than the sullen prophet, complaining because jehovah has spared the heathen foes of his race and later upbraiding jehovah because of the destruction of the gourd that for a time had protected his head from the burning sun. jehovah's concluding remonstrance voices the message of the book. like the new testament parable of the prodigal son, the story of jonah presents in graphic form the unbounded love of the heavenly father and contrasts it sharply with the petty jealousies and hatred of his favored people. it was a call to israel to go forth and become a missionary to all the world and a protest against the nation's failure to perform its god-given task. vi. the book of ecclesiastes. very different is the spirit and purpose of the book of ecclesiastes. it evidently comes from one of the many wisdom teachers who flourished during the greek period and it speaks in the name of solomon. it is an essay on the value of life. in its original form its thought was so pessimistic that it has been supplemented at many points by later editors. these insertions include ( ) proverbs commending wisdom and praising the current wisdom teachings, and ( ) the work of a pious scribe, a forerunner of the later pharisees, who sought to correct the utterances of the original writer (who is commonly designated as koheleth) and to bring them into accord with current orthodoxy. the language and style of the book are closely akin to those of the chronicler and the author of the book of esther. it also contains several persian and possibly one greek word. the book in its earlier form was evidently known to ben sira, the author of ecclesiasticus, who lived about b.c. in : - and : - there are apparent references to the reign of ptolemy epiphanes, who came to the throne of egypt at the age of five, and whose court was famous for its dissoluteness and profligacy. the book, therefore, may be dated with considerable confidence a little before b.c. it was a corrupt, barren period. crime was rampant in the temple as well as at the court in alexandria ( : ). the people were crushed by the powerful and were without means of redress ( : ). a despot sat on the throne ( : - ) and spies lurked everywhere ( : ). vii. koheleth's philosophy of life. the author of the original book of ecclesiastes is the spokesman of that class in judaism who were oppressed and crushed by this dreary outlook. he evidently lived in jerusalem and probably near the temple ( : : ). from the allusions in : , it is evident that he was unhappily married. from the classic description of old age found in : - : it would appear that when he wrote he was well advanced in years, and spoke out of the depths of his own painful personal experience, having been left without son or close kinsman ( : ). from his teachings it is clear that he had broken away from the orthodox wisdom school. before his enfeebled vision rose the seamy, dreary side of life, and yet back of the lament of this ancient pessimist is revealed a man of high ideals, impelled by a spirit of scientific thoroughness. though he was intense and eager in his quest for true happiness and in his analysis of the meaning of life, he found no abiding joy, for his outlook was sadly circumscribed. life beyond the grave offered to him no hope or compensation. he was, however, by no means an agnostic. he believed in god's rulership of the world; but the god of his faith was inscrutable, far removed from the life of men. hence, unlike many of his contemporaries, as for example the psalmists, he found little joy or inspiration in his religion. according to the conclusion, which he proclaimed in the beginning of his essay and held consistently throughout, all human striving and ambition, even life itself, are but superlative vanity, nor can man attain any permanent or complete satisfaction. the one positive teaching which koheleth reiterates is that it is man's highest privilege to extract from passing experiences the small measure of joy and happiness that they offer, and therewith to be content. compared with many other old testament books, the religious value of ecclesiastes is slight indeed. its chief value, however, is historical: it presents one phase of thought in the judaism of this period, and shows how sorely the jewish people needed the spur of a great crisis to rouse them to noble and unselfish action. the book of ecclesiastes also furnishes the darker background which brings out in clear relief the inspiring messages of the great prophets that had gone before, and of the greater prophet who was to set before the human race a worthy goal and a fresh and true interpretation of the value of life. section cvii. the teachings of jesus the son of sirach [sidenote: b. sir. : - ] all wisdom is from the lord, and is with him forever. the sand of the seas, and the drops of rain, and the days of eternity--who shall number? the height of the heaven, and the breadth of the earth, and the depths of the abyss--who shall search them out? wisdom hath been created before all things, and keen insight from everlasting. to whom hath the root of wisdom been revealed? and who hath known her shrewd counsels? there is one wise, greatly to be feared, the lord sitting upon his throne, he created her, and saw and numbered her, and poured her out over all his works. she is with all flesh according to his gift, and he giveth her freely to those who love him. [sidenote: b. sir. : - ] my son, if you would serve the lord, prepare your soul for temptation. set your heart aright, and be steadfast, that you may not be dismayed in the time of calamity. cleave to him, and depart not, that you may prove yourself wise at the last. accept whatever comes to you, and be patient in sickness and affliction, for gold is tried by the fire, and acceptable men in the furnace of affliction. [sidenote: b. sir. : - ] put your trust in the lord, and he will help you, hope in him, and he will make smooth your way. you who fear the lord, wait for his mercy, and turn not aside lest you fall. you who fear the lord trust in him, and your reward shall not fail. you who fear the lord, hope for good things, and for eternal gladness and deliverance? [sidenote: b. sir. : - ] my son, if you are rich, walk in humility, that you will be more beloved than a generous man. the greater you are, humble yourself the more, and you shall find favor before the lord. for great is the might of the lord, and he is glorified by those who are meek. [sidenote: b. sir. : - ] seek not the things that are too hard for you, and search not out things that are beyond you. that over which power has been given you, think thereon, for you have no business with the things that are hidden. with that which is out of your field have nothing to do, for more things are shown to you than you can understand. for men have many speculations, and evil theories have led them astray. where there is no pupil to the eye, the light fails, and where there is no understanding, wisdom fails. [sidenote: b. sir. : - ] a stubborn heart fares ill at the last, but he who loves the good finds it. a stubborn heart has many troubles, and the overbearing heap sin upon sin. for the wound of the scorner there is no healing, since he is a plant of an evil kind. a wise mind understands the proverbs of the wise, and an ear attentive to wisdom is a joy. [sidenote: b. sir. : - : , , ] water quenches flaming fire, and right acts make atonement for sins. he who does a favor--it meets him on his way, and when he falls he shall find support. my son, deprive not the poor of his living, and let not the eyes of the needy grow weary. make not a hungry soul groan, and do not stir up the feelings of him who is smitten. deliver the oppressed from the oppressor, and be not faint-hearted in giving judgment. be as a father to the fatherless, and instead of a husband to the widow; so will god call you his son, and be gracious to you and save you from destruction. [sidenote: b. sir. : - ] observe the opportunity and beware of evil, and be not ashamed of yourself. for there is a shame that brings sin, and another shame, glory and grace. do not be obsequious to your own shame, and do not humiliate yourself until it is a sin against yourself. [sidenote: b. sir. : - , , ] hold not back speech, in its proper time, and hide not your wisdom. for by speech wisdom shall be known, and instruction by the word of the tongue. speak not against the truth, but be humble because of your own ignorance. strive for the right even to death, and the lord will fight for you. be not boastful with your tongue, and slack and remiss in your work. [sidenote: b. sir. : , ] be not as a lion in your house, nor arrogant and suspicious among your servants. let not your hand be stretched out to receive, and closed when you should repay. [sidenote: b. sir. : , a] set not your mind upon your possessions, and say not, they are sufficient for me. follow not your own mind and strength, to walk in the desires of your heart. [sidenote: b. sir. : , ] do not give yourself up to your passion, lest it like a bull eat up your strength. for a wild passion destroys its possessor, and makes him the laughing-stock of his enemies. [sidenote: b. sir. : - ] well ordered speech makes friends, and a gracious tongue wins kindly greetings. let those who are friendly toward you be many, but your confidant one of a thousand. if you would get a friend, get him by testing, and do not give him your confidence too quickly. for there is many a fair-weather friend, but he does not remain in the day of need. [sidenote: b. sir. : - ] a faithful friend is a strong defence, and he who finds him finds a treasure. there is nothing equal to a faithful friend, and his worth is beyond price. a faithful friend is a source of life, and he who fears the lord finds him. he who fears the lord directs his friendship aright, for as he is, so is his friend. [sidenote: b. sir. : , ] devise not a lie against your brother, nor do the like to a friend or associate. never take pleasure in speaking a falsehood. for its outcome is not good. [sidenote: b. sir. : , ] do not treat badly a servant who serves you faithfully, nor a hired servant who gives to you his best. love a sensible servant as your own self, defraud him not of liberty. [sidenote: b. sir. : , ] honor your father with your whole heart, and forget not the pangs of your mother. remember that of them you were born, and now you can recompense them for what they have done for you. [sidenote: b. sir. : , ] fear the lord with all your soul, and regard his priests with reverence. love your creator with all your strength, and do not neglect his ministers. i. date and character of jesus, the son of sirach. out of the large number of anonymous books that come from the persian and greek periods one stands forth unique. it is the wisdom of ben sira. with the exception of the psalter and isaiah, it is the largest book that has come to us from ancient israel. fortunately, its date and authorship may be determined with reasonable certainty. in the prologue to the greek translation, its translator describes himself as the grandson of jesus, the son of sirach, and states that he went to egypt in b.c. hence it is probable that his grandfather wrote some time during the early part of the second century b.c. the appreciative description of simon the high priest in the fiftieth chapter of ben sira indicates that its author was a contemporary as well as an admirer of that famous head of the judean community. from the references in the rabbinical writings, as well as from the definite statement of eusebius, it is reasonably certain that this simon lived between and b.c. furthermore, the quotations in the writings of ben sira from ecclesiastes in its original form imply that he wrote during the latter part of the greek period. the complete absence of any reference to the maccabean struggle also proves beyond question that he lived before b.c. these facts indicate that the date of his writing was somewhere between and b.c. in the hebrew version the name of this famous sage appears as jesus, the son of eleazar, the son of sira. in the greek version, however, he is known simply as jesus, the son of sirach. ben sira, or sirach, was apparently his family name, while jesus is the greek equivalent of jeshua or joshua. from his writings it may be inferred that he belonged to a well-known jerusalemite family. it is also not improbable that he was connected with the high-priestly line. his references to simon the high priest reveals his deep sympathies with the ecclesiastical rulers of jerusalem. the closing words in the hebrew version of : are equally significant: "give thanks to him who chose the sons of sadok to be priests." in his teachings ben sira is in some respects a forerunner of the later sadducees. evidently he was a man of influence in the judean community. his fame as a wise man doubtless attracted many disciples. he was deeply interested in every phase of life. while his point of view was somewhat similar to that of koheleth, his outlook was thoroughly optimistic. his teachings were positive rather than negative. his faith was that of the fathers, and his purpose constructive. out of the wealth of teachings inherited from the past, and also out of his own personal experience and observation, he sought to inspire right ideals in the young and to develop them into happy and efficient servants of god and of their fellow-men. in this respect he was a worthy representative of the wise who during this period moulded the life of judaism. ii. his writings. the prologue to the greek version of the wisdom of sirach states that he was a devoted student of the earlier scriptures of his race. in : he acknowledges, in all modesty, his indebtedness to the past: i awakened last of all as one who gathers after the great gatherers, by the blessing of the lord i profited and filled my wine-press as one who gathers grapes. it was natural, therefore, that he should write down his teachings in the language of his fathers. unlike most of his contemporaries, he possessed a classical hebrew style. like the wise men whose teachings are preserved in the book of proverbs, he put his thought into poetic, proverbial form. in his book there is a definite, logical arrangement of ideas. the first part consists of a series of essays on various topics. the same subject is often dealt with in many different settings (e.g., choice of friends, : - , : , : - , : - ). these brief essays are grouped together, and each group is provided with a brief introduction, usually in commendation of wisdom. apparently the first half of the book consists of notes based on ben sira's early teachings. each group of sayings may well represent his teachings on a given occasion. in : through : is found the roll call of israel's spiritual heroes, beginning with a psalm in praise of jehovah's majesty and power and concluding with the description of simon the high priest. this latter part of the book is clearly a pure literary creation, and was probably added by him as a conclusion to the collection of his wisdom teachings. iii. history of the book. the book containing the writings of ben sira was known under a variety of titles. the latin church followed the greek in calling it ecclesiasticus. this term was applied to those books which were not in the canon, but were held to be edifying and proper for public use in the churches. the hebrew text of ben sira enjoyed wide currency, was frequently quoted by the later rabbis, and was often referred to by later jewish and christian writers. it was almost completely supplanted in time, however, by the greek version. jerome was acquainted with the hebrew version, but most of the church fathers followed the greek. ben sira was apparently quoted by jesus, by paul, and by the authors of the epistle of james and of the epistle to the hebrews. twenty or thirty such references or allusions are found in the new testament. it was also a great favorite with the church fathers, who quoted from it even more frequently than from the other old testament writings. it was adopted in the canon of the greek and latin church; but, in common with the other apocryphal books, was given a secondary place by the protestant reformers. unfortunately, during the earlier part of the last century it ceased to be printed in the standard editions of the bible. the modern revival of interest in the apocryphal books, both in europe and america, is tending to restore this book, in common with i maccabees, to the position which they certainly deserve in the practical working canon of the old testament. the discovery in of a fragment of the original hebrew manuscript of ben sira, and the subsequent recovery of many other parts, have also tended to arouse wide interest in this hitherto much-neglected book. hebrew portions of thirty-nine out of the fifty-one chapters have thus far been discovered. most of them come from about the eleventh christian century and are of widely differing values. by means of these, however, and the quotations by the jewish rabbis and christian fathers and in the greek, syriac, and latin versions, it is now possible to restore most of the original hebrew text, and the resulting translation is far superior to those based on the greek text. iv. its picture of jewish life. ben sira has given a vivid picture of the domestic, economic, and social life of the jews of his age. the debased, oriental conception of marriage had corrupted the atmosphere of the home. wives were regarded as the possessions of their husbands, and the immoral influence of hellenism still further undermined the purity and integrity of many a jewish home. greek customs and usages were pervading palestine more and more. ben sira refers to banquets with their accompaniments of music and wine. even these meet with his approval. agriculture and commerce are the chief occupations of the people. in general ben sira voices the wholesome jewish attitude toward labor: hate not laborious work; neither agriculture that the most high hath ordained. he is especially strong in his commendation of physicians: be a friend to the physician, for one has need of him, for verily god hath appointed him. a physician receives his wisdom from god, and from the king he receives presents. the knowledge of a physician causes him to lift up his head, and before the princes may he enter. god created medicines out of the earth, and a prudent man will not be disgusted with them. the following proverb has a universal application: he who sins before his maker, let him fall into the hands of his physician! v. rise of the scribes. the writings of ben sira reveal the close connection between the earlier wise and the later scribes. he lived at the period when the wise man was turning scribe. he himself had a profound respect for the law: a man of understanding will put his trust in the law, the law is faithful to him as when one asks at the oracle. one of his fundamental teachings is formulated in the proverb: fear the lord and glorify his priests, and give him his portion even as it is commanded. elsewhere he declares: the leisure of the scribe increases his wisdom, and he who has no business becomes wise. in his famous description of the typical wise man in : - may be recognized many of the traits of the later scribes. as the law and the ritual gained greater prominence in the life of judaism, it was inevitable that it should command the attention of the practical teachers of the people. thus gradually the wise devoted themselves to its study and interpretation, ever emphasizing, however, thought and conduct as well as conformity to the ritual. scribism was greatly enriched by its lineal inheritance through the earlier wise, and long retained the proverbial, epigrammatic form of teaching and that personal attitude toward the individual and his problems which was one of their greatest sources of strength. the honor which the early scribes enjoyed was well deserved. their methods were free from the casuistry that characterized many of the later scribes. they not only copied and guarded the law, but were its interpreters, applying it practically to the every-day problems of the people as well as to their duties in connection with the temple service. their influence upon the jews in this early period was on the whole exceedingly wholesome, and from their ranks rose the martyrs that a generation later were ready to die for the law. vi. the teachings of ben sira. ben sira was acquainted with greek culture and shows at several points familiarity with greek ideals and methods of thinking, but his point of view in general was distinctly jewish. he gathered together all that was best in the earlier teachings of his race. in many ways he represents an advance beyond all that had gone before and a close approximation to the spirit and teachings of jesus of nazareth. the god of his faith was omnipotent, majestic, omniscient, just, and merciful. he was the god of all mankind, although it was through israel that he especially revealed himself. ben sira did not, like ezekiel, think of god as far removed from the life of men and as communicating with them only through angels, but as directly and personally interested in the experiences and life of the individual. in : , he addresses him as lord, father, and master of my life. thus he employs in the personal sense the term father, which was most often on the lips of the great teacher of nazareth. in ben sira's stalwart faith and simple trust there is also much that reminds us of the greater than solomon. like the teachers who had preceded him, he had, however, no clear belief in individual immortality (cf. : - , : , ) the only reward after death that he could hold up before a good man was his reputation: a good life has its number of days, but a good name continues forever. consistent with the orthodox wisdom school, he taught that rewards for right living came in this life: delight not in the delights of the wicked; remember they shall not go unpunished to the grave. even though he lacked the inspiration of future hope, ben sira taught loyalty to god and fidelity to every duty. justice toward all, consideration for the needs of the suffering and dependent, and generosity to the poor are constantly urged by this noblest jew of the age. section cviii. the causes of the maccabean struggle [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now there came forth from [alexander's successors] a sinful root, antiochus epiphanes, son of antiochus the king, who had been a hostage at rome, and he began to reign in the one hundred and thirty-seventh year of the syrian rule ( b.c.). in those days there appeared certain lawless israelites who persuaded many, saying, let us go and make a covenant with the heathen about us; for since we have stood aloof from them many evils have befallen us. and the proposal met with approval. and certain of the people were ready to do it, and went to the king who gave them the right to do as the heathen. then they built a place for gymnastic exercise in jerusalem according to the customs of the heathen. they also made themselves uncircumcised, and, forsaking the holy covenant, fraternized with the heathen, and sold themselves to do evil. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now when antiochus saw that his authority was well established, he thought to reign over egypt, that he might reign over the two kingdoms. so he invaded egypt with a great multitude, with chariots and elephants and horsemen, and with a great navy. and he made war against ptolemy, king of egypt. and ptolemy was defeated by him and fled, and many fell mortally wounded. and they seized the strong cities in the land of egypt, and he took the spoils of egypt. [sidenote: i macc. : - , - ] then after antiochus had conquered egypt he returned in the hundred and forty-third year ( b.c.) and went up against israel and jerusalem with a great multitude. and he insolently went into the sanctuary, and took the golden altar, and the candelabrum, and all that belonged to the table of the showbread, and the cups for libations, and the bowls, and the golden censers, and the curtain and the garlands; and the decorations which were on the front of the temple--he scaled them all off. and taking all, he went away into his own land, after he had made a great slaughter, and had spoken very insolently. thus a great mourning came to the israelites wherever they were. and the rulers and elders groaned, he virgins and young men were made feeble. and the beauty of the women was changed. every bridegroom took up a lamentation, she that sat in the marriage chamber was in heaviness. and the land was shaken because of its inhabitants, and all the house of jacob was clothed with shame. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] after two years the king sent a chief collector of tribute to the cities of judah, who came to jerusalem with a great multitude. and he spoke words of peace to deceive them, and they trusted him. then he attacked the city suddenly, and inflicted a severe blow on it, and destroyed many israelites. and he took the spoils of the city, and set it on fire, and pulled down its houses and walls on every side. they took captive the women and the children, and gained possession of the cattle. then they walled in the city of david with a great and strong wall, with strong towers, and it served as a citadel. and they put there sinful people, lawless men. and they fortified themselves in it. and they stored up weapons and food and, gathering together the spoils of jerusalem, they stowed them away there. and the citadel became a great trap, and served as a place of ambush against the sanctuary, and an evil adversary to israel continually. and they shed innocent blood on every side of the sanctuary and polluted the sanctuary. then the inhabitants of jerusalem fled because of this, and she became the habitation of foreigners. and she became strange to those who were born in her, and her children forsook her. her sanctuary was laid waste like a wilderness. her feasts were turned into mourning, her sabbaths into a reproach, her honor into contempt, so great as was once her glory, so now was her dishonor, and her exaltation was turned into mourning. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then king antiochus wrote to his whole kingdom commanding that all should be one people, and that each should give up his own laws. and all the heathen nations yielded to the demand of the king. many israelites too consented to worship him and sacrificed to the idols, and profaned the sabbath. and the king sent letters by messengers to jerusalem and the cities of judah commanding them to follow customs foreign to the land, and to prevent the making of whole burnt-offerings and sacrifices and libations in the sanctuary, and to profane the sabbaths and feasts, and pollute the sanctuary and the holy things, to build altars, temples, and shrines for idols, and to sacrifice swine's flesh and unclean beasts; also to leave their sons uncircumcised, to stain their souls with all manner of uncleanness and profanation, so that they might forget the law, and change all the customs. and that whoever would not do as the king commanded should die. thus he wrote to his whole kingdom; and appointed overseers over all the people, who commanded the cities of judah to sacrifice city by city. then many of the people, every one who had forsaken the law, gathered about them. and they did evil things in the land, and caused the israelites to hide themselves in all their places of refuge. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] on the twenty-fifth day of chislev, in the one hundred and forty-fifth year, they built an abomination of desolation upon the altar; and in the cities of judah on every side they built idol altars. and at the doors of the houses and in the streets they burnt incense. and tearing in pieces the books of the law which they found, they set fire to them. and wherever a book of the covenant was found in the possession of anyone, or if anyone obeyed the law, the king's decree sentenced him to death. thus they did in their might month by month to the israelites who were found in the cities. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and on the twenty-fifth day of the month they sacrificed upon the idol altar which was upon jehovah's sacrificial altar. and the women who had circumcised their children they put to death according to the command. and they hanged their babies about their necks, and destroyed their households with those who had circumcised them. but many in israel made strong resolutions not to eat unclean things, choosing to die that they might not be defiled with the meats, and might not profane the holy covenant. so they died. and exceedingly great woe came upon israel. i. character and contents of i maccabees. the first book of maccabees is in many ways the best history that has come down from ancient israel. luther's conclusion that it was more deserving of a place in the old testament canon than, for example, the book of esther is now being widely accepted both in theory and practice. the religious spirit in which it is written, the importance of the events with which it deals, and the faithfulness with which they are recorded, all confirm this conclusion. it is the work of a devoted patriot, who appears to have been personally acquainted with the events which he records. he was an ardent admirer of judas maccabeus, and may well have been one of the many valiant jews who rallied about this sturdy champion. the author was familiar with the early histories of his race, for he has adopted many of the phrases peculiar to the books of samuel and kings. his idioms leave no doubt that he wrote in hebrew, although this version has been lost. the first book of maccabees opens with a brief reference to alexander the great and to the greek rulers who succeeded him. the detailed history, however, begins with antiochus epiphanes and continues to the death of simon in b.c. the references in the prologue to the rebuilding of the walls of jerusalem by simon's son, john hyrcanus, between and b.c., and the absence of any allusions to the more important events in the latter part of his reign, indicate that his history was probably completed by b.c. it was written, therefore, less than half a century after all the events which it records took place. while the author is a true patriot and keenly interested in the history of his race, he does not allow his patriotism to carry him into exaggeration. he reveals the true historical spirit and a splendid reserve in recounting the epoch-making events that he records. ii. character and contents of ii maccabees. in marked contrast with i maccabees is the second book which bears this name. the author states in : - that it was based on an earlier five-volume history written by jason, of cyrene, in northern africa. the final epitomizer of this earlier work probably lived not long after b.c. jason himself appears to have lived somewhere between and b.c. and to have written from northern syria. the language of the original was evidently greek. the aim of the author was didactic rather than historical, and he drew freely from popular tradition. in general character it corresponds closely to the work of the chronicler, who compiled the old testament books of chronicles and ezra-nehemiah. the miraculous element is prominent, numbers are frequently enlarged, and israel's disasters are minimized. notwithstanding all of its obvious faults, ii maccabees has preserved many important historical facts. where its testimony differs from that of i maccabees, the latter in general should be followed, but its account of the events which led to the maccabean uprising are much more detailed than those of i maccabees, which it supplements at many important points. with the aid of these two histories it is possible to gain a remarkably vivid and detailed conception of the half-century that witnessed the reawakening of judaism and the birth of a new national spirit. iii. aggressive character of hellenic culture. jewish life and religion were at times almost uprooted, but never fundamentally transformed by the babylonian and persian conquerors. alexander, however, and those who followed in his wake introduced an entirely new and aggressive force into the life and thought of palestine. the centuries that began with b.c. witnessed the most important struggle that the world has ever seen. it was fought not on the open battle-field, but wherever in palestine and the lands of the dispersion the currents of that ancient life and commerce met and mingled. it was the age-long conflict between hellenism and judaism, those two mighty forces that had long been maturing in the coast lands of the northern and eastern mediterranean. the outcome of this contest was destined to affect the civilization and faith of all the world throughout the ages. judaism represented the life and faith of a peasant people, while hellenism was born in the city. wherever hellenism went, it found expression in civic life. the heathen races of palestine, the phoenicians and philistines on the coast, and the east-jordan peoples readily welcomed the superior civilization of the conquerors. it appealed powerfully to their intellectual, social, and aesthetic sense, and, in the debased form that it assumed in the east, to their passions. even the samaritans readily accepted it; and the city of samaria was settled by a colony of macedonian soldiers. the ancient cities of gaza, askelon, accho under the name of ptolemais, tyre, sidon, damascus, bethshean under its new name scythopolis, rabbath-ammon under the name of philadelphia, and most of the important east-jordan cities were soon transformed into active centres of hellenic culture. civic pride and patriotism took possession of their inhabitants. most of the cities had a senate and magistrates elected each year by popular vote. many of them were adorned by magnificent public buildings, including a forum, theatre, stadium, hippodrome, and gymnasium. civic patriotism took the place of the old despotism and selfish individualism. each hellenic city gave to its citizens new ideals and opportunities. the discussions of the forum, the agora, and the gymnasium inspired them with political, social, and intellectual interests. the plays in the theatres, the races in the hippodrome and stadium amazed and fascinated them. many of the youths were enlisted in the clubs that were formed in connection with the gymnasium, and all classes participated in the public festivities. iv. contrast between hellenism and judaism. in the broad perspective of history it is clear that both hellenism and judaism were essential to the upbuilding and broadening of the human character and ideals. hellenism in its nobler form brought what judaism lacked, and judaism was fitted to correct the evils and fatal weaknesses of hellenism. ben sira vaguely recognized this, and sought to reconcile these two types of civilization; but in the second century b.c. men were chiefly aware of the glaring contrasts. compared with the splendor of the life in the greek cities that of the orthodox jews seemed crude and barbarous. the intense horror with which the jews viewed every form of idolatry led them to reject all forms of art. their hatred of sensuality and immorality led them to regard with aversion the sports and exercises of the gymnasium and the attendant licentiousness. the practical teachers of israel looked with suspicion upon the subtleties of the different greek philosophical schools. on the other hand, the homely, domestic joys of the average jew and his intense devotion to the service of the temple and to the faith of his fathers seemed contemptible to those familiar with the brilliant, voluptuous life of the hellenic cities. hellenism protested against the narrowness, barrenness, and intolerance of judaism; judaism protested against the godlessness and immorality of hellenism. both were right in their protests, and yet each in a sense needed the other. v. apostasy of the jews and the perfidy of the high priests. at the beginning of the second century b.c. the judean state was closely encircled by a ring of hellenic cities and subjected on every side to the seductions of that debased greek culture which had taken firm root in the soil of palestine. as was almost inevitable, many of the jewish youth yielded to its attractions. distaste for the narrowness and austere customs of their fathers begat in their minds a growing contempt for their race and its religion. even some of the younger priests forsook the temple for the gymnasium. unconsciously but surely judaism was drifting from its old moorings toward hellenism, until the perfidy of its high priests and the persecutions of antiochus epiphanes aroused it to a full realization of its peril. the apostates in jerusalem found a leader in jeshua, who had assumed the greek name of jason. he was the brother of onias iii, the reigning high priest, and had been sent to represent him at the syrian court. there he improved the opportunity by promising greater tribute to secure his appointment as high priest. he was soon outbid, however, by a certain renegade named menelaus, who with the aid of syrian soldiers drove jason from jerusalem and took his place as head of the hellenizing party. the first cause, therefore, of the maccabean struggle was the apostasy of certain of the jews themselves. apparently in large numbers they abandoned the traditions of their race, and assumed the greek garb and customs, thus leading their syrian rulers to believe that the hellenizing of the entire race would be comparatively easy. vi. character of antiochus epiphanes. the ruler who by his injustice and persecutions fanned the smouldering flame of jewish patriotism into a mighty conflagration was antiochus epiphanes. as a youth he had been educated at rome with the profligate sons of those who ruled the imperial city. the greek and roman historians, especially polybius, give vivid portraits of this tyrannical king. in him the prevailing passion for hellenism found extreme expression. to dazzle his contemporaries by the splendor of his building enterprises and by his dramatic display was his chief ambition. in gratifying thus his selfish ambition he drained the resources of his kingdom, and was therefore obliged to resort to extreme measures to replenish his treasury. in b.c. he made a successful campaign into egypt. two years later he again invaded the rich land of the nile, only to find himself confronted by a roman general, who peremptorily ordered him to retreat. rome was already the chief power in the eastern mediterranean, and antiochus, although in a rage, wisely decided to retire. it was at this inopportune moment that he found jerusalem in revolt, misled by a false report and by the renegade high priest jason. antiochus not only improved this opportunity to loot the temple and slay many of the inhabitants, but from this time on conceived a bitter antipathy to the jewish race. this antipathy he shared in common with all the greek world, for already, as a result of the peculiar religion and customs of the jews and their success in commercial pursuits, that which is known to-day as the anti-semitic spirit was fully developed. one of antiochus's chief ambitions was also to hellenize all his subjects, and the jews alone offered opposition to the realization of this ambition. hence they could expect no mercy at the hands of this selfish, capricious despot. vii. antiochus's policy toward the jews. the measures which antiochus employed to crush the faith of judaism were relentlessly thorough. he began with the seizure of jerusalem, the tearing down of its walls, the fortifying and garrisoning of its citadel with syrian soldiers and apostate jews, and the slaughter of all who refused to accede to his demands. not only was the temple service stopped, but the altar was torn down and desecrated and a heathen altar to zeus--the abominable desolation of the book of daniel--was reared in its place. on this swine's flesh was sacrificed, and the presence of harlots in the sacred precincts completed its ceremonial and moral pollution. all the surviving inhabitants of jerusalem were compelled to sacrifice and pay homage to the heathen gods. those who retained copies of their laws or persisted in maintaining the customs of their fathers were slain. when many fled to the outlying towns, emissaries of antiochus pursued them, demanding of each citizen public recognition of the greek gods. a majority of the jews apparently yielded to these drastic measures and joined the ranks of the apostates. of the many crises through which israel passed this was in many ways the most severe; but then it gave to the world some of the noblest martyrs. the early christians who perished for their faith were inspired by the example of their master and by the hope of blessed, individual immortality. to the jews of the greek period, however, the great calamity that overtook them came as a sudden and unexpected blow. no clear hope of immortality at first inspired them, for, like ben sira and the earlier teachers of the race, the majority of them probably regarded the life beyond death as a passionless existence in the land of darkness. even the expectation of family or racial immortality seemed denied by the dark outlook. they died as did eleazar, the aged scribe, simply because of their devotion to the god and laws of their fathers, and because that loyalty meant more to them than life. section cix. the effect of persecution on the jews [sidenote: i macc. : - ] at that time arose mattathias the son of john the son of simeon, a priest of the sons of joarib, from jerusalem; and he dwelt in modein. and he had five sons, john, who was surnamed gaddis, simon, who was called thassi, judas, who was called maccabeus, eleazar, who was called avaran, jonathan, who was called apphus. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] when he saw the sacrilegious acts that were being committed in judah and in jerusalem, he said, woe to me! why was i born to see the ruin of my people, and the ruin of the holy city, and to dwell there while it was being given into the hands of the foe, the sanctuary into the hands of foreigners? the temple has become as though it had no glory, its splendid vessels have been carried into captivity. her children have been slain in the streets, her young men by the sword of the enemy. what people has not taken possession of her palace, and seized upon her spoils? all her adornments have been taken away, from freedom she has been reduced to slavery. and now our holy things, our beauty and our glory have been laid waste, and the heathen have polluted them. why should we still live? and mattathias and his son tore their clothes, and put on sackcloth, and mourned bitterly. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now the king's officers who were enforcing the apostasy, came into the city of modein to sacrifice. and many of israel went over to them, but mattathias and his sons offered resistance. then the king's officers said to mattathias, you are a ruler and a man honored in this city and strengthened by sons and brothers. now therefore come first and do what the king commands, as all the nations have done, the men of judah too, with those who remain in jerusalem. then you and your house shall be in the number of the king's friends, and you and your sons shall be honored with silver and gold and many gifts. but mattathias replied with a loud voice, if all the nations included in the king's dominion obey him, in that each is untrue to the worship of his fathers and chooses to follow his command, yet i and my sons and my brothers will walk in the covenant made with our fathers. heaven forbid that we should forsake the law and the ordinances. we will not listen to the king's words, to go aside from our worship, either to the right hand or to the left. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and when he had finished saying these things a jew came in sight of all to sacrifice on the altar that was in modein according to the king's command. when mattathias saw it, his zeal was kindled and he trembled inwardly. and he let his anger take possession of him, as was right, and he ran and slew the jew upon the altar. also he killed at that time the king's officer, who was compelling men to sacrifice, and pulled down the altar. thus he showed his zeal for the law, just as phinehas did in the case of zimri the son of salu. then mattathias cried out in the city with a loud voice, saying, whoever is zealous for the law and will maintain the covenant, let him follow me. and he and his sons fled into the mountains, and left behind all that they had in the city. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then many who sought justice and right went down into the wilderness, to dwell there with their sons and wives and cattle, because the evils were becoming ever harder for them to bear. and it was reported to the king's officers and to the forces that were in jerusalem, the city of david, that certain men who had broken the king's command had gone down into the hiding places in the wilderness. so many pursued after them, and having overtaken them encamped against them, and drew up the line of battle against them on the sabbath day. and they said to them, things have gone far enough, now come forth and obey the command of the king and you shall live. but they said, we will not come forth, neither will we do as the king commands, to profane the sabbath day. then they at once offered them battle. but they made no resistance, neither did they cast a stone at them, nor stop up the places of concealment, for they said, let us all die in our innocency: let heaven and earth bear witness for us, that you put us to death unjustly. then they rose up against them in battle on the sabbath, and thus they died with their wives and children and cattle, to the number of a thousand souls. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] when mattathias and his friends knew it they mourned bitterly over them. and they said to each other, if we all do as our brothers have done, and do not fight against the armed heathen for our lives and our customs, they will now quickly destroy us from off the earth. so they took counsel that day, saying, whoever shall come against us for battle on the sabbath day, let us fight against him, and we will by no means all die, as our brothers died in the hiding places. then there gathered together to them a company of hasideans, brave men of israel, every one who offered himself willingly for the law. and all who fled from the evils were added to them, and strengthened them. and they mustered a host. and smote the sinners in their anger and the lawless in their wrath. and the rest fled to the heathen for safety. also mattathias and his friends went about and pulled down the altars, and circumcised by force the children who were uncircumcised, as many as they found in the territory of israel. thus they pursued the sons of arrogance, and the work prospered in their hand. they took the direction of affairs out of the hands of the heathen and of the kings, nor did they yield ground to the sinner. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] when the time approached for mattathias to die he said to his sons, now insolence and insult have grown strong, and a period of reversals has come, with flaming wrath. now, my sons, be zealous for the law, and give your lives for the covenant of your fathers. and remember the deeds which your forefathers did in their generations; and win great glory and everlasting fame. was not abraham found faithful when tested? and it was counted to him as righteousness. joseph in the time of his distress kept the commandment, and became lord of egypt, phinehas our father, because he was so zealous, received the covenant of an everlasting priesthood. joshua for carrying out the word of god, became a ruler in israel. caleb for bearing witness in the congregation, obtained a heritage in the land. david for being merciful, inherited a kingly throne for ever and ever. elijah because he was so zealous for the law, was taken up into heaven. hananiah, azariah, mishael believed, and were rescued from the flame. daniel because of his innocence, was delivered from the mouth of lions. and thus consider from generation to generation: none who put their trust in him ever want strength. then be not afraid of the words of a sinful man; for his glory shall be dung and worms. to-day he is exalted, but to-morrow he cannot be found, because he has returned to dust, and the memory of him has perished. then my sons be strong, and show yourselves men in behalf of the law; by so doing you shall obtain glory. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and, behold, simon your brother, i know that he is a man of counsel; obey him always; let him be your adviser. judas maccabeus, too, has been a man of war from his youth; he shall be your captain, and fight the battle of the people. and take to yourselves all law-abiding men, and avenge the wrong of your people. render a recompense to the heathen, and give heed to the commands of the law. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] thus he blessed them and was gathered to his fathers. and he died in the one hundred and forty-sixth year, and his sons buried him in the sepulchres of his fathers at modein, and all israel made a great lamentation for him. [sidenote: dan. : - ] in the first year of belshazzar king of babylon daniel had a dream and visions of his head upon his bed. then he wrote down the dream: i saw in my vision by night, and behold, the four winds of heaven broke forth upon the great sea. and four great beasts came up from the sea, each different from the other. the first was like a lion and had eagle's wings. i looked until its wings were stripped off, and it was lifted up from the earth, and made to stand upon two feet as a man; and a man's heart was given to it. and behold, a second beast, like a bear; and it was raised up on one side, and three ribs were in its mouth, between its teeth; and they said thus to it: arise, devour much flesh. after this i beheld, and lo, another like a leopard, which had upon its sides four wings of a bird; and the beast had also four heads, and dominion was given to it. after this i saw in the night visions, and behold, a fourth beast, terrible and fearful, and exceedingly strong; and it had great iron teeth; it devoured and broke in pieces and stamped the rest with its feet; and it differed from all the beasts that were before it; and it had ten horns. i gave attention to the horns, and behold another little horn came up amongst them, before which three of the first horns were plucked up by the roots; and behold, in this horn were eyes, like the eyes of a man, and a mouth speaking great things. [sidenote: dan. : , ] i waited until thrones were set up, and an aged one took his seat; his clothing was white as snow, and his hair like spotless wool, his throne was fiery flames, its wheels burning fire. a fiery stream issued and came forth before him; thousands of thousands ministered to him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him; the judgment was set and the books were opened. [sidenote: dan. : , ] i looked at that time because of the sound of the great words which the horn spoke--i looked even until the beast was slain, and its body destroyed, and given to be fuel for the fire. also the rule of the rest of the beasts was taken away; but their lives were prolonged for a fixed time and season. [sidenote: dan. : , ] i saw in the night visions, and behold, there came with the clouds of heaven one like to a son of man, and he came even to the aged one, and was brought near before him. and there was given him dominion and glory, and sovereignty that all the peoples, nations, and languages should serve him; his dominion is an everlasting dominion which shall not pass away, and his sovereignty one which shall not be destroyed. [sidenote: dan. : - ] as for me, daniel, my spirit was grieved by reason of this, and the visions of my head troubled me. i came near to one of those who stood by, and asked him the truth concerning all this. so he told me and made me know the interpretation of the things. these four great beasts are four kings who shall arise out of the earth. but the saints of the most high shall receive the sovereignty, and possess the sovereignty forever, even for ever and ever. [sidenote: dan. : - ] then i desired to know the truth concerning the fourth beast, which was different from all of them, exceeding terrible, whose teeth were of iron, and its nails of brass; which devoured, broke in pieces, and stamped the rest with its fourth feet; and concerning the ten horns that were on its head, and the other horn which came up, and before which three horns fell--it that had eyes, and a mouth that spoke great things, and it appeared to be greater than the rest. i looked, and the same horn made war with the saints, and prevailed against them, until the aged one came, and judgment was given to the saints of the most high, and the fixed time came that the saints possessed the sovereignty. [sidenote: dan. : - ] thus he said, the fourth beast shall be a fourth kingdom upon earth, which shall be different from all the kingdoms; and shall devour the whole earth, and shall tread it down, and break it in pieces. and as for the ten horns, out of this kingdom shall ten kings arise; and another shall arise after them; and he shall be different from the former, and he shall put down three kings. and he shall speak words against the most high, and shall continually harass the saints of the most high; and he shall think to change the fixed times and the law; and they shall be given into his hand until a time and times and half a time. but the judgment shall be set, and they shall take away his kingdom, to consume and to destroy finally. and the sovereignty, and the dominion, and the greatness of the kingdoms under the whole heaven, shall surely be given to the people of the saints of the most high; his sovereignty is an everlasting sovereignty, and all dominions shall serve and obey him. [sidenote: dan. : - ] and at that time michael shall stand up, the great prince who stands for the children of my people; and there shall be a time of affliction such as there never was since there was a nation, even to that time; and at that time thy people shall be delivered, every one who shall be found written in the book. and many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt. and they who are wise shall shine as the brightness of the firmament; and they who turn many to righteousness as the stars forever and ever. i. the uprising led by mattathias. the persecutions of antiochus epiphanes had at last reached the point where patient submission and even martyrdom ceased to be a virtue. his agents had successfully carried the merciless, hellenizing campaign throughout practically all the territory of judea. it was not until they reached its extreme northwestern border that they met the first open opposition. the little town of modein lay out on the edge of the great plain where the central hills of palestine break down into low foot-hills. these are intersected by rushing brooks and clear, crystal streams that descend from the heights above. the town lay on a rounded hill about one-third of a mile in diameter that rises abruptly in a series of steep terraces. the wady malakeh encircled it on the south and west. on the northeastern side, where lies the modern town, was a broad shoulder of land slightly lower and larger than the acropolis. in ancient times it was probably the site of the lower city. deep, encircling valleys on the north and east completed the natural defences of this border village that became the altar of jewish freedom. to-day the scattered ruins of the acropolis are covered in spring-time with a luxuriant growth of grain and olive trees, making it one of the most picturesque mounds in palestine. it is surprising that the revolt against the cruel tyranny of antiochus was led by an aged priest. like many priests, his home was outside jerusalem. evidently he was one of the chief men of modein. he was descended from the family of hasmon, hence his descendants, who ultimately became the independent rulers of their race, are sometimes called the hasmonians. in mattathias the long-suppressed, hot indignation of the jewish race at last found expression. in slaying the apostate jew and syrian official, mattathias evoked that warlike spirit which had in earlier days given israel a home and a place among the nations. his impulsive act inaugurated a new chapter in israel's life and thought. in its far-reaching consequences it was comparable only to moses' impulsive slaying of the egyptian taskmaster. ii. party of the hasideans or pious. it was fortunate that mattathias had five able, mature sons to support him. simon, the eldest, was already famous in council. judas, who bore the surname maccabeus (whence the word maccabees), soon proved himself a great military leader. jonathan combined the qualities of simon and judas with a certain craftiness that makes him the least attractive of the three. eleazar later proved on the battle-field that he had the qualities that make heroes and martyrs. among the judean hills, and especially in the barren, almost inaccessible fastnesses that descend in a series of terraces from the central plateau to the dead sea, mattathias and his followers found refuge. hither many patriotic jews had already fled. the syrian mercenaries, however, led by the relentless, apostate jews, pursued them, and, knowing their scruples, attacked them on the sabbath day and pitilessly slaughtered them. learning from this awful example, mattathias and his sons wisely decided that it was more important to fight for their lives than to die for a mere institution. they soon attracted to their standard all who were still faithful to the law. chief among these were those known as the hasideans or pious. they were the spiritual successors of the pious or afflicted, whose woes are voiced in the earlier psalms of the psalter (section xlvii:v). they were also the forerunners of the party of the pharisees, which was one of the products of the maccabean struggle. in them faith and patriotism were so blended that, like cromwell's ironsides, they were daunted by no odds. at first they depended upon the guerilla type of warfare, to which the hills of judea were especially adapted. by enforcing the law of circumcision, by punishing the apostates, and by attacking straggling syrian bands, they encouraged the faltering jews, and intimidated the agents of antiochus. mattathias soon died, leaving the leadership to his third son, judas. the poem recording his dying injunctions voices the inspiration that came at this time to israel's patriots from their nation's past, and that supreme devotion to the law and dauntless courage that animated the leaders in this great movement. iii. date of the visions in daniel - . a parallel but different type of character and hope is reflected in the latter part of the book of daniel. in the form of visions or predictions, these chapters interpret the meaning of the great world movements from the beginning of the babylonian to the end of the greek period. each vision culminates in a symbolic but detailed description of the rule and persecutions of antiochus epiphanes. several passages describe the destructive policies of this syrian ruler almost as vividly as the books of maccabees (dan. : , ): "it (antiochus) magnified itself even to the prince of the host (jehovah), and took away from him the daily sacrifice, and cast down the place of his sanctuary, and set up the sacrilegious thing over the daily sacrifice, and cast down truth to the ground, and did it and prospered." daniel : - contains a review of the chief events of antiochus's reign. this description closes with the prediction: "he shall plant his palace between the mediterranean and the glorious holy mountain; so he shall come to his end and none shall help him." contemporary records indicate, however, that antiochus died while engaged in a campaign in distant persia and not in western palestine as the author of daniel anticipated. in the other visions, after the description of antiochus's persecutions, the details suddenly give place to general predictions, implying that at this point the author turned from the contemplation of past and present events to that which was to him future. the great victories of judas and his followers that led to the restoration of the temple in b.c. are nowhere mentioned. in : is found an allusion to the maccabean uprising: "now when they are falling they shall be helped with a little help; but many shall join themselves to them with false protestations." this movement, clearly, is not regarded by the author as significant. the date of these visions, therefore, may be fixed with great confidence between the years and b.c. iv. their real character and aim. in interpreting these visions it is important to note that they belong to the so-called apocalyptic type of literature. already ezekiel and zechariah had employed the complex symbolism of the apocalypse to stir the imagination and strengthen the faith of their discouraged countrymen. the aim of the author of the closing chapters of daniel was primarily to present a religious philosophy of history. through the rise and fall of nations jehovah's purpose was slowly but surely being realized. they are the expression of the eternal optimism of the prophets. they voice their deathless hope that "the best is yet to be." they were intended to encourage those in the midst of persecution with the assurance that god was still in his heaven, and that all would yet be right with his world. v. the four heathen kingdoms and the kingdom of god. in the symbolism of the prophet the four beasts of daniel represented the chaldean, medean, persian, and greek empires. the fourth beast with iron teeth that devoured and broke in pieces the rest was clearly the empire of alexander, and the little horn that sprang up was the little horn which gored and mangled the helpless people of jehovah. opposed to the four beasts which represented the angels, or demons, the champions of each of the great heathen kingdoms, was israel's patron angel michael. it is this angel that is apparently referred to in : as coming from heaven, and in appearance like to a son of man. at jehovah's direction he was to establish a glorious, universal kingdom, the citizens of which were to be the saints, the faithful jews who remained loyal to jehovah during the long, cruel persecutions. not only those who survived but the martyrs sleeping in the dust of the earth were to awake and receive their glorious reward. the apostates were to be sentenced to everlasting shame and contempt. the wise teachers and martyrs who by word and example had striven to keep their race loyal to jehovah were to be exalted in the coming messianic kingdom. thus these visions reveal the hopes that inspired certain of the jewish race in its period of supreme trial: the belief that jehovah through his angel would speedily overthrow the power of the heathen persecutor, that he would establish a universal kingdom in which his own people should have chief place, and finally that even the bonds of death would not hold those who had died for the law. thus at last out of this struggle judaism emerged with a new-found faith in individual immortality. it was still bound up in the belief in the bodily resurrection, but at last the imperishable worth of the individual had become one of the cornerstones of israel's religion. section cx. the victories that gave the jews religious liberty [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then his son judas, who was called maccabeus, rose up in his place. and all his brothers helped him, as did all those who had supported his father, and they fought with gladness the battle of israel. he spread far and wide the fame of his glory and put on his breastplate like a giant, and girded on his weapons of war, and set battles in array, protecting the army with his sword. he was like a lion in his deeds, and as a lion's whelp roaring for prey. he pursued the lawless, seeking them out, and he burnt up those who troubled his people. the lawless shrunk for fear of him, and all the workers of lawlessness were greatly terrified; and deliverance was attained through him. he angered many kings, and made jacob glad with his acts; and his memory is blessed forever. he went about among the cities of judah, and destroyed the godless from the land, and turned away the wrath of god from israel. and he was renowned to the ends of the earth. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then apollonius gathered the heathen together and a great army from samaria to fight against israel. and when judas learned of it, he went out to meet him, and defeated and slew him; and many fell mortally wounded, while the rest fled. and they captured their spoils, and judas took the sword of apollonius, with which he fought all his days. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] when seron, the commander of the army of syria, heard that judas had gathered a large force of faithful men about him, who went with him to war, he said, i will make myself famous and gain renown in the kingdom; for i will fight with judas and those with him, who are defying the command of the king. and there went up with him also a mighty army of the godless to help him, to take vengeance on the israelites. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] as he approached the ascent of bethhoron, judas went forth to meet him with a small company. but when they saw the army coming to meet them, they said to judas, how shall we, few as we are, be able to battle against so great a multitude? and we are faint also, having tasted no food to-day. then judas said, it is an easy thing for many to be shut up in the hands of a few; and with heaven it is equally easy to save by many or by few; for victory in battle does not depend upon the size of an army, but from heaven comes the strength. they come to us full of insolence and lawlessness, to destroy us with our wives and children and to plunder us; but, as for us, we are fighting for our lives and our laws. and he himself will crush them before our face; so do not be afraid of them. [sidenote: i macc. : , ] now when he had finished speaking, he leaped suddenly upon them, and seron and his army were put to flight before him. and they pursued them by the descent of bethhoron to the plain, and there fell of them about eight hundred men; but the rest fled into the land of the philistines. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now the fear of judas and his brothers and the dread of them began to fall upon the nations round about them. and his reputation reached the king, for every nation was telling of the battles of judas. but when king antiochus heard these things, he was filled with indignation and sent and gathered together all the forces of his realm, a very strong army. and he opened his treasury and gave his forces pay for a year, and commanded them to be ready for every emergency. and seeing that money was scarce in his treasury and that the tributes of the country were small, because of the dissension and calamity which he had brought upon the land, for the purpose of taking away the laws which had been in force from the earliest days, he feared that he should not have enough, as at other times, for the expenses and the gifts which he had formerly given with a liberal hand, in which he had surpassed the kings who had been before him. and he was exceedingly perplexed in his mind, and determined to go into persia and to take the tributes of the countries and to gather much money. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] so he left lysias, an honorable man and one of the royal family in charge of the affairs of the king from the river euphrates to the borders of egypt and to bring up his son antiochus, until he returned. and he delivered to him the half of his forces and the elephants, and gave him charge of all the things that he wished to have done and concerning those who dwelt in judea and in jerusalem, that he should send a force against them, to root out and destroy the strength of israel and the remnant of jerusalem, and to take away their memory from the place, and that he should make foreigners dwell in all their territory and should divide their land to them by lot. then the king took the remaining half of the forces and set out from antioch his capital, in the one hundred and forty-seventh year, and, crossing the euphrates, he went through the upper countries. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now lysias chose ptolemy the son of dorymenes, and nicanor, and gorgias, influential men among the king's friends, and with them sent forty thousand footmen and seven thousand horsemen to go into the land of judah to destroy it, as the king had ordered. and they set out with all their army and pitched their camp near emmaus in the plain. and the merchants of the country heard the rumors about them, and taking silver and gold in large quantities, and shackles, they came into the camp to get the israelites for slaves. there were added to them the forces of syria and of the philistines. [sidenote: i macc. : , , - ] then judas and his brothers saw that evils were increasing and that the forces were encamping in their territory, and when they learned of the commands which the king had given to destroy the people and make an end of them, they said to each other, let us raise up the ruin of our people and let us fight for our people and the sanctuary; so they gathered together and came to mizpeh, opposite jerusalem; for in mizpeh there was a place of prayer for israel. and they fasted that day, and put sackcloth and ashes on their heads and tore their clothes, and spread out the book of the law--one of those in which the heathen had been painting images of their idols. and they brought the priests' garments with the first-fruits, and the tithes, and they cut the hair of the nazirites who had accomplished their days. and they cried aloud toward heaven, saying, what shall we do with these and whither shall we carry them away? for thy sanctuary is trodden down and profaned, and thy priests are in sorrow, and humiliation. and now the heathen have assembled together against us to destroy us. thou knowest what plans they are making against us. how shall we be able to stand before them, except thou be our help? and they sounded with the trumpets, and cried with a loud voice. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and after this judas appointed leaders of the people, commanders over thousands, over hundreds, over fifties, and over tens. and he told those who were building houses and those who were planting vineyards and those who were afraid, to return, each to his own house, as the law commanded. then the army removed and encamped upon the south side of emmaus. and judas said, gird yourselves and be valiant men; and be ready in the morning to fight with these heathen who are assembled together against us to destroy us and our sanctuary. for it is better for us to die in battle than to see the misfortunes of our nation and of the sanctuary. nevertheless, let heaven do whatever be his will. [sidenote: i macc. : - a] and gorgias took five thousand footmen, and a thousand chosen horsemen, and the army set out by night, that it might fall upon the army of the jews and attack them suddenly. and the men of the citadel were his guides. but when judas heard of it, he broke camp with his valiant men, that he might attack the king's army which was at emmaus, while as yet the forces were dispersed from the camp. and when gorgias came to the camp of judas by night, he found no one. then he looked for them in the mountains, thinking that the men were fleeing from him. [sidenote: i macc. : b- ] but as soon as it was day, judas appeared in the plain with three thousand men; only they had neither armor nor swords as they wished. when now they saw the camp of the heathen strongly fortified and cavalry about it and experienced warriors there, judas said to the men who were with him, fear not their multitude neither be afraid of their attack. remember how our fathers were saved in the red sea, when pharaoh pursued them with a host. and now let us cry to heaven, if he will show favor to us and will remember the covenant made with our fathers and destroy this army before our face to-day, that all the heathen may know that there is one who redeemeth and saveth israel. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then when the foreigners lifted up their eyes and saw them coming toward them, they went from their camp to battle. and those who were with judas sounded their trumpets and joined battle; and the heathen were defeated and fled into the plain. but all who were in the rear fell by the sword, and they pursued them to gazara and to the plains of idumea and azotus and jamnia, and there fell of them about three thousand men. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] when judas and his army returned from pursuing them, he said to the people, do not be greedy for the spoils, since there is a battle before us, and gorgias and his army are near us in the mountain. but stand now against our enemies and fight them, and afterward you may openly take the spoils. while judas was still speaking there appeared a part of them, looking out from the mountain; and these saw that their army had been put to flight and that the jews were burning their camp, for the smoke that was seen showed what had been done. and when they perceived these things, they were thrown into a panic, and seeing the army of judas also in the plain ready for battle, they all retreated into the land of the philistines. and judas returned to sack the camp, and they took much gold and silver and blue and sea-purple and great riches. then they returned home and sang a song of thanksgiving and gave praise to heaven, because he is good, because his mercy endureth forever. thus israel had a great deliverance that day. [sidenote: i macc. : , ] but the foreigners, as many as had escaped, came and told lysias all the things that had happened. and when he heard it he was astonished and discouraged, because neither had israel met with reverses as he wished nor had what the king commanded been realized. [footnote: i macc. : - ] now in the next year [lysias] gathered together sixty thousand picked footmen and five thousand horsemen, that he might subdue [the jews]. when they came to idumea and encamped at bethsura, judas met them with ten thousand men. as he saw that the army was strong, he prayed and said, blessed art thou, o saviour of israel, who didst shatter the attacking power of the mighty man by the hand of thy servant david, and didst deliver the army of the heathen into the hands of jonathan the son of saul, and of his armor-bearer. shut up this army in the hand of thy people israel, and let them be ashamed of their army and their horsemen. give them faintness of heart, and let their bold courage melt away, and let them tremble at their destruction. cast them down by the sword of those who love thee, so that all may know thy name who praise thee with thanksgiving. then they joined battle; and there fell of the army of lysias about five thousand men, and they fell on the spot before them. [sidenote: i macc. : ] but when lysias saw that his army was retreating, and the boldness that had come upon those who were with judas, and how they were ready either to live or to die nobly, he removed to antioch and gathered together hired soldiers, that he might come again into judea with a still greater force. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then judas and his brothers said, now that our enemies have been defeated, let us go up to cleanse the sanctuary and to dedicate it again; so they went up to mount zion. and all the army was gathered together and went up to mount zion. and when they saw the sanctuary laid desolate, the altar profaned, the gates burnt, and shrubs growing in the courts, as in a forest or as on one of the mountains, and the priests' chambers pulled down, they tore their garments and made great lamentation, and putting ashes upon their heads, they fell prone upon the ground. then they blew a signal on the trumpets and cried to heaven. and judas appointed certain men to fight against those who were in the citadel, until he should have cleansed the sanctuary. and he chose priests who were unimpeachable observers of the law, who cleansed the sanctuary and carried out the polluted stones to an unclean place. and they deliberated as to what they should do with the altar of burnt-offerings which had been profaned. they finally reached this wise decision: to pull it down lest it should be a reproach to them, because the heathen had defiled it. so they pulled down the altar and laid the stones on the temple mount in a convenient place, until there should come a prophet to give an oracle concerning them. then they took whole stones as the law required and built a new altar after the design of the former. they also rebuilt the sanctuary and the inner parts of the temple and consecrated the courts. they also made the holy vessels new and brought the candlestick and the altar for burnt-offerings and for incense and the table into the temple. and they burned incense on the altar and lighted the lamps that were on the candlestick, and they gave light in the temple. then they set loaves upon the table and spread out the veils. so they finished all the work they had undertaken. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and they arose early in the morning of the twenty-fifth day of the ninth month, which is the month chislev, in the one hundred and forty-eighth year ( b.c.) and offered sacrifice according to the law upon the new altar of burnt-offering which they had made. about the same time and on the same day, in which the heathen had profaned it, was it dedicated again with songs and harps and lutes and with cymbals. and all the people prostrated themselves and worshipped and gave praise to heaven, who had given them good success. and they celebrated the dedication of the altar eight days, and offered burnt-offerings with gladness and sacrificed a sacrifice of deliverance and praise. and they decorated the front of the temple with crowns of gold and small shields and rededicated the gates and the priests' chambers and made doors for them. and great joy reigned among the people, because the reproach of the heathen had been removed. and judas and his brothers and the whole congregation of israel decreed that the days of the dedication of the altar should be kept in their seasons from year to year for the period of eight days, from the twenty-fifth day of the month chislev, with gladness and joy. at that time also they fortified mount zion with high walls and strong towers all round, lest by any chance the heathen should come and tread them down, as they had done before. and he stationed there a force to keep it, and they fortified bethsura, that the people might have a stronghold in idumea. i. the character of judas. judas maccabeus was a man of unquestioned courage. in the many battles which he fought he was always found at the forefront in the most desperate engagement. more than that he was able to arouse courage in a people that for centuries had learned only to bow unresistingly before their conquerors. all the evidence found in the two books of maccabees indicates that he was inspired by the noblest patriotism. the motive power in his patriotism was devotion to the law and customs of his race. in this respect he was a leader supremely acceptable to the hasideans or pious, who rallied about his standard. in any other age or setting his devotion would have seemed but fanaticism. the situation, however, was extremely critical. disloyalty to the law and the distinctive rites of judaism was treason. if ever in the world's history it was justifiable to meet force by force and to unshield the sword in behalf of religion, this certainly was the occasion. in his military tactics judas revealed the cunning that characterizes the hunted. he developed great skill in choosing a strategic position and in launching his followers against a vulnerable point in the enemy's line. in this respect he showed himself a disciple of david's able general joab. they were the same tactics that napoleon employed so effectively in later days and on larger battle-fields. judas resembled in many ways israel's first king, saul. he was impetuous, patriotic, intense, and energetic. he was especially skilled in leading a sudden attack. his task also was strikingly similar to that of israel's first king, and like saul in his later days he showed the same inability to organize and hold his followers in a time of comparative peace. ii. obstacles against which judas contended. when judas was called to champion the cause of the jews, they were hated by the rest of the world. it was a disorganized band of fugitives that rallied about him, without homes, resources, or arms. opposed to him were the large armies of a powerful empire. the greek mercenaries that fought in the syrian ranks were armed with coats of mail and the best weapons known to the ancient world. they were also thoroughly trained in the art of war and under the direction of experienced generals. on every battle-field the syrians outnumbered the jews almost six to one. pitted against judas and his followers were apostates of his own race, who knew the land, were able to spy out the movements of the jews, and were inspired by the bitterest hatred. the few advantages on the side of judas were: first, his followers were aroused to heroic deeds by the peril of the situation. in the second place they were inspired by an intense religious zeal. the one force throughout semitic history that has bound together tribes and nations and made the semite an almost invincible fighting power has been religion. the familiar illustrations are the mohammedan conquests that swept victoriously across the bosporus and conquered constantinople, also across northern africa, and surged into southern europe over the straits of gibraltar and threatened for a time completely to engulf the western civilization. familiar modern illustrations are the mahdist insurrections that have from time to time taxed the resources of the english in northern africa. in the third place the land of judea, with its narrow western passes rapidly ascending to the heights above, enabled judas to choose his battle-field at a point where only a few of the enemy could be brought into action and where a handful of valiant men could keep an army at bay. iii. defeat of apollonius and seron. at first judas wisely confined himself to guerilla warfare. this enabled him in time to clothe and arm his followers with the garments and weapons taken from the enemy. the most important of these smaller engagements took place north of jerusalem. as apollonius, the syrian governor of samaria, was advancing into judea, judas suddenly fell upon the syrians and slew their leader. henceforth the sword of the syrian governor was effectively wielded by judas in behalf of religious liberty. news of the victory soon brought seron, the governor of coele-syria, with a large army. he advanced from the coast plain by the most direct road to jerusalem over the famous pass of the bethhorons. within a distance of two miles the road ascended nearly fifteen hundred feet. at points it was merely a steep, rocky pass, so that an invading army was forced to march single file and to pull themselves up over the rocks. here on the heights that looked out toward his home at modein judas, appealing to the faith and patriotism of his men, swept down upon the enemy and won his first great victory. iv. the battle of emmaus. the first great jewish victory was a severe blow to the power of antiochus epiphanes, for at that time he was confronted by a depleted treasury. he therefore left his kingdom in charge of lysias, one of his nobles, and set out on a campaign into persia from which he never returned. three generals with a large army were sent by lysias against the jews. so confident were they of a syrian victory that a horde of slave merchants accompanied the army that they might purchase the jewish captives. this time the syrians avoided the difficult pass of bethhoron and chose the wady ali, along which the modern carriage road winds up from the coast to jerusalem. the main camp was pitched at emmaus at the southeastern side of the plain of ajalon under the judean hills. meantime judas had selected as his head-quarters the lofty hill of mizpah, associated by earlier tradition with samuel and the scene of the short-lived rule of gedaliah. it was well chosen, for it commanded a view of the territory to the north, south, and west. while the army of the syrians, sent by night to surprise judas, were marching up the northern valley, the jewish patriots were led westward toward the plain along one of the parallel valleys that penetrated the judean hills. having appealed to the patriotic memories and the religious zeal of his followers, judas led them in a sudden early morning attack against the syrians encamped near emmaus. soon the syrians were in wild flight across the plain to the philistine cities, and judas and his followers were left in possession of the camp and its rich spoil. panic also seized his pursuers when they saw their camp in possession of the enemy, and judas was left for the moment undisputed master of the land of his fathers. this victory in the year b.c. was in many ways the most sweeping and significant in early maccabean history. v. the battle at bethsura. the next year lysias himself gathered a huge army of sixty thousand infantry and five thousand cavalry and led them against the jews. this time the syrians advanced through the broad valley of elah where david had fought against the philistine giant. thence they followed the wady sur, turned southward and then eastward, penetrating to the top of the judean plateau a little north of hebron. approaching from this point the syrians were protected in their rear by the idumeans, the descendants of the edomites. they succeeded in reaching the point where the road from the west joins the central highway from hebron to jerusalem. there on a sloping hill crowned with the border town of bethsura, judas was able to rally ten thousand followers to meet the huge syrian army. from the parallel account in ii maccabees it is clear that he did not succeed in winning a decisive victory, but a crisis in antioch suddenly compelled lysias to return, leaving the jews in possession of the battle-field. vi. restoration of the temple service. with mingled sadness and rejoicing judas proceeded at once to jerusalem and with his followers took up the task of restoring the desecrated temple and its service. the citadel of acra, which appears to have been situated on the hill of ophel to the south of the temple, was still strongly garrisoned by apostate jews and syrian soldiers. for nearly a quarter of a century, until the days of simon, it continued to be held by syrian forces, and remained a constant menace to the peace of jerusalem. the vivid account of the purification of the temple reveals the intense devotion of the jews to this ancient sanctuary, and throws clear light upon the nature of its service. this epoch-making act is commemorated even to-day by the jews throughout the world and is known as the feast of lights. it is a memorial of that successful struggle for religious freedom in which principles were established that have affected the thought and action of all succeeding generations. through all their many vicissitudes and under their many gentile rulers, with few exceptions, the jews have enjoyed uninterruptedly the right of worshipping in accordance with the dictates of their law and the customs of their fathers. vii. the new spirit in judaism. henceforth the law for which their fathers had poured out their life-blood and for which the jews had fought so valiantly was regarded with new and deeper veneration and its commands gained a new authority. again the jews had enjoyed a taste of freedom and had learned that by united and courageous action they could shake off the hated heathen yoke. this new warlike note is sounded in many of the later psalms of the psalter. chapters - , appended to the older books of zechariah, apparently come from this same period and voice the thought of the conquerors. the words of the ninth chapter express their joy and exultation: for i have bent judah to me, as a bow which i have filled with ephraim; i will urge thy sons against the sons of greece, and i will make thee like the sword of a hero. then jehovah shall be seen above them, and his shaft shall go forth like lightning. jehovah shall blow a blast upon a trumpet, and travel on the whirlwinds of the south. jehovah of hosts shall defend them; and they shall devour and tread down the slingstones, they shall drink their blood like wine, they shall be filled with it like the crevices of an altar. and jehovah their god shall give them victory in that day. like sheep he shall feed them in his land. yea, how good and how beautiful shall it be! corn shall make the young men flourish, and new wine the maidens. the victories of judas in all probability also inspired the messianic hope expressed in : - : rejoice greatly, o daughter of zion. shout aloud, o daughter of jerusalem! behold thy king will come to thee; vindicated and victorious is he, humble, and riding upon an ass. upon the foal of an ass. he shall cut off chariots from ephraim, and horses from jerusalem; the battle-bow shall also be cut off, and he shall speak to the nations; his rule shall be from sea to sea, from the river to the ends of the earth. section cxi. the long contest for political independence [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now when the heathen round about heard that the altar had been built and the sanctuary dedicated as it was formerly, they were very angry and concluded to destroy the race of jacob that was in the midst of them, and they began to slay and destroy among the people. judas, however, fought against the people of esau in idumea at akrabattine, because they besieged israel, and he defeated them with a great slaughter and humbled their pride and took their spoils. he remembered the wickedness of the inhabitants of baean, who were a source of annoyance and of danger, lying in ambush for them along the roads. and they were shut up by him in the towers, and he besieged them and destroyed them utterly and burned the towers of the place, with all who were in them. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then he passed over to the ammonites and found a strong force and many people, with timotheus as their leader. and he fought many battles with them, and they were defeated before him, and he conquered them. then when he had gained possession of jazer and its villages, he returned again into judea. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then the heathen who were in gilead gathered together against the israelites who were on the borders to destroy them. and they fled to the stronghold of dathema and sent letters to judas and his brothers, saying, the heathen who are about us have gathered together against us to destroy us, and they are preparing to come and get possession of the stronghold to which we have fled for refuge, and timotheus is the leader of their forces. now therefore come and rescue us from their power, for many of our men have fallen; and all our countrymen who dwell in the land of tob, have been put to death, and they have carried into captivity their wives and children and their possessions. and they destroyed there about a thousand men. while the letters were being read, there came other messengers from galilee with their garments torn, bringing a message of similar import, saying, that there were gathered together against them men of ptolemais, of tyre, of sidon, and from all heathen galilee to destroy them completely. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now when judas and the people heard these things, a great assembly came together to consult what they should do for their kinsmen who were in distress and being attacked by the heathen. and judas said to simon his brother, choose men, and go, rescue your countrymen who are in galilee, but jonathan my brother and i will go into the land of gilead. and he left joseph the son of zacharias and azarias, as leaders of the people, with the rest of the army in judea, in order to guard it. and he gave orders to them, saying, take charge of the heathen until we return. and to simon were assigned three thousand men to go to galilee and to judas eight thousand men to go into the land of gilead. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then simon went into galilee and fought many battles with the heathen, and the heathen were defeated by him. and he pursued them to the gate of ptolemais. and there fell of the heathen about three thousand men, and he took the spoils from them. they took with them those who were in galilee and in arbatta, with their wives and their children and all that they had, and brought them into judea with great rejoicing. [sidenote: i mac. : , ] then judas gathered all the israelites who were in the land of gilead, from the least to the greatest, with their wives and children and their household possessions, a very great host, that they might go into the land of judah. and they went up to mount zion with gladness and joy and offered whole burnt-offerings, because not one of them had been slain, but they had returned safe and sound. [sidenote: i macc. : - , ] then judas and his brothers went out and fought against the people of esau in the land toward the south. and he smote hebron and the villages belonging to it and pulled down its citadel and burned the surrounding towers. then he set out to go into the land of the philistines; and he went through marissa. on that day certain priests, desiring to do exploits there, were slain in battle, when they unwisely went out to fight. then judas turned aside to azotus, to the land of the philistines, and pulled down their altars and burned the carved images of their gods and, taking the spoil of their cities, he returned to the land of judah. and the hero judas and his brothers were greatly honored by all israel and by all the heathen wherever their name was heard. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now those who were in the citadel were hindering israel round about the sanctuary and were always seeking to do them harm and were a support to the heathen. but judas determined to destroy them and called all the people together to besiege them. and they were gathered together and besieged them in the hundred and fiftieth year, and he made mounds from which to shoot and engines of war. then some of those who were shut up came out and certain apostate israelites joined them. and they went to the king and said, when will you finally satisfy justice and avenge our brothers? we were willing to serve your father and to live as he enjoined, and to obey his commands; but because of this our own people besieged us in the citadel and were alienated from us; and as many of us as they could find, they killed and despoiled our inheritances. and not against us only have they stretched out their hand, but also against all that bordered on them. and now they are to-day encamped against the citadel at jerusalem, to take it, and they have fortified the sanctuary and bethsura. and if you do not quickly anticipate them, they will do greater things than these, and you will not be able to check them. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] when the king had heard this, he was angry, and gathered together all his friends, the officers of his army, and those who commanded the cavalry. there came to him also from other kingdoms and from isles of the sea, bands of hired soldiers. so the number of his forces was a hundred thousand footmen and twenty thousand horsemen and thirty-two elephants trained for war. then they went through idumea and encamped against bethsura and carried on the siege a long time and made engines of war. the besieged, however, sallied out and burned them and fought valiantly. and judas departed from the citadel and encamped at beth-zacharias, opposite the king's camp. then the king rose early in the morning and had his army set out at full speed along the road to beth-zacharias and his forces prepared for battle and the trumpets were sounded. and they showed the elephants the blood of grapes and mulberries, in order to excite them for the battle. then they distributed the beasts among the phalanxes and stationed by each elephant a thousand men armed with coats of mail and helmets, with brass on their heads; and to each beast five hundred chosen horsemen were appointed. these were already there, wherever the beast was, and wherever the beast went, they went with him and did not separate themselves from him. and upon them were towers of wood, strong, covered, one girded upon each beast. upon them were engines and two or three men, who fought upon them, besides the indian who guided the elephant. the rest of the horsemen he stationed on both sides of the two wings of the army to inspire terror and to protect the phalanxes. and when the sun struck the golden and bronze shields, the mountain shone with them and blazed like torches of fire. and a part of the king's army was spread out on the heights, and some on the low ground, and they moved firmly and in good order. and all who heard the noise of their multitude, and the marching of the great numbers, and the rattling of the arms, trembled because the army was very great and strong. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then judas and his army approached for battle, and there fell of the king's army six hundred men. now when eleazar, who was called avaran, saw one of the beasts armed with royal breastplates, which was higher than all the beasts, and it looked as though the king was upon it, he gave himself to save his people and to gain for himself an everlasting fame; and he ran upon him courageously in the midst of the phalanx and slew on the right hand and on the left, and they scattered from before him on either side. then he crept under the elephant, thrust him from beneath, and slew him. and the elephant fell to the earth upon him, and he died there. but when they saw the strength of the king and the fierce onset of the armies, they turned away from them. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] but those who were in the king's army went up to jerusalem to meet them, and the king encamped for a struggle with judea and mount zion. and he made peace with those in bethsura; for they surrendered the city, because they had no food there to endure the siege, because the land had a sabbath. so the king took bethsura and stationed a garrison there to keep it. then he encamped against the sanctuary for a long time; and he set there mounds from which to shoot and engines of war and instruments for casting stones and fire, and pieces to cast darts and slings. and they also erected engines against those of the besiegers and fought for a long time. but since there was no food in the sanctuary, because it was the seventh year and those who had fled for safety into judea from among the heathen had eaten up what remained of the store of provisions, there were but a few left in the sanctuary, because the famine became so severe upon them, and they scattered, each man to his own home. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now lysias heard that philip, whom antiochus the king, had appointed during his lifetime to bring up his son antiochus that he might be king, had returned from persia and media and with him the forces that went with the king, and that he was trying to get control of the government, he hastily decided to depart. and he said to the king, and to the officers of the army and to the men, we are growing weaker every day, our supplies are scanty, and the place which we are besieging is strong, and the welfare of the kingdom depends upon us; now therefore let us give the right hand to these men and make peace with them and with all their nation, and covenant with them that they may live according to their own customs as formerly; for because of their laws, which we abolished, they were angered and did all these things. this counsel pleased the king and the princes, and he sent to them to make peace. they accepted it, and when the king and the princes took oath to them, they came out of the stronghold. but when the king entered mount zion and saw the strength of the place, he broke the oath which he had sworn and gave orders to pull down the wall round about. then he set out in haste and returned to antioch and found philip master of the city; and he fought against him and took the city by force. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] in the one hundred and fiftieth year, demetrius the son of seleucus escaped from rome and went up with a few men to a city by the sea, and there proclaimed himself king. and when he entered the palace of his fathers, the army seized antiochus and lysias, to bring them to him. but when the fact was made known to him, he said, do not show me their faces. and the army slew them. so demetrius sat upon the throne of his kingdom. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and there came to him all the lawless and the apostate men of israel, with alcimus, their leader, desiring to be high priest. and they accused the people before the king, saying, judas and his brothers have destroyed all your friends, and have scattered us from our own land. now therefore send a man whom you trust, and let him go and see all the havoc which he has made of us and of the king's country, and how he has punished them and all who helped them. so the king chose bacchides, one of the king's friends, who was ruler in the province beyond the river euphrates, and was a great man in the kingdom, and faithful to the king. he sent him and also that godless alcimus, and confirmed him in the high priesthood, and commanded him to take vengeance upon the israelites. so they set out and came with a great army into the land of judah, and he sent messengers to judas and his brothers with words of peace, deceitfully. but they paid no attention to their words for they saw that these men had come with a great army. then there were gathered together to alcimus and bacchides a company of scribes, to seek for justice. and the hasideans were the first among the israelites who sought peace with them; for they said, one who is a descendant of aaron has come with the forces and he will do us no wrong. and he spoke words of peace to them, and took oath to them, saying, we will seek the hurt neither of you nor of your friends. and they put confidence in him. but he seized sixty of them, and slew them in one day, as it is written in the scriptures, the flesh of thy saints... and their blood they poured out round about jerusalem; and there was no man to bury them. and the fear and hatred of them fell upon all the people, for they said, there is neither truth nor justice in them; for they have broken the covenant and the oaths which they made. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and when judas saw that alcimus and his company had done more mischief among the israelites than the heathen, he went out into the whole territory of judea round about and took vengeance on the men who had deserted from him, and they were restrained from going forth into the country. but when alcimus saw that judas and his company were growing strong and knew that he was not able to withstand them, he returned to the king and brought evil charges against them. so the king sent nicanor, one of his honored princes, a man who hated israel and was their enemy, and commanded him to destroy the people. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] when nicanor came to jerusalem with a great army, he sent to judas and his brother a message of peaceful words with deceitful intent, saying, let there be no battle between us. i will come with a few men, that i may see your faces in peace. and he came to judas, and they saluted one another peaceably. but the enemies were prepared to take away judas, by violence. and when the fact was clear to judas, that he had come to him with deceit, he was very much afraid of him and would see his face no more. so nicanor knew that his plan was discovered, and he went out to meet judas in battle near capharsalama. and there fell of those with nicanor about five hundred men. then they fled into the city of david. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now after these things nicanor went to zion. and when some of the priests came out of the sanctuary, and some the elders of the people, to salute him peaceably and to show him the whole burnt-offering that was being offered for the king, he mocked them, and laughed at them, and abused them, and talked insolently. he also swore in a rage, saying, unless judas and his army are now delivered into my hands, if i come again in peace, i will burn up this temple. he went out in a great rage. then the priests went in and stood before the altar and the temple; and they wept and said, thou didst choose this temple to be called by thy name, to be a house of prayer and supplication for thy people. take vengeance on this man and his army, and let him fall by the sword. remember their blasphemies, and let them live no longer. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and nicanor set forth from jerusalem and encamped in bethhoron, and there the army of syria met him. but judas encamped in adasa with three thousand men. then judas prayed and said, when they who came from the king blasphemed, thine angel went out and smote among them an hundred and sixty-five thousand. even so destroy thou this army before us to-day, and let all the rest know that he hath spoken wickedly against thy sanctuary, and judge thou him according to his wickedness. so on the thirteenth day of the month adar the armies joined battle; and nicanor's army was defeated, and he himself was the first to fall in the battle. and when his army saw that nicanor had fallen, they threw away their weapons and fled. and [the jews] pursued them a day's journey from adasa as far as gazara when they sounded the trumpet-signal for the return. then they came out from all the villages of judea on every hand and outflanked them; and the one turned them back on the other army, and they all fell by the sword, so that none of them was left. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and they took the spoils and the booty, and they struck off nicanor's head and his right hand, which he had stretched out so haughtily, and brought them and hung them up in the citadel of jerusalem. and the people were very glad. they also enacted an ordinance for the celebration of this day year by year, the thirteenth day of adar. so the land of judah had rest for a brief period. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] when demetrius heard that nicanor had fallen with his forces in battle, he sent bacchides and alcimus again into the land of judah a second time, and the southern wing of his army with them. and they went by that way that leads to gilgal, and encamped against masaloth, which is in arbela, and gained possession of it and destroyed many people. and the first month of the hundred and fifty-second year they encamped against jerusalem. then they set out and went to berea with twenty thousand footmen and two thousand horsemen. and judas was encamped at elasa, and three thousand chosen men with him. and when they saw the multitude of the forces, that they were many, they were greatly frightened, and many slipped away from the army, so that there were left of them not more than eight hundred men. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and when judas saw that his army had dispersed, he was deeply troubled, because he had no time to gather them together, and he grew discouraged. and he said to those who were left, let us arise and go up against our adversaries, if perhaps we may be able to fight with them. and they would have dissuaded him, saying, we shall not be able; but let us rather save our lives now; let us return again with our fellow-countrymen and fight against them, for we are few. but judas said, far be it from me so to do, that i should flee from them. for if our time has come, let us die manfully for the sake of our fellow-countrymen and not leave a cause of reproach against our honor. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then the army set out from the camp and drew up to meet them; and the cavalry drew up into two companies, and the slingers and the archers went before the army, with all the strong, foremost warriors. but bacchides was in the rear wing. then the phalanx advanced on both sides, and they sounded their trumpets. and judas's men also sounded their trumpets, and the earth shook with the shout of the armies; so the battle was begun and continued from morning until evening. and when judas saw that bacchides and the strength of his army were on the right side, all who were brave in heart went with him, and the right wing was defeated by them, and he pursued them to the slope of the mountains. and they who were on the left wing, when they saw that the right wing was defeated, turned and followed upon the footsteps of judas and of those who were with him. and the battle grew fierce, and many on both sides fell mortally wounded. then judas fell and the rest fled. [sidenote: i macc. : , ] and jonathan and simon took judas their brother and buried him in the sepulchre of his fathers at modein. and they bewailed him, and all israel made great lamentation for him and mourned many days, and said, how is the hero fallen, the saviour of israel! [sidenote: i macc. : ] and the rest of the valiant acts of judas, and his wars and the valiant deeds which he did, and his greatness--they have not been recorded, for they were very many. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now after the death of judas, the apostates showed themselves in all the territory of israel, and all who practised injustice flourished. about the same time there was a very severe famine, and the whole people sided with them. then bacchides selected the godless men and made them rulers of the country. and they conducted a thorough search for the friends of judas and brought them to bacchides, and he took vengeance on them and tortured them cruelly. then great tribulation came upon israel, such as had not been since the time that prophets had ceased to appear among them. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] thereupon all the friends of judas assembled and said to jonathan, since your brother judas has died, we have no one like him to go out against our enemies and bacchides and against those of our own kin who hate us. now therefore we have chosen you this day to be our prince and leader in his place that you may fight our battles. so jonathan assumed the leadership at that time and took the place of his brother judas. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now in the one hundred and sixtieth year, alexander the son of antiochus epiphanes went up and took possession of ptolemais, and they received him, and he reigned there. when king demetrius heard of it, he gathered very large forces and went out to meet him in battle. demetrius also sent letters to jonathan with words of peace, so as to honor him greatly. for he said, let us get the start in making peace with them before he makes a compact with alexander against us. for he will remember all the wrongs that we have done to him, and to his brothers and his nation. and he gave him authority to collect forces and to provide arms and to be his ally. also he commanded that they should deliver up to him the hostages who were in the citadel. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then jonathan came to jerusalem, and read the letters in the hearing of all the people, and of those who were in the citadel. and they were greatly afraid when they heard that the king had given him authority to collect an army. and the garrison delivered up the hostages to jonathan, and he restored them to their parents. and jonathan took up his residence in jerusalem and began to rebuild and renew the city. and he commanded those who did the work to build the walls and mount zion round about with square stones for defence; and they did so. then the foreigners, who were in the strongholds which bacchides had built, fled, and each man left his place and went into his own land. only some of those who had forsaken the law and the commandments were left at bethsura, because it was an asylum for them. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and when king alexander heard all the promises which demetrius had made to jonathan and had been told of the battles which he and his brothers had fought and the valiant deeds that they had done and of the hardships which they had endured, he said, shall we find such another man? now therefore let us make him our friend and ally. so he wrote letters and sent them to him with contents like these: king alexander to his brother jonathan, greeting: we have heard of you that you are a valiant man and fit to be our friend. and now we have appointed you to-day to be high priest of your nation and to be called the king's friend (and he sent to him a purple robe and a crown of gold), and to take our part and to remain on friendly terms with us. [sidenote: i macc. : ] and jonathan put on the holy garments in the seventh month of the hundred and sixtieth year at the feast of tabernacles, and he gathered together forces, and provided arms in abundance. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now in the one hundred and sixty-fifth year, demetrius son of demetrius, came from crete into the land of his fathers. then king alexander heard of it, and he was exceedingly troubled and returned to antioch. and demetrius appointed apollonius, who was over coele-syria, and he collected a great army and encamped in jamnia, and sent to jonathan the high priest this message: you alone are hostile to us, and i have become a laughing-stock and butt of ridicule on account of you. now why do you flaunt your power against us in the mountains? if, indeed, you trust your forces, come down to us in the plain, and there let us try the matter together, because with me is the power of the cities. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now when jonathan heard the words of apollonius, he was stirred to anger, and he chose ten thousand men and went forth from jerusalem, and simon his brother met him to help him. and he encamped against joppa. the people of the city, however, shut him out, because apollonius had a garrison in joppa. so they fought against it. then the people of the city were afraid and opened to him, and jonathan became master of joppa. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] at that time jonathan gathered together the people of judea to take the citadel that was at jerusalem, and he erected many engines of war against it. some, however, who hated their own nation, apostates, went to the king, and reported to him that jonathan was besieging the citadel. and when he heard it, he was angry, and immediately after he heard of it he set out and came to ptolemais, and wrote to jonathan that he should not besiege it, and that he should meet him and confer with him at ptolemais with all speed. but when jonathan heard this, he gave orders to proceed with the siege, while he chose certain of the elders of israel and of the priests, and putting himself in peril, and taking silver and gold and garments, and various presents besides, he went to the king at ptolemais. and he was favorably received; and although some apostates of the nation made complaints against him, the king treated him just as his predecessors had done and exalted him in the presence of all his friends, both confirming to him the high priesthood, and all the other honors that he had before, and giving him preeminence among his chief friends. [sidenote: i macc. : , ] and jonathan requested the king to make judea free from tribute, together with the three districts of samaria, and he promised him three hundred talents. and the king consented and wrote letters to jonathan concerning all these things. i. the political situation. the position of the jewish patriots was both perilous and tragic. a ring of hostile peoples pressed them closely on every side. the jews were the victims of centuries of wrong and hatred. those residing in the neighboring lands also suffered from this widespread and bitter hostility. among all the peoples of southwestern asia they had no allies except the nabateans, an arabian people that had driven the edomites from their home on mount seir. the only bond that bound them to this ambitious heathen race was the common hatred of the syrians. it was natural, therefore, that judas a little later should send an embassy with the object of securing the moral support, if not the direct intervention, of the distant roman power whose influence was beginning to be felt throughout all the mediterranean coast lands. for the present, however, judas was dependent simply upon the sword for defence. he also had no time for permanent conquest, for he must prepare himself for the heavier blow that the court of antioch was preparing to deliver. all that he could do, therefore, was to make sudden attacks upon his foes on every side and rescue the persecuted jews by bringing them back with him to judea. ii. the jewish attitude toward the heathen reflected in the book of esther. in these perilous circumstances it is not strange that the jews gravitated far from the position of broad tolerance advocated by the ii isaiah and the authors of the prophecy of malachi and in the stories of ruth and jonah. in the stress of conflict they completely lost sight of their mission as jehovah's witnesses to all the world. the destruction of the heathen seemed to them absolutely necessary if jehovah's justice was to be vindicated. the spirit of this warlike, blood-thirsty age is most clearly formulated in the book of esther. the presence of aramaic and persian words testify to its late date. it is closely allied to the midrashim or didactic stories that were a characteristic literary product of later judaism. like the stories of daniel, the book of esther contains many historical inconsistencies. for example, mordecai, carried as a captive to babylon in b.c., is made xerxes's prime-minister in b.c. its pictures of persian customs are also characteristic of popular tradition rather than of contemporary history. its basis is apparently an old babylonian tradition of a great victory of the babylonians over their ancient foes, the elamites. mordecai is a modification of the name of the babylonian god marduk. estra, which appears in the hebrew esther, was the late babylonian form of the name of the semitic goddess ishtar. vashti and hamman, the biblical haman, were names of elamite deities. like the story of creation, this tale has been hebraized and adapted to the story-teller's purpose. his aim is evidently to trace the origin of the late jewish feast of purim. it is probable that this feast was an adaptation of the babylonian new-year's feast which commemorated the ancient victory. the story in its present form is strongly jewish. it exalts loyalty to the race, but its morality is far removed from that of amos and isaiah. its exultation over the slaughter of thousands of the heathen is displeasing even in a romance, although it can easily be understood in the light of the maccabean age in which it was written. iii. campaigns against the neighboring peoples. the first book of maccabees records in detail the repeated blows that judas struck against his heathen foes. at akrabattine, probably identical with the scorpion pass at the southwestern end of the dead sea, he fought and won a signal victory over his hereditary foes, the idumeans. his chief enemy on the east was timotheus, the leader of the ammonites against whom judas was successful in the preliminary skirmishes. angered by these defeats, the heathen east of the jordan attacked the resident jews, who fled to one of the towns, where they were besieged. judas, assembling six thousand of his picked warriors, made a rapid march of three days out into the wilderness. he apparently carried few supplies, but depended rather upon the spoil of the captured towns for support. bosra, far out on the borders of the desert, was seized and looted. thence returning westward, he rescued the jews from the town of damethah, or, as it appears in the syriac, rametha. this is probably identical with the modern town of remtheh a little south of the yarmuk on the great pilgrim highway from damascus to mecca. after making a detour to the south he crossed the yarmuk and captured a series of towns lying to the north and northeast of this river. returning he apparently met his ammonite foe, who had succeeded in rallying an army, at the point where the pilgrim highway crosses the headwaters of the yarmuk. here judas won a sweeping victory. then collecting the many jews of the dispersion who had settled near these upper waters of the yarmuk, he returned victoriously to jerusalem. his brother simon, who had been despatched on a similar mission to galilee, likewise came back bringing many fellow-jews and laden with spoils. anticipating a renewal of the syrian attack, judas next made a rapid campaign into the territory of the idumeans, capturing the old hebrew capital of hebron and carrying his victories as far as ashdod on the western borders of the philistine plain. within a few months he had overrun and partially conquered a territory larger than the kingdom of david. in an incredibly short time this peasant warrior had won more victories against greater odds than any other leader in israel's history. the results of these victories were necessarily ephemeral. they accomplished, however, three things: ( ) judas intimidated his foes and established his prestige; ( ) he was able to rescue thousands of jews from the hands of the heathen; and ( ) by bringing them back to judea he increased its population and laid the foundations of that kingdom which rose as the result of his patriotic achievements. iv. the battle of beth-zacharias. there was still a syrian outpost in the heart of judea: it was the citadel at jerusalem, which looked down upon the temple area. this judas attempted to capture, but in so doing incited to action the syrian king, antiochus eupator, who had succeeded to the throne after the death of his father antiochus epiphanes. under the direction of his prime-minister lysias he collected a huge army of one hundred thousand infantry and twenty thousand cavalry. to this was added thirty-two elephants with full military equipment--the heavy ordinance used in the warfare of the period. the approach from the plain was along the valley of elah and up past bethsura, as in the last syrian campaign. judas, who was able at this time to rally an army of ten thousand men, met the syrian host near the town of beth-zacharias, a little north of bethsura on the central highway from hebron to jerusalem. this time the natural advantages were with the syrians, one wing of whose army rested upon a declining hill and the other on the level plain. thus they were able to utilize their entire fighting force and to launch against the valiant jews their elephants against which the heroism of an eleazar was fruitless. for the first time during this struggle judas was defeated and fell back upon jerusalem, where he was closely besieged. soon the jews were obliged to surrender, and the maccabean cause would have been lost had not complications at antioch compelled the syrians to retire. v. victories over nicanor. in the treaty which followed the surrender of jerusalem the religious liberty of the jews was assured. this concession satisfied the majority of the hasideans, so that henceforth judas found himself deserted by a great body of his followers. the apostate high priest who was placed in control of the temple was supported by syrian soldiery and judas was obliged to resort again to outlaw life. he succeeded, however, in winning two signal victories over nicanor, the syrian general. the one at capharsalama was probably fought near the modern town of kefr silwan, across the kidron valley from the city of david on the southern slope of jerusalem. in the latter victory nicanor was slain, and judas was left for the moment in control of judea. vi. the death of judas. soon another syrian army invaded the land. the advance was from the northwest up over the pass of bethhoron. a little east of the road that ascends from lower to upper bethhoron, near where he won his first great battle and in sight of his home at modein, the intrepid jewish champion fought his last battle. terror at the approach of the enemy had thinned his ranks until he was obliged to meet them with only eight hundred men at his back. even against these great odds he was on the eve of victory when he was slain. at the sight of their fallen leader his followers fled. this disastrous ending of his career as a warrior obscured to a great extent the character and quality of judas's services for his people. in brief ( ) he taught them to fight for their rights; ( ) he helped them to save their law and traditions; ( ) he secured for them religious freedom; ( ) he restored many of the jews of the dispersion and thus prepared the way for the consolidated kingdom which later rose with jerusalem as the centre; ( ) he inspired his countrymen with ambitions for political independence; and ( ) he set them a noble example of courage, patriotism, and practical piety. while measured by the higher standards of a later day judas is not without his faults, yet he is unquestionably one of the great heroes of israel's history and an example to all of unselfish and devoted patriotism. vii. the dissensions in the syrian court. the jews ultimately attained political independence not primarily through their own efforts, but because the protracted contests between the rival claimants for the syrian throne gave them opportunities which they quickly improved. in b.c. a youth known as alexander balas, who claimed to be a son of antiochus epiphanes, raised the standard of revolt against the reigning syrian king, demetrius i. the kings of southwestern asia and egypt at first lent their support to this impostor. by b.c. he had succeeded in defeating and putting to death demetrius i. two years later, however, demetrius ii, the son of the deposed king, appeared with a large body of cretan mercenaries to contest the throne of his father. many of the syrian cities at once espoused his cause. ptolemy philometor, of egypt, finally turned against alexander balas; and in b.c. this strange adventurer was slain near antioch by his own followers. soon after his death, however, one of his generals, tryphon, appeared with an infant son of alexander whom he sought to place on the syrian throne, thus perpetuating the feud that was constantly undermining the power of the seleucid kingdom. viii. concessions to jonathan. the jews profited by each turn in these tortuous politics. in b.c., after a period of outlawry in the wilderness east of judea, jonathan and his followers were allowed by demetrius i to settle again within the bounds of judea. jonathan established his head-quarters at michmash, the fortress famous for the achievement of saul's valiant son jonathan. here he ruled over the jews as a vassal of demetrius, who retained immediate control over the citadel at jerusalem and the fortified cities that had been built along the borders of judea. on the appearance of alexander balas in b.c. demetrius i, in order to retain the loyalty of the jews, permitted jonathan to maintain a small standing army and to rebuild the fortifications of jerusalem. to outbid his rival the impostor alexander balas conferred upon jonathan the coveted honor of the high priesthood, thus making him both the civil and religious head of the jewish state. disregarding his promises to demetrius and the contemptible character of alexander, jonathan at once proceeded to establish his new authority. he was doubtless more acceptable to the majority of the jews than the apostate high priests whom he succeeded, but the stricter hasideans naturally regarded it as a sacrilege that a man whose hands were stained with war and bloodshed should perform the holiest duties in the temple service. under alexander balas jonathan's power rapidly increased. he was made governor of judea, and, under pretence of supporting the waning fortunes of alexander, he captured in succession the philistine cities of joppa, azotus (ashdod), ascalon, and akron. when demetrius ii became master of syria, jonathan succeeded by rich gifts and diplomacy in so far gaining the support of the new king that part of the territory of samaria was joined to judea. in return for three hundred talents they were also promised exemption from taxation. furthermore, membership in one of the royal orders was conferred upon the maccabean leader. thus by good fortune and by often questionable diplomacy the jews finally secured in the days of jonathan that freedom for which they had fought and which they had partially won under the valiant judas. section cxii. peace and prosperity under simon [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and when king demetrius saw that the land was quiet before him and that no resistance was made to him, he sent all his forces, each one to his own home, except the foreign mercenaries, whom he had enlisted from the isles of the heathen. all the troops, however, who had served his father hated him. now tryphon was one of those who had formerly belonged to alexander's party, and when he saw that all the troops were murmuring against demetrius, he went to yamliku, the arabian who was bringing up antiochus, the young child of alexander, and importuned him that he should deliver him to him, that he might reign in his father's place. and he told him all that demetrius had done, and the hatred which his troops bore him. and he stayed there a long time. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now after this tryphon returned, and with him the young child antiochus, and he assumed the sovereignty and put on the diadem. and there were gathered to him all the forces which demetrius had sent away in disgrace, and they fought against him, and he fled and was defeated. and tryphon took the elephants and became master of antioch. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then tryphon tried to get the sovereignty over asia and to put on the diadem and to engage in hostilities against antiochus the king. but he was afraid lest perhaps jonathan might not allow him, and that he might fight against him. so he sought a way to take him, that he might destroy him. and he set out and came to bethshan. then jonathan went out to meet him with forty thousand picked soldiers and came to bethshan. and when tryphon saw that he came with a great army, he was afraid to attack him, and he received him honorably and commended him to all his friends and gave him gifts, and commanded his forces to be obedient to him as to himself. and he said to jonathan, why have you put all this people to trouble, since that there is no war between us? now therefore send them away to their homes, retaining for yourself only a few men who shall be with you, and come with me to ptolemais, and i will give it to you with the rest of the strongholds and the rest of the forces and all the king's officers, and i will set out on my way back, for this is the cause of my coming. then he trusted him and did even as he said, and sent away his forces so that they departed into the land of judah. but he reserved for himself three thousand men, of whom he left two thousand in galilee, while one thousand went with him. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now as soon as jonathan entered ptolemais, the people of ptolemais shut the gates and laid hands on him, and they slew with the sword all who came in with him. and tryphon sent forces and horsemen into galilee, and into the great plain, to destroy all of jonathan's men. but they perceived that he had been taken and had perished, and those who were with him, and they encouraged one another and marched in closed ranks, prepared to fight. and when those who were pursuing them saw that they were ready to fight for their lives, they turned back again. thus they all came safely into the land of judah, and they mourned for jonathan and those who were with him, and they were greatly afraid. and all israel mourned bitterly. then all the heathen who were round about them sought to destroy them utterly, for they said, they have no ruler nor any to help them, now therefore let us fight against them and wipe out the memory of them from among men. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now when simon heard that tryphon had collected a vast army to come into the land of judah to destroy it utterly, and saw that the people trembled and were greatly afraid, he went up to jerusalem and gathered the people together, and encouraged them and said to them, you yourselves know all the things that i and my brothers, and my father's house, have done for the laws and the sanctuary, and the battles and times of distress through which we have passed. in this cause all my brothers have perished for israel's sake, and i alone am left. and now be it far from me that i should spare my own life, in any time of affliction; for i am not better than my brothers. rather i will take revenge for my nation, and for the sanctuary, and for our wives and children, because all the heathen are gathered to destroy us out of pure hatred. and the courage of the people rose as they heard these words. and they answered with a loud voice, saying, you are our leader instead of judas and jonathan your brothers. fight our battles, and we will do all that you command. so he gathered together all the warriors and made haste to finish the walls of jerusalem, and fortified the entire length of it. and he sent jonathan the son of absalom at the head of a large army to joppa, and he drove out those who were in it, and stayed there in it. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] and after this tryphon came to invade the land and destroy it, and he went round about by the way that goes to adora; and simon and his army marched opposite and abreast of him to every place wherever he went. and the people of the citadel sent to tryphon ambassadors urging him to come by forced marches through the wilderness to them and to send them supplies. so tryphon made ready all his cavalry to go. but that night a very deep snow fell, so that he did not come because of the snow. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then he set out and came to the country of gilead, and when he came near to bascama, he slew jonathan, and he was buried there. but when tryphon went back into his own land, simon sent and took the bones of jonathan his brother, and buried them at modein, his ancestral city. and all israel made great lamentation over him and mourned for him for many days. and simon built a monument upon the sepulchre of his father and his brothers, and raised it aloft to the sight, with polished stone on the back and front sides. he also set up seven pyramids, one opposite another, for his father and his mother and his four brothers. and for these he made artistic designs, setting about them great pillars, and upon the pillars he fashioned different kinds of arms as an everlasting memorial, and beside the arms ships carved, that they should be seen by all who sail on the sea. this is the sepulchre which he made at modein, which stands there at the present time. [sidenote: i macc. : , - ] then simon built the strongholds of judea and fenced them about with high towers and great walls and gates and bars, and laid up stores in the strongholds. in those days he laid siege to gazara, and surrounded it with armies, and made an engine of siege and brought it up to the city, and smote a tower and captured it. and those who were in the engine leaped forth into the city, and there was a great tumult in the city. and the people of the city tore their garments, and went up on the walls with their wives and children, and cried with a loud voice, requesting simon to make peace with them. and they said, do not deal with us according to our wickednesses but according to your mercy. so simon was reconciled to them and did not fight against them. but he expelled them from the city and cleansed the houses in which the idols were, and so entered into it with singing and praise. and when he had put all uncleanness out of it, he placed in it such men as would keep the law and made it stronger than it was before, and built a dwelling place for himself in it. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] but those who were in the citadel at jerusalem were prevented from going out and from going into the country, and from buying and selling, so that they suffered exceedingly from hunger, and a great number of them perished through famine. then they cried out to simon to make peace with them. he did so, but put them out from there, and cleansed the citadel from its pollutions. and he entered it on the twenty-third day of the second month in the one hundred and seventy-first year, with praise and palm branches, with harps, with cymbals, with viols, with hymns, and with songs, because a great enemy was destroyed out of israel. and he ordained that they should observe that day each year with gladness. and the temple mount, which was beside the citadel, he made stronger than before, and there he dwelt with his men. and simon saw that john his son had grown to manhood, and so he made him commander of all his forces. and he lived in gazara. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now when they heard at rome and at sparta that jonathan was dead, they were very sorry. but as soon as they learned that his brother simon had been made high priest in his place and ruled the country and its cities, they wrote to him on brass tablets, to renew with him the friendship and the treaty which they had made with judas and jonathan his brothers. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] moreover king demetrius confirmed to him the high priesthood according to these things, and made him one of his friends, and bestowed great honor upon him, for he had heard that the jews had been called friends and allies and brothers by the romans, and that they had met the ambassadors of simon with honor, and that the jews and the priests were well pleased that simon should be their governor and high priest forever, until there should arise a faithful prophet; and that he should be commander over them, and should take charge of the sanctuary, to appoint men on his own authority over their works and over the country and over the arms and over the forts, and that he should be obeyed by all, and that all documents drawn up in the country should be written in his name, and that he should be clothed in purple, and wear gold; and that it should not be lawful for any of the people or of the priests to nullify any of these things, or to resist the commands that he should issue, or to gather an assembly in the country without his permission, or to be clothed in purple or to wear a golden buckle. but whoever should do otherwise, or act in defiance of any of these things, should be liable to punishment. all the people agreed to ordain that simon should act according to these regulations. and simon accepted and consented to be high priest and to be general and governor of the jews and of the priests and to be protector of all. [sidenote: i macc. : , ] and they gave orders to put this writing on brass tablets and to set them up within the precinct of the sanctuary in a conspicuous place, and also to put the copies of it in the treasury in order that simon and his sons might have them. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] so the land had rest all the days of simon, and he sought the good of his nation. his authority and his glory were well-pleasing to them all his days. and amid all his glory he took joppa for a haven, and made it a way to the isles of the sea, and he enlarged the boundaries of his nation, and became master of the land. he also brought many captives together, and made himself master of gazara and bethsura, and the citadel. moreover he took away from it its uncleannesses; and there was none who resisted him. and they tilled their land in peace, and the earth gave her increase, and the trees of the plains their fruit. [sidenote: : - ] the old men sat in the streets, they talked together of the common good, and the young men put on glorious, fine apparel. he provided food for the cities, and furnished them with means of fortification, until his famous name was known to the end of the earth. he made peace in the land, and israel rejoiced with great joy, everyone sat under his own vine and fig tree, and there was no one to make them afraid, and none who warred against them was left upon the earth, for the kings were utterly crushed in those days. and he strengthened all the distressed of his people, he was full of zeal for the law, and every lawless and wicked person he banished. he made the sanctuary glorious, and multiplied the vessels of the temple. i. capture and death of jonathan. it was not strange in that corrupt age that jonathan, who had risen to power largely by intrigue, should himself in the end fall a prey to treachery. tryphon, the general who secretly aspired to the syrian throne, by lies succeeded in misleading even the wily jewish leader. his object was to gain possession of southern palestine, and he evidently believed that by capturing jonathan he would easily realize his ambition. he overlooked the fact, however, that simon, next to judas the ablest of the sons of mattathias, still remained to rally and lead the jewish patriots. the natural barriers of judea again proved insurmountable, for when tryphon tried repeatedly on the west, south, and east to invade the central uplands, he found the passes guarded by simon and his experienced warriors. thus baffled, the treacherous tryphon vented his disappointment upon jonathan, whom he slew in gilead. as the would-be usurper advanced northward, where he ultimately met the fate which he richly deserved, simon and his followers bore the body of jonathan back to modein, and there they reared over it the fourth of those tombs which testified to the warlike spirit and devotion of the sons of mattathias. ii. character and policy of simon. simon, who was at this crisis called to the leadership of the jewish race, had been famed from the first for his moderation and wise counsel. in many campaigns he had also shown the military skill and courage that had characterized his younger brothers. in him the noble spirit of judas lived again. he was devoted to the law, intent upon building up the state, and at the same time was deeply and genuinely interested in all members of his race, whether in judea or in distant nations. like david and josiah, he was a true father of his people and set an example which unfortunately his descendants failed to follow. he still recognized the authority of demetrius ii, but the syrian kingdom was so weak that simon succeeded in securing a definite promise of the remission of all taxes, and ruled practically as an independent sovereign. to strengthen his position he sent an embassy laden with rich gifts to rome. during a later crisis in his rule its prestige proved of great value, but simon in following the example of his brothers gave to rome that claim upon judea that was destined within less than a century to put an end to jewish independence. in still further consolidating and developing the resources of his people and in preparing for future expansion, simon laid the foundations for the later jewish kingdom. his policy also brought to palestine that peace and prosperity which made his rule one of the few bright spots in israel's troubled history. iii. his conquests. the chief conquest of simon was the capture of gazara, the ancient gezer. this lay on the western side of the plain of ajalon. it guarded the approaches to judea from the west, and above all the highway that ran from joppa and along which passed the commerce of the mediterranean. after a stubborn resistance he captured the town, deported part of its heathen population, and settled jewish colonists in their place. joppa also was under simon's control. thus he also prepared the way for that commercial expansion which was necessary if the jewish state was to survive in the midst of its many powerful foes. early in his reign simon laid siege to the syrian garrison in jerusalem, and finally, amidst the rejoicing of the people, captured this stronghold and delivered judea from the presence of the hated foreigners. the temple area was also fortified. simon's victories, and especially his conquest of the greek cities on the plain, aroused the syrian king, antiochus sidetes, the son of demetrius i, to demand heavy indemnity. when simon refused to pay the tribute a syrian army was sent to enforce the claim, but were defeated by a jewish force under john hyrcanus. this victory left simon during the remainder of his reign practically independent of outside authority. iv. simon's authority. simon, with commendable moderation, refrained from attempting to secure for himself the title of king. he did, however, issue coins in his own name, although that right was ordinarily the prerogative only of kings. upon him was conferred by the grateful people the authority that had first been given jonathan by the shameless alexander balas. in return for simon's many services and as a tribute to the achievements of his family he was proclaimed by the jews not only civil governor and military leader, but also high priest. he thus became their rightful leader both in peace and war, and the representative of the nation in the sacred services of the temple. in all but name he was king, and jewish history would have doubtless flowed in calmer channels had his descendants been contented with these substantial honors. v. completion of the psalter. the reign of simon probably witnessed the completion of the psalter. many of the psalms, especially those in the latter half of the book, bear the unmistakable marks of the maccabean struggle. in psalms and , for example, there are clear references to the desecration of the temple and the bitter persecutions of antiochus. they voice the wails of despair which then rose from the lips of many jews. many other psalms, as, for example, the one hundred and eighteenth, express that intense love and devotion to the law which was from this time on in many ways the most prominent characteristic of judaism. the prevailingly prominent liturgical element that characterizes the concluding psalms of the psalter suggest their original adaptation to the song services of the temple. under the reign of simon the temple choir was probably extended and greater prominence given to this form of the temple service. the peace and prosperity in the days of simon gave the opportunity and the incentive to put in final form the earlier collections of psalms and probably to add the introduction found in psalms - and the concluding doxology in psalm . the psalter appears to have been the last to be completed of all the old testament books, so that probably before the close of simon's reign all of the present old testament books were written. discussions regarding the value of such books as ecclesiastes, song of solomon, and esther continued until nearly the close of the first christian century, when at last the canon of the old testament was completed. vi. the religious life reflected in the later psalms. the prevailing note in the psalms found in the latter part of the psalter is joyous. a deep sense of gratitude to jehovah for deliverance pervades them. the jews felt that jehovah had indeed delivered them "as a bird from the snare of the fowler" (psalm ). in the near background were the dark days of persecution. hostile foes still encircled israel, but trust in jehovah's power and willingness to deliver triumphed over all fear. oh, give thanks to jehovah for he is good, for his mercy endureth forever. he hath delivered us from our enemies; oh, give thanks to the god of heaven, for his mercy endureth forever, was the oft-repeated refrain that was sung in the temple service by the warriors when they returned victorious from battle and by the people as they went about their tasks. the sense of constant danger and of great achievement bound together the jews of this period as perhaps never before since the days of the exile. the same experiences developed a powerful religious consciousness. jehovah had repeatedly and signally demonstrated that he was in their midst. without his strong hand they were helpless against their foes. the apostates had been expelled, and the classes that remained were bound closely together by their desire to preserve their hard-won liberties, by their devotion to the temple and its services and by a profound respect for the authority of their scriptures. the voice of the living prophet was silent. the priests had ceased to teach and were simply ministers at the altar, and in the turmoil of the maccabean struggle the teaching of the wise had practically come to an end. instead the jews became in every sense the people of the book. it was at this time and as a result of the forces at work in this age that the scribes attained their place as the chief teachers of the people. it was natural that they who copied, edited, and above all interpreted the revered law and the prophets should have the ear of the masses and should be regarded more and more as the authorized teachers of the jewish race. judaism had at last attained its maturity. section cxiii. the rule of john hyrcanus and aristobulus [sidenote: i macc. : - ] now ptolemy the son of abubus had been appointed commander over the plain of jericho. he possessed much silver and gold, for he was the high priest's son-in-law. then he grew ambitious and determined to make himself master of the country. so he formed treacherous plots against simon and his sons, to make away with them. now simon was visiting the cities that were in the country and providing for their good management. and he went down to jericho with mattathias and judas his sons, in the one hundred and seventy-seventh year, in the eleventh month, that is the month sebat. then the son of abubus received them treacherously in a little stronghold that is called dok, which he had built, and made them a great banquet, and his men were there. and when simon and his sons were drunk, ptolemy and his men rose up and took their weapons, and rushing in upon simon in the banquet hall, they slew him and his two sons, and some of his servants. thus he committed a great act of treachery and paid back evil for good. [sidenote: i macc. : - ] then ptolemy wrote what had happened, and asked the king to send forces to aid him, and promised to hand over to him their country and the cities. and he sent others to gazara to make away with john. and to the officers commanding thousands he sent letters to come to him, that he might give them silver and gold and gifts. and others he sent to take possession of jerusalem and the temple-mount. but some ran before to gazara and told john that his father and brothers had perished, and they said, he has sent to slay you too. and when he heard, he was dumb with amazement, but he seized the men who came to destroy him, and slew them, for he saw that they were seeking to destroy him. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : c- b] now when hyrcanus had received the high priesthood which his father had held before him and had offered sacrifice to god, he made haste to attack ptolemy, that he might relieve his mother and brothers. so he laid siege to the fortress and was superior to ptolemy in other respects; but he was defeated through his natural affection. for when ptolemy was distressed, he brought hyrcanus's mother and his brothers and set them upon the wall and beat them with rods in the sight of all and threatened that unless hyrcanus went away immediately, he would throw them down headlong. at this sight hyrcanus's pity and concern overcame his anger. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : d] and since the siege was delayed in this way, the year of rest came on, during which the jews rest every seventh year as they do on every seventh day. in this year, therefore, ptolemy was freed from being besieged. he also slew the brothers of hyrcanus with their mother, and fled to zeno, who was the tyrant of philadelphia. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] and now antiochus [sidetes] was so angry at what he had suffered from simon that he made an expedition into judea and laid siege to jerusalem and shut up hyrcanus. but hyrcanus opened the tomb of david, who was the richest of all kings, took from there more than three thousand talents of money and induced antiochus upon the promise of three thousand talents to raise the siege. moreover he was the first of the jews who had plenty of money, and so began to hire foreign mercenaries. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] at another time, when antiochus had gone upon an expedition against the medes and thus given hyrcanus an opportunity to be revenged upon him, hyrcanus made an attack upon the cities of syria, thinking, as proved to be the case, that he would find them empty of good troops. so he took medeba and samaga with their surrounding towns; likewise shechem and mount gerizim. [sidenote: jos. ant. xiii, : d, e] hyrcanus also took dora and marissa, cities of idumea, and subdued all the idumeans. he permitted them to stay in their country, if they would undergo circumcision and conform to the jewish laws. they were so desirous of living in the country of their fathers that they submitted to circumcision and the other jewish ways of living. from this time on, therefore, they were none other than jews. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a-b] hyrcanus also proceeded as far as samaria and invested it on all sides with a wall, and placed his sons, aristobulus and antigonus in charge of the siege. they pushed it with such vigor that a famine prevailed within the city, so that the inhabitants were forced to eat what was never before regarded as food. they also invited antiochus to come to their assistance and he readily responded to their invitation, but he was beaten by aristobulus and antigonus, and he was pursued as far as scythopolis by these brothers and fled away from them. so they returned to samaria and shut up the multitude within the wall again, and when they had taken the city, they tore it down and made slaves of its inhabitants. [sidenote: jos. ant. xiii, : ] however the prosperity of hyrcanus caused the jews to envy him; and they who were worst disposed to him were the pharisees. now hyrcanus was one of their disciples and had been greatly beloved by them. but once when he invited them to a feast and entertained them kindly and saw them in a good humor, he began to say to them that they knew that he desired to be a righteous man and do all things by which he might please god and them, for the pharisees are philosophers. however, he desired, if they observed him offending in any respect or departing from the right way, that they would call him back and correct him. when they testified that he was entirely virtuous he was well pleased with their approval. but one of his guests, eleazar by name, was a man malignant by nature, who delighted in dissension. this man said: "since you wish to know the truth, if you really desire to do what is right, lay down the high priesthood and content yourself with the civil government of the people." and when hyrcanus desired to know for what cause he ought to lay down the high priesthood, the other replied: "we have heard from old men that your mother was a captive in the reign of antiochus epiphanes." this story was false, and hyrcanus was provoked against him. all the pharisees likewise were very indignant with him. [sidenote: jos. ant. xiii, : a-c] now there was a certain jonathan, a great friend of hyrcanus, but of the sect of the sadducees, whose ideas are the opposite of those of the pharisees. he told hyrcanus that eleazar had cast that slur upon him according to the common opinion of all the pharisees and that this would be made clear if he would ask them the question, what punishment they thought this man deserved? for in this way he might be sure that the slur was not laid on him with their approval, if they advised punishing him as the crime deserved. therefore when hyrcanus asked this question, the pharisees answered that the man deserved stripes and imprisonment, but it did not seem right to punish a slur with death. and indeed the pharisees ordinarily are not apt to be severe in punishment. at this mild sentence hyrcanus was very angry and thought that this man reproved him with their approval. it was this jonathan who influenced him so far that he made him join the sadducees and leave the party of the pharisees and abolish the decrees that they had thus imposed on the people and punish those who obeyed them. this was the source of the hatred with which he and his sons were regarded by the multitude. [sidenote: jos. ant. xiii, : ] but when hyrcanus had put an end to this sedition, he afterward lived happily and administered the government in the best manner for thirty-one years and then died, leaving behind him five sons. he was esteemed by god worthy of the three highest honors, the rulership of his nation, the high priesthood, and prophecy, for god was with him and enabled him to predict the future. [sidenote: jos. ant. xiii, : a-c, a] now when hyrcanus was dead, his eldest son aristobulus, intent upon changing the government into a monarchy, was the first to put a diadem on his head. this aristobulus loved his next brother antigonus and treated him as an equal, but the others he kept in bonds. he also cast his mother into prison because she disputed the government with him, for hyrcanus had left her in control of everything. he also proceeded to that degree of barbarity that he killed her in prison with hunger. moreover he was estranged from his brother antigonus by false charges and also slew him, although he seemed to have a great affection for him and had shared the kingdom with him. but aristobulus immediately repented of the slaughter of his brother; on which account his disease grew upon him. [sidenote: jos. ant. xiii, : e] then aristobulus died, after having reigned a year. he was called a lover of the greeks and conferred many benefits on his country. he also made a war against iturea [galilee], and added a great part of it to judea and compelled the inhabitants, if they wished to remain in that country, to be circumcised and to live according to the jewish laws. i. murder of simon. even his moderation and kindly rule did not deliver simon from the violent death that overtook all the sons of mattathias. his murderer was his son-in-law, a certain ptolemy, who was governor of the jordan valley, the resources of which had been developed under simon. ptolemy trusted to the support of the syrian court, but he failed to reckon with two things: ( ) the loyalty of the people to their maccabean leaders; and ( ) the ability of simon's son, john hyrcanus. instead of falling a victim to ptolemy's plot, john at once went to jerusalem where he was made the high priest and governor by the people. ptolemy, who was besieged in the castle of dok, saved his miserable life only by shameless perfidy. ii. the syrian invasion. antiochus sidetes proved the ablest syrian king of this period. although his first attack had been repelled by simon, he again attempted, on the accession of hyrcanus, to reestablish his authority in palestine. josephus, in his account, obscures this humiliating chapter in jewish history. the statement that hyrcanus took from the tomb of david vast wealth and thus purchased immunity from syrian attack has all the characteristics of an oriental tale. instead, antiochus sidetes not only besieged but captured jerusalem, and doubtless compelled the jews to pay heavy tribute. preferring, however, to retain their loyalty rather than to crush them, he left john hyrcanus in control of judea, and jerusalem escaped destruction. in the disastrous campaign against the parthians in which antiochus lost his life john hyrcanus accompanied him with a following of jewish soldiers. the death of antiochus sidetes in b.c. at last left the jews free to develop their kingdom without further fear of syrian interference. this event marks for the jews the attainment of absolute political freedom--a privilege which they continued to enjoy for a little over half a century. iii. john's military policy and conquests. john possessed the characteristic ambitions and energy of his family. in his policy he also seems to have been strongly influenced by the achievements of israel's early conquering king, david. his aim was to build up a small empire, and by crushing the ancient foes of israel to secure immunity from further attack. in employing foreign mercenaries he also followed the example of king david. doubtless he was influenced in doing so by his experiences in the parthian campaign. this policy, however, was far removed from the spirit of the early maccabean leaders who had unsheathed the sword in behalf of their principles. john's first campaign was against the cities to the east of the jordan, and resulted in the conquest of the towns of medeba and samaga and the territory subject to them. the conquest of shechem and southern samaria was undoubtedly prompted both by hereditary hatred toward the samaritans and by the desire to provide an outlet for the growing jewish population. after standing for two centuries, the samaritan temple on mount gerizim was destroyed by the jews. this sacrilegious act naturally intensified that hatred between jew and samaritan which burned so fiercely during the early part of the first christian century. marissa and dora, the chief cities of the idumeans, were next conquered. with strange inconsistency, john hyrcanus, whose ancestors had first taken up the sword in defence of religious liberty, compelled the descendants of their old foes, the edomites, to give up their national religion or else go into exile. this policy was fraught with far-reaching consequences, for among those appointed to rule over the conquered edomites was antipater, the ancestor of herod, who was destined to rule the jews and to initiate that long series of disasters that culminated in the destruction of the jewish state. last of all, john hyrcanus advanced to the conquest of the greek city of samaria. because of its natural strength and formidable defences a year was required for the siege, and it was ultimately captured only through famine. the sons of john hyrcanus succeeded in holding at bay the syrian armies that were sent to relieve the besieged. the conquered inhabitants were sold as slaves, and the city was left for a time in complete ruins. the conquest of scythopolis, the ancient bethshean, extended the bounds of john's kingdom to the southern hills of galilee. thus he became master of a small empire extending out toward the desert on the east, to the south country on the south, touching the sea at joppa, and including the entire territory of ancient samaria on the north. while not as large as the kingdom of david, it was a more perfect political unit, and offered superior opportunities for commerce and internal development. iv. the break with the pharisees. the successes of john hyrcanus blinded the majority of the nation to the real issues at stake. but a powerful group, which during the maccabean period appeared for the first time under the name of pharisees, began to withdraw their allegiance and silently, at least, to protest against a high priest whose chief ambition was conquest. the story which josephus tells to explain the defection of the pharisees may be simply a popular tradition, but it is indicative of that division within judaism which ultimately wrecked the maccabean state. from the days of john hyrcanus, the maccabean rulers, with only one exception, were compelled to meet the silent but strong opposition of the pharisees. as a result they turned to the rising party of the sadducees which henceforth identified itself with the interests of the reigning family. thus in the year of its greatest triumph the jewish state became a house divided against itself. estranged from the better-minded religious leaders of the nation, john hyrcanus and his successors followed an increasingly secular, selfish policy until they completely forgot the noble ideals for which their fathers had striven. v. the reign of aristobulus. the accession of aristobulus marks a triumph of that hellenism against which judas and simon had unsheathed the sword. like many an oriental monarch, he established his position on the throne by the murder of all members of his family who might contest his power. his inhuman cruelty to his mother and the suspicions which led him to murder his brother reveal a barbarous spirit that can only be explained as a result of the wrong ambitions that had already taken possession of israel's rulers. aristobulus's brief reign of one year is marked by two significant acts. the first is the assumption of the title of king. on his own initiative, and apparently without the consent of the people, he placed the diadem upon his head. the other important act was the conquest of part of the territory of iturea, which was known in later times as galilee. he found it occupied by a mixed syrian and greek population in which were probably a few descendants of the ancient israelites. following the policy of his family, he doubtless at once inaugurated a system of colonization which carried to galilee a strong jewish population. henceforth, by virtue of race, language, and religion, galilee was closely bound to judea. section cxiv. the pharisees, sadducees, and essenes [sidenote: jos. ant. xviii, : , a-c] the jews have three sects of philosophy: the essenes, the sadducees, and those called pharisees. the pharisees do not yield to luxury but despise that kind of life; and they follow the guidance of reason, and what that prescribes to them as good, they do. they also pay respect to those advanced in years nor are they so bold as to contradict them in anything which they have introduced. while they believe that all things are done by predestination, they do not take away from a man the choice of acting as he deems proper, for they believe that it is god's will that an event be decided for good or evil both by the divine counsel and by the man who is willing to accede to it. they also believe that souls possess immortal power and that under the earth there will be rewards or punishments according as men have lived virtuously or viciously in this life, and that the vicious are to be detained in an everlasting prison and that the virtuous shall have the power to live again. [sidenote: jos. ant. xviii, : d] on account of this doctrine they have great influence with the people, and whatsoever they do in connection with the divine worship, prayers and sacrifices, they perform in accordance with the direction of the pharisees. [sidenote: jos. ant. xviii, : a, jos. jew. war, ii, : c] but the doctrine of the sadducees is that souls die with the bodies, nor do they give heed to anything beyond these things which the law enjoins. they deny predestination entirely and assert that god exercises no oversight over any evil doing and they say that good or evil lies before man to choose, and, according to each man's inclination, he chooses the one or the other. [sidenote: jos. ant. xviii, : b] they also think it virtuous to dispute with those teachers of philosophy which they follow. this doctrine, however, is accepted by only a few, but these are of the highest rank, they are able to accomplish almost nothing by themselves; for when they come to power, unwillingly but perforce, they accede to the pharisaic doctrine, for otherwise they would not be tolerated by the multitude. [sidenote: jos. ant. xviii, : a, b] the doctrine of the essenes is that all things are best left to god. they teach the immortality of souls and think that the rewards of righteousness are to be earnestly striven for; and when they send what they have dedicated to god to the temple, they offer their sacrifices in accordance with the special law of purity which they observe. on this account they are excluded from the common court of the temple but themselves offer their sacrifices. yet their course of life is far better than that of other men and they devote themselves wholly to agriculture. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, ii, : , a] the essenes seem to have a greater affection for each other than do the other sects. they reject pleasure as an evil, but regard self-restraint and the conquest of passions as a virtue. they despise marriage and choose out other people's children, while they are impressionable and teachable, and they regard them as their own kindred, and conform them to their own customs. they do not absolutely repudiate marriage. there is also another order of essenes, who agree with the rest in regard to their way of living, customs and laws, but differ from them in regard to marriage, for they think that by not marrying they will cut off the most important element in human life, which is the succession of mankind. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, ii, : , ] these men are despisers of riches and are wonderfully communistic among themselves. no one is to be found among them who has more than the others, for it is a law among them that those who join their sect must share with them what they have, so that among them all there is no evidence of poverty or excess of riches, but everyone's possessions are shared in common, so there is, as it were, but one property among all the brothers. they also have directors appointed by vote to manage their common affairs. these have no other interest, but each devotes himself to the needs of all. they possess no one city, but many of them dwell in every city, and if any of their sect come from other places, what they have lies open for them, just as if it were their own. they do not change garments or sandals until they first are entirely torn to pieces or worn out by time. nor do they either buy or sell anything to each other, but every one of them gives to him who wants it and receives from him again in return for it what he wants; and even though no return is made, they are free to take what they want from whom they wish. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, ii, : ] and their piety toward god is very extraordinary; for before sunrise they speak not a word about profane matters, but offer up certain inherited prayers as if they made a supplication to it for its rising. after this everyone is sent away by their directors to engage in some of those arts in which they are skilled, and at which they labor with great diligence until the fifth hour; after which they assemble again in one place. and when they have clad themselves in linen coverings, they bathe their bodies in cold water. after this purification is over they meet together in an apartment of their own in which none of another sect is permitted to enter. then they go ceremonially pure into the dining room, as if into a temple. and when they have quietly sat down, the baker lays loaves in order for them, and a cook also brings a single plate of one kind of food and sets it before each of them. and a priest offers a prayer before eating. it is unlawful for any one to taste the food before the prayer. when he has dined he offers prayer again. when they begin and when they end they praise god as the giver of the necessities of life. after this they lay aside their garments as though they were sacred, and devote themselves to their labor again until evening. then they return home to dine in the same manner and if any strangers be there they sit down with them. there is never any clamor or disturbance to pollute their household, but they give everyone permission to speak in turn. the silence of the inmates appears to outsiders like some awful mystery. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, ii, : ] they do nothing except in accordance with the injunctions of their directors. only these two things are done among them as each wishes, namely, they assist the needy and show mercy; but they cannot assist their kindred without the permission of their directors. they dispense their anger justly and restrain their passion. they are eminent for fidelity and are the advocates of peace. also whatever they say is mightier than an oath, but swearing is avoided by them, and they regard it worse than perjury, for they say that he who cannot be believed without swearing by god is already condemned. they also devote great attention to the study of the works of the ancients and select from them those things that are profitable for soul and body. also they seek out such roots as may be effective for the cure of their diseases and inquire into the properties of stones. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, ii, : ] to one who desires to enter their sect, admission is not immediately granted; but he is prescribed the same method of living as they use for a year during which he is still excluded, and they give him a small hatchet, and girdle and the white garment. and when during that time he has given evidence of self-control, he approaches nearer to their way of living and is allowed to share the waters of purification. however, he is not even now allowed to live with them, for after this demonstration of his fortitude, his character is tried two years more, and if he appears to be worthy, they then admit him into the society. but before he is allowed to touch their common food, he is obliged to swear to them awful oaths that in the first place he will show piety toward god and then that he will observe justice toward men, and that he will do no harm to any one either voluntarily or at the command of others, and that he will always hate the wicked, and help the righteous, and that he will show fidelity to all men and especially to those in authority, that he will be a lover of truth and denounce those who tell lies, and that he will keep his hands clean from theft, and his soul from unlawful gain. moreover he swears to communicate their doctrines to no one otherwise than he received them himself, and that he will abstain from robbery, and that he will faithfully preserve the books of their sect and the names of the angels. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, ii, : a, a-c] those who are caught in any heinous sins they cast out of their society; and he who is thus expelled often dies miserably. and in the judgments they pronounce they are most exacting and just, nor do they pass sentence by the votes of a court having less than one hundred members, and what is determined by them is unalterable. what they most of all honor, after god himself, is the name of their legislator [moses], whom, if any one blasphemes, he is punished by death. they also think it a good thing to obey their elders and the majority. they are stricter than any others of the jews in resting from their labors on the seventh day, for they not only prepare their food the day before, that they may not be obliged to kindle a fire on that day, but they will not venture to move any vessel out of its place. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, ii, : b, c, b] they are also long-lived, insomuch that most of them live over a hundred years because of the simplicity of their diet and as a result of their regular course of life. they despise the miseries of life and are above pain because of their noble thoughts. and as for death, if it come with glory, they regard it as better than immortality. they think also, like the greeks, that the good have their habitation beyond the ocean in a region that is never oppressed by storms of rain or of snow, or with heat, and that this place is refreshed by the gentle breath of the west wind that is continually blowing from the ocean; while they allot to the bad a dark and cold den which is never free from unceasing punishment. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, ii, : ] there are also those among them who undertake to foretell things to come by reading the holy books, by using several different forms of purifications and by being constantly familiar with discourses of the prophets; and it is only seldom that they fail in their predictions. i. influences that gave rise to the jewish parties. the maccabean period witnessed the birth of the great parties that henceforth distinguished judaism. they represented the crystallizing of the different currents of thought that were traceable in the greek period and even earlier. these diverse points of view were in part the result of that democratic spirit which has always characterized israel's life. in the striking antithesis between the idealists and the legalists and the practical men of affairs it is also possible to detect the potent influence which the prophets had exerted upon the thought of their nation. in the greek period the chronicler and certain of the psalmists, with their intense devotion to the temple and its services to the practical exclusion of all other interests, were the forerunners of the later pharisees. ben sira, with his hearty appreciation of the good things of life, with his devotion to the scriptures of his race, with his evident failure to accept the new doctrine of individual immortality, and with his great admiration for the high priests, was an earlier type of the better class of sadducees. the persecutions of antiochus epiphanes developed these parties. as has already been noted, the hasideans who followed judas in the struggle to restore the law and the temple service were the immediate predecessors of the early pharisees. the word "pharisees" means separatists, and is used first in the days of jonathan (jos. _ant_. iii : ) in the same connection josephus refers to the sadducees. the name of this second party is probably derived, not from the hebrew word sadik, meaning righteous, but from zadok (later written sadok or sadduk), who was placed by solomon in charge of the jerusalem temple. it was thus the designation of the aristocratic, high-priestly party. in the persian and greek periods the high priests had ruled the judean state without opposition. it was the rise of the party of the pharisees that apparently developed that of the sadducees. this party included the hereditary nobles who supported and sympathized with the maccabean leaders. the essenes evidently represent a reaction against the prevailing moral corruption. in many respects they were simply extreme pharisees. they were zealots in religion, just as the later party of the zealots were extremists in their hatred of rome and in the methods which they were ready to use in order to attain their ends. ii. character and beliefs of the pharisees. originally the pharisees were not a political but a religious party. the opposition of the sadducees in time led them to enter public life. in politics they were conservatives. they had little sympathy with the popular ambition for political independence, and probably regarded with alarm the tendency toward national expansion. alliances with the heathen nations seemed to them disloyalty to jehovah. in belief they were progressives. while they stood squarely on the ancient law, they recognized the importance of interpreting it so as to meet the many questions that rose in public and private life. to this great and practically endless task much of their time was devoted. they thus recognized the fact that israel's law was still in process of development. to their later interpretations of the law they attributed great authority. one of their maxims was: "it is a worse offence to teach things contrary to the ordinances of the scribes than to teach things contrary to the written law." naturally their attempt to anticipate by definite regulations each individual problem led them to absurd extremes and in time obscured the real intent of the older laws, but the spirit which actuated it was progressive. they also did not hesitate to accept the growing popular belief in angels and spirits. like the earlier prophets, they recognized the presence of jehovah directing the life of the nation and of the individual. they accepted the new-born belief in the immortality of the individual, clinging, however, to the hope of a bodily resurrection. they also held to the popular messianic hopes which became more and more prominent during the maccabean and roman periods. the pharisees were the most democratic party in judaism. while for their own members they insisted upon a most rigorous ceremonial regime, they allowed the common people to ally themselves with them as associates. in their acceptance of the popular hopes and in their endeavor to adapt israel's law to the life of the nation and thus establish a basis for the realization of israel's hopes they appealed to the masses and exerted over them a powerful influence. josephus asserts that so great was the influence of the pharisees with the people that the sadducees, in order to carry through their policies, were obliged, nominally, at least, to adopt the platform of their rivals. the pharisees were also zealous in teaching the people and thus kept in close touch with the masses. they, therefore, stood as the true representatives of judaism. their principles have survived and are still the foundations of orthodox judaism. iii. character and beliefs of the sadducees. the sadducees were few in numbers compared with the pharisees. they represented, on the one side, the old priestly aristocracy, and on the other the new nobility that rallied about the maccabean leaders. they depended for their authority upon their wealth, their inherited prestige, and the support of the throne. they were in reality a political rather than a religious party. in politics they were progressives and opportunists. any policy that promised to further their individual or class interests was acceptable to them. as is usually the case with parties that represent wealth and hereditary power, they were conservatives in belief. they stood squarely on the earlier scriptures of their race and had no sympathy with the later pharisaic interpretations and doctrines. whether or not, as josephus asserts, they entirely rejected fate, that is, the providential direction of human affairs, is not clear. probably in this belief they did not depart from the earlier teachings of priests and prophets. their selfish and often unscrupulous acts suggest a basis for josephus's claim, even though allowance must be made for his hostile attitude toward them. while they were conservatives in theory, the sadducees were of all classes in judaism most open to greek and heathen influence, for foreign alliances and hellenic culture offered opportunities for advancement and power. iv. character and beliefs of the essenes. less important but even more interesting are the essenes. they were a sect, or monastic order, rather than a political or religious party. josephus, who asserts that for a time he was associated with them, has given a full account of their peculiar customs. they evidently represented a strong reaction against the prevailing corruption and a return to the simple life. their spirit of humility, fraternity, and practical charity are in marked contrast to the aims of the sadducees and the later maccabean rulers. in their beliefs they were idealists. their invocation of the sun, their extreme emphasis on ceremonial cleanliness, their tendency toward celibacy, and their distinction between soul and body, all suggest the indirect if not the direct influence of the pythagorean type of philosophy. if the essenes represented simply an extreme type of pharisaism, the peculiar form of its development was undoubtedly due to the greek atmosphere amidst which it flourished. the essenes do not appear to have had any direct influence in the politics of their day. they were a current apart from the main stream of judaism, and yet they could not fail to exert an indirect influence. many of their ideals and doctrines were closely similar to the teachings of john the baptist and jesus. yet there is a fundamental difference between essenism and primitive christianity, for one sought to attain perfection apart from life and the other in closest contact with the currents of human thought and activity. while according to josephus the party of the essenes at one time numbered four thousand, like all ascetic movements it soon disappeared or else was deflected into that greater stream of monasticism which rose in the early christian centuries. section cxv. the life and faith of the jews of the dispersion [sidenote: jos. ant. xii, : a] the jews obtained honor from the kings of asia when they became their auxiliaries; for seleucus nicator made them citizens of those cities which he built in asia and in lower syria, and in antioch, the metropolis, and gave them privileges equal to those of the macedonians and the greeks who were its inhabitants. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, vii, : a] for the jewish race is widely dispersed among the inhabitants of all the world; and especially was it intermingled with the population of syria, because of the nearness of that country. above all, in antioch, because of the size of the city, it had great numbers. there the kings who followed antiochus gave the jews a place where they might live in the most undisturbed security; for although antiochus, who was called epiphanes, laid waste jerusalem and plundered the temple, the kings who succeeded him restored all the gifts of brass that had been made to the jews of antioch, and dedicated them to their synagogue. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, vii, : b] the succeeding kings also treated them in the same way, so that they became very numerous, and adorned their temple with ornaments and at great expense with those things which had been given them. they also continued to attract a great many of the greeks to their services, making them in a sense part of themselves. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, vii, : d- e] now onias, the son of simon, one of the jewish high priests, fled from antiochus [epiphanes] the king of syria, when he made war with the jews, and came to alexandria. and after ptolemy [philometor] received him very kindly on account of his hatred to antiochus, onias assured him that if he would comply with his proposal, he would bring all the jews to his assistance. now when the king agreed to do whatever he was able, onias desired him to give him permission to build a temple somewhere in egypt and to worship god according to the customs of his own nation. so ptolemy complied with his proposals and gave them a place about twenty miles distant from memphis. that province was called the province of heliopolis. there onias built a fortress and a temple like that at jerusalem except that it resembled a tower. he built it of large stones to the height of sixty cubits, but he made the structure of the altar an imitation of that in his own country. in like manner also he adorned it with gifts, excepting that he did not make a candlestick but had a single lamp hammered out of a beaten piece of gold, which illuminated the place with its rays, and which he hung by a chain of gold. the entire temple was surrounded by a wall of burnt brick, although it had a gateway of stone. the king also gave him a large territory for a revenue in money, that both the priests might have plentiful provision for themselves, and that god might have abundance of those things which were necessary for his worship. [sidenote: jos. ant. xiii, : ] now in the days of john hyrcanus, not only did the jews in jerusalem and judea enjoy prosperity but also those who were at alexandria in egypt and cyprus. for cleopatra the queen was at variance with her son ptolemy, who is called lathyrus, and appointed as her generals chelcias and ananias, the son of that onias who built the temple in the province of heliopolis similar to that of jerusalem. cleopatra intrusted these men with her army and did nothing without their advice. strabo of cappadocia also attests that only those who were called onias's party, being jews, continued faithful to cleopatra because their countrymen, chelcias and ananias, were in highest favor with the queen. [sidenote: wisd. of sol. : - ] wisdom is brilliant and fades not away, and she is easily seen by those who love her, and found by those who seek her. she anticipates those who desire her, making herself first known. he who eagerly seeks her shall have no toil, for he shall find her sitting at his gates. for thinking upon her brings perfect wisdom, and he who lies awake for her sake shall quickly be free from care. for she herself goes about seeking those who are worthy of her, and in their paths she graciously appears to them, and in every purpose she meets them. [sidenote: wisd. of sol. : - : , ] for she is breath of the power of god, and a clear effluence of the glory of the almighty; therefore nothing defiled can find entrance into her. for she is a reflection of everlasting light, and a spotless mirror of the working of god, and an image of his goodness. and though she is but one, she has power to do all things; and remaining the same renews all things, and from generation to generation passing into holy souls, she makes them friends of god and prophets. for god loves nothing except him who dwells with wisdom. for she is fairer than the sun, and surpasses all the order of the stars; compared with light, she is found to be superior to it. for night succeeds the light of day, but evil does not prevail against wisdom. but she reaches from one end of the world to the other, and she directs all things graciously. the fruits of her labors are virtues; for she teaches moderation and good sense, justice and fortitude, and nothing in life is more profitable for men than these. [sidenote: wisd. of sol. : - ] love righteousness, o rulers of the earth, think of the lord with sincerity, and seek him in singleness of heart. for he is found by those who do not tempt him, and manifests himself to those who do not distrust him. for perverse thoughts separate from god, and his power, when it is tried, convicts the foolish; for wisdom will not enter into a soul that devises evil, nor dwell in a body that is pledged to sin. for a holy spirit which disciplines will flee deceit, and will start away from senseless thoughts, and will be frightened away when unrighteousness comes in. for wisdom is a spirit that loves man, and she will not absolve a blasphemer for his words, because god is a witness of his innermost feelings, and a true overseer of his heart, and a hearer of his tongue. for the spirit of the lord hath filled the world, and that which holdeth all things together knoweth every voice. therefore no one who speaks unrighteous things can be hid, nor will justice, when it convicts, pass him by. [sidenote: wisd. of sol. : - ] do not court death by leading an erring life, and do not by the deeds of your hands draw destruction upon yourselves. for god did not make death, and he hath no pleasure when the living perish; for he created all things that they might exist, and the created things of the world are not baneful. and there is no destructive poison in them, nor has hades dominion on earth, for righteousness is immortal. [sidenote: wisd. of sol. : - : ] for god created man for incorruption, and made him an image of his own peculiar nature; but through the envy of the devil death entered into the world, and they who belong to him experience it. but the souls of the righteous are in the hand of god, and no torment can touch them. [sidenote: wisd. of sol. : , ] but the righteous live forever, and in the lord is their reward, and the care for them with the most high. therefore they shall receive the glorious kingdom, and the diadem of beauty from the lord's hand; because he will cover them with his right hand, and with his arm he will shield them. [sidenote: wisd. of sol. : - : ] for thou, o lord, lovest all things that are, and thou dost not abhor any of the things which thou hast made, for thou wouldest never have formed anything that thou didst hate. and how would anything have endured, if thou didst not wish it? or how could that which was not called into being by thee have been preserved? but thou sparest all things, because they are thine, o sovereign lord, thou lover of men's lives! for thine incorruptible spirit is in all things. therefore thou convictest the fallen little by little, and, reminding them of the things in which they sin, thou dost warn them, that freed from wickedness, they may believe on thee, o lord. [sidenote: wisd. of sol. : - ] but thou, our god, art gracious and true, long suffering, and in mercy directing all things. for even if we sin, we are thine, since we know thy might. but we shall not sin, knowing that we have been counted as thine; for to know thee is perfect righteousness, and to know thy might is the root of immortality. i. conditions of the jews in antioch and asia minor. seleucus nicanor, who in b.c. founded the city of antioch, like alexander, granted many privileges to the jewish colonies whom he thus sought to attract hither. they not only possessed the rights of citizenship, but lived in their separate quarter. their synagogue was one of the architectural glories of the city. there they engaged in trade and undoubtedly grew rich, taking on largely the complexion of that opulent hellenic city. later the jewish colony was enlarged by the apostates who fled from judea when the maccabean rulers gained the ascendancy. the corrupt and materialistic atmosphere of antioch doubtless explains why its jewish citizens apparently contributed little to the development of the thought and faith of later judaism. similar colonies were found throughout the great commercial cities of asia minor. in many of these cities--for example, tarsus--they seem to have enjoyed the same privileges as those at antioch. ii. the jews in egypt. the chief intellectual and religious center of the jews of the dispersion, however, was in alexandria. it is probable that fully a million jews were to be found in egypt during the latter part of the maccabean period. industry and commerce had made many of them extremely wealthy and had given them the leisure to study not only their own scriptures but also the literature of the greeks. the prevailingly friendly way in which the ptolemaic rulers treated the jews naturally led them to take a more favorable attitude toward greek culture. alexandria itself was the scene of an intense intellectual activity. attracted by the munificence of the ptolemies and by the opportunities offered by its great library, many of the most famous greek philosophers and rhetoricians of the age found their home in the egyptian capital. public lectures, open discussions, and voluminous literature were only a few of the many forms in which this intellectual life was expressed. hence it was at alexandria that hebrew and greek thought met on the highest plane and mingled most closely. iii. the jewish temple at leontopolis. after the murder of his father onias iii near antioch, whither he had fled from the persecutions of antiochus epiphanes, onias iv sought refuge in egypt. here, as the legitimate head of the jewish high-priesthood, he was favorably received by ptolemy and granted territory in the nile delta to the north of memphis in which to rear a temple to jehovah. in the light of recent discoveries at elephantine it is evident that this step was not without precedent (section xci:vii). ptolemy's object was to please his jewish subjects and to attract others to the land of the nile. josephus's statement in _the jewish war_, vii, : favors the conclusion that the temple was built two hundred and forty-three years (not ) before its final destruction in a.d., that is, in b.c. in any case it was probably built between and b.c., at the time when the persecutions of antiochus epiphanes made pilgrimages to the jerusalem temple impossible, and threatened its continued existence. the plan of the leontopolis temple indicates that it was not intended to be a rival to the jerusalem sanctuary, but rather a common place of meeting for the egyptian jews and of defence in case of attack. it never seriously rivalled the jerusalem sanctuary, although in later days it was viewed with jealousy by the jews of palestine. iv. translation of the hebrew scriptures into greek. far more significant than the building of the leontopolis temple was the translation of the hebrew scriptures into greek. the tradition preserved by josephus that the translation was made in seventy-two days by seventy-two scholars, sent from jerusalem by eleazar the high priest at the request of ptolemy, is clearly unhistorical. the impossibility of completing so vast a task in this limited time is obvious. moreover, the character of the translation indicates that it was the work not of palestinian but of alexandrian jews familiar with the peculiar greek of egypt and the lands of the dispersion. it was also the work not of one but of many different groups of translators, as is shown by the variant synonyms employed in different books to translate the same hebrew words and idioms. in the case of several books the work of two or more distinct translators is readily recognized. the quality of the translation also varies greatly in different books. it is probable that the one historical fact underlying the tradition is that the work of translation was begun in the days of ptolemy philadelphus, who may have encouraged his jewish subjects in their undertaking. from the character of the translations and the nature of the situation it is probable that the first books to be translated were certain historical writings, as samuel-kings and the books of the law. the remaining books were probably translated by the end of the succeeding century (between and b.c.), for the grandson of ben sira implies in his prologue that he was acquainted with the law, the prophets, and the other writings in their greek version. the primary aim of this greek translation was to put the hebrew scriptures themselves into the hands of their greek persecutors as the best possible answer to their false and malicious charges. evidence of this apologetic purpose is found in the fact that glaring inconsistencies and expressions, where jehovah is described in the likeness of a human being, were usually left out. where the hebrew text was corrupt the translators restored or else freely paraphrased what they thought was the original meaning. in time, however, the translation gained a new importance, for the jews of egypt soon began to forget the language of their fathers and so became increasingly dependent for a knowledge of their scriptures upon the greek translation. in the end it almost completely superseded the original hebrew version not only in the lands of the dispersion, but even in palestine itself. a large proportion of the quotations from the old testament in the new are from the greek rather than the hebrew text. although it is only a translation, the greek version, or septuagint (the version of the seventy), as it is popularly known, still possesses a great value for the modern translator, inasmuch as it is based upon hebrew texts centuries older than any which now exists. at many points, especially in the historical prophetic books it makes possible the restoration of the original reading where the hebrew has become corrupt in the long process of transmission. v. apologetic jewish writings. during the centuries immediately preceding the christian era the jews of the dispersion, and especially of egypt, were the object of constant attack. manetho, an egyptian priest, wrote a history purporting to give the origin and the early experiences of the jews. portions of this have been preserved and reveal the bitter and unjust spirit with which this race was regarded by the greek and egyptian scholars of the day. to defend themselves from these attacks the jews not only translated their scriptures, but employed many different types of writing. a certain jew by the name of demetrius about b.c. wrote a commendatory history of the jewish kings. aristobulus, the teacher of ptolemy philometor, wrote an "explanation of the mosaic laws," in which he anticipated, in many ways, the modern interpretation of the early traditions found in the opening books of the old testament. like all alexandrian scholars, however, he overshot the mark under the influence of the allegorical or symbolic type of interpretation. other jewish writers appealed to the older greek historians and poets. adopting the unprincipled methods of their persecutors, they expanded the original writings of such historians as hecataeus, who had spoken in a commendatory way of the jews. they even went so far as to insert long passages into the writings of the famous greek poets, such as orpheus, hesiod, aeschylus, sophocles, and menander, so as to transform them into ardent champions of the persecuted race. the culmination of this illegitimate form of defence was to insert in the famous sibylline books (iii) a long passage describing the glories of the jewish race and voicing the hopes with which they regarded the future. it was in this atmosphere and under the influence of these methods that the anti-semitic spirit was born in ancient alexandria. thence it was transmitted, as a malign heritage, to the christian church. vi. the wisdom of solomon. the noblest literary product of the jews of the dispersion was the apocryphal book known as the wisdom of solomon. it was so called because the author assumed the point of view of solomon. in so doing he did not intend to deceive his contemporaries, but rather followed the common tendency of his day. although the book has many characteristic hebrew idioms, which are due to its jewish authorship, it was without doubt originally written in greek. its author was evidently acquainted with the writings of many of the greek poets and philosophers. he accepted plato's doctrine of the pre-existence of the soul ( : , ), of the limitations of the body ( : ), and of the creation of the world out of formless matter ( : ). he was especially influenced by the beliefs of the epicureans and stoics. he was acquainted with hellenic art, astronomy, and science ( : - ) and throughout shows the influence of greek methods of thinking. his rejection of the teachings of the book of ecclesiastes, his wide learning and his conception of immortality indicate that he lived some time after the beginning of the maccabean struggle. his reference in : - is probably to the persecutions through which the jews of egypt passed during the reign of ptolemy psycon ( - b.c.). on the other hand the book clearly antedates the writings of the jewish philosopher philo, who lived during the latter part of the first century b.c. the wisdom of solomon, therefore, may be dated somewhere between and b.c. vii. its important teachings. the author of the wisdom of solomon aimed, first, to commend israel's faith to the heathen by showing that it was in substantial accord with the noblest doctrines of the greek philosophers, and second, to furnish the jews of the dispersion, who were conversant with hellenic thought and yet trained in the religion of their race, a working basis for their thought and practice. from the first it appears to have been highly esteemed by the jews outside palestine, although it never found a place in the palestinian canon. like most wisdom books, it describes at length the beauty and value of wisdom. the figure of proverbs and is still further developed under the influence of the greek tendency to personify abstract qualities. in the mind of the author, however, wisdom is simply an attribute of the deity which he shares in common with men. the book is unique in two respects: ( ) it contains the earliest references in jewish literature to a personal devil and identifies him with the serpent that tempted the woman in the garden ( : , cf. gen. ) elsewhere, however, the author traces sin and evil to men's voluntary acts (e.g., : ). ( ) it teaches the immortality of righteousness and hence, by implication, the immortality of the individual. "god created man for incorruption," and "the souls of the righteous are in his hand." the doctrine here presented is ethical and spiritual rather than the belief in a bodily resurrection already formulated in the twelfth chapter of daniel. it also teaches that both the good and bad will be rewarded according to their deeds. its conceptions of god are exalted. he is the incorruptible spirit in all things, just and yet merciful, the lover of men. the book also places side by side with the jewish teachings regarding men's duties to god and their fellow-men the greek virtues of moderation, good sense, justice, and courage or fortitude. it also teaches that, like god, each of his children should be a lover of men. thus the book unites most effectively that which is best in the thought of judaism and hellenism and is an earnest of that still nobler union that was later realized in the thought and teachings of christianity. section cxvi. the decline of the maccabean kingdom [sidenote: jos. war, i, : ] after aristobulus died, his wife salome, who by the greeks was called alexandra, released his brothers from prison (for aristobulus had kept them in confinement), and made alexander janneus, who was the oldest, king. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : ] now there was a battle between him and ptolemy, who was called lathyrus, who had taken the city of asochis. he indeed slew many of his enemies, but the victory rather inclined to ptolemy. but when this ptolemy was pursued by his mother, cleopatra, and retired into egypt, alexander besieged and took gadara and amathus, which was the strongest of all the fortresses that were beyond the jordan, and the most valued of all the possessions of theodorus, the son of zeno, were therein. thereupon theodorus marched suddenly against him and took what belonged to himself, and slew ten thousand of the jews. alexander, however, recovered from this blow and turned his force toward the maritime districts and took gaza, raphia, and anthedon. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : ] but when he had enslaved all these cities, the jews made an insurrection against him at a festival and it looked as though he would not have been able to escape the plot they had laid for him, had not his foreign auxiliaries come to his aid. and when he had slain more than six thousand of the rebels, he invaded arabia, and when he had conquered the gileadites and moabites, he commanded them to pay him tribute and returned to amathus and took the fortress and demolished it. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : , ] however, when he fought with obedas, king of the arabians, who had laid an ambush for him near golan, he lost his entire army, which was crowded together in a deep valley and trampled to pieces by the multitude of camels. and fleeing to jerusalem because of the greatness of the calamity that had overtaken him, he provoked the multitude, which had hated him before, to make an insurrection against him. he was, however, too strong for them in the various battles that were fought between them and he slew no fewer than fifty thousand of the jews in the interval of six years. yet he had no reason to rejoice in these victories, since he did but consume his own country, until he at length ceased fighting and desired to come to an agreement with them. but his changeability and the irregularity of his conduct made them hate him still more. and when he asked them why they so hated him and what he should do to appease them they said, "die." [sidenote: jos. war, i, : c, c, a, c] at the same time they invited demetrius to assist them, and as he readily complied with their request and came with his army, the jews joined with these their auxiliaries about shechem. in the battle which followed, demetrius was the conqueror, although alexander's mercenaries performed the greatest exploits. nevertheless the outcome of this battle proved different from what was expected by both sides, for those who had invited demetrius to come to them did not continue loyal to him although he was the conqueror, and six thousand jews out of pity because of the change in alexander's condition, when he fled to the mountains, went over to him. demetrius, supposing that all the nation would run to alexander, left the country and went his way. the rest of the jewish multitude, however, did not lay aside their quarrels with alexander when the auxiliaries were gone, but had perpetual war with them until he had slain the greater part of them. then such a terror seized the people that eight thousand of his opponents fled away the following night out of all judea and did not return until alexander died. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : c, d] alexander also subdued golan, seleucia, and what was called the valley of antiochus; besides which he took the strong fortress of gamala. then he returned into judea after he had spent three years on this expedition. now he was gladly received by the nation because of his success. so when he was at rest from war, he fell ill and died, terminating his troubles after he had reigned twenty-seven years. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : ] now alexander left the kingdom to alexandra, his wife, and trusted the jews would readily submit to her, for in opposing his habitual violation of their laws she gained the good-will of the people. nor was he mistaken in his hopes, for this woman retained the rulership because of her reputation for piety. for she chiefly studied the ancient customs of her country and cast those men out of the government who offended against their holy laws. and as she had two sons by alexander, she made the older, hyrcanus, high priest, on account of his age and also on account of his inactive temperament. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : , a, b] and the pharisees joined themselves to her in the government and alexandra henceforth hearkened to them to a great degree. but these pharisees artfully insinuated themselves into her favor little by little and presently became the real administrators of public affairs. they banished and recalled whom they pleased. while she governed the people, the pharisees governed her. accordingly, they slew diogenes, a person of prominence, because he had been a friend of alexander; they also urged alexandra to put the rest of those to death who had stirred up alexander against them. but the chief of those who were in danger fled to aristobulus. he persuaded his mother to spare the men on account of their rank, but to expel them from the city. so when they were given their freedom, they were dispersed over all the country. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : - : b] in the meantime alexandra fell sick and aristobulus, her younger son, seized this opportunity to get possession of all the fortresses. he also used the sums of money he found in them to gather together a number of mercenaries and to set himself up as king. but alexandra, after she had lived nine years, died before she could punish aristobulus. hyrcanus was heir to the kingdom and to him his mother intrusted it while she was living. but aristobulus was superior to him in ability and spirits, and when there was a battle between them near jericho to decide the dispute about the kingdom, the majority deserted hyrcanus and went over to aristobulus. but they came to an agreement that aristobulus should be the king, and that hyrcanus should resign, but retain all the rest of his dignities. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : , ] now the others who opposed aristobulus were afraid, when he thus unexpectedly came to power. this was especially true of antipater, whom aristobulus hated of old. he was by birth an idumean and one of the chief men of that nation on account of his ancestry and riches and other authority that belonged to him. he urged hyrcanus to flee to aretas, king of arabia, and to retrieve the kingdom. when he had prepared them both beforehand he took hyrcanus by night away from the city and escaped to petra, which is the royal capital of arabia. here he put hyrcanus into aretas's care. he prevailed with him to give him an army to restore him to his kingdom. this army consisted of fifty thousand footmen and horsemen which aristobulus was not able to withstand, but was defeated in the first encounter and was driven out of jerusalem. he would have been taken by force, if scaurus, the roman general, had not come and opportunely raised the siege. this was the scaurus who was sent into syria from armenia by pompey the great when he was fighting against tigranes. as soon, therefore, as scaurus arrived in the country, ambassadors came from both the brothers, each of them desiring his assistance. but aristobulus's three hundred talents blocked the way of justice. when scaurus had received this sum, he sent a herald to hyrcanus and the arabians, and threatened them with the resentment of the romans and pompey unless they raised the siege. so aretas was terrified and retired from judea to philadelphia. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : - ] when hyrcanus and antipater were thus deprived of their hopes from the arabians, they fled to pompey for assistance and besought him to show his disapproval of the violent action of aristobulus and to restore to him the kingdom, as it justly belonged to him. aristobulus was also there himself, dressed in regal attire, but pompey was indignant at his behavior. when hyrcanus's friends also interceded strongly with pompey, he took not only his roman forces but also many of his syrian auxiliaries and marched against aristobulus. but when he had passed by pella and scythopolis and had come to korea, he heard that aristobulus had fled to alexandrium, which was a stronghold fortified with the greatest magnificence, and situated upon a high mountain, and he sent to him and commanded him to come down. so aristobulus came down to pompey and when he had made a long defence of the justness of his rule, he returned to the fortress. pompey however commanded him to give up his fortified places and forced him to write to each of his governors to surrender. accordingly he did what he was ordered to do, but being displeased, he retired to jerusalem and prepared to fight with pompey. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : - : b] but pompey gave him no time to make any preparations and followed at his heels. and aristobulus was so frightened at his approach that he came and met him as a suppliant. he also promised him money and to deliver up both himself and the city. yet he did not keep any one of his promises. at this treatment pompey was very angry and took aristobulus into custody. and when he had entered the city he looked about to see where he might make his attack, for he saw that the walls were so firm that it would be hard to overcome them and the valley before the walls was terrible and the temple which was in that valley was itself surrounded by such a strong wall that if the city was taken the temple would be a second place of refuge for the enemy. inasmuch as pompey deliberated a long time, a sedition arose among the people within the city. aristobulus's party was willing to fight to save their king, while the party of hyrcanus was ready to open the gates to pompey. then aristobulus's party was defeated and retired into the temple and cut off the communications between the temple and the city by breaking down the bridge which joined them together, and they prepared to resist to the utmost. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : ] pompey himself filled up the ditch which was on the north side of the temple and the entire valley also, the army being obliged to carry the material for this purpose. indeed, it was difficult to fill up that valley because of its great depth and especially as the jews from their superior position used all possible means to repel them. as soon as pompey had filled up the valley, he erected high towers upon the bank. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : , ] now pompey admired not only the other examples of the jews' fortitude, but especially that they did not at all intermit their religious services, even when they were surrounded with darts on all sides; for, as if the city were in full peace, their daily sacrifices and purifications and all their religious rites were still carried out before god with the utmost exactness. nor when the temple was taken and they were slain about the altar daily, did they cease from those things that are appointed by their law to be observed. for it was in the third month of the siege before the romans could even with a great struggle overthrow one of the towers and get into the temple. the greater part of the jews were slain by their own countrymen of the opposite faction and an innumerable multitude threw themselves down from the walls. of the jews twelve thousand were slain, but of the romans very few, although a greater number were wounded. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : a, b] but there was nothing that affected the nation so much in the calamities which they then suffered as that their holy place, hitherto unseen, should be laid open to strangers. for pompey and those who were about him went into the temple itself, where it was lawful for the high priest alone to enter, and saw what was deposited therein; but he commanded the ministers about the temple to purify it and to perform their accustomed sacrifices. [sidenote: jos. war, i, : ] moreover he reappointed hyrcanus high priest, by which he acted the part of a good general and reconciled the people to him rather by kindness than by terrorizing them. he took away from the nation all those cities that they had formerly taken and reduced judea to its own bounds. then he made all the haste he could to go through cilicia on his way to rome, taking aristobulus and his two children along with him as captives. one of aristobulus's sons, alexander, ran away on the journey, but the younger, antigonus, with his sisters, was carried to rome. i. the character and policy of alexander janneus. for the picture of the character of alexander janneus we are chiefly dependent upon josephus, and it is not clear how far this late jewish historian was influenced by the prevailing prejudices against that ruler who figured as the arch enemy of the pharisees. the incidents recorded reveal, however, a most sinister character. he was ambitious, but his ambitions were selfish and low. he was energetic and tireless, but his energy was wasted in futile undertakings. furthermore, he was unscrupulous, vindictive, and merciless. there is not the slightest indication that he was actuated by any worthy ideal of service. to the jewish state and race it was a great calamity that a man of this type should gain control of the nation at the moment when it had attained its greatest material strength. under the kindly and wise guidance of simon the subsequent history of the jewish state would doubtless have been far different. janneus's first aim was to establish his power as an absolute despot. he ardently accepted the ideal of an oriental ruler that had been imposed upon the jews during the short reign of his brother aristobulus. in realizing this ambition he met, as did every other king in israel's history, the strong opposition of the people and a bold assertion of their inherited liberties. his second aim was to break completely the power of the pharisees. they were the party of the people and had no sympathy with his policies. in them, therefore, he recognized his chief opponents. his third ambition was to extend the territory of the jewish state to its farthest natural bounds. soon after the beginning of his reign he succeeded in arousing the bitter hostility of the greek cities on his eastern and western borders, of the reigning kings of egypt, and of the rising arabian power to the south of the dead sea. the objects for which he strove were comparatively petty: possession of the cities of ptolemais and gaza and of certain east-jordan cities, such as gadara and amathus. he was more often defeated than victorious, but his love of struggle and adventure and lust for conquest ever goaded him on. in desperation his subjects even ventured to call in demetrius, the governor of damascus, but when alexander was driven away in defeat the nation's gratitude and loyalty to the maccabean house reasserted itself and he was recalled. instead of granting a general armistice and thus conciliating his distracted people, he treacherously used his new-won power to crucify publicly eight hundred of the pharisees. horror and fear seized the survivors, so that, according to josephus, eight thousand of them fled into exile. after six years of civil war and the loss of fifty thousand lives, alexander janneus finally realized his first ambition and became absolute master of his kingdom. in achieving his ambitions, however, he well earned the title by which his contemporaries described him, "the son of a thracian," that is, barbarian. ii. the effects of his rule. the disastrous effects of the reign of alexander janneus may be briefly recapitulated. they were: ( ) the destruction of the loyalty of the majority of the jews to the maccabean house; ( ) the intensifying of the opposition between pharisees and sadducees to the point of murderous hate; ( ) the extension of the sphere of jewish influence from the mediterranean on the west to the desert on the east, and from the lebanons to the southern desert; but ( ) the draining of the life-blood and energies of the jewish kingdom, so that it was far weaker and more disorganized than when janneus came to the throne. iii. alexandra's reign ( - b.c.). alexandra was the second queen who reigned in israel's history. her policy, unlike that of athaliah of old, was on the whole constructive. although she was the wife of janneus, she reversed his policy, and placed the pharisees in control. the return of the exiles and the restoration of the prophetic party promised peace and prosperity. the ancient law was expanded and rigorously enforced. according to the talmud it was during this period that elementary schools were introduced in connection with each synagogue. their exact nature is not known, but it is probable that the law was the subject studied and that the scribes were the teachers. this change of policy was undoubtedly very acceptable to the people, but the pharisees made the grave mistake of using their new power to be revenged upon the sadducean nobles who had supported the bloody policy of alexander janneus. they soon suffered the evil consequences of attempting to right wrong by wrong. the sadducees found in aristobulus, the ambitious and energetic younger son of janneus, an effective champion. alexandra, in permitting them to take possession of the many strongholds throughout the land, also committed a fatal error, for it gave them control of the military resources of the kingdom. aristobulus was not slow in asserting his power, with the result that even before alexandra died he had seized seventy-two of the fortresses and had aroused a large part of the people to revolt. while her reign was on the whole peaceful, it was but the lull before the great storm that swept over the nation. iv. quarrels between hyrcanus and aristobulus. unfortunately alexandra's older son, hyrcanus, was indolent and inefficient. he had been appointed high priest and, when aristobulus assumed the title of king, he compelled hyrcanus ii to be content with this humbler title. aristobulus's reign might have been comparatively peaceful had not at this time a new and sinister influence appeared in the troubled politics of palestine. it was one of the results of john hyrcanus's forcible judaizing of the idumeans. antipater, the son of the idumean whom alexander janneus had made governor of idumea, recognized in the rivalry between hyrcanus and aristobulus an opportunity to mount to power. he first persuaded hyrcanus to flee to petra. then, with the aid of the arabian king, aretas, he finally compelled aristobulus and his followers to seek refuge on the temple hill in jerusalem. the picture of the jews divided into two hostile camps and engaged in bitter civil war in the very precincts of the temple under the leadership of the great-grandsons of the patriotic simon presents a sad contrast to the noble spirit and valiant achievements of the founders of the maccabean kingdom who had first taken up the sword in defence of the temple and its service. v. rome's intervention. this situation gave rome its desired opportunity for intervention. pompey in b.c. made a successful campaign against mithridates, king of pontus, and against tigranes, king of armenia. rome's policy was to conquer all of southwestern asia as far as the euphrates. ignoring the peril of the situation, both aristobulus and hyrcanus appealed to pompey's lieutenant, scaurus. as a result the arabians were ordered to withdraw, and aristobulus for a brief time was left master of the situation. in the spring of b.c., however, when pompey came to damascus, there appeared before him three embassies, one representing the cause of aristobulus, another that of hyrcanus, and still a third presented the request of the pharisees that rome assume political control of palestine and leave them free to devote themselves to the study and application of the their law. the fall of aristobulus hastened what was now inevitable. although he was held a prisoner by pompey, his followers remained intrenched on the temple hill and were conquered only after a protracted siege and the loss of many lives. aristobulus and his family were carried off captives to rome to grace pompey's triumph, and the request of the pharisees was granted: rome henceforth held palestine under its direct control. thus after a little more than a century ( - b.c.) the jews again lost their independence, and the maccabean kingdom became only a memory, never to be revived save for a brief moment. vi. causes of the fall of the jewish kingdom. the jewish kingdom fell as the result of causes which can be clearly recognized. it was primarily because the ideals and ambitions of the maccabean leaders themselves became material and selfish. they proved unable to resist the temptations of success. greed for power quenched their early patriotism. the material spirit of their age obscured the nobler ideals of their spiritual teachers. the result was a tyranny and corruption that made the later kings misleaders rather than true leaders of their nation. parallel to the bitter struggle between the kings and their subjects was the bitter feud between the sadducees and the pharisees. normal party rivalry grew into murderous hatred, and in taking revenge upon each other they brought ruin upon the commonwealth. the final end was hastened by the suicidal feud between the brothers hyrcanus and aristobulus, fomented by the unprincipled machinations of the idumean antipater. in the final crisis the pharisaic policy of submission and of peace at any cost paved the way for the realization of rome's ambition and made the ultimate conquest of palestine practically inevitable. thus the kingdom, founded in the face of almost insuperable obstacles and consecrated with the life-blood of many heroes, fell ignominiously as the result of the same causes that throughout the ages have proved the ruin of even stronger empires. vii. political, intellectual, and religious effects of the maccabean struggle. this century of valiant achievement, colossal errors, and overwhelming failure left its deep impression upon the jewish race. it witnessed the return of many jews of the dispersion to jerusalem and judea and the development of a strong sense of racial unity. henceforth the jews throughout the world looked to jerusalem as their true political and religious capital. the events of this period intensified the ancient feud between jew and samaritan and gave the latter ample reason for that hostility toward their southern kinsmen which appears in the gospel narratives. it was during this age that the parties of the pharisees and sadducees finally crystallized and formulated those tenets and policies which guided them during the next century. at this time the foundations were laid for the rule of the house of herod which exerted such a baleful influence upon the fortunes and destinies of the jews. it likewise marked the beginning and culmination of rome's influence over the lands of the eastern mediterranean and that subjection of the jews to gentile rulers which has continued until the present. the maccabean period gave to the jews a greatly enlarged intellectual vision and led them to adopt many of the ideas of their greek conquerors. in their literature it is easy to recognize the influence of the more logical greek methods of reasoning and of the scientific attitude toward the universe. it was during this period that the wise were transformed into scribes, and the rule of the scribal method of thinking and interpretation began. the struggles through which the jews passed intensified their love for the law and the temple services. duty was more and more defined in the terms of ceremonial, and the pharisees entered upon that vast and impossible task of providing rules for man's every act. out of the struggles of the maccabean period came that fusion of hellenic and jewish ideas that has become an important factor in all human thought. at last under the influence of the great crises through which they had passed, the belief in individual immortality gained wide acceptance among the jews. side by side with this came the belief in a personal devil and a hierarchy of demons opposed to the divine hierarchy at whose head was jehovah. last of all the taste of freedom under a jewish ruler brought again to the front the kingly messianic hopes of the race, and led them to long and struggle for their realization. thus in this brief century judaism attained in many ways its final form, and only in the light of this process is it possible fully to understand and appreciate the background of the new testament history. * * * * * the rule of rome section cxvii. the rise of the herodian house [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] now alexander, that son of aristobulus who ran away from pompey, after a time gathered together a considerable body of men and made a strong attack upon hyrcanus, and overran judea, and was on the point of dethroning him. and indeed he would have come to jerusalem, and would have ventured to rebuild its wall that had been thrown down by pompey, had not gabinius, who was sent as scaurus's successor in syria, showed his bravery by making an attack on alexander. alexander, being afraid at his approach, assembled a larger army composed of ten thousand armed footmen and fifteen hundred horsemen. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a, ] now when gabinius came to alexandrium, finding a great many encamped there, he tried by promising them pardon for their former offences to attach them to him before it came to fighting; but when they would listen to nothing reasonable, he slew a great number of them and shut up the rest in the citadel. therefore when alexander despaired of ever obtaining the rulership, he sent ambassadors to gabinius and besought him to pardon his offences. he also surrendered to him the remaining fortresses, hyrcanium and macherus. after this gabinius brought hyrcanus back to jerusalem and put him in charge of the temple. he also divided the entire nation into five districts, assigning one to jerusalem, another to gadara, another to amathus, a fourth to jericho, and the fifth to sepphoris, a city of galilee. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] not long after aristobulus became the cause of new disturbances by fleeing from rome. he again assembled many of the jews who were desirous of a change and those who were devoted to him of old; and when he had taken alexandrium in the first place, he attempted to build a wall about it. but the romans followed him, and when it came to battle, aristobulus's party for a long time fought bravely, but at last they were overcome by the romans and of them five thousand fell. aristobulus was again carried to rome by gabinius. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] now when gabinius set out to make war against the parthians, antipater furnished him with money and weapons and corn and auxiliaries, but during gabinius's absence the other parts of syria were in insurrection, and alexander, the son of aristobulus, stirred the jews again to revolt. but at the battle fought near mount tabor ten thousand of them were slain and the rest of the multitude scattered in flight. so gabinius came to jerusalem and settled the government as antipater desired. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] now this antipater married a wife of an eminent family among the arabians, whose name was cypros. and she bore him four sons, phasaelus and herod, who was afterward king, and besides these joseph and pheroras. and he had a daughter by the name of salome. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] but after the flight of pompey and of the senate beyond ionian sea, caesar gained possession of rome and of the empire and released aristobulus from his bonds. he also intrusted two legions to him and sent him in haste into syria, hoping that by his efforts he would easily conquer that country and the territory adjoining judea. but he was poisoned by pompey's sympathizers. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a, c, a, c, a] now after pompey died, antipater changed sides and cultivated a friendship with caesar. and when mithridates of pergamus with the force he led against egypt was shut out from the roads about pelusium and was forced to stay at ascalon, antipater persuaded the arabians among whom he had lived to assist him and came himself at the head of three thousand armed jews. he also urged the men of power in syria to come to his assistance. in the attack on pelusium antipater distinguished himself pre-eminently, for he pulled down that part of the wall which was opposite him and leaped first of all into the city with the men who were about him. thus was pelusium taken. moreover, as he was marching on, those jews who inhabited the district called onias stopped him, but antipater not only persuaded them not to hinder but also to supply provisions for their army. thereupon in the delta antipater fell upon those who pursued mithridates and slew many of them and pursued the rest till he captured their camp, while he lost no more than eighty of his own men. thereupon caesar encouraged antipater to undertake other hazardous enterprises for him by giving him great commendations and hopes of reward. in all these enterprises antipater showed himself a most venturesome warrior, and he had many wounds almost all over his body as proofs of his courage. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : b] and when caesar had settled the affairs of egypt and returned again into syria, he gave antipater the rights of a roman citizen and freedom from taxes, and made him an object of admiration because of the other honors and marks of friendship that he bestowed upon him. it was on this account that he also confirmed hyrcanus in the high priesthood. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : , a, a] it was about this time that antigonus, the son of aristobulus, came to caesar and became in a surprising manner the cause of antipater's further advance. for he proceeded to denounce hyrcanus and antipater. then antipater threw off his garments and showed the many wounds he had, and said that regarding his good will to caesar it was not necessary for him to say a word because his body cried aloud, though he himself said nothing. when caesar heard this he declared hyrcanus to be most deserving of the high priesthood, and antipater was appointed procurator of all judea and also obtained permission to rebuild those walls of his country that had been thrown down. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] as soon as antipater had conducted caesar out of syria, he returned to judea, and the first thing he did was to rebuild the walls of his own country. then he went over the country and quieted the tumults therein. and at this time he settled the affairs of the country by himself, because he saw that hyrcanus was inactive and not capable of managing the affairs of the kingdom. so antipater appointed his oldest son, phasaelus, governor of jerusalem and the surrounding territory. he also sent his second son, herod, who was very young, with equal authority into galilee. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a, b] now herod was a very active man and soon found a field for his energy. when, therefore, he found that hezekias, leader of the robbers, overran the adjoining parts of syria with a great band of men, he caught him and slew him and many more of the robbers. this exploit was especially pleasing to the syrians, so that songs were sung in herod's commendation both in the villages and in the cities, because he had secured peace for them and had preserved their possessions. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : , ] at this time a mighty war arose among the romans after the treacherous murder of caesar by cassius and brutus. accordingly cassius came into syria and assumed command of the army, and went about exacting tribute of the cities to such a degree that they were not able to endure it. during the war between cassius and brutus on the one side, against the younger caesar (augustus) and antony on the other, cassius and murcus gathered an army out of syria. and because herod had furnished a great part of the necessities, they made him procurator of all syria and gave him an army of infantry and cavalry. cassius promised him also that after the war was over he would make him king of judea. but it so happened that the power and hopes of his son became the cause of antipater's destruction. for inasmuch as a certain malichus was afraid of this, he bribed one of the king's cup-bearers to give a poisoned potion to antipater. thus he became a sacrifice to malichus's wickedness and died after the feast. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : , : ] herod, however, avenged himself upon malichus. and those who hitherto did not favor him now joined him because of his marriage into the family of hyrcanus, for he had formerly married a wife from his own country of noble blood, doris by name, who bore to him antipater. now he planned to marry mariamne, the daughter of alexander, the son of aristobulus and the grandson of hyrcanus. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : , ] but when caesar and antony had slain cassius near philippi and caesar had gone to italy and antony to asia, the great men of the jews came and accused phasaelus and herod that they held the government by force and that hyrcanus had nothing more than an honorable name. herod appeared ready to answer this accusation, and having made antony his friend by the large sums of money which he gave him, influenced him not to listen to the charges spoken against him by enemies. after this a hundred of the principal men among the jews came to antony at daphne near antioch and accused phasaelus and herod. but massala opposed them and defended the brothers with the help of hyrcanus. when antony had heard both sides, he asked hyrcanus which party was best fitted to govern. hyrcanus replied that herod and his party were the best fitted. therefore antony appointed the brothers tetrarchs, and intrusted to them the rulership of judea. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a, jos. ant. xiv, : ] now two years after, when barzaphanes, a parthian governor, and pacorus, the king's son, had captured syria, they were persuaded by the promise of a thousand talents and five hundred women to bring back antigonus to his kingdom and to turn hyrcanus out of it. thus antigonus was brought back into judea by the king of the parthians, and received hyrcanus and phasaelus as prisoners. being afraid that hyrcanus, who was under the guard of the parthians, might have his kingdom restored to him by the multitude, antigonus cut off his ears and thereby guarded against the possibility that the high priesthood would ever come to him again, inasmuch as he was maimed, and the law required that this dignity should belong to none but those who had all their members intact. phasaelus, perceiving that he was to be put to death, dashed his head against a great stone and thereby took away his own life. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : , c, : b, ] herod, however, went off by night, taking those nearest related to him. as soon as the parthians perceived it, they pursued after him, but when at every assault he had slain a great many of them, he came to the stronghold of masada, and there he left eight hundred of his men to guard the women, and provisions sufficient for a siege; but he himself hastened to petra in arabia. he was not able, however, to find any friendship among the arabians, for their king sent to him and commanded him to turn back immediately from the country. so when herod found that the arabians were his enemies, he turned back to egypt. and when he came to pelusium, he could not obtain passage from those who lay with the fleet. therefore he besought their captains to let him go with them. so out of respect for the fame and rank of the man they carried him to alexandria. and when he came to the city, he was received with great splendor by cleopatra, who hoped he might be persuaded to be the commander of her forces in the expedition she was about to undertake. but he rejected the queen's entreaty and sailed for rome, where first of all he went to antony and laid before him the calamities that had overtaken himself and his family. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] thereupon antony's pity was aroused because of the change that had come about in herod's affairs, so he then resolved to have him made king of the jews. herod found caesar even more ready than antony because he recalled the campaigns through which he had gone with herod's father, antipater, in egypt, and his hospitable treatment and good will in all things. besides he recognized the energy of herod. accordingly he called the senate together. there messala, and after him atratinus, introduced herod to them and gave a full account of his father's merits and of his own good will to the romans. antony also came in and told them that it was to their advantage in the parthian war that herod should be king. so they all gave their votes for it. and when the senate disbanded, antony and caesar went out with herod between them. antony also made a feast for herod on the first day of his reign. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a,b, , : ] herod then sailed from italy and came to ptolemais. and as soon as he had assembled a considerable army of foreigners and of his own countrymen, he marched through galilee against antigonus. the number of his forces increased each day as he went along, and all galilee with few exceptions joined him. after this herod took joppa, and then he marched to masada to free his kinsmen. then he marched to jerusalem, where the soldiers who were with the roman general silo joined his own, as did many from the city because they feared his power. herod did not lie idle, but seized idumea and held it with two thousand footmen and four hundred horsemen. he also removed his mother and all his kinsmen, who had been at masada, to samaria. and when he had settled them securely, he marched to capture the remaining parts of galilee, and to drive away the garrisons of antigonus. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] in the meantime herod's fortunes in judea were not in a favorable condition. he had left his brother joseph with full authority, but had commanded him to make no attacks against antigonus until his return. but as soon as joseph heard that his brother was at a great distance, he disregarded the command he had received and marched toward jericho with five cohorts. but when his enemies attacked him in the mountains and in a place where it was difficult to pass, he was killed as he was fighting bravely in the battle, and all the roman cohorts were destroyed. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : , ] now near the end of winter herod marched to jerusalem and brought his army up to its wall. this was the third year after he had been made king at rome. so he pitched his camp before the temple, for on that side it might be besieged and there pompey had formerly captured the city. accordingly he divided the work among the army and laid waste the suburbs, and gave orders to raise three mounds and to build towers upon these mounds. but he himself went to samaria to marry the daughter of alexander, the son of aristobulus, who had been betrothed to him before. and when he was thus married, he came back to jerusalem with a greater army. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : , c, a] now the multitude of the jews who were in the city were divided into several factions. for the people that crowded about the temple, being the weaker party, became fanatical and raved wildly over the situation. but some of the bolder men gathered together in companies, and began robbing in many different ways and especially plundering the provisions that were about the city, so that no food was left over for the horses or the men. after a siege of five months some of herod's chosen men ventured upon the wall and fell into the city. they first captured the environs of the temple, and as the army poured in there was a slaughter of vast multitudes everywhere, on account of the rage in which the romans were because of the length of the siege, and because the jews who were about herod were eager that none of their opponents should remain. thereupon herod made those who were on his side still more his friends by the honors he conferred upon them; but those of antigonus's party he slew. i. the fruitless struggle against rome. the first quarter century of roman rule was in many ways the most complex in israel's intricate history. there were three chief actors in the drama: ( ) rome, represented first by the leaders of the republic and later by pompey, caesar, and their successors; ( ) the popular jewish party led by aristobulus and his son alexander, and antigonus; and ( ) antipater, supported by his able sons phasaelus and herod. rome's general policy was to allow the jews as much freedom as possible, but above all to hold palestine under firm control, for it lay on the eastern border and faced parthia, the one foe that had successfully defied the powerful mistress of the mediterranean. the popular jewish party bitterly resented rome's interference. true, the pharisees welcomed the relief from civil war, but they could not hold the majority of the people in leash. the inoffensive hyrcanus was left in possession of the high-priesthood and from time to time was elevated to positions of nominal civil authority, but he was little more than the plaything of circumstance and party intrigue. the ambitions of aristobulus and his sons kept palestine in a state of constant political ferment. three times in five years they stirred the jews to rebellion against rome. the first rebellion was in b.c. and was led by alexander. he was ultimately driven by the roman general to alexandria, the fortress that overlooks the middle-jordan valley, and was finally forced to surrender. the three great fortresses, alexandria, machaerus, and hyrcanium, were thrown down, and the jewish state was divided into five districts. each of these was under a local council consisting of the leading citizens. these reported directly to the roman proconsul. to neutralize still further the jewish national spirit, the hellenic cities in and about palestine were restored, given a large measure of independence, and placed directly under the control of rome's representative in the east. the second rebellion followed quickly and was led by aristobulus. he was soon obliged, however, to take refuge in the fortress of machaerus, east of the dead sea, where he was captured and sent back again as a captive to rome. the third rebellion was led by alexander. it was more formidable, and in the end more disastrous, for the jews were signally defeated in a battle near mount tabor. the only permanent results of these uprisings were the intensifying of jewish hatred of roman rule and the increasing of rome's suspicion of this rebellious people. it was this suspicion that made it possible for the high-priestly party at a later time to force the roman governor pilate to put to death one whom he recognized to be an inoffensive galilean peasant simply because he was accused of having assumed the historic title, king of the jews. ii. antipater's policy. through the troublesome first quarter-century of roman rule antipater and his family prospered because they were able at every turn in the political fortunes of syria to make themselves increasingly useful to rome. at many critical periods he was able to save the jews from calamity and to secure for them valuable privileges. there is a certain basis for josephus's over-enthusiastic assertion that he was "a man distinguished for his piety, justice, and love of his country" (jos. ant. xiv, : c). although hyrcanus was but a tool in antipater's hands, he never attempted to depose him, and apparently always treated him with respect. to steer successfully through the stormy period during which rome made the transition from the republican to the monarchical form of government was a difficult task. when crassus came as the representative of the first triumvirate, antipater's gifts and tact were not sufficient to prevent the roman from plundering the treasures of the temple. fortunately for the peace of judea, during the civil war that followed between pompey and caesar, the deposed jewish king aristobulus and his son alexander were both put to death. after the decisive battle of pharsalia in b.c. antipater quickly espoused the cause of caesar, and performed valuable services for him at a time when the great roman was threatened by overwhelming forces. by his influence with the people of syria and egypt and by his personal acts of bravery he won the favors that caesar heaped upon him and upon the jewish people. the old territorial division instituted by gabinius was abolished, hyrcanus was confirmed in the high-priesthood, and antipater was made procurator of judea. joppa was restored to the jewish state, the gerusia, the chief assembly of the jews, was given certain of its old judicial rights, and permission was granted to rebuild the wall of jerusalem. the jews were also freed from the duty of supporting roman soldiers and of serving the roman legions. the tribute was also in part remitted on the sabbatical year, and the jews of palestine and throughout the roman empire were confirmed in their religious privileges. thus caesar proved himself a friend of the jews and established precedents to which they frequently appealed in later crises. iii. herod's early record. among the many rewards conferred upon antipater was the appointment of his son phasaelus as governor of jerusalem and his younger son herod as governor of galilee. thus while still a young man herod was given an opportunity to demonstrate his ability and energy. he at once took measures to put down the robber bands that infested galilee, and executed their leader, hezekias. he won thereby the gratitude of the galileans and the approval of rome. hyrcanus and the sanhedrin at jerusalem, however, viewed this assumption of authority with suspicion and alarm. when herod was summoned before them, he appeared in full military armor and was accompanied by a military following. provoked by his boldness, the sanhedrin would have sentenced him to death had not the local roman governor interfered. the action of the sanhedrin aroused herod's spirit of revenge, and before long, gathering his forces, he marched against jerusalem and would have put to death the jewish leaders had not his father dissuaded him. the assassination of caesar in b.c., followed by the battle of philippi in , changed the political horizon of palestine. antipater and his sons, however, following their usual policy, pledged in succession their loyalty to cassius and antony, with the result that greater honors were conferred upon them. it was at this crisis that malichus, a certain jewish noble, inspired by jealousy and suspicion, treacherously murdered his rival, antipater. herod retaliated by instigating the assassination of the murderer, but soon a series of calamities swept over judea which threatened to obliterate completely the house of antipater. iv. the parthian conquest. during the struggle between antony and the assassins of julius caesar rome's eastern outposts were left exposed. their old foes, the parthians, improved this opportunity to seize northern syria. encouraged by the presence of the parthians, antigonus, the younger son of aristobulus, in b.c. entered palestine. with the aid of the parthians and of the jews who were opposed to herod he ultimately succeeded in establishing himself as king. antipater and herod's brother phasaelus became the victims of the parthian treachery, and herod after many adventures succeeded in escaping with his family to the strong fortress of masada at the southwestern end of the dead sea. leaving them under the care of his brother joseph, herod after many discouragements and vicissitudes finally found his way to rome. unfortunately for the cause of jewish independence, antigonus lacked the essential qualities of leadership. instead of arousing the loyalty of his subjects his chief concern was to take vengeance upon herod's followers and upon all who had supported the house of antipater. v. herod made king of the jews. herod went to rome to urge the appointment of aristobulus iii, the grandson of hyrcanus and the brother of herod's betrothed wife mariamne, as king of judea. antony and octavian, to whom he appealed, were rightly suspicious of the survivors of the maccabean house and appreciative of the services of herod and his father antipater. therefore, to his complete surprise, they offered him the kingship, and their nomination was speedily confirmed by the senate. history presents no stranger nor more dramatic sight than herod, the idumean, accompanied by antony and octavian, going to the temple of jupiter on the capitoline hill to offer sacrifices in connection with his assumption of the historic title, king of the jews. at first it was an empty title, but the energy of herod and the resources of rome sufficed in time to make it real. in the spring of b.c. herod landed at ptolemais and with the apathetic aid of the roman generals in palestine began to organize the jews who rallied about him. marching down the mediterranean coast, he succeeded at last in relieving his family, who were besieged at masada. idumea and galilee were then brought into subjection, and after two years of fighting he won an important battle at isana, a little north of bethel, which gave him possession of all of judea except jerusalem. the final contest for the capital city continued through several months, for antigonus and his followers realized that they could expect little mercy from herod and the romans. thousands of jews were slaughtered, but at last the temple itself was captured, and herod was in fact as well as in name king of the jews. antigonus pled in vain for mercy. departing from their usual policy of clemency toward native rulers, the romans caused him first to be scourged as a common criminal and then ignominiously beheaded. thus the maccabean dynasty, which had risen in glory, went down in shame, a signal illustration of the eternal principle that selfish ambitions and unrestrained passions in an individual or family sooner or later bring disgrace and destruction. while the siege of jerusalem was still in progress, herod went north to samaria and there consummated his long-delayed marriage with mariamne, the daughter of hyrcanus, thus in part attracting to himself the loyalty which the jews had bestowed so lavishly and disastrously upon the unworthy sons of alexander janneus. section cxviii. herod's policy and reign [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : , a] now when the war about actium broke out, herod prepared to come to the assistance of antony, but he was treacherously hindered from sharing the dangers of antony by cleopatra, for she persuaded antony to intrust the war against the arabians to herod. this plan, however, proved of advantage to herod, for he defeated the army of the arabians, although it offered him strong resistance. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] now herod was immediately concerned about his entire fortunes because of his friendship with antony, who had been defeated at actium by caesar [augustus]. herod, however, resolved to face the danger: so he sailed to rhodes where caesar was then staying, and came to him without his diadem and in the dress and guise of a private person, but in the spirit of a king. and he concealed nothing of the truth, but spoke straight out as follows: "o caesar, i was made king of the jews by antony. i confess that i have been useful to him, nor will i conceal this added fact, that you would certainly have found me in arms, and so showing my gratitude to him, had not the arabians hindered me. i have been overcome with antony, and sharing the same fortune as his, i have laid aside my diadem. now i have come to you fixing my hopes of safety upon your virtue, and i ask that you will consider how faithful a friend, and not whose friend, i have been." [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] caesar answered him as follows: "nay, you shall not only be safe, but you shall reign more firmly than before, for you are worthy to reign over many subjects because of the steadfastness of your friendship. endeavor to be equally constant in your friendship to me in the hour of my success, since i have the brightest hopes because of your noble spirit. i therefore assure you that i will confirm the kingdom to you by decree. i will also endeavor to do you some further kindness hereafter, that you may not miss antony." [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : b- a] after this, when caesar went to egypt through syria, herod received him lavishly and royally. it was, therefore, the opinion both of caesar and his soldiers that herod's kingdom was too small a return for what he had done. for this reason, when caesar had returned from egypt, he added to herod's other honors, and also made an addition to his kingdom by giving him not only the country which had been taken from him by cleopatra, but also gadara, hippos, and samaria, and also the coast cities gaza, anthedon, joppa, and straton's tower. he also made him a present of four hundred gauls as a body-guard, which had before belonged to cleopatra. moreover he added to his kingdom trachonitis and the adjacent batanea, and the district of auranitis. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : ] now herod had a body suited to his soul and was ever a most excellent hunter, in which sport he generally had great success owing to his skill in riding, for in one day he once captured forty wild beasts. he was also a warrior such as could not be withstood. many also marvelled at his skill in his exercises when they saw him throwing the javelin and shooting the arrow straight to the mark. in addition to these advantages of mind and body, fortune was also very favorable to him, for he seldom failed in war, and when he failed, he was not himself the cause, but it happened either through the treachery of some one or else through the rashness of his own soldiers. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : b, a] herod also built for himself at jerusalem in the upper city a palace, which contained two very large and most beautiful apartments to which not even the temple could be compared. one apartment he named caesareum and the other agrippeum [after his friends caesar augustus and agrippa]. but he did not preserve their memory by particular buildings only and the names given them, but his generosity also went as far as entire cities. for when he had built a most beautiful wall over two miles long about a city in the district of samaria and had brought six thousand inhabitants into it and had allotted to them a most fertile territory and in the midst of this city had erected a large temple to augustus, he called the city sebaste [from sebastus, the greek of augustus]. and when augustus had bestowed upon him additional territory, he built there also a temple of white marble in his honor near the fountains of the jordan. the place is called panium. the king erected other buildings at jericho and named them after the same friends. in general there was not any place in his kingdom suited to the purpose that was allowed to remain without something in augustus's honor. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a- a] and when he observed that there was a city by the seaside that was much decayed, called straton's tower, and that the place, because of its fair situation, was capable of great improvements, through his love of honor he rebuilt it all of white stone and adorned it with magnificent palaces and in it showed his natural munificence. for all the seashore between dora and egypt (between which places the city is situated) had no good harbor, so that every one who sailed to phoenicia from egypt was obliged to toss about in the sea because of the south wind that threatened them. but the king by great expense and liberality overcame nature and built a harbor larger than was the piraeus, and in its recesses built other deep roadsteads. he let down stones into one hundred and twenty-one feet of water. and when the part below the sea was filled up, he extended the wall which was already above the sea until it was two hundred feet long. the entrance to the harbor was on the north, because the north wind was there the most gentle of all the winds. at the mouth of the harbor on each side were three colossi supported by pillars. and the houses, also built of white stone, were close to the harbor, and the narrow streets of the city led down to it, being built at equal distances from one another. and opposite the entrance of the harbor upon an elevation was the temple of caesar augustus, excellent both for beauty and size, and in it was a colossal statue of caesar augustus as big as the olympian zeus, which it was made to resemble, and a statue of rome as big at that of hera at argos. and he dedicated the city to the province, and the harbor to those who sailed there. but the honor of founding the city he ascribed to caesar augustus and accordingly called it caesarea. he also built other edifices, the amphitheater, the theater, and market-place in a manner worthy of that name. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a- a] herod was also a lover of his father, for he built as a memorial of his father a city in the finest plain that was in his kingdom [the lower jordan valley], which had rivers and trees in abundance, and called it antipatris. he also fortified a citadel that lay above jericho and was very strong and handsome, and dedicated it to his mother, and called it cypros. moreover, he dedicated a tower at jerusalem to his brother phasaelus. he also built another city in the valley which leads north from jericho and named it phasaelis. as a memorial for himself he built a fortress upon a mountain toward arabia and called it after himself herodium. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a] and when he had built so much, he showed the greatness of his soul to many foreign cities. he built gymnasiums at tripolis, damascus, and ptolemais. he built a wall around byblus, and arcades, colonnades, temples, and market-places at berytus and tyre, and theaters at sidon and damascus. he also built an aqueduct for those laodiceans, who lived by the seaside; and for the inhabitants of ascalon he built baths and costly fountains, as also encircling colonnades that were admirable for their workmanship and size. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a, c- b] herod, however, began to be unhappy on account of his wife, of whom he was very fond. for when he attained the kingship, he divorced her whom he had married when he was a private person, a native of jerusalem by the name of doris, and married mariamne, the daughter of alexander, the son of aristobulus. because of mariamne disturbances arose in his family, and that very soon, but chiefly after his return from rome. for the sake of his sons by mariamne he banished antipater, the son of doris. after this he slew his wife's grandfather, hyrcanus, when he returned to him out of parthia, on suspicion of plotting against him. now of the five children which herod had by mariamne two of them were daughters and three were sons. the youngest of these sons died while he was being educated at rome, but the two elder sons he treated as princes because of their mother's honorable rank and because they had been born after he became king. but what was stronger than all this was the love he bore to mariamne. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : c- ] but mariamne's hatred toward him was as great as his love for her. she, indeed, had a just cause for indignation for what he had done, while her freedom of speech was the result of his affection for her. so she openly reproached him for what he had done to her grandfather hyrcanus and to her brother aristobulus. for he had not spared this aristobulus, though he was but a lad, for after he had given him the high priesthood at the age of seventeen, herod caused him to be slain immediately after he had conferred that honor upon him; for when aristobulus had put on the holy garments and had approached to the altar at a festival, the assembled multitude wept for joy. thereupon the lad was sent by night to jericho, and there in a swimming-pool at herod's command was held under water by the gauls until he was drowned. for these reasons mariamne reproached herod, and railed at his sister and his mother most abusively. he was dumb on account of his affection for her, but the women were vexed exceedingly at her and charged her with being false to him, for they thought that this would be most likely to arouse herod's anger. when, therefore, he was about to take a journey abroad, he intrusted his wife to joseph, his sister salome's husband. he also gave him a secret injunction that, if antony should slay him [herod], joseph should slay mariamne. but joseph without any evil intention and in order to demonstrate the king's love for his wife disclosed this secret to her. and when herod came back, and when they talked together, he confirmed his love to her by many oaths and assured her that he had never loved any other woman as he had her. "to be sure," said she, "you proved your love to me by the injunctions you gave joseph when you commanded him to kill me!" when herod heard that this secret was discovered, he was like a distracted man, and said that joseph would never have disclosed his injunction unless he had seduced her. made insane by his passion and leaping out of bed, he ran about the palace in a wild manner. meantime his sister salome improved the opportunity for false accusations and to confirm the suspicion about joseph. so in his ungovernable jealousy and rage herod commanded both of them to be slain immediately. but as soon as his passion was over, he repented for what he had done; and indeed his passionate desire for mariamne was so ardent that he could not think that she was dead, but in his distress he talked to her as if she were still alive. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a, d, a, c- a] now mariamne's sons inherited their mother's hate; and when they considered the greatness of herod's crime toward her, they were as suspicious of their father as of an enemy. this state of theirs increased as they grew to be men. and when herod had been poisoned with calumnies against them, he recalled antipater, his son by doris, from exile as a defence against his other sons, and began to treat him in every way with more distinction than them. but these sons were not able to bear this change, for when they saw antipater, who was the son of a private woman, advanced, the nobility of their own birth made them unable to restrain their indignation. for antipater was already publicly named in his father's will as his successor. the two weapons which he employed against his brothers were flattery and calumny, whereby he brought matters privately to such a point that the king thought of putting his sons to death. so herod dragged alexander with him as far as rome and charged him before augustus with attempting to poison him, but alexander very ably cleared himself of the calumnies laid against him and brought augustus to the point of rejecting the accusation and of reconciling herod to his sons at once. after this the king returned from rome and seemed to have acquitted his sons of these charges, but still he was not without some suspicion of them, for antipater, who was the cause of the hatred, accompanied them. but he did not openly show his enmity toward them, for he stood in awe of the one who had reconciled them. but the dissensions between the brothers still accompanied them, and the suspicions they had of one another grew worse. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a, : , a, b] alexander and aristobulus were much vexed that the privilege of the first-born was confirmed to antipater, and antipater was very angry because his brothers were to succeed him. moreover, salome incited herod's cruelty against his sons, for aristobulus was desirous of bringing her who was his mother-in-law and aunt into the same dangers as himself. so he sent to her to advise her to save herself, and told her that the king was preparing to put her to death. then salome came running to the king and informed him of the warning. thereupon herod could restrain himself no longer, but caused both of his sons to be bound, and kept them apart from one another, and speedily sent to augustus written charges against them. augustus was greatly troubled in regard to the young men, but he did not think he ought to take from a father the power over his sons. so he wrote back to him, and gave him full authority over his sons, and said he would do well to make an examination of the plot by means of a common council consisting of his own kinsmen and the governors of his province, and if his sons were found guilty to put them to death. with these directions herod complied. then he sent his sons to sebaste and ordered them there to be strangled, and his orders being executed immediately, he commanded their bodies to be brought to the fortress of alexandrium. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a, : c] but an unconquerable hatred against antipater rose up in the nation now that he had an indisputable title to the succession, because they well knew that he was the person who had contrived all the calumnies against his brothers. later he secured permission by means of his italian friends to go and live at rome. for when they wrote that it was proper for antipater to be sent to augustus after some time, herod made no delay but sent him with a splendid retinue and a large amount of money, and gave him his testament to carry in which antipater was inscribed as king. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : a, : a] and after the death of herod's brother pheroras, the king devoted himself to examining his son antipater's steward; and upon torturing him he learned that antipater had sent for a potion of deadly poison for him from egypt, and that the uncle of antipater had received it from him and delivered it to pheroras, for antipater had charged him to destroy his father the king, while [antipater] was at rome, and so free him from the suspicion of doing it himself. antipater's freedman was also brought to trial, and he was the concluding proof of antipater's designs. this man came and brought another deadly potion of the poison of asps and of other serpents, that if the first potion did not accomplish its end, pheroras and his wife might be armed with this also against the king. [sidenote: jos. jew. war, i, : , , a] now herod's illness became more and more severe because his various ailments attacked him in his old age and when he was in a melancholy state, for he was already almost seventy years of age and was depressed by the calamities that had happened to him in connection with his children, so that he had no pleasure in life even when he was in health. the fact that antipater was still alive aggravated his disease, and he preferred to destroy him, not incidentally but by crushing him completely. when letters came from his ambassadors at rome containing the information that antipater was condemned to death, herod for a little while was restored to cheerfulness; but presently being overcome by his pains, he endeavored to anticipate destiny, and this because he was weakened by want of food and by a convulsive cough. accordingly he took an apple and asked for a knife, for he used to pare his apples before eating them. he then looked around to see that there was no one to hinder him and lifted up his right hand as if to stab himself. but achiabus, his cousin, ran up to him and, holding his hand, hindered him from so doing. immediately a great lamentation was raised in the palace, as if the king was dying, and as soon as antipater heard that, he took courage and with joy in his looks besought his keepers for a sum of money to loose him and let him go. but the head keeper of the prison not only prevented that but also ran and told the king what his design was. thereupon the king cried louder than his disease could well bear, and immediately sent some of his body-guards and had antipater slain. he also gave orders to have him buried at hyrcanium, and altered his testament again and therein made archelaus, his eldest son, and the brother of antipas, his successor, and made antipas tetrarch. herod, after surviving the death of his son only five days, died, having reigned thirty-four years, since he had obtained control of affairs; but it was thirty-seven years since he had been made king by the romans. i. herod's character. the character of herod is comparatively easy to understand, for it is elemental and one that constantly recurs in history. we in america are familiar with this type which is represented by our unscrupulous captains of industry or political bosses--energetic, physically strong, shrewd, relentless toward all who threaten to thwart their plans, skilful in organization, not troubled about the rightness of their methods, provided they escape the toils of the law, able to command men and successfully to carry through large policies. they are not without their personal attractions, for it is instinctive to admire that which is big and able to achieve. many of them also make permanent contributions to the upbuilding of the nation. oriental history is also full of analogies: nebuchadrezzar, cyrus, alexander, and in more recent times mohammed ali of egypt. herod was largely the product of his inheritance and training. his father, antipater, had taught him to regard the jews with secret but well-concealed contempt, and to hate aristobulus and his ambitious sons. his religion was loyalty to rome, for this meant wealth and success. he delighted in public approval, and his ambition was to be known as a great builder. as is true with this type of man, he was a natural tyrant. power was his ruling passion, and he regarded with extreme suspicion any who might take it from him. in this respect the contemporary rulers of the roman empire set an example which he was not slow to follow. his idumean and arabian blood coursed hot and fierce through his veins. it was an age when moral standards were exceedingly low, and herod never learned to rule his passions. the oriental institution of the harem gave him full license, and he lived and loved as he fought and reigned--vehemently. such a man is especially susceptible to the weaknesses and crimes that come from jealousy, and the influences of his family and court intensified these fatal faults. herod is not without his attractive qualities. a man who is able to execute on a large scale and win the title great is never commonplace. in giving palestine the benefits of a strong and stable government he performed a real service. in his love for mariamne and for the sons she bore him he was mastered by a passion that for a time ennobled him. like every man, moreover, who fails to taste the joys of disinterested service for his fellow-men, herod paid the bitter penalty for his own unrestrained selfishness. he awakes pity rather than denunciation. he never found life, because he never learned to lose his life in the service of his people. ii. his attitude toward rome. herod's policy was loyalty at any cost to the man who at the moment ruled rome. during the first part of his reign antony's power on the eastern mediterranean was still in the ascendancy. notwithstanding the powerful intrigues of cleopatra, herod succeeded in retaining the favor of his patron. when the battle of actium in b.c. revealed antony's weakness, herod forthwith cast off his allegiance, and his treachery was one of the chief forces that drove antony to suicide. octavian, who henceforth under the title of augustus attained to the complete control of rome, recognized in herod a valuable servant. herod's title as king of the jews was confirmed, and augustus gradually increased his territory until it included practically all of palestine with the exception of certain greek cities along the coast and east of the jordan. herod's task was to preserve peace in the land thus intrusted to him and to guard the eastern border of the empire against its parthian foes. this task he faithfully performed. iii. his building activity. the spirit and policy of augustus were clearly reflected in herod's court and kingdom. when his position was firmly established, herod devoted himself to magnificent building enterprises. in antioch, athens, and rhodes, he reared great public buildings. jerusalem, his capital, was provided with a theatre and amphitheatre, and other buildings that characterize the graeco-roman cities of the period. the two crowning achievements of herod's reign were the rebuilding of samaria and caesarea, as its port on the mediterranean coast. both of these cities were renamed in honor of his patron augustus. on the acropolis of samaria he built a huge roman temple, the foundations of which have recently been uncovered by the american excavators. the city itself was encircled by a colonnade, over a mile long, consisting of pillars sixteen feet in height. caesarea, like samaria, was adorned with magnificent public buildings, including a temple, a theatre, a palace, and an amphitheatre. the great breakwater two hundred feet wide that ran out into the open sea was one of the greatest achievements of that building age. by these acts herod won still further the favor of augustus and the admiration of the eastern world. iv. his attitude toward his subjects. the peace which herod brought to palestine was won at the point of the sword. the fear which he felt for his subjects was surpassed only by the fear which he inspired in them. he was unscrupulous and merciless in cutting down all possible rivals. the treacherous murder of aristobulus iii, the grandson of hyrcanus, and last of all the murder of the inoffensive and maimed hyrcanus, are among the darkest deeds in herod's bloody reign. the power of the sanhedrin, the jewish national representative body, was almost completely crushed. following the policy of augustus, herod developed a complex system of spies, or espionage, so that, like an oriental tyrant, he ruled his subjects by means of two armies, the spies who watched in secret and the soldiers who guarded them openly. his lavish building enterprises led him to load his people with an almost intolerable burden of taxation, and yet for the common people herod's reign was one of comparative peace and prosperity. at last they were delivered from destructive wars and free to develop the great agricultural and commercial resources of the land. while outside of judea herod built heathen temples, he faithfully guarded the temple of jerusalem, and was careful not to override the religious prejudices of his subjects. his measures to relieve their suffering in time of famine reveal a generosity which under better environment and training might have made him a benign ruler. v. the tragedy of his domestic life. the weakness of herod's character is most glaringly revealed in his domestic life. undoubtedly he loved the beautiful maccabean princess, mariamne, with all the passion of his violent nature. it was a type of love, however, which passes over easily into insensate jealousy. accordingly, when he left judea just before the battle of actium, and later when he went to meet octavian, he had his wife mariamne shut up in a strong fortress. unfortunately herod, like most despots, was unable to command the services of loyal followers. the discovery of herod's suspicions toward her aroused the imperious spirit of mariamne. she was also the victim of the plots of his jealous family. human history presents no greater tragedy than that of herod putting to death the one woman whom he truly loved, and later a victim of his own suspicions and of the intrigues of his son antipater, finally obtaining royal permission to put to death the two noble sons whom mariamne had borne to him. it is difficult to find in all history a more pitiable sight than herod in his old age, hated by most of his subjects, misled by the members of his own family, the murderer of those whom he loved best, finding his sole satisfaction in putting to death his son antipater, who had betrayed him, and in planning in his last hours how he might by the murder of hundreds of his subjects arouse wide-spread lamentation. vi. effects of herod's reign. one of the chief results of herod's policy and reign was the complete extinction of the maccabean house. herod's motive and method were thoroughly base, but for the jewish people the result was beneficial, for it removed one of the most active causes of those suicidal rebellions that had resulted disastrously for the jews and brought them under the suspicion and iron rule of rome. with his heavy hand herod also put a stop to the party strife that had undermined the native jewish kingdom and brought loss and suffering to thousands of jews. the pharisees and sadducees at last were taught the lesson of not resorting to arms, however widely they might differ. by removing the pharisees from public life herod directed their energies to developing their ceremonial regulations and to instructing the people. thus the influence of the pharisees became paramount with the great majority of the jews. as herod extended his rule over all palestine, he brought into close relations the jews scattered throughout its territory and so strengthened the bonds of race and religion. in building the temples he also emphasized the ceremonial side of their religious life and centralized it so that even the jews of the dispersion henceforth paid their yearly temple tax, made frequent pilgrimages to jerusalem, and regarded themselves as a part of the nation. furthermore, herod brought peace and prosperity to his people and gave the jews an honorable place in the rôle of nations. thus, while his career is marked by many unpardonable crimes, he proved on the whole an upbuilder and a friend rather than a foe of the jews. section cxix. herod's temple [sidenote: jos. ant. xv, : a] now herod, in the eighteenth year of his reign, undertook a very great work, that is, to rebuild the temple of god at his own expense, and to make it larger in circumference and to raise it to a more magnificent height. he thought rightly that to bring the temple to perfection would be the most glorious of all his works, and that it would suffice as an everlasting memorial. [sidenote: jos. ant. xv, : c] so he prepared a thousand wagons to bring stones, chose ten thousand of the most skilful workmen, bought a thousand priestly garments for as many of the priests, and had some of them taught how to work as builders, and others as carpenters. then he began to build, but not until everything was well prepared for the work. [sidenote: jos. ant. xv, : a-c] and herod took up the old foundations, and laid others. he erected a temple upon these foundations: its length was one hundred cubits and its height twenty additional cubits. now the temple was built of stones that were white and strong. each was about twenty-five cubits long, eight cubits high, and twelve cubits wide. the whole temple enclosure on the sides was on much lower ground, as were also the royal colonnades; but the temple itself was much higher, being visible for many furlongs in the country round about. it had doors at its entrance as high as the temple itself with lintels over them. these doors were adorned with variegated veils, into which were interwoven pillars and purple flowers. over these, but under the crown-work, was spread out a golden vine, with its branches hanging far down, the great size and fine workmanship of which was a marvel to those who saw it. [sidenote: jos. ant. xv, : f-l] herod also built very large colonnades all around the temple, making them in proportion. he exceeded all who had gone before him in his lavish expenditure of money. there was a large wall about the colonnades. the hill, on which the temple stood, was rocky, ascending gradually toward the east of the city to its highest point. at the bottom, which was surrounded by a deep valley, he laid rocks that were bound together with lead. he also cut away some of the inner parts, carrying the wall to a great height, until the size and height of the square construction was immense, and until the great size of the stones in front were visible on the outside. the inward parts were fastened together with iron and the joints were preserved immovable for all time. when this work was joined together to the very top of the hill, he finished off its upper surface and filled up the hollow places about the wall and made it level and smooth on top. within this wall, on the very top, was another wall of stone that had on the east a double colonnade of the same length as the wall. inside was the temple itself. this colonnade faced the door of the temple and had been decorated by many kings before. around about the entire temple were fixed the spoils taken from the barbarous nations. all these were dedicated to the temple by herod, who added those that had been taken from the arabians. [sidenote: jos. ant. xv, : a, d] now in an angle on the north side of the temple was built a citadel, well fortified and of extraordinary strength. this citadel had been built before herod by the kings and high priests of the hasmonean race, and they called it the tower. in it were deposited the garments of the high priest, which he put on only at the time when he was to offer sacrifice. herod fortified this tower more strongly than before, in order to guard the temple securely, and gave the tower the name of antonia to gratify antony, who was his friend and a roman ruler. [sidenote: jos. ant. xv, : a-g] in the western side of the temple enclosure were four gates; one led to the king's palace, two others led to the suburbs of the city, and the fourth led by many steps down into the valley and up on the other side to the entrance to the other part of the city. the fourth front of the temple, that on the south, had gates in the middle; before this front were the three royal colonnades, which reached from the valley on the east to that on the west. these colonnades were especially remarkable for their great height, which seemed more because the hill at their base dropped abruptly into a very deep valley. there were four rows of pillars, placed side by side. the fourth was built into the stone wall. each pillar was about twenty-seven feet high, with a double spiral at the base, and was so thick that three men joining hands could just reach around it. the number of the pillars was one hundred and sixty-two. the columns had corinthian capitals, which aroused great admiration in those who saw them because of their beauty. these four rows of pillars made three parallel spaces for walking. two of these parallel walks were thirty feet wide, six hundred and six feet in length, and fifty feet in height, while the middle walk was half as wide again and twice as high. the roofs were adorned with deep sculptures in wood, representing many different things; the middle was much higher than the rest, and the front wall, which was of polished stone, was adorned with beams set into the stone on pillars. [sidenote: jos. ant. xv, : h, i] the second enclosure, which was reached by ascending a few steps, was not very far within the first. this inner enclosure had a stone wall for a partition. upon this wall it was forbidden any foreigner to enter under penalty of death. this inner enclosure had on its northern and southern sides three gates at intervals from each other. on the east, however, there was one large gate, through which those of us who were ceremonially pure could enter with our wives. within this enclosure was another forbidden to women. still further in there was a third court, into which only the priest could go. within this court was the temple itself; before that was the altar, upon which we offer sacrifices and burnt-offerings to god. [sidenote: jos. ant. xv, : k, ] herod himself took charge of the work upon the colonnades and outer enclosures; these he built in eight years. but the temple itself was built by the priest in a year and five months. thereupon all the people were filled with joy and returned thanks, in the first place to god for the speed with which it was finished, and in the second place for the zeal which the king had shown. they feasted and celebrated this rebuilding of the temple; the king sacrificed three hundred oxen to god, as did the others, each according to his ability. the time of this celebration of the work about the temple also fell upon the day of the king's inauguration, which the people customarily observed as a festival. the coincidence of these anniversaries made the festival most notable. i. herod's motives. it is not difficult to appreciate the reasons which influenced herod to begin the rebuilding of the temple. chief among these was doubtless the desire to win still further the approval of his master augustus. it is also a characteristic of a man of herod's type to seek to gain popular approval by the munificence of his public gifts. throughout his reign he was painfully aware of the suspicions of his jewish subjects. he trusted, and the event proved the wisdom of his judgment, that he might conciliate them by giving them that about which their interest most naturally gathered. the methods which he employed in building the temple clearly indicate that this was one of his leading motives. he also gratified that love of construction which had found expression in many of the cities of palestine and the eastern mediterranean. he desired to rear a great memorial for himself, and in this hope he was not disappointed, for later generations continued to think of him with gratitude because of the temple which bore his name. ii. preparations for the rebuilding of the temple. herod's temple was begun in or b.c. and was not entirely completed until a few years before its destruction in a.d. the task in itself was a difficult one, for on the north the city prevented the extension of the temple area, and on the south the hill rapidly descended toward the juncture of the tyropoean and kidron valleys. herod met the difficulty by filling in to the south with vast stone constructions which rose to the height of seventy to ninety feet above the virgin rock. to economize building materials he built the huge underground vaults and arches known to-day as solomon's stables. thus with a vast expense of labor and wealth he extended the temple area to the south until it was double that which surrounded solomon's temple. it was also important to regard in every detail the ceremonial scruples of the jews. to this end a small army of priests were trained as masons and carpenters in order to do the work in the immediate proximity of the temple. to bring the ancient temple into proportions with the rest of his buildings, a huge porch or facade was reared in front of it on the east, rising, according to josephus, to the height of one hundred and twenty feet. for the roof that covered the porches he apparently brought cedar from the distant lebanons. only with all the resources of the kingdom at his command was it possible to carry through this vast enterprise. iii. the approaches to the temple. the entire temple area was rectangular in form, about twelve hundred feet in length and six hundred feet wide. its chief approaches were on the south and west. a small gate through which sacrificial animals were introduced immediately into the temple precincts opened from the north. the one gate on the east, which opened into the kidron valley, was apparently opposite the eastern entrance to the temple. the two gates on the south opened toward the city of david. the one was a double gate with an incline leading into the temple area, and the other farther to the east was a triple gate. the main approaches were from the west. the southern of these was a low viaduct spanning the kidron valley and thence by steps or inclined approach ascending to the temple area. remnants of the arches that spanned the valley at this point and a little farther north are still traceable on the present walls of the temple area far down in the tyropoean valley. the third approach farther to the north was probably also a viaduct leading directly into the temple area, while the extreme northern approach, according to josephus, led from the palace of herod directly to the temple. the entire temple area was encircled by a colonnade. one row of pillars was built into the high wall that surrounded the area. on the south was found the royal porch with its four rows of columns, the first and second about thirty feet apart, the second and third forty-five, and the third and fourth thirty. the pillars on the sides were about twenty-seven feet in height, while the two rows in the middle were double this height. each of these colonnades was covered with a richly ornamented cedar roof, thus affording grateful shelter from the sun and storm. the great space at the south of the temple area was the court of the gentiles, the common park of the city where all classes of its population freely gathered. the colonnade on the east of the temple area bore the name of solomon's porch, and from it the steps led up to the raised platform of native rock twenty or more feet above the court of the gentiles. somewhere to the east of the temple was found the famous beautiful gate. the series of steps led into the so-called court of the women. west of this was the court of the israelites, to which only men were admitted. thence a broad, high door led to the open space before the temple. surrounding the altar and cutting off approach to the temple proper was a stone balustrade. the space within this was known as the court of the priests. here no laymen were admitted except as the ritual of private sacrifice required. these inner courts were surrounded by a high wall and adjoining chambers for the storing of the paraphernalia used in connection with the sacrifice and for the residence of the priests. on the southern side of the temple was the room where the national council, the sanhedrin, held its public meetings. four gates on the north and four gates on the south led from the temple court to the lower court of the gentiles. iv. the organization of the temple service. at the head of the temple organization was the high priest. since the deposition of the ill-fated hyrcanus the high priests had been appointed by herod, for to them was intrusted large civil as well as religious authority. the one duty which the high priests could not neglect, unless prevented by illness, was to perform the sacrifice in behalf of the people and to enter the holy of holies on the day of atonement. frequently he also offered the sacrifice or presided at the special services on the sabbath, the new moons, or at the great annual festivals. otherwise the temple duties were performed by the army of priests and assistants who were associated with the temple. according to josephus there were twenty thousand priests. they were divided into twenty-four courses. each course included certain priestly families to which were intrusted for a week the performing of the sacrifices. corresponding to the twenty-four courses of the priests were the courses of the people, who were represented by certain of their number at each of the important services. the priests not only performed the sacrifices but also guarded the temple treasures and the private wealth placed in their keeping. the levites attended to the more menial duties in connection with the temple service. they aided the priests in preparing the sacrifices and in caring for the utensils that were used in connection with the sacrifice. some of them were doorkeepers. probably from the levites were drafted the temple police at whose head was the captain of the temple. their task was to preserve order and to prevent gentiles from entering the sacred precincts of the temple. the singers constituted a third group of levites. two public services were held each day, the first, at sunrise, consisted in the offering of a sacrificial ram with the accompaniment of prayer and song. the same rites were repeated at sunset. after the morning sacrifice the private offerings were presented. on the sabbaths, new moons, and great festivals, the number of sacrifices was greatly increased and the ritual made more elaborate. upon the jews, instructed in the synagogue in the details of the law and taught to regard the temple and its services with deepest reverence, the elaborate ceremonies of this great and magnificent sanctuary must have made a profound impression. as the people streamed up to jerusalem by thousands at the great feasts, their attention was fixed more and more upon the ritual and the truths which it symbolized. herod's temple also strengthened the authority of the jewish hierarchy with the people, and gave the scribes and pharisees the commanding position which they later occupied in the life and thought of judaism. section cxx. the messianic hopes and the religious beliefs of judaism [sidenote: sibyl. oracles, iii - ] then a kingdom over all mankind for all times shall god raise up, who once gave the holy law to the pious, for whom he pledged to open every land, the world and the portals of the blessed, and all joys, and an eternal, immortal spirit and a joyous heart. and out of every land they shall bring frankincense and gifts to the house of the great god. and to men there shall be no other house where men may learn of the world to be than that which god hath given for faithful men to honor; for mortals shall call it the temple of the mighty god. and all pathways of the plain and rough hills and high mountains and wild waves of the deep shall be easy in those days for crossing and sailing; for perfect peace for the good shall come on earth. and the prophets of the mighty god shall remove the sword; for they are the rulers of mortals and the righteous kings. and there shall be righteous wealth among mankind; for this is the judgment and rule of the mighty god. [sidenote: ps. sol. : - a] behold, o lord, and raise up to them their king, the son of david, in the time which thou, o god, knowest, that he may reign over israel thy servant; and gird him with strength that he may break in pieces those who rule unjustly. purge jerusalem with wisdom and with righteousness, from the heathen who trample her down to destroy her. he shall thrust out the sinners from the inheritance, utterly destroy the proud spirit of the sinners, and as potters' vessels he shall break in pieces with a rod of iron all their substance. he shall destroy the ungodly nations with the word of his mouth, so that at his rebuke the nations will flee before him, and he shall convict the sinners in the thoughts of their hearts. and he shall gather together a holy people, whom he shall lead in righteousness; and shall judge the tribes of the people that has been sanctified by the lord his god. and he shall not suffer iniquity to lodge in their midst; and none that knoweth wickedness shall dwell with them. for he shall take knowledge of them, that they are all the sons of their god, and shall divide them upon earth according to their tribes, and the sojourner and the stranger shall dwell with them no more. he shall judge the nations and the peoples with the wisdom of his righteousness. and he shall possess the nations of the heathen to serve him beneath his yoke; and he shall glorify the lord in a place to be seen by the whole earth; and he shall purge jerusalem and make it holy, even as it was in the days of old. [sidenote: ps. sol. : b- ] and a righteous king and taught of god is he who reigneth over them; and there shall be no iniquity in his days in their midst, for all shall be holy and their king is the lord messiah. for he shall not put his trust in horse and rider and bow, nor shall he multiply unto himself gold and silver for war, nor by ships shall he gather confidence for the day of battle. the lord himself is his king, and the hope of him who is strong in the hope of god. and he shall have mercy upon all the nations that come before him in fear. for he shall smite the earth with the word of his mouth, even for evermore. he shall bless the people of the lord with wisdom and gladness. he himself also is pure from sin, so that he may rule a mighty people, and rebuke princes and overthrow sinners by the might of his word. and he shall not faint all his days, because he leaneth upon his god; for god shall cause him to be mighty through the spirit of holiness, and wise through the counsel of understanding, with might and righteousness. and the blessing of the lord is with him in might, and his hope in the lord shall not faint. and who can stand up against him; he is mighty in his works and strong in the fear of god, tending the flock of the lord with faith and righteousness. and he shall allow none of them to faint in their pasture. in holiness shall he lead them all, and there shall be no pride among them that any should be oppressed. [sidenote: enoch : - ] and there i saw one who had a head of days, and his head was white like wool, and with him was another being whose countenance had the appearance of a man, and his face was full of graciousness, like one of the holy angels. and i asked the angel who went with me and showed me all the hidden things, concerning that son of man, who he was, and whence he was, and why he went with the head of days? and he answered and said to me, "this is the son of man who hath righteousness, with whom dwelleth righteousness, and who reveals all the treasures of that which is hidden, because the lord of spirits hath chosen him, and his lot before the lord of spirits hath surpassed everything in uprightness for ever." [sidenote: enoch : - ] before the sun and the signs were created, before the stars of the heaven were made, his name was named before the lord of spirits. he will be a staff to the righteous on which they will support themselves and not fall, and he will be the light of the gentiles, and the hope of those whose hearts are troubled. all who dwell on earth will fall down and bow the knee before him and will bless and laud and magnify with song the lord of spirits. and for this reason hath he been chosen and hidden before him before the creation of the world and for evermore. [sidenote: enoch : - ] and he sat on the throne of his glory, and the sum of judgment was committed to him, and the son of man caused the sinners and those who have led the world astray to pass away and be destroyed from off the face of the earth. with chains they shall be bound, and in their assembling-place of destruction shall they be imprisoned, and all their works will vanish from the face of the earth. and henceforth there will be nothing that is corruptible; for the son of man hath appeared and sitteth on the throne of his glory, and all evil will pass away before his face and depart; but the word of the son of man will be strong before the lord of spirits. [sidenote: enoch : , ] and in those days will the earth also give back those who are treasured up within it, and sheol also will give back that which it has received, and hell will give back that which it owes. and he will choose the righteous and holy from among them; for the day of their redemption is at hand. i. the growth of israel's messianic hopes. eternal hopefulness is a marked characteristic of the hebrew race. throughout most of their history the greater the calamities that overtook them the greater was their assurance that these were but the prelude to a glorious vindication and deliverance. this hopefulness was not merely the result of their natural optimism, but of the belief, formed by their experiences in many a national crisis, that a god of justice was overruling the events of history, and that he was working not for man's destruction but for his highest happiness and well-being. it was their insight into the divine purpose that led the hebrew prophets to break away from the popular traditions that projected backward to the beginnings of history the realization of man's fondest hopes. instead they proclaimed that the golden era lay in the future rather than the past. the hopes of israel's prophets regarding that future took many different forms. often the form was determined by the earlier experiences of the nation. at many periods the people looked for a revival of the glories of the days of david. in later days, when they were oppressed by cruel persecutions, they revived in modified form the dreams that had been current in the childhood of the semitic race, and thought of a supernatural kingdom that was to be inaugurated after jehovah and his attendant angels, like marduk in the old babylonian tradition of the creation, had overcome satan and the fallen angels. israel's messianic hopes were also shaped and broadened by the teachings of the great ethical prophets. a growing realization of the imperfections of the existing order led them to look ever more expectantly to the time when the prophetic ideals of justice and mercy would be realized in society, as well as in the character of the individual. these different expectations regarding the future are broadly designated as messianic prophecies. the word "messianic," like its counterpart "messiah" (greek, "christ"), comes from the hebrew word meaning to smear or to anoint. it designated in ancient times the weapons consecrated for battle or the king chosen and thus symbolically set aside to lead the people as jehovah's representative, or a priest called to represent the people in the ceremonial worship. the common underlying idea in the word is that of consecration to a divine purpose. in its narrower application it describes simply the agent who is to realize god's purpose in history, but in its broader and prevailing usage it designates all prophecies that described the ideal which jehovah is seeking to perfect in the life of israel and of humanity, and the agents or agencies, whether individual or national, material or spiritual, natural or supernatural, by which he is to realize that ideal. ii. the kingly, nationalistic type of messianic hope. the messianic prophecies of the old testament seem only confusing and contradictory until the three distinct types are recognized. these different types of messianic prophecy naturally shade into each other, and yet they are fundamentally distinct and were represented throughout israel's history by different classes of thinkers. the first is the kingly, nationalistic type of hope. it came into existence as soon as israel became a nation, and may be traced in the balaam oracles in numbers : - , where the seer is represented as beholding israel's victorious king smiting its foes, the moabites and edomites, and ruling gloriously over a triumphant people. it is echoed in ii samuel : - in the promise that the house of david should rule peacefully and uninterruptedly through succeeding generations. ezekiel, in his picture of the restored nation in : - , declares in the name of jehovah that "my servant david shall be king over them and they shall dwell in the land that i have given to my servant jacob wherein their fathers dwelt, and they shall dwell therein, they and their sons forever, and david my servant shall be their prince forever." in such passages as isaiah and the davidic ruler is represented as reigning not despotically or selfishly, but in accordance with the principles of justice and mercy, bringing peace to all his subjects. as has already been noted, in the prophecies of haggai and zechariah and in connection with the rebuilding of the second temple israel's kingly, nationalistic hope reached its culmination, but through the victories of darius was rudely cast to the ground (section xcv:vi). for the next three centuries and a half, throughout the persian and greek periods, this type of israel's messianic hope was apparently silenced. the maccabean struggles and victories, however, and the oppressive rule of rome stirred this smouldering hope into a flame and gave it wide currency among the people at the beginning of the christian era. again the nation came to the forefront. in the beautiful prophecy of zechariah : , , which apparently comes from the earlier part of the maccabean era, is found the noble picture of a peasant king, humble yet victorious, establishing with the sword a world-wide kingdom. memories of the glorious achievements of the maccabean leaders kindled the popular imagination. when in b.c. rome's iron hand closed upon palestine, the eyes of the jews looked expectantly for the advent of a champion like david of old, who would crush the heathen, convict the sinful jews, and gather the faithful people, ruling over them in justice and with tender care. these hopes are most plainly expressed in the psalms of solomon, which were written near the beginning of the roman period. these expectations in their more material form inspired the party of the zelots during the earlier part of the first christian century repeatedly to unsheathe the sword in the vain effort to overthrow rome and to establish at once the rule of the messiah. it was because this type of hope was so strong in the minds of the common people that the false messiahs who rose from time to time were able quickly to gather thousands about them in the vain expectation that the moment of deliverance had at last arrived. iii. the apocalyptic, catastrophic type of messianic hope. another class of thinkers in israel looked not for a temporal but for a supernatural kingdom. it is usually described in the symbolic language of the apocalypse. the inauguration of this kingdom was not dependent upon man's activity but solely upon the will of god. the exact time and manner of its institution was clothed in mystery. traces of this belief are found in the references in amos to the popular expectations regarding the day of jehovah. evidently the northern israelites lived in anticipation of a great universal judgment day, in which their heathen foes would be suddenly destroyed and they themselves would be exalted. it was a belief which amos and the ethical prophets who followed him strongly combated, for they were fully aware of the fundamental weakness in the apocalyptic or catastrophic type of prophecy: it took away from the nation and individual all personal responsibility. furthermore, its roots went back to the old semitic mythology. this type of hope, however, was too firmly fixed in the popular mind to be dispelled even by the preaching of israel's greatest prophets. as a result of the calamities that gathered about the fall of the hebrew state it was revived. it is found in ezekiel, zechariah, and joel. each of these prophets looked forward to the time when jehovah would miraculously overthrow their heathen foes, restore his scattered people, and establish for them a world-wide, eternal kingdom. in the closing chapters of the book of daniel this form of belief attains its fullest expression in the old testament. in the similitudes of enoch ( - ), which come either from the latter part of the maccabean era or else from the days of herod, these messianic hopes are still further developed. instead of israel's guardian angel michael, represented as coming on the clouds from heaven and in appearance like a son of man, a heavenly messiah is introduced. he is known by the title of the messiah, the elect one, and the son of man (probably taken from the book of daniel). in enoch the term son of man has evidently become, as in iv esdras, the title of a personal messiah. he is described as pre-existent and gifted with the divine authority. when he appears, the dead are to rise, and angels, as well as men, are to be tried before his tribunal. the sinners and the fallen angels he will condemn to eternal punishment. all sin and wrong shall be driven from the earth. heaven and earth shall be transformed, and an eternal kingdom shall be established in which all the righteous, whether dead or living, shall participate. this was evidently the type of messianic hope held by the pharisees as well as the essenes. as the result of the teaching of the pharisees it was held widely by the jews of the first christian century. it was clearly in the minds of jesus' disciples when he made his last journey to jerusalem. it was both the background and the barrier to all his work. it is the key to the interpretation of paul's conception of the christ, or the messiah, for he had been educated a pharisee. this apocalyptic type of messianic hope powerfully influenced the life and thought of the early christian church and even permeated the gospel narratives. the question of how far jesus himself was influenced by it is one of the most vital and difficult problems of early christian history. iv. the ethical and universalistic type of messianic prophecy. far removed from the kingly, messianic hopes of the people and the supernatural visions of the apocalypses were the plain, direct, practical ideals of israel's great ethical prophets. amos, hosea, isaiah, and jeremiah all united in declaring that the realization of jehovah's purpose in history depended primarily upon the response of his people. they regarded the kingdom of god as a natural growth. it represented the gradual transformation of the characters of men under the influence of god's truth and spirit working in their minds. they hoped and labored to see the nation israel living in full accord with the demands of justice, mercy, and service. the ii isaiah, under the influences which grew out of the destruction of the temple and the closer contact with the heathen world, voiced this type of messianic hope in its broadest and most spiritualized form. he declared that the israelites had been called and trained for a unique service and that that service was to be performed by them quietly and unostentatiously, as prophets and teachers of men. he also presented most clearly israel's missionary ideal, and showed that its task was not to destroy but to bring light to the gentile world. he and the more enlightened prophets who followed him saw an ever-widening kingdom established without the aid of the sword and freed from all racial barriers--the eternal, universal, spiritual kingdom of god on earth. it is evident that in contrast to the other types of messianic prophecy this form was comprehensible, practicable, and alone capable of realization. v. the messianic hopes of judaism at the beginning of the christian era. unfortunately, as a result of the varied experiences through which judaism passed in the centuries immediately preceding the christian era, its ethical and universal messianic hopes were largely eclipsed. the ideal of the suffering servant appears to have been almost forgotten. as the later jews read the earlier scriptures of their race in order to determine what the future held in store for them, they fixed their eyes upon the kingly and apocalyptic prophecies. regarding all scriptures as equally authoritative, they attempted the impossible task of blending these fundamentally different types of prophecy. the result was that their beliefs became, indeed, a complex labyrinth with paths leading in opposite directions. later events have proved beyond question that these popular types were the dreams of religious enthusiasts rather than true pictures of the way in which the divine purpose was to be perfected in human history, and yet the apocalyptic type of prophecy was not without its significance. it tended to correct the narrow national hopes of the jews and to lift them to the consideration of that which was spiritual and eternal. it also led them to appreciate the unity of all history, and in times of distress it kept alive their faith in a god who was wisely guiding their destinies. underlying all these different types of prophecy is the appreciation of the broad truth that god was working out in the lives of men and nations a definite purpose, and that that purpose was good, and that the god back of all history was a god not only of power but also of love. it was inevitable that the ethical and more spiritual expectations of the early hebrew prophets should find the fullest response in the heart and life of the great teacher. in the face of opposition from the leaders of his race, from the multitudes that gathered about him, and even from the disciples who loved and followed him, he proclaimed that the kingdom of god would not come by observation, but that its growth would be natural and gradual like that of the mustard seed, that it was not external but within the hearts of men, that membership in that kingdom depended not upon the arbitrary will of god, but upon men's acting in accord with that will in the every-day relations of life. thus jesus prepared the way for the complete fulfillment of all that was noblest and best in israel's messianic hopes, and in his character and teachings far surpassed the highest expectations of the inspired teachers of his race. appendix i a practical reference library books for constant reference. the complete text of the biblical writings of the post-exilic period are found in volumes ii to vi of the _student's old testament_. a careful, thorough résumé of the history is contained in riggs's _history of the jewish people during the maccabean and roman periods_. professor bevan, in his _jerusalem under the high priests_, presents, especially from the ecclesiastical point of view, a fresh survey of the history during the greek and maccabean periods. the geographical background may be studied either in george adam smith's _historical geography of the holy land_ or in kent's _biblical geography and history_. additional books of reference: introductions and commentaries. in addition to the standard old testament introductions by mcfadyen, cornill, and driver, the collection of monographs in professor torrey's _ezra studies_ will be found especially valuable. the introduction, as well as the critical notes, in the brief yet scholarly volumes of the _new century bible_ are exceedingly useful for the general reader. more fundamental are the volumes in the _international critical commentary._ the introductions to the different books in hastings' _dictionary of the bible_ and the _encyclopedia biblica_ are clear, concise, and written from the modern point of view. jewish and contemporary history. the thorough student of this period will find a wealth of suggestive material in smith's _old testament history_ and in schürer's monumental work, _a history of the jewish people in the time of jesus christ_. the later development of israel's religion is presented in marti's _religion of the old testament_, in the first part of toy's _judaism and christianity_, in bousset's _judaism_, and in charles's _eschatology, hebrew, jewish and christian_. an excellent survey of the contemporary history of the period is to be found in the _history of the ancient world_ by goodspeed or in meyer's _ancient history._ a more detailed treatment of the contemporary history will be found in the _history of greece_ by curtius or by holm. the _history of rome_ is fully traced in the monumental works of mommsen or gibbon or the more recent study in _the greatness and decline of rome_ by ferrero. briefer but equally reliable histories of rome are those by botsford, horton, and seignobos. ii general questions and subjects for special research the general questions, as in the preceding volumes, follow the main divisions of the book, and are intended to guide the student in collecting and co-ordinating the more important facts presented in the biblical text or in the notes. the subjects for special research are intended to guide the reader to further study in related lines, and, by means of detailed references, to introduce him to the most helpful passages in the best english books of reference. in class-room work many of these topics may be profitably assigned for personal research and report. the references are to pages, unless otherwise indicated. ordinarily, several parallel references are given that the student may be able to utilize the book at hand. more detailed classified bibliographies will be found in the appendices of volumes ii-vi of the author's _student's old testament_. the exile and revival of the judean community section xci. the jews in palestine and egypt. general questions: . what did the final destruction of jerusalem in mean to the jewish people? . describe the structure and contents of the book of lamentations. . its probable authorship and date. . its theme and historical value. . the condition of the jews who were left in palestine. . the numbers of the jews in egypt. . the life of the jewish colony at elephantine. . the character and service of the temple of jahu. subjects for special research: . the literary history of the book of lamentations. mcfadyen, _introd._, - ; driver, _lit. of the o.t._, - . . history of egypt from to b.c. breasted, _hist, of the ancient egyptians_, - . . the discoveries at elephantine. sayce and cowley, _aramaic papyri discovered at assuan_; sachau, _drei aramäische papyrururkunden aus elephantine_. section xcii. ezekiel's message to his scattered countrymen. general questions: . describe the situation of the jewish colony in babylon. . their opportunities and occupations. . their religious life. . the prophecies of ezekiel after the destruction of jerusalem. . meaning of his description of the valley of dry bones in chapter . . his conception of the way in which the scattered exiles were to be restored. . his plan of the restored temple. . the meaning and significance of this detailed plan. subjects for special research: . babylon under nebuchadrezzar. goodspeed, _hist. of babs. and assyrs_., - ; _en. bib_., iii, - . . the religious institutions of the babylonians. goodspeed, _hist. of babs. and assyrs._, - ; jastrow, _relig. of bab. and assyr._; johns, _bab. and assyr. laws, letters, and contracts_, - . . influence of babylonian institutions upon ezekiel. toy, _ezek._ (introd.). section xciii. the closing years of the babylonian rule. general questions. . describe the different influences that transformed the jews into a literary people. . the nature of their literary activity. . the old testament books that were written or re-edited during this period. . the general character of the holiness code. . the national hopes inspired by the liberation of jehoiachin. . the character of nabonidus. . the effects of his rule. . the early conquests of cyrus. . his capture of babylon. . his policy toward conquered peoples. subjects for special research: . contents and history of the holiness code. _st. o.t._, iv, - ; mcfadyen, _introd. to o.t._, - . . the last decade of babylonian history. goodspeed, _hist. of babs. and assyrs._, - ; kent, _hist. j.p._, - . . character and reign of cyrus. herodotus, i, , - , - ; hastings, _d.b._, i, - ; rawlinson, _anc. monarchies_, iv, vii; duncker, _hist. of antiq._, v. section xciv. the rebuilding of the temple. general questions: describe the contents and literary history of the books of ezra and nehemiah. . their authorship. . the chronicler's peculiar ideas regarding the restoration. . revolutions in the persian empire that aroused the jews to action. . haggai's appeal to the judean community. . measures taken to stop the rebuilding of the temple. . meaning of the rebuilding of the temple to the jewish race. subjects for special research: . the historical value of ezra and nehemiah. torrey, _composition and historical value of ezra and nehemiah,_ or _ezra studies_, - . . the first two decades of persian history. goodspeed, _hist. of ancient world_, - ; ragozin, _the story of media_, ii; meyer, _anc. hist_., - . . evidence that there was no general return of the jews in b.c. kent, _hist. j.p._, - ; torrey, _ezra studies_, - . section xcv. zechariah's visions and encouraging addresses. general questions: . describe the evidence that zechariah wrote from the point of view of a priest. . the structure and contents of his book. . the problems of the judean community. . their hopes of a national revival. . zechariah's assurances. . the steps that were taken to make zerubbabel king. . evidence that the popular kingly hopes were disappointed. . the content of zechariah's later sermons. . the hopes which he inspired in his fellow-countrymen. subjects for special research: . origin of the apocalyptic type of prophecy. _jewish encyc._, i, - ; _st. o.t._, ill, - ; hastings, _d. b., i_, - . . the popular messianic hopes of the period. _st. o.t._, iii, - , - . . the establishment of darius' authority. herodotus, ii, - ; ragozin, _media_, xiii; hastings, _d. b._, i, . section xcvi. israel's training and destiny. general questions: . describe the conditions in the judean community during the seventy years following the rebuilding of the temple. . the forces that kept alive the spiritual life of the jews. . the indications that isaiah - were written in palestine. . the probable date of these chapters. . their distinctive literary characteristics. . the purpose for which they were written. subjects foe special research: . the organization of the persian empire under darius. goodspeed, _hist, of anc. world_, - ; ragozin, _media_, - ; sayce, _anc. empires_, - ; _en. bib_., i, - . . the persian invasions of europe. goodspeed, _anc. hist._, - ; herodotus, iv, - ; ragozin, _media_, - ; bury, _hist. of greece_, - ; botsford, _hist. of greece_, - . . contents and literary characteristics of isaiah - . _st. o. t_., ill, - ; cobb, in _jour, of bib. lit_., xxvii, - ; box, _isaiah_, - . section xcvii. conditions and problems in the jewish community. general questions: i. what is the probable date of the book of malachi? . describe its teachings regarding the temple service. . the need of a great moral awakening. . the doubts expressed by the faithful in the community. . the encouraging promises held out to them. . presentation of the problem of the faithful in the psalms of the period. subjects for special research: . contemporary greek history and literature. goodspeed, _anc. hist._, - ; bury, _hist. of greece_, - ; jebb, _greek lit._, - . . the earliest psalms. briggs, _psalms_, i, lxxxix-xcii; cobb, _bk. of pss._, xi-xiv; driver, _lit. of the o.t._, - ; mcfadyen, _introd. to o.t._, - . . psalm literature among contemporary peoples. breasted, _hist. of anc. egyptians_, - ; jastrow, _relig. of bab. and assyr._, - . section xcviii. the problems and teachings of the book of job. general questions: . describe the structure of the book of job. . the different literary units which have entered into it. . the probable dates of these different sections. . contents of the original prose story. . the theme and contents of the great poem in - , : - : . . the different lines of progress in job's thought. . the meaning of the speeches of jehovah. . the contribution of the book to the solution of the problem of evil. subjects for special research: . the babylonian prototype of job. jastrow, in _jour. of bib. lit._, xxv, pt. ii, - . . comparison of job with other great skeptical dramas. owen, _the five great skeptical dramas of history_. . the modern explanations of the problem of evil. royce, _studies of good and evil_. section xcix. the training and mission of the true servant of jehovah. general questions: . describe the different characteristics of jehovah's servant in isaiah - . . what was the prophet's purpose in presenting this vivid portrait of jehovah's ideal servant? . describe the class to whom the prophet appealed. . his interpretation of the task of the servant. . his training. . the different methods whereby he was to accomplish his mission. . did the prophet have in mind an individual, a class, or simply an ideal character? . in what ways were his predictions fulfilled? . in what sense is his ideal of service of present-day application? subjects for special research: . the meaning and history of the different messianic titles. _st. o.t._, iii, , ; _en. bib._, iii, - . . contents and unity of isaiah - . _st. o.t._, iii, - ; box, _isaiah_, - . . how far was jesus influenced by the ideal of the suffering servant? section c. nehemiah's work in rebuilding the walls of jerusalem. general questions: . what is the historical value of nehemiah's memoirs? . in what way was he informed of conditions in jerusalem? . how did he secure permission to go to jerusalem? . describe the obstacles that there confronted him. . his plan of work. . his diplomacy in dealing with his opponents. . the task of rebuilding the walls. . their dedication. . the significance of the rebuilding of the walls. subjects for special research: . contemporary events in greek history. goodspeed, _anc. hist._, - ; bury, _hist, of greece_, - ; botsford, _hist, of greece_, - . . the topography of jerusalem. kent, _sib. geog. and hist._, - ; smith, _jerusalem_, i, i- ; hastings, _d.b._, ii, - . . recent excavations at jerusalem. _jerusalem vol. of p. e. f. memoirs_; bliss and dickey, _excavations at jerusalem_; smith, _jerusalem_, i. section ci. nehemiah's social and religious reforms. general questions: . describe the cruel oppression of the leaders of the jewish community. . the effect upon the mass of the people. . the way in which nehemiah corrected these evils. . the evidence for and against the historical accuracy of nehemiah . . nehemiah's measures to improve the temple service. . his emphasis upon sabbath observance. . his opposition to foreign marriages. . the importance of his work as a whole. subjects for special research: i. in what respects was nehemiah a worthy successor of the earlier hebrew prophets? . the later jewish laws regarding the sabbath. _st. o.t._, iv, - . . regarding marriage with foreigners. _st. o.t._, iv, - . section cii. traditional account of the adoption of the priestly law. general questions: . describe the present literary form of the tradition regarding ezra. . its probable history. . its historical value. . the facts underlying it. . origin of the later priestly laws. . their general purpose. . their more important regulations. . their transforming influence upon the jewish community. subjects for special research: . the difficulties in accepting the ezra narrative as strictly historical. torrey, _ezra studies_, - ; smith, _o.t. hist._, - . . history of the later priestly codes. _st. o.t._, iv, - . . income and duties of the priests and levites according to the late priestly codes. _st. o.t._, iv, - , - . section ciii. the jewish state during the last century of persian rule. general questions: i. describe the indications that the judean community enjoyed unusual prosperity during the half-century following the work of nehemiah. . the effect of this prosperity upon the intellectual life of the jews. . the growth of the psalter during this period. . the date of the prophecy of joel. . its theme. . the hopes of the jews at this time. . nature of the rule of the high priests. . the evidence regarding the date of the samaritan schism. . its causes. . its effect upon judaism. subjects fob special research: . history of the persian empire between and b.c. cox, _the greeks and the persians_. . contemporary events in greek history. goodspeed, _hist. of anc. world_, - ; meyer, _anc. hist._, - . . the history of the samaritans. _en. bib._, iv, - ; montgomery, _the samaritans_. the greek and maccabean age section civ. the jews under their greek rulers. general questions: . describe the character of the jewish historian, josephus. . the extent of his histories. . their historical value. . alexander's asiatic conquests. . his attitude toward the jews. . the jews in alexandria. . the general character of the rule of the ptolemies. . their policy in the treatment of the jews. . fortunes of the jews of palestine during the first century of greek rule. . the seleucid kingdom with its capital at antioch. . the subjugation of palestine by the seleucids. subjects for special research: . josephus's rank as a historian. hastings, _d.b._, extra vol., - . . alexander the great. mahaffy, _the story of alexander's empire_, - ; hogarth, _philip and alexander of macedon_; wheeler, _alexander the great_. . character of the ptolemaic rulers. bevan, _jerusalem under the high priests_, - ; mahaffy, _the ptolemaic dynasty_, vol. iv of petrie's _hist. of egypt_. section cv. the wise and their teachings. general questions: . describe the literary structure of the book of proverbs. . the evidence that it is the work of many different wise men. . the probable date of the different collections. . the references to the wise in the pre-exilic literature. . the influence of the babylonian exile upon their activity. . the reasons why they attained their greatest prominence in the greek period. . the character of the wise. . their aims. . their methods. . their important social and moral teachings. subjects for special research: . the book of proverbs. mcfadyen, _introd. to o.t._, - ; driver, _l. o.t._, - ; toy, _proverbs_, introd. . the sages of egypt and greece. the wisdom of ptah-hotep, in the _wisdom of the east series_; symonds, _studies of the greek poets_, i, - ; jebb, _classical greek poetry_. . the social teachings of the book of proverbs. _st. o. t_., vi, _in loco_; kent, _the wise men of ancient israel and their proverbs_, - , - ; root, _the profit of the many_, - . section cvi. the different currents of thought in judaism during the greek period. general questions: . why were there many different currents of thought in judaism during this period? . describe the character and aims of the ritualists. . of the legalists. . of those who laid especial emphasis upon the teaching of the earlier prophets. . the evidence regarding the date of the book of jonah. . the meaning of the story. . its teaching. . the history of the book of ecclesiastes. . its point of view. . its philosophy of life. subjects for special research: . the chronicler's conception of the origin of israel's institutions. curtis, _chronicles_, introd.; torrey, _ezra studies_, - ; _st. o. t_., ii, - . . greek myths parallel to the story of jonah. _en. bib_., ii, - ; taylor, _primitive culture_, i, . . a comparison of koheleth's philosophy and teaching with those of the author of omar khayyam. section cvii. the teachings of jesus the son of sirach. general questions: . describe the evidence regarding the date of jesus the son of sirach. . the character of the man. . the history of his writings. . the nature of the greek translation. . the recovery of the hebrew original. . its picture of the jewish life of the period. . its description of the wise men and scribes. . its social teachings. . its religious teachings. subjects for special research: . the hebrew fragments of ben sira. cowley and neubauer, _the original heb. of a portion of ecclus._; schechter and taylor, _the wisdom of ben-sira;_ hastings, _d.b._, iv, - ; _en. bib._, ii, - . . the character of ben sira as revealed in his writings. hastings, _d.b._, iv, ; _en. bib._, ii, - ; bevan, _jerusalem under the high priests_, - . . a comparison of the moral and social teachings of ben sira with those of the book of proverbs. bevan, _jerusalem under the high priests_, - . section cviii. the causes of the maccabean struggle. general questions: . describe the general character of i maccabees. . its historical value. . ii maccabees. . the attractive and aggressive qualities in the contemporary hellenic culture. . its superiority to the teachings of judaism. . the elements in which judaism was superior. . the conquest of hellenism in the ranks of judaism. . the influence of the apostate jewish high priests. . the history and character of antiochus epiphanes. . reasons why he attempted to hellenize the jews. . the measures which he adopted. subjects for special research: . the characteristics of greek religion. gulick, _life of the ancient greeks_, - ; dyer, _the gods in greece_; goodspeed, _hist. of anc. world_, - ; hastings, _d.b._, extra vol., - . . the historical value of ii maccabees. hastings, _d.b._, iii, - ; _en. bib._, iii, - . . contemporary portraits of antiochus epiphanes. _livy_, xli-xlv; _polybius_, xxvi-xxxi; _appian, syr._, , ; _justin_, xxiv, . section cix. the effect of persecution on the jews. general questions: . describe the uprising led by mattathias. . the methods adopted by the rebels. . the origin and political principles of the hasideans or pious. . the evidence regarding the date of the visions in daniel - . . their literary character. . their meaning and aims. . the identification of the four heathen kingdoms. . the message of hope presented in these chapters. . its effect upon the persecuted jews. subjects for special research: . the town of modein. kent, _bib. geog. and hist._, - ; smith, _hist. geog. of holy land_, . . contents and literary history of the book of daniel. mcfadyen, _introd. to o.t._, - ; driver, _l. o.t._, - ; hastings, _d.b._, i, - . section cx. the victories that gave the jews religious liberty. general questions: . describe the characteristics that fitted judas to be a great political leader. . the odds against which he and the jews contended. . the physical contour of western palestine. . the defeat of apollonius. . of the syrian army under seron. . the details of the battle of emmaus. . the significance of the victory at bethsura. . the restoration of the temple service. . the effect of the persecutions upon the jews. subjects for special research: . greek military equipment and methods of warfare. gulick, _life of the anc. greeks_, - . . the western headlands of judah. kent, _bib. geog. and hist._, - ; smith, _hist. geog. of holy land_, - . . comparison of judas with other great military commanders. conder, _judas maccabaeus_; bevan, _jer. under the high priests_, - ; smith, _o.t. hist._, . section cxi. the long contest for political independence. general questions: . describe the attitude of the heathen nations toward the jews. . the political problems that confronted them. . the jewish attitude toward the heathen reflected in the book of esther. , judas's east-jordan campaign. . results of the battle of beth-zacharias. . the re-establishment of syrian authority. . the victories over nicanor. . the causes which resulted in the death of judas. . conditions in the syrian court which gave the jews their great opportunity. . the character and policy of jonathan. . the honors and authority granted him by the rival syrian kings. subjects for special research: . the history and value of the book of esther. paton, _esther_; hastings, _d. b., i_, - ; _en. bib._, ii, - . . the syrian history of the period. bevan, _jer. under the high priests_, - ; smith, _o.t. hist._, - . . the scenes of judas's east-jordan campaign. kent, _bib. geog. and hist._, - . section cxii. peace and prosperity under simon. general questions: . describe the political intrigues which resulted in the death of jonathan. . the character and rule of simon. . his extension of the jewish territory. . the authority granted him by the jews. . his development of the temple service. . the causes that led to the completion of the psalter. . the religious life and faith reflected in the later psalms. subjects for special research: . compare the characters of the three brothers, judas, jonathan, and simon. . the guilds of temple singers. hastings, _d.b._, iv, - ; wellhausen, _the book of psalms_ (in _s.b. o.t._), - . . the evidence that many of the psalms come from the maccabean period. hastings, _d.b._, iv, - ; cheyne, _origin of the psalter_. section cxiii. the rule of john hyrcanus and aristobulus. general questions: . describe the intrigue that resulted in the death of simon. . the syrian invasion under antiochus sidetes. . the character of john hyrcanus. . his military policy. . his conquests in the north and south. . the reasons why he lost the support of the pharisees. . the significant events in the reign of aristobulus. subjects for special research: . contemporary conditions in the syrian kingdom. _en. bib._, iv, - ; gardner, _the seleucid kings of syria_. . the history of the idumeans. hastings, _d.b._, i, - ; _en. bib._, ii, - ; buhl, _edomites._ . compare the policy of john hyrcanus with that of david. section cxiv. the pharisees, sadducees, and essenes. general questions: i. describe the influences that gave rise to the party of the pharisees. . of the sadducees. . the characteristics and beliefs of the pharisees. . of the sadducees. . the political influence of these parties. . the characteristics of the sect of the essenes. . their beliefs. subjects for special research: . the party of the pharisees. hastings, _d.b._, iii, - ; _en. bib._, iv, - . . the sadducees. hastings, _d.b._, iv, - ; _en. bib._, iv, - . . the points of contact between essenism and christianity. hastings, _d.b._, i, - ; _en. bib._, ii, - ; thomson, _books which influenced our lord_, - ; cheyne, _origin of the psalter_, - , - . section cxv. the life and faith of the jews of the dispersion. general questions: . describe the life of the jews in antioch and asia minor. . the privileges granted them by the syrian king. . the number of the jews in egypt. . the privileges granted them by the ptolemies. . the founding of the jewish temple at leontopolis. . its significance. . the occasion of the translation of the hebrew scriptures into greek. . the important apologetic jewish writings. . the theme and date of the wisdom of solomon. . its important teachings. . its reflections of greek and jewish thought. subjects for special research: . characteristics and value of the greek translation of the old testament. hastings, _d.b._, iv, - ; swete, _introd. to the old testament in greek_; _en. bib._, iv, - . . the history and contents of the wisdom of solomon. hastings, _d.b._, iv, - ; _en. bib._, iv, - ; deane, _the book of wisdom_, - ; gregg, _the wisd. of sol._ section cxvi. the decline of the maccabean kingdom. general questions: . describe the character of alexander janneus. . his military policy. . his treatment of his subjects. . the extension of jewish territory. . the effects of his rule. . alexandra's policy. . the fatal mistakes of the pharisees. . the suicidal quarrels between her sons, hyrcanus and aristobulus. . the intrigues of antipater. . the appeal to rome. . pompey's intervention and capture of jerusalem. . the causes of the fall of the maccabean kingdom. . the political effects of the maccabean struggle. . the impression which it made upon israel's faith. . the new spirit that it inspired in the jews. subjects for special research: . rome's policy and campaigns in the east. goodspeed, _hist. of anc. world_, - ; seignobos, _hist. of rom. people_, - . . rome's earlier relation to the jewish kingdom. . the character and career of pompey. goodspeed, _hist. of anc. world_, - ; botsford, _hist. of rome_, - , - ; morey, _outlines of roman hist._, ch. . the rule of rome section cxvii. the rise of the herodian house. general questions: . describe the repeated rebellions against rome that were instigated and led by aristobulus and his sons. . the reasons why the jews rallied about their standard. . antipater's character and policy. . herod's career as governor of galilee. . the parthian conquest and the temporary restoration of the maccabean rule. . the immediate effect upon herod and his family. . reasons why he was appointed king of the jews by antony and octavian. subjects for special research: . the fortresses of alexandrium and macherus. smith, _hist. geog. of the holy land_, - , - ; kent, _bib. geog. and hist._, , - ; schurer, _h.j.p._, i, i, - . . the history of rome from to b.c. botsford, _hist. of rome_, - ; fowler, _julius caesar_; mahaffy, _gk. world under roman sway_, ch. iv. . the parthians. hastings, _d.b._, iii, - . section cxviii. herod's policy and reign. general questions: . describe the strength and weakness of herod's character. . the ways in which he won the favor of augustus. . his building activity within his kingdom. . outside of palestine. . his treatment of his subjects. . his record as husband and father. . the effects of his reign. subjects for special research: . rome under augustus. botsford, _hist. of rome_, - ; bury, _student's rom. emp._, chs. i-xiv; capes, _early empire_, chs. i-iii, xii-xix. . herod's caesarea. smith, _hist. geog. of the holy land_, - ; _en. bib._, i, - ; kent, _bib. geog. and hist._, . . the various sides of herod's character. hastings, _d.b._, ii, - ; _en. bib._, ii, - ; bevan, _jer. under the high priests_, - . section cxix. herod's temple. general questions: . describe the motives that inspired herod to rebuild the temple at jerusalem. . his preparations for the work. . the extension of the temple area. . the different gates leading to it. . the surrounding porches. . the temple proper. . the temple officials. . the temple service. subjects for special research: . the detailed plan and dimensions of herod's temple. hastings, _d.b._, iv, - ; _en bib._, iv, - ; warren, _the temple and the tomb_; smith, _jerusalem_, ii, - . . the administration of the temple finances. hastings, _d.b._, iv, - ; _en. bib._, iv, - ; smith, _jerusalem_, i, - . . the inscription forbidding foreigners to enter the inner courts. hastings, _d.b._, iv, - . section cxx. the messianic hopes and religious beliefs of judaism. general questions: . describe the influences that determined the growth of israel's messianic hopes. . the different forms which these hopes assumed. . the kingly nationalistic type of messianic hope. . the characteristics and development of the apocalyptic, catastrophic type of hope. . the type proclaimed by the great ethical prophets. . the broadening and universalizing of israel's messianic hopes. . the influence of the maccabean struggle upon israel's messianic beliefs. . the messianic expectations of the jews at the beginning of the christian era. subjects for special research: . the origin of israel's messianic hopes. _st. o. t_., ill, - ; goodspeed, _israel's messianic hope_; oesterley, _evolution of the messianic idea_. . the sibylline oracles. deane, _pseudepigrapha_; hastings, _d.b._, extra vol., - . . the psalms of solomon. ryle and james, _the pss. of sol._; deane, _pseudepigrapha_, - . stories of the prophets commission on jewish education of the union of american hebrew congregations and the central conference of american rabbis david philipson, chairman joseph l. baron david marx edward n. calisch s. felix mendelsohn h. g. enelow julian morgenstern harry w. ettelson joseph rauch max heller william rosenau samuel koch samuel schulman gerson b. levi abba h. silver harry levi abram simon louis l. mann louis witt louis wolsey george zepin, secretary stories of the prophets (before the exile) by isaac landman to my parents who first introduced me to the prophets, this book is dedicated with love and devotion. contents. i. the shepherd of tekoah. . an end to war . in the days of prosperity . the man who dared . treason and a fight . priest against prophet . the prophet in tekoah ii. the man who learned his lesson. . an eventful night . the tragedy with a purpose . the repentant returns iii. the statesman prophet. . the vision in the temple . the parable of the vineyard . a coward on the throne . on deaf ears . the survival of the fittest . working with the remnant . like father, like son . the prophet triumphs . the fruit of his labor iv. the commoner. . his awakening . the cause of the common people . when samaria fell . judah learns its lesson v. the prophet of woe and hope. . the escape . the boy king . jeremiah's call . the seething caldron . the great discovery . a new covenant . to the fore again . the shadow of a king . the temple of the lord . a narrow escape . a taste of martyrdom . the woe of the prophet . teacher and pupil . baruch's first venture . the king hears and acts . beginning of the end . the first deportation . in exile and in the homeland . a friend in need . in the midst of despair . lamentations and a vain hope . cowardice and treachery . jeremiah, the martyred list of illustrations "_the vision of isaiah the son of amoz._"--isaiah i, "_prepare to meet thy god, o israel._"--amos iv, "_yea, i will betroth thee unto me in righteousness, and in judgment, and in loving kindness, and in mercy._"--hosea ii, "_here am i, send me._"--isaiah vi, "_and they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning-hooks._"--isaiah ii, "_for the transgression of jacob is all this, and for the sins of the house of israel._"--micah i, "_i sat alone because of thy hand._"--jeremiah xv, "_and thou, pashur, and all that dwell in thy house shall go into captivity._"--jeremiah xx, foreword the company of inspired men, commonly known as the prophets of israel, were the unique product of the jewish religious genius. they were pre-eminently preachers of righteousness. fearless and undaunted, they told the house of israel their sins and the house of jacob their transgressions. they contemplated the facts of life from the highest point of view. for them religion and morality were blended, ethics and politics were one. theirs was peculiarly a social message; the demand for justice underlies all their thinking and speaking. they had a veritable passion for righteousness; through all the ages their words have been torches lighting the way of men struggling upward towards the truth. though living over twenty-six hundred years ago, these men are very modern. as a great thinker has well said, "the spirit of the prophets of israel is in the modern soul." the foremost workers for the welfare of their fellowmen to-day posit social justice as the first article of their program. the world to-day, as never before, is filled with cries for social righteousness as the indispensable foundation for the structure of society. what is this but harking back to the eternal message of the ancient prophets? "let justice flow as water" passionately and unreservedly demanded amos of old; for him and his brother prophets this was the sine qua non for society's welfare; the same may be said of the thousands and tens of thousands to-day of every creed and every nation who are toiling for the social salvation of their fellowmen the world over. ages meet; the words of the ancient preachers of righteousness are still the inspiration for the seekers after justice everywhere. the story of the life work of these giants of the spirit has often been told, but it can be told none too often, particularly if the telling is well done, as is the case in the present volume. each one of these men delivered the same message in his own individual and inimitable way. yet their work was continuous and forms a consecutive tale. in the speeches and experiences of each one of them the eternal truths they present appears in differing light. the author of the present volume approaches his subject, one might say, from the dramatic standpoint, for, with fine insight, he has culled from the lives of the prophets those striking and intense experiences which illustrate most powerfully the indomitable spirit of these men who followed right in scorn of consequence, for were they not the messengers of the god of right whose demand upon men is, as told by one of them in imperishable words, to do justice, to love mercy and to walk humbly with god? the author has succeeded well in his characterization of the various prophets. his pages glow with the vital spark of each prophet's flaming figure. he has named his book fittingly "stories of the prophets," and interesting stories has he told. he has brought to his task not only a sympathetic appreciation of his subject, but an imaginative faculty that has enabled him to supply links in the narrative suggested if not actually given in the incidents preserved in the recorded annals. from the words of the prophets themselves he has, therefore, occasionally built up situations which if not strictly indicated in the original text may, at any rate, be imagined. not as predictors of events in the far future, for this the prophets were not, despite frequent interpretations of their words along this line, but as bold speakers of the truth, as fiery preachers of the right, as intrepid champions of the poor and oppressed, as fearless denouncers of corruption and wrong in high places does our author present the leading figures in his book. as such, their words are as significant for us to-day as they were for the men of their generation, and their impassioned accents sound as forcefully now as they did then. this is brought out clearly and strikingly in the sketches of this volume, which without doubt will succeed in giving a vivid picture to the reader of these towering spirtual heroes who belong to the ages, speakers of the everlasting nays and yeas of the everlasting god. david philipson. cincinnati, september, . the shepherd of tekoa chapter i. _an end to war._ "damascus has fallen! damascus has fallen!!" the whole city of samaria rang with the glad tidings. fleet-footed runners, who had started with this precious news on the day of victory, covered more than one hundred and fifty miles to bring it to the capital of the kingdom of israel. they crossed mountains and swam rivers, fairly flew over fertile plains and through busy cities, shouting, while there was breath in their bodies: "damascus has fallen!" many of the messengers fell exhausted on the way, but others took up the wonderful news from the front and carried it on, until the whole northern part of the kingdom knew of the king's victory. little by little the whole story was told to the eager samarians--how the king, jeroboam ii, himself led the hosts of israel; how attack followed attack upon the fortified syrian capital; how the first breach was made in the outer wall; how the valiant israelites rushed upon the enemy, and how the final victory was won for israel's standard. what a celebration was there in samaria that long-to-be-remembered day! not since the days when the first jeroboam led the rebellion of the ten tribes against king solomon's weak son, rehoboam, and established the independent kingdom of the ten tribes, with samaria as the capital, was there such rejoicing in that city. we can picture the celebration in our mind's eye; we cannot describe it in words. parents who had sent their sons to the war now laughed happily through their tears, because there would be an end to war. sisters whose brothers doubtless lay dead in and about the walls of the doomed city, now sang songs of joy in the midst of their weeping, because there would be an end to war. the strongest and finest men of israel had given their lives for their country, but now, thank god! there would be an end to war. the fall of damascus meant the end of a hundred and fifty years' war, commenced by ben-hadad i, of syria, against israel, long before jeroboam's great-grandfather established the dynasty of jehu on the throne of israel. it meant even more than that; it meant the end of syrian oppression, and, perhaps, a period of peace to the long-troubled and war-ridden kingdom of israel. no wonder, then, that there were feasts of rejoicing and full-throated cries: "damascus has fallen! long live king jeroboam!" "damascus has fallen! long life to the house of jehu!" all day and all night samaria swarmed with people. the streets were thronged with shouting men and women who had come from geba and dothan, and even from jezreel on the north, and from schechem and shiloh and bethel on the south, to help celebrate the great victory. sacrifices were brought at all the sanctuaries of israel--in bethel, in dan, in gilgal, in beersheba. priests and people brought thank-offerings, and, together, sang praises to god: "god is my light and my salvation, whom shall i fear? god is the strength of my life, of whom shall i be afraid?" truly, god was on the side of israel, or else the syrians could not have been defeated. he was showing favor to the northern kingdom, and was pleased with israel, for was not judah, the southern kingdom, too, paying tribute to jeroboam? and so they recalled how joash, the father of the great jeroboam ii, defeated amaziah, king of judah, took him captive, partially demolished the walls of jerusalem, and looted the temple in jerusalem. the older men of samaria remembered the fine sarcasm with which joash treated amaziah's challenge to war, in his reply: "the thistle that was in lebanon sent to the cedar that was in lebanon, saying, 'give thy daughter to my son to wife,' and there passed by a wild beast that was in lebanon, and trod down the thistle." how young and old laughed at the repetition of this clever little story that compared israel to a cedar in its strength and to a wild beast in its fighting power, and judah to a poor, little thistle to be tramped upon! jeroboam ii was indeed a son of his father. joash humbled judah, israel's enemy on the south; jeroboam humbled syria, israel's enemy on the north. not satisfied with the fall of damascus, however, jeroboam pushed right ahead and captured lodebar and karnaim, which he turned over to assur-dan, king of assyria. the fact is that jeroboam had to do this. it was his end of a bargain made with assur-dan. it was agreed between the two that the assyrians would keep their hands off during the war between israel and syria. as a reward for assur-dan's non-interference, jeroboam undertook to capture these two cities and turn them over to the syrians to become part of his empire. having fulfilled his agreement, jeroboam continued his victorious march further north, and never stopped until he had laid low the pride of hamath, the prosperous city on the river orontes. jeroboam ii, thus had the great distinction of restoring the boundaries of the kingdom of israel to the proportions of the empire of david and solomon, "from the entrance of hamath unto the sea of arabah," which is the dead sea. wonderful was the reception prepared for the king and his victorious army on their return to samaria. more people had come to the city to join in the welcoming demonstration than had pilgrimed to jerusalem on the passover, in the days before the division of the kingdom. the northern walls were massed with people, and the gates were decorated with flowers. priests and elders, dressed in spotless white and led by the high priest, amaziah, himself, awaited jeroboam and his generals just outside of the city and preceded them to the gates. such an acclamation of joy as greeted the king upon his entrance through the gates had never been heard in samaria. passing through a triumphal arch of stone and marble, the procession was met by hundreds of maidens and children, clothed in linen and gold, who led the way, singing and strewing flowers in the path of the heroes. a turn in the street led to the market-place. here had been built a great triumphal arch of ivory and gold, beyond which was an altar, specially erected for the occasion. passing through the arch, amaziah and jeroboam mounted the steps that led to the altar. all the rest remained below. when the priest and the king faced the people the singing and the shouting ceased. with due ceremony, and according to the rites, the king brought a thanks-offering to god for his victories and his safe return. when amaziah placed the sacrifice upon the altar a deep hush fell over the great assembly. slowly the smoke of the sacrifice rose to heaven, and the multitude of people, like one man, fell on their knees and worshiped. jeroboam was deeply moved. solemnly he raised his right hand, and, from the depths of his grateful heart, he said: "peace to the house of israel!" like the rumble of a mighty wave rolling toward the shore came the response from the sea of worshiping people: "to the house of israel, peace!" for one whole week after jeroboam's triumphant entry into the capital, samaria was a place of feasting and rejoicing. when, by command of the king, the celebration came to an end and the people began to return to their homes, each one, on leaving the city's gates, repeated to himself the now answered prayer of over a century: "peace to the house of israel! to the house of israel, peace!" chapter ii. _in the days of prosperity._ it was market day in samaria. great throngs of people crowded all the streets. they jostled each other good naturedly, traded, bargained, renewed acquaintanceship, spoke of their home towns and expressed the hope of meeting again. the market place itself, where the many bazaars displayed wonderful merchandise from many cities and many lands, was an especially lively place. it was gay with life and color. gilded chariots and ivory-bedecked litters passed to and fro. heralds announced particularly important personages and escorts and cleared a way for them with whip or spear. military men and merchant princes, with many followers, often scattered the smaller merchants and petty traders in their path through the market. many were caught under the wheels of the vehicles of the rich when they did not get out of the way quickly enough. others were purposely thrust aside by the wealthy aristocrats simply to show their disdain. it was a typical samarian market day--crowds and noise; buying and selling; idle rich and drudging poor; haughty military grandees, in their resplendent attires, and cowed, miserable beggars in their rags; color and laughter at the bazaars, and tears and sorrow at the auction block just across the way--always crowds and always noise. the auctioneer was shouting above the general din the good points of a man who had just been placed on the block. "to be sold till the jubilee year," he cried. "how much am i bid?" a clerk read the court's decree that this man was to be sold for debt. it was signed by the judges, who sat in the east gate of samaria. the document was a cold, formal statement. it did not take into account the reason why this man, in the full vigor of manhood, had fallen into debt. his creditors had pushed the poor fellow hard for their money. he could not pay. he pleaded with the judges that the sickness of his wife and children had reduced him to direst need, but it was without avail. he could not pay his debts and must work them off as a slave for seven years; that was the decree of the court. after seven years he would be a free man again. cases like this were very common. the keen eye of the auctioneer noted a man at the far edge of the platform who had made several attempts as if to bid during the sale. he was a middle-aged man, tall and thin, but wiry. his face was bronzed from exposure to sun and wind. he wore a long woolen mantel that completely covered him, even to the sandals on his feet. "how much am i bid?" the auctioneer spoke the question directly to this country yokel, while he winked at the crowd in front of him. he thought that the fellow who came to the market clad in such clothes, instead of his sabbath best, had little money with him to buy a slave, and less use for one. so he spoke the question again to the "farmer," expecting an answer that would make the crowd laugh and put them in good humor. the country yokel again made as if to speak but changed his mind and backed away, facing the auctioneer. he had hardly backed three paces when he bumped into some one. he was pushed violently forward, and, before he could recover, winced under a stinging crack from a whip. he turned quickly and faced two brutish looking men, swearing at his awkwardness and cursing his impudence for being in the way. the "farmer" could have given a good account of himself in a square fight with these men, but he knew better than to start a fight with them. they were the foreguards to a splendid pleasure outfit--the outfit of a very rich samarian merchant. a fight meant arrest and punishment at the hands of samarian judges, whether he was in the right or not. the rich of samaria had the judges under their thumbs. a stranger or a poor man, in fact, anyone who had no influence in samaria, stood little chance of getting justice. so the farmer cleared the way. standing aside, he watched the chariot drawn by four egyptian steeds, surrounded by guards, slaves and hangers-on, make its way through the crowded market place, paying no attention to the rights and privileges of any one. the wealthy merchant in the chariot held his head up proudly. he greeted only the prosperous looking; upon the curious crowds and small merchants, he looked down with contempt. the merchant whose attendants had so grossly insulted the "farmer" drew up before a great palace. rich carpets were spread from the chariot to the steps of the mansion. the rich man's followers bowed low as he passed up the steps and through the door held open by attendants. some followed him into the house; others mingled with the people in the market place; the slaves went to their quarters by a rear entrance. the stranger in the woolen robe was not as green as he looked. he had witnessed the growth and prosperity of samaria during the last twenty years of jeroboam ii's reign until it became the busiest trade center in the empire. leaning against the stone column, on which was graven the record of jeroboam's victory over damascus, and still smarting from the lash of the servant's whip, he recalled the story of samaria's great strides to its present prosperous condition. the subjugation of judah on the south, which this farmer had good cause to remember; the conquest of syria on the north and jeroboam's peace compact with assyria further east, assured a long period of peaceful development within the empire. new highways were built, so that the farther ends of the country were brought close together for business purposes. farmers could bring their crops to the cities easily. many remained in the cities and engaged in business pursuits. caravans traveled great distances, bringing precious luxuries from one part of the empire to another, and even from foreign countries. many thus became very wealthy. they built themselves palaces for winter residences in the cities and palaces for summer residences in the country. to get rich seemed to be the aim of everybody; and, with riches, came ostentation and luxuriant living. the city of samaria, especially, was the center for israel's most wealthy men. their homes were wonders of stone and ivory. the furnishings rivaled in beauty the splendor of the outside. the rooms were high and spacious. the beds and tables and chairs were of the finest wood of lebanon, carved by the craftsmen of tyre, and inlaid with ivory. the coverings were of the richest purple and gold from egypt and the indies. wine cellars were a part of every house and feasts were spread whenever the occasion offered itself. fatted lambs and calves were slaughtered daily to supply the tables, and new instruments were invented to furnish music at the feasts. this, however, was only one side of the picture of samaria in its days of greatest prosperity. the "farmer" knew that there was another, much less beautiful. while the rich were growing richer, the poor were growing poorer. the rich, thinking only of themselves, their wealth, their power, their good times, cheated and oppressed the poor unmercifully. they gave false weights and short measure and sold at high prices, poor stuff at that. they would drive a poor man into debt and have him sold into slavery; so that human beings became a drug on the market, as it were. in fact, at the very auction which the "farmer" watched that day, one poor man was sold for the price of a pair of shoes. the poor had even no chance to get justice in the courts. the greed for money placed corrupt officials in office and the offenders bribed them to the undoing of the poor and needy. strange to say, the israelites, in whose midst there were those who lived such scandalous lives and treated the poor people so outrageously--the israelites--nevertheless, believed in their hearts that they had not forgotten god. they believed that god was with them; that he loved them above all other peoples; that he guarded and protected them; that he sent them all their blessings of prosperity and peace. this is the way they reasoned it out: had not god helped them to defeat judah? had not god been with them when they crushed their ancient foe, syria? did not god send them rain in season, so that crops were good and plentiful? "therefore," said they, "god is on our side. let us go up to the sanctuaries and offer sacrifices upon his altars." and so, at festival times, bethel and gilgal, and dan and beersheba were crowded with the rich, offering their sacrifices, feasting, drinking and rejoicing. it never entered their minds that god is the god of the poor, as well as of the rich. though they continued to rob and oppress and enslave the poor and the needy and the helpless, they were perfectly satisfied with the idea that all god asked of them was to offer the prescribed sacrifices. if there were any who knew differently, or thought differently, they seemingly did not dare say so in anybody's hearing. for the poor, these were, indeed, evil times. at this point in his musings, the "farmer" actually shuddered. he was not aware that his peculiar dress and his peculiar position at the moment had attracted attention. while he was contrasting in his mind the great difference between the rich and the poor in samaria, several men, having nothing better to do, had stopped to stare at the yokel. as is always the case when people stand in the street and gawk, a large crowd soon assembled. a military chariot stopped near the group of curious gazers to see what was going on. soon several others were halted there, including gilded and gaudy litters, in which fashionably dressed women were being conveyed. all stared, called each other's attention to the queerly garbed stranger, and finally laughed outright. the man who was the center of attraction became aware of the crowd only when he had reached that point in his thoughts, the horrible picture of which had made him shudder. when he noticed the crowd, he gasped. he recovered from his astonishment quickly, however. he opened his mantle, showing his gaunt, powerful form. he raised his head and faced the crowd. his face, strong and sunburned, was tense and drawn for a moment; then it relaxed. deep lines, expressing severe pain, were furrowed in his forehead. the crowd, in turn, was astonished at the complete change that had come over the "yokel." before they recovered from their mistaken opinion about the man, they saw him clinch his fists in determination and heard his voice ring out clearly and distinctly, above the din of the market place: "hear ye, who turn justice to wormwood and cast down righteousness to the earth; who trample upon the poor and afflict the just; who take a bribe and thrust aside the needy in the gate: i know how manifold are your transgressions, saith the lord, god of hosts, and how mighty your sins, the end of my people israel hath come, saith the lord, god of hosts, i can no longer forgive." this outspoken attack upon samaria, its rich, and its military nobles, was so extraordinary that it amazed the crowd. having spoken, the "farmer" turned away and was soon lost among the bazaars. some looked after him, astonished at his recklessness in laying himself open to the revenge of the powers that be. others looked after him, amazed at his bravery and fearlessness. that night many in samaria had heard of the unknown stranger and his speech in the market place. at many dinner tables the question was asked: "who is this man who dares to lift his voice against the high and powerful in behalf of the poor and downtrodden?" "who is this man who dares to proclaim the doom of the kingdom of israel in the days of its greatest prosperity?" chapter iii. _the man who dared._ there lived a man in the little town of tekoah, in the kingdom of judah, twelve miles south of jerusalem, who made a living from "dressing sycamore trees." in ancient palestine, the fruit of the sycamore that grew in judah was dried, ground into flour and used for making coarse bread. this bread was eaten by the very poorest people, who could not afford to buy wheat. now, the man who lived from gathering poor fruit, out of which poor bread was made, for poor people, must, himself, have been very poor. but a poor man may love his country as much as a rich man; and, when the foolish war between amaziah of judah and joash of israel broke out, this "dresser of sycamore trees," from tekoah, followed his king on the battlefield. at the battle in which amaziah was defeated and joash gained his greatest victory, leading to the destruction of part of the fortifications of jerusalem, this man, fighting valiantly in the front ranks, with many other patriotic judeans, laid down his life for his country. he was buried in the trenches, an unknown hero, whose name is not even in the records. but history gives us the record of his son, named amos. left with his widowed mother, after the war, the burden of finding a living for the two was soon thrust upon him. there was only one thing that he knew by which he could earn money--"dressing sycamore trees." he went at his work with a vim. as he grew up, and his and his mother's needs increased, his wits became sharpened. why could he not dry and grind the sycamore fruit himself? this he did and increased his income. then, his mother suggested that she would bake the flour into bread, if he would sell it. amos agreed to that, and the little family thrived. one day amos brought the idea to his mother that their sycamore bread could be sold at a better price in jerusalem. he asked for permission to go there and his mother, desiring more that her son should see the capital than that he should get higher prices for the bread, said: "go, my son, and god be with thee." that trip to jerusalem and the several trips that followed, made a great impression upon the young man and gave a remarkable turn to his whole life. he saw jerusalem, of whose beauty and glory his father had often told him, a fallen city. it had not yet recovered from the terrible results of the war with amaziah of israel; king uzziah had not yet restored the treasures and vessels of which the temples had been looted; and, in the quarter of the city where amos sold his bread, oh! such poverty, such wretchedness, such desolation! his heart was filled with grief. he went to the trenches where he knew his father lay in an unmarked grave, and wept bitterly. there, at his father's grave, a wonderful thought came to him. a new light entered into his life and a great determination for his future career. his mind once made up, he soon outlined a plan for himself, and having the determination to carry the plan through, he made rapid progress. with the additional profits that resulted from his business trips to jerusalem, amos bought sheep and goats and became a shepherd, as well as a gatherer of sycamore fruit. the great rocky wilderness that slopes from the limestone hills of tekoah down to the dead sea was just the place where sheep and goats could prosper. so, in addition to the thriving business of his old trade, he dealt, also, in goat milk and wool and in the animals themselves. often, as he sat on the hillsides, in the cool of the sycamores, and watched his flocks, his mind would turn to the things he saw and heard in jerusalem. he had heard there that bethel, one of the sanctuaries of israel, was always filled with pilgrims at festival time--and he determined upon a trip to bethel, twenty-two miles north of tekoah. he returned greatly disheartened. "wealth and feasting saw i there," amos told his mother, "and wine and song, and altars reeking with blood of fatted lambs and oxen; but god was not in the heart of the people of israel." his mother chided him gently. to say such things was blasphemy; for sacrifices were demanded of all the people by the religious laws of the state; and it was also commanded that a portion of the sacrifice should be consumed by him who brought it--therefore the feasting. as to the song and wine, did not the sweet singer say, "serve the lord with gladness?" amos did not reply. he knew that his good-hearted mother had given expression to the idea of god's worship as all the people, both of israel and of judah, at that time, understood it. they brought the sacrifices, as prescribed by the priests at the sanctuaries; a portion of the slaughtered animal was given to god on the altar, and the portion that was eaten by the sacrificer was looked upon as a meal--a banquet--participated in by him and god, together; such a meal soon became a feast, with wine and song. unfortunately, these banquets often degenerated into drunkenness and revelry. amos felt that such worship of god was not right, but he had not yet discovered what was wrong. when the period of prosperity opened up for israel, with jeroboam ii's conquest of damascus, judah also felt the good times. amos, now an experienced master herdsman, took the advantage afforded by the peace and improved business conditions. he traveled with his stock-in-trade to far northern markets, to samaria, to damascus, to hamath, and, from there his caravans wended their way east, even as far as the city asshur, the capital of assyria. he was not a mere trader, however. he was a close observer and a student of men and things wherever he led his caravans. he talked with strangers about other lands which he had not visited and became, therefore, well acquainted with political, religious and social conditions everywhere. all this made no change in the outward circumstances of amos. success did not turn his head. he did not build himself a palace, but remained with his mother in the village of tekoah, where he was born and raised. he did not indulge himself with fine clothes and high living, but continued to dress simply and live plainly. his mother was often greatly worried about amos. when he returned from a far northern and eastern trip he would betake himself to his beloved hills and sycamore groves and flocks. he would work with the most lowly of his sycamore fruit gatherers; but he would often spend hours by himself in the woods or in the wilderness. it was during these lonesome hours that amos added high thinking to his simple living. the grandeur of samaria and the wealth he saw displayed in bethel did not deceive him. neither did the peace compact between jeroboam ii and assur-dan iii blind him to the exact state of affairs in the relationship between the two countries. he knew that tiglath-pileser iii, the successor of assur-dan, had crushed all rebellions in assyria, which assur-dan iii had failed to do, and was reorganizing the army of the great empire. he knew that damascus, which had been weakened by jeroboam ii beyond hope of recovery, would be the first point of conquest for the young and energetic pul, as tiglath-pileser was called. next before him, to the south, lay the rich kingdom of israel, the booty from whose palaces and sanctuaries would be an enormous prize for the assyrian emperor and his army. after damascus, must come samaria! in other words, amos saw distinctly that the time was near when israel would have to fight again for its independence and its very life; and he asked himself, "is israel prepared?" clearly it was not. the rich had become unfit for war, because of their luxuriant living. the poor had become unfit for war, because of their oppression by the rich. should the assyrians invade the land, how could such a nation of weaklings defend its home and its liberty? israel must be warned! it must be awakened from its stupidity to a realization of the danger ahead! the rich must cease their extravagances and become manly men again! the poor must be given their rights, must be treated justly and righteously, that they may become manly men again! only a nation of moral, upright, god-fearing men can hope for victory! if the assyrians should defeat and crush israel, it will be god's punishment visited upon israel for its sins and crimes. amos had often discussed these things with his mother. she was not surprised, therefore, when, one day, upon his return from a long trip into assyria, amos said to her, "i am called to the cities of israel. my mission will be prolonged many days." the good woman knew and understood. laying her hands upon his head, she repeated the blessing with which she had blessed him when, as a timid young man, he made his first trip to jerusalem: "go, my son, and god be with thee." and so it was that amos, the herdsmen of tekoah, had dared to speak for the poor people in samaria, and to prophesy the fall of the kingdom. his first speech attracted little attention, but others, in various parts of the country, to the same effect, followed. many laughed at them; few thought seriously about them. but amos was not so easily discouraged. he concluded that the wrong idea the people had about god, how to worship him and what he demanded of them, was the cause of all the evil. amos, therefore, selected the sanctuaries during festival season as the place where he must do his preaching. he went especially to bethel, the king's sanctuary, where jeroboam brought his sacrifices and where the great nobles and soldiers and richest merchants gathered and reveled in their feasts. one day amos broke in upon a reveling group, with the unexpected call: "prepare to meet thy god, o israel!" such a call was, indeed, unexpected. the israelites, assembled at the sanctuary, offering their sacrifices, believed that they were _with_ their god. some one told amos as much, and the crowd jeered at the fool, who evidently did not understand his religion. this laughter ceased suddenly, however, when amos began to chant a mournful dirge: "hear ye this word which i take up for a lamentation over you, o house of israel! fallen, no more to rise, is the virgin israel! cast down upon her soil she lies, there is none to raise her up. the city that taketh the field with a thousand, hath but a hundred left; and the one that taketh the field with a hundred, hath but ten left." a young officer, who felt that the army, the pride of the kingdom, had been grossly insulted, rushed forth from the crowd and exclaimed, hotly: "thou art a false prophet! prophesy no more." then he continued, explaining to amos and to the crowd, that god could not have sent such a message to the house of israel. god was with them, he said, and was gracious to them. israel was stronger, mightier than ever before and israel was, that very day, at bethel, at gilgal, at beersheba, bringing thanks-offerings to god. amos stood stolidly by and listened until the young man had finished. then he replied: "thus saith god to the house of israel: ye that oppress the poor and crush the needy, that trample upon the just and cause the poor of the land to fail, seek _me_ and live, but seek not bethel, and gilgal do not enter, to beersheba go not over; for gilgal shall surely go into captivity and bethel shall come to naught. seek god and not evil that ye may live and so god, the lord of hosts, may be with you, as you say. hate evil and love good, and establish justice in the gate. perhaps god will be gracious, the god of hosts, to a remnant of joseph." the young officer shook his head in disgust and walked away. others, however, remained awhile, meditating upon what amos had said. amos, too, when he went his way, felt that his words had made an impression. he thought they had fallen, like seeds, upon fertile soil. would these seeds take root? would they grow and flourish? would they bear fruit when the crisis for israel came? but first a crisis for amos came, when he had to fight for his life. chapter iv. _treason and a fight._ for some time, now, amos had been preaching his new and formerly unheard-of ideas, to the effect that god prefers rather that man be just to his fellowmen than that he offer sacrifices; that israel had become weakened because of its indulgence in luxuriant living, on the one hand, and because of the oppression and ill treatment of the poor and needy, on the other; that god would be with the people against their enemies only when the people turned away from their idolatrous worship and sought god, by doing good and hating evil. and he had been rewarded with laughter and jeers and derision on the part of the people he tried to save! any other man would have given up long ago; not so amos. his rebuffs, however, made him somber and morose. in his great address at bethel he held out the hope to israel that god might forgive his people for their crimes and sins if they began to lead godly lives. his continued failure to impress the people with this message, however, finally led him to the belief that god would measure out the severest justice to israel, in accordance with their sins, and without mercy. amos had become a well-known figure at all the sanctuaries. most of the people thought him to be one of those wandering dervishes, known as "sons of the prophets," who made their living by a kind of fortune telling, or forecasting the future, as did samuel in the early days when he told saul where the lost asses were; only, that amos was one of the sons of the prophets run mad, judging from the way he talked and the strange things he said. this did not trouble amos. what worried him was the fact that the people would not listen to his addresses. so, in the year , he journeyed again to bethel, where a great festival was to be celebrated. he was determined that the people should hear. he was well prepared, too. instead of beginning with a condemnation of israel, he used new tactics: "thus saith god," he began. "for three transgressions of damascus, yea, for four, i will not turn away the punishment thereof." that was interesting. we always like to hear about the punishments that others will receive for their misdeeds, even if we close our ears to those that threaten us. and, as for damascus, she was israel's ancient foe, and the listeners rather liked the idea that god was to visit her with destruction. when amos had recounted the sins of damascus and announced that "the people of syria shall go into captivity into kir," there was loud applause. some cried, "let the prophet speak!" amos continued. he mentioned the sins for which god would punish gaza, tyre, idumia, ammon, moab, and each period was greeted with volleys of applause. amos paused for a moment. he swallowed a lump that had risen in his throat and lowered his voice. he spoke, sadly and regretfully: "thus saith god, for three transgressions of judah, yea, for four, i will not revoke its punishment. because they reject god's law, and do not keep his statutes; because their lies have caused them to err, (the lies) after which their fathers did walk. therefore, i will send a fire upon judah and it shall devour the palaces of jerusalem." poor, weak little judah! the prophet was declaring the doom of his own country! it was a thing to laugh at! and how they did laugh! but it was no laughing matter for amos. his heart was wrung with woe from his own people. he waited for the uproar to subside, and then went on to the very point which he had come to make: "thus saith god, for three transgressions of israel, yea, for four, i will not revoke its punishment. because they sell the righteous for money, and the needy for a pair of shoes; who trample on the head of the poor, and turn aside the way of the humble. upon garments taken in pledge they stretch themselves beside every altar, and the wine of those who have been fined they drink in the house of their god." jeers and threatening cries were hurled at amos from all directions, but he stood his ground. with the art of a master orator he won back his displeased audience. passionately he poured forth the story of israel and its relationship to god--a story he knew so well--and brought the people back to breathless attention. he recounted the wonders god had done with and for israel from the days when he brought them out of egypt, poor, miserable slaves, until this day of their wealth and glory. here someone stepped out from the crowd and took up the argument for the people. if all this beautiful story is true, he claimed, then god may punish and destroy all the nations that amos had mentioned; but israel, to whom god had shown special favors, even up to this day, god will not destroy. quick as a flash the prophet answered: "are ye not as the cushites to me, o children of israel? saith god. did i not bring up israel out of the land of egypt and the philistines from caphtor and the syrians from kir? (but) you, especially, have i known of all the races of the earth, therefore will i visit upon you all your iniquities. behold, the eyes of the lord god are upon the sinful kingdom, and i will destroy it from the face of the earth. an adversary shall surround the land, and shall strip from thee thy strength; and thy palaces shall be plundered. verily, i am now raising up against you o house of israel, a nation, and they shall oppress you from the entrance of hamath even to the brook of the arabah, saith the lord, god of hosts." "treason! treason!" rose up the cry from the several army men who had been listening. "treason! treason!" was shouted immediately from many directions. the army officers who had raised the cry now rushed toward amos, threatening him with bodily harm. "treason! treason!" was echoed by most of the crowd. hundreds now surged forward and things looked bad for the prophet. to meet this danger, amos brought into play all the strength and power that he had stored up during his shepherding days. out in the wilderness near tekoah he had often fought with robbers who had stolen his sheep, and, like david, even with wild beasts that had stolen his lambs. prepared just for this kind of an emergency, keen of eye and alert of mind, he met the leaders as they came on. unfortunately for amos, there was nothing that could afford him protection from the rear. he could meet any number that might attack him face to face; but while he was guarding in front someone might strike him in the back--and he was surrounded by the mob. "traitor! traitor!" they shouted. his blood boiled with anger. he, a traitor! he, guilty of treason! why, he was the only man who saw the danger of his people and had ventured to warn them! "seek god and ye shall live!" kept flashing through his mind. but this was no time for preaching, not even for thinking. it was time for action. and act he did! the weak, undergrown army officers were like men of straw before amos and he disposed of them as easily. with the speed of lightning he turned face, fearing an attack from the rear. there, however, the people had not awakened to what was going on. facing front again, he saw that the army officers had not yet recovered from his blows. they were sprawled on the ground before him and a few of the people were laughing at their discomfiture. amos had no desire to continue the fight and started to help the officers up; but, at that moment, he felt two pairs of hands lay hold of his mantle at the neck. a sudden turn, a quick stretching of his brawny arms, like a swimmer making for speed, and the two men, merchants, clad in their holiday finery, were pushed to either side into the crowd. now, as soon as the bystanders saw with what ease amos was handling his opponents, they began to laugh and take sides. a crowd always does that. some urged amos to go on fighting; others urged the sprawling victims to attack. amos, however, was not there to fight, nor did his opponents fancy a good beating at his hands. in the meantime a small group of the king's guard came up, post haste, and began to disperse the crowd. the crowd scattered, but gathered again in various streets, in small groups, discussing the unusual occurrences of the day. they spoke, in whispers, overawed by the fearlessness of the prophet--some by his ability in self-defense; some by the force of his speeches. in the palaces of the rich and mighty, gathered in bethel at that time, amos--what he said and what he did--was the topic of conversation no less than he was in the streets, only in one of these palaces was hatched a clever scheme for the prophet's undoing. chapter v. _priest against prophet._ that very night the most prominent people in israel--military and civilian--assembled at bethel, and decided that something must be done to get rid of the prophet. they considered amos crazy, and, therefore, dangerous. a little group of leaders gathered in the house of one of the merchant princes of samaria to adopt a definite plan of action. the high priest, amaziah, was called into consultation. he saw the seriousness of the matter, as they all did. such preaching must be stopped! "this man," spoke one of the priests, "is destroying the worship of god in israel. if we are no longer to bring sacrifices on god's chosen altars, wherewith shall we worship him? besides," he added very pointedly, "without sacrifices the income of the priesthood will be ruined, and the sons of aaron will be reduced from their high and holy office to beggary." "nay, this is not the worst," began another priest, who did not think so much of his income from the sacrifices as the former speaker. "the sons of aaron can work, as do other men." "what is more serious," he continued, "is, that this prophet proclaims all other people as equal in the sight of god with israel; that god has performed wonders for them, as for us. i fear," he concluded solemnly and with bowed head, "that if such teaching will continue, israel will lose faith in its god." a captain of the host sprang to his feet. "you priests," he said, savagely, "worry about many minor things. this man is telling the people that god, himself, is raising up a powerful nation to destroy our great empire. he is filling our peaceful people with dread and fear of the imagined enemy and will disturb the peace of our country." "yea," cried a wealthy merchant, "and its business prosperity." "all of which," added another merchant and slave dealer, "is, as our friend has said," looking at the captain, "simply imagination. the actual danger lies in his arousing the common people. he tells the poor that they are not getting their rights; that they are not being judged honestly; that the weak and the needy ought to be protected and helped--by us, by us! as if we have anything to do with them! i tell you that it is here the danger lurks. if this crazy prophet is not silenced immediately, the merchant and military classes will face open rebellion on the part of the common horde." the last speaker seemed to have said the final word on the subject. all were silent, their eyes turned toward amaziah. the aged priest had not yet ventured an opinion; but he had been thinking deeply on what was said by the others. he agreed, for the most part, with the speakers who had preceded him; but he counseled caution and delay. "perhaps, now that the prophet has seen opposition," amaziah concluded, "he will quit and go home to judah." but amos did not quit, nor did he go home. the fight, that morning, was a mere incident, to be forgotten; but his mission to his people burned deep in his soul, a flame that could not be quenched. on the day of the conclusion of the great festival, amos again appeared in the sanctuary. this time it did not take long for a crowd to gather. in fact, most of the people were looking for him to appear. even the richest and most exclusive, who usually are not interested in such men, had heard about amos and had come to see and hear him, expecting something unusual to occur. amos did not waste any time. without preparatory remarks, he gave voice to his warning call: "prepare to meet thy god, o israel!" hardly had the words left the prophet's lips, when a man stepped forward from the crowd, and facing amos with threatening fists, exclaimed: "hold thy peace! thou art a false prophet. who hath sent thee to prophesy?" here was a challenge to amos. who, indeed, had appointed him a prophet? who had set him up to judge the people's wrongdoing? who had commanded him to declare israel's doom? what entitled him to speak in the name of god? this challenge, however, was just what amos was looking for. he had wanted a number of times to correct the mistaken idea the people had of him. there were, in the land, the long-established schools of prophets. these schools were under the protection of the king. at the head of each was a leader, like samuel, elijah and elisha of the olden days. the leader was called "the seer" and his pupils "sons of the prophets." now, the seers and sons of the prophets, with the exception of such strong and powerful characters as the three great men mentioned, usually did the bidding of the king and his officers, and prophesied to please them. amos was not a member of any of these established schools. he was a free lance--in truth, the first of the independent prophets, who cried out against the evils of their day and who, fearlessly and without favor, laid the blame where it belonged--on king, on priest, and on people. amos, therefore, grasped this opportunity to set himself aright. he answered his questioner with a series of beautiful similes: "do two walk together unless they be agreed? does a lion roar in the forest when there is no prey for him? does a young lion cry out in his den unless he has taken something? can a trumpet be blown in a city and the people not tremble? can calamity befall a city and god hath not sent it? surely, the lord doeth nothing, unless he revealeth his purpose to his servants, the prophets. the lion hath roared; who does not fear? the lord god hath spoken; who can but prophesy?" god, then, it was, not the head of a school of prophets, or a king, or a priest, who had sent amos to prophesy! he, himself, had no desire to speak these terrible things he was saying to his people. a force over which he had no control--god, had impelled him to his task. it was the still, small voice of which elijah spoke. though his heart bled, while delivering the message, amos could not help himself. god had commanded him; he had but to obey! before the challenger could continue the argument, there was a disturbance on the outskirts of the crowd. a murmur arose and all craned their necks to see what was going on. the crowd opened, forming a wide aisle, through which there advanced a tall, majestic figure, with flowing robe and gray beard. "the high priest!" "amaziah!" "the high priest!" the people whispered to each other and an expectant silence followed, as the venerable priest walked through the row of bowed heads, toward the sanctuary. he stopped in front of amos and looked at him curiously. amaziah was an old man, but as erect as a cedar in lebanon. he was dressed in an ephod, the holy garment of his office. the robe was of fine twined linen, with threads of blue, scarlet and purple, embroidered in gold. two shoulder pieces, fastened to the shoulders of the ephod with cords of "wreathed gold," came down the front of the garment to just above the girdle, where they were fastened with two golden rings. held by these cords above, and by blue ribbons through the golden rings below, was the breastplate, the insignia of the high priest. on the front of the breastplate, in gold settings, were twelve precious stones, four rows of three stones each, on each of which was engraved the name of one of the tribes of israel. a mitre on his head completed the high priest's holy vestments. thus brilliantly arrayed, "for glory and for beauty," amaziah made a great contrast to the simply clad shepherd, robed in his woolen mantle, as they faced each other. the splendor of amaziah, his age and his authority, the tension caused by the struggle that was imminent between the priest and the prophet, overawed the assembly. there was a deep silence, like the calm before a heavy downpour. amos, cool and collected, always prepared for an emergency, bowed low to amaziah out of respect to his gray head. amaziah, who was equally prepared for an emergency, smiled at amos, kindly, in greeting. amos, of course, did not know that amaziah was working out a plan that had been outlined previous to his starting for the sanctuary. only those who were in the priest's confidence knew that he had sent a message to king jeroboam, when it was reported that a crowd had gathered about amos and that the prophet would, no doubt, deliver another address. the message to jeroboam read: "amos hath conspired against thee in the midst of the house of israel; the land is not able to bear his words. for thus hath amos said, 'jeroboam shall die by the sword, and israel shall surely be led away captive out of his land.'" the messenger proceeded, post haste, to the palace of the king, and amaziah, quietly and with dignity, went to the sanctuary. hardly had amos lifted his head from his low salute, when amaziah addressed him: "o seer! go, flee away to the land of judah, and there eat bread, and prophesy there; but prophesy not again any more in bethel, for it is the king's sanctuary, and it is the royal residence." how the priest misunderstood the prophet! just because bethel was the king's sanctuary and the royal residence and the seat of all the mighty in the land of israel, amos had selected it, above all other places, to preach his message there. but amaziah's little speech contained something more important to amos than this. amaziah had addressed the prophet as "seer," he had taken him for the leader of a "school of prophets." amos immediately disclaimed such a questionable distinction. he answered amaziah: "i am no prophet, nor am i the son of a prophet; but i was a herdsman and a dresser of sycamore trees, when god took me from following the flock and god said to me, 'go, prophesy against my people israel.'" entirely unprepared for such an answer, and not quite certain whether he understood what amos meant by his claim that he had taken his orders direct from god, amaziah was disconcerted. amos did not give the priest a chance to recover from his surprise and continued: "now, therefore, hear thou the word of god: 'thou sayest, "prophesy not against israel, nor preach against the house of isaac."' therefore, thus saith god, 'thy sons and thy daughters shall fall by the sword and thy land shall be divided by line; and thou shall die upon an unclean soil, and israel shall surely be led away captive out of this land.'" the fearlessness of the prophet in attacking the high priest dismayed amaziah and his followers greatly. the crowd, too, by its acclamations, was evidently siding with amos. amaziah was, therefore, placed on the defensive. in broken and halting sentences he defended himself and the people. the ancient laws of israel, he pointed out, were being adhered to by all israelites. he, for one, was not afraid, even if the day of god, the judgment day, should come to-morrow. now, a man like amaziah might not fear the strict judgment which, amos said, god was to visit upon israel; but, how about those who were guilty of the crimes of which god, through the prophet, was accusing israel? amos understood this, though amaziah did not. the prophet was speaking to all the people and not to one man in particular. therefore, he continued: "woe unto those that desire the day of god! wherefore would ye have the day of god? it is darkness and not light. it is when one flees from a lion, and a bear meets him; or goes into a house and leans his hand upon a wall, and a serpent bites him. shall not the day of god be darkness and not light, yea, murky darkness, without a ray of light?" that is why, retorted the high priest, the people come to bethel and gilgal and the other sanctuaries. they bring their sacrifices to god, that he may forgive their sins, against the coming of the day of god, when all the guilty shall be judged and punished. amos did not interrupt amaziah because he was an old man, and amos knew what courtesy was due the aged. but when the priest had finished, the prophet, with fine sarcasm, showed the uselessness and selfishness of the whole artificial scheme as practiced at the sanctuaries: "come to bethel and transgress, at gilgal increase your transgressions, and bring in the morning your sacrifices, and every third day your tithes! burn some leaven bread as a thanks-offering, and proclaim aloud the voluntary offerings, for you love to do so, o israelites!" the sarcastic smile, however, suddenly faded from the speaker's lips, as he asked: "did ye bring me sacrifices and meal-offerings in the wilderness, forty years, o house of israel?" then, with the power and fervor of the god-inspired man he was, amos denounced bitterly the whole system of worshiping god by means of sacrifices, and delivered a message, new to his hearers, relating to what god really expected from israel: "i hate, i despise your feasts, and i will take no delight in your festivals; with your meal-offerings i will not be pleased, and the peace-offerings of your fattlings i will not regard with favor. banish from me the noise of your songs; to the melody of your viols i will not listen. but let justice roll down as waters, and righteousness as a never-failing stream." these concluding sentences literally stunned the crowd. priest and people gasped at the prophet's proclamation that god did not command the sacrifices at sinai and did not care for them, but that, instead, he demanded justice and righteousness on the part of his people. the prophet had upset all their ideas and traditions regarding their religious forms and practices, and he claimed god for his authority! no one can tell just what might have happened, there and then, had not a company of the royal guard, in answer to amaziah's note to the king, rushed upon the crowd and dispersed it "in the name of the king." "in the name of the king," also, the leader of a small detachment of the guard made his way to amos and placed him under arrest. amos might have been successful in getting away, had he resisted; but, being a law-abiding man, he submitted to the authorities, and, long before the scattered crowd was aware of what had happened to the prophet, he was whirled away in a chariot to the palace of the king. chapter vi. _the prophet in tekoah._ king jeroboam ii was now an old man. the vehemence and determination and aggressiveness that had made him a far-famed conqueror had been mellowed by the years and rarely, if ever, showed themselves. the note he received from amaziah regarding amos, however, awoke the old spirit in him. the dispatch of the section of the royal guard with orders for the prophet's immediate arrest was in line with the way jeroboam did things during the days when he personally led his armies. but instead of having amos put in chains and thrown into a dungeon, jeroboam had him brought into his presence. the king wanted to see and speak to the man who, according to amaziah, had conspired against him and the god of israel and was proclaiming the doom of his dynasty. amos, who had never seen the king face to face, who had never even been inside any of the royal palaces, was, nevertheless, calm and cool as usual. the splendor of the throne room and the crowd of officers and counselors did not in the least affright him. he made a low obeisance to his king and waited for the order to rise. jeroboam was a much keener man than amaziah. when he saw amos, studied his bearing, the seriousness of his face, the simplicity of his garb, he recognized at once that before him stood an uncommon man. amos neither smiled the smirky smile of him who is anxious to get into the king's good graces, nor did he tremble like a coward, who, being caught, feared the king. he waited for jeroboam to speak. from the messenger who brought amaziah's note the king had learned something about amos and about the things he was telling the people. having supposed the prophet to be either a traitor or a madman, but judging him now to be neither one nor the other, jeroboam now was puzzled as to the manner in which to speak to him. jeroboam looked quizzically at amos for a few moments and began: "thou, then, art the prophet?" "i am a herdsman and a dresser of sycamore trees," amos replied. "but thou speakest evil against the king and against the house of israel," exclaimed jeroboam. "the lord god hath commanded me," answered amos, with deep humility. "thou art a traitor and thou shalt die," threatened the king. "i can but speak," calmly replied amos, "even if thou slay me." jeroboam made the threat to take the prophet's life in order to test him. he figured that it would send amos groveling to his knees, begging for mercy. the quiet manner in which he accepted the threat however, puzzled the king. he concluded that amos must be either exceedingly brave or hopelessly crazy. now, a man who is not afraid to die, be he brave or crazy, is a very dangerous man to have around. it would have been easy enough to behead amos and be done with him, but jeroboam was not a king who took his subjects' lives ruthlessly--especially when it was so simple to get rid of an undesirable one in another way. "then go to thy flocks and sycamores," commanded jeroboam, "and speak to them." the king's humorous sally called forth a great shout of laughter from those who were present. jeroboam, smiling, waved his hand, indicating that the interview was over. the guard closed around amos and he was led into an outer hall. after a short wait he was informed that, by command of the king, he must leave bethel on that very day and never set foot in the kingdom of israel again. had jeroboam himself been a wicked man like king ahab, amos, no doubt, would have disregarded the threat against his life and would have confronted the king in his palace, as elijah confronted ahab in naboth's vineyard. jeroboam, as ruler, however, did not oppress or mistreat the people. being an old man, resting on the laurels of his great victories and knowing from his friends and counselors and the size of the royal treasury that his empire was rich and the people peaceful, jeroboam probably had no idea of the corruption and injustice that was rampant in the land. he would have laughed at the thought of it. besides, and this was the important thing with amos, it would have been folly for him to sacrifice his life at this time. to die a martyr for a cause is a noble and beautiful thing--if martyrdom will in any way advance this cause. to have confronted jeroboam or to have remained in bethel would have meant certain death--and, to die then would have meant an end to the crusade that he was just beginning against the oppression of the poor, the denial of justice, the unrighteousness in business dealings and the misunderstanding of god and his worship: it would have meant an end to his set purpose to warn israel against assyria, the enemy approaching from the north, and against the inability to meet this enemy, because of the immorality that was weakening the nation. he had plenty of time to think this over as he wended his way mournfully out of the busy and joyful thoroughfares of bethel to his quiet, though beloved tekoah. amos found to his great joy that he did not now stand alone. many who had heard him, had understood him. when the news that he had been driven out of israel spread, many followed him to judah and accompanied him to his home in tekoah. as was always the case with amos in a crisis, he thought quickly and arrived at a new plan of action speedily. on his way to tekoah he selected from among his followers men who could write--scribes--and confided to them that from now on he must confine all his wealth to the spreading of his ideas throughout the empire by means of the written word. after all, god had willed it that he should be driven back to tekoah. amos, as a speaker, could address a crowd only in one place at one time. in listening to a speech, too, much of what the speaker says is lost to his hearers. therefore, amos concluded, god had willed it that he should return to tekoah, write out his speeches and his warnings, send them to the farthest ends of the land that all the people may read and study and understand in order that they may return speedily to god; seek good and not evil, that the nation may live. by day, he and his followers tended the flocks and gathered the fruit of sycamore trees. all the products that were sent to market were sold by honest weight and measure and at honest prices. by night, he and his scribes wrote out the speeches that he had delivered in israel, and especially in bethel, added new ones and sent them with trusted messengers to all parts of judah and israel. amos was thus probably the first prophet who wrote down his speeches. what we have of them, however, are only fragments. there is not one speech complete as it was originally written or delivered. the fragments are collected in the biblical book, called "amos." through this book the name of the humble herdsmen of tekoah is written large in the history of religion. it was amos who first conceived of god as the god, not of israel alone, but of all peoples: "are you not as the ethiopians to me, o israel? saith god. did i not bring israel up out of the land of egypt, and the philistines from caphtor, and the syrians from kir?" it was amos who first appeared as the public champion of the poor and downtrodden, who publicly denounced the greed of the rich and the corruption of the men in power: "for i know how manifold are your transgressions, and how mighty are your sins-- ye, that trample upon the poor, that afflict the just, that take a bribe, and that turn away the needy in the gate." it was amos who first cried out against the mistaken idea that animal sacrifices were what god asked of his people: "did ye bring unto me sacrifices and meal-offerings in the wilderness, forty years, o house of israel?" it was amos who first brought forward the great and universal truth that god judges every human being, no matter what the race or color, according to his or her acts: "seek good and not evil, that ye may live; seek god and ye shall live." it was amos who first made clear, that god demands of men, above all things, justice and righteousness: "let justice roll down as a flood of water, and righteousness like a never-failing stream." we do not know definitely what became of amos. one tradition has it that he came to jerusalem and, while he was denouncing uzziah, king of judah, uzziah struck him on the forehead with a piece of glowing iron. as a result of the blow, amos died while preaching in the hope of saving his people in jerusalem, as his father died while fighting in defense of jerusalem, in the hope of saving his country. the probabilities are, however, that amos lived peacefully with his disciples among his sycamore trees near tekoah, until he had completed the writing of his speeches and saw to their distribution all over israel, believing that there was yet time for the people of israel to return to god and to save the nation from the calamity that was threatening it. the man who learned his lesson chapter i. _an eventful night._ whenever jezreel was sent early to bed, although he had been a good boy during the day, and, in addition, when his little sister and brother were ordered to go with him, he knew the evening would be another one of those that made his little heart ache. jezreel was only ten years old, but he was sharp and keen for his age. he understood that his parents wanted him out of reach and sound. twice before, on similar occasions, after he had recited his night prayer and the maid-servant had tucked him in his bed, he lay with his eyes closed tight but wide awake, listening. he knew that what he was doing was wrong, but he could not sleep. he heard his father and mother talking to each other loudly, but could not make out just what they were saying. their voices, however, he felt, were not soft and sweet, as they usually were, when they addressed the children. on this particular evening, as he went out of the dining-room with lo-ruhamah, his seven-year-old sister, and lo-ammi, his four-year-old brother, jezreel made up his mind to do a very unusual thing. he determined not to sleep at all. that afternoon, his father, hosea, had returned from bethel all out of sorts. the children had been expecting him, as they always did, when he came home from the sanctuary, to bring the usual little gifts; but the father seemed to have forgotten them. in fact, hosea was quite irritated when, not understanding his father's mood, lo-ammi cried for the expected sweets or trinkets. in a little while, however, hosea, calmed his youngest son and promised all three of the children that, in the morning, he would take them to the bazaars in the market place, to buy what they pleased. just then their mother, gomer, came in. she was a beautiful woman, dressed in the latest fashions of the wealthy samarians. her robes were long and flowing. a veil, woven of golden threads and imported from assyria, set off her jet-black hair. her arms and fingers were adorned with jewel-studded bracelets and rings. she was accompanied by an ethiopian slave. strange to say, the children did not rush to their mother, except little lo-ammi, who was fond of the jeweled things she wore. gomer, on the other hand, did not seem to feel hurt that the children clung to their father and quite ignored her. after a formal greeting to her husband, and a pat of lo-ammi's head, gomer retired to her own room. a little later the evening meal was announced, and, immediately after they had eaten, jezreel, lo-ruhamah and the baby were told to go to bed. their attendant, satisfied that the three children were fast asleep, left the room and went about her business. thereupon jezreel got out of bed, moved a chair near to the door, sat down and listened. below he heard his father's and mother's voices. words were spoken in a high, shrill tone, loud and harsh, but indistinct. there were short periods of silence, followed by explosive sentences that sounded like threats. if he could only understand what it was all about! but he couldn't, until, finally all was silent in the room below. then jezreel heard the street door close with a bang. going to the window that looked out into the street, jezreel saw his mother standing alone in front of the house. it was an unusually moonlit night. samaria, a beautiful city in the daytime, was a very dark and gloomy place at night, except when the moon and stars reigned in their glory in clear skies. this happened to be just such a night. the yellow moon was reflected from the red-tiled housetops. in the distance were the famous samarian houses of stone and marble, dark and foreboding against the moonlight. above all the houses towered the royal palace--in which zechariah, jeroboam ii's son, had been king since his father died, six months before--with its bright, gilded domes, like a sentinel wearing a brass helmet. but the little boy, in his night clothes, looking out of the window of his room into the moonlit and shadowed street, saw only his mother standing there below. his attention was called suddenly away from the window by loud sobbing. he hurried to the door, but did not dare open it. he listened until the sobbing ceased. then he returned to the window, to find the street empty and deserted. his mother had evidently gone away. he shivered. he folded his arms tightly, as if hugging himself to keep warm. then he brought his chair from the door to the table, sat down and listened. in the room below he heard his father walking up and down with regular step. the house was completely silent but for hosea's footfalls. jezreel drew his legs up under him on the chair. he was tired and rested his head upon his arms on the table. the silence and the monotony of the regular heavy walking in the room under him, made him drowsy. his little heart ached, though he could not explain why. he tried hard to keep awake, but finally fell asleep, there at the table. at one time he shivered, when the street door of the house shut again with a bang; but he did not wake up. below, a great big, powerful man had been keeping up a continuous march up and down the room. he was brooding over the events that had just preceded and thinking over the years of his married life. when hosea first met gomer, she lived in her father's home in one of the poorest sections of samaria. diblaim, gomer's father, was a poor man and could not give his daughter the advantages other girls in samaria enjoyed. but hosea loved gomer most devotedly and he married her. son of the priest beeri, hosea inherited great wealth and a position among the priests at the bethel sanctuary. he was thus able to give gomer not only a beautiful home in one of the city's most beautiful suburbs, but also to introduce her to the royal and social leaders of samaria. after a few years, however, everything seemed to go wrong in the hosea household. gomer developed a weakness for luxury and jewels and fine clothes; she used to be away from the house and the children most of the time; she did not understand her husband, his desire for quiet evenings at home with the children and his dislike of the pomp and display at the court and in society. and that night, hosea and gomer parted, gomer going home to her father. hosea felt very much oppressed. walking up and down the room brought him no relief. so he rushed out of the house into the night, into the open, where he could breathe more freely--and think. it was the bang of the door behind him that disturbed jezreel, asleep at the table. but hosea's brain was all clogged up. it could not dwell upon a single line of thought for five consecutive minutes. and yet he was so thoroughly absorbed in his thoughts, that he did not notice any number of people excitedly hurrying past him. he walked on toward the center of the city in a daze. the first time he realized that he was not alone on the streets of samaria was when he found himself being jostled in a wide thoroughfare leading to the market place. then he was awakened out of the stupor in which he had left his home by cries, coming from several directions: "shallum!" "long live the king!" "long life to shallum!" shallum? who was shallum? why was the name being shouted in the streets of samaria? hosea, trying to find his bearings, was asking himself these questions when he arrived in the market place. there an unusual and most unexpected sight met him. the place was filled with people. troops were fighting in front of the royal palace. from the palace, which was brightly illuminated, soldiers and plain citizens were pouring forth in a stream. above the shrieking of men and women and the clang of contending arms, he heard enthusiastic shouts: "king zechariah is dead! long live king shallum!" what? zechariah dead! in a flash the whole situation was made clear to hosea. now he recalled that down at bethel, the king's sanctuary, someone had spoken to him of a movement that was on foot to depose the king. hosea knew that zechariah was unlike his great father, jeroboam ii, whom he succeeded in the year b. c. e. the new king was a weakling. upon his accession to the throne, syria refused to pay the annual tribute, revolted, and zechariah could not help himself. the wealth of the people, the luxury they lived in, the disorganization of the army by corruption, the oppression of the poor, the injustices practiced in business and in the courts of law, had unfitted israel to wage war against syria, or any other nation, for that matter. zechariah, in the six months that he ruled samaria, therefore, lost all that had been gained by his illustrious father. hosea, however, did not look for an insurrection in samaria. but here it was: zechariah was dead and shallum--yes, shallum, the son of jabesh, the one mentioned to hosea as the probable successor--had been proclaimed king. when shallum was spoken of, down at bethel, hosea had paid no particular attention. he was occupied with his own family troubles then, as he was in the presence of this history-making event. the threatened revolution was the farthest thought from his mind, at that time as it was at this moment. therefore, before hosea had grasped the full significance of either of the two events that had occurred that night, he was jostled into a side street by the mob that now filled the market place. sick at heart, hosea did not stop to see the bloodshed and the horror, nor to listen to the story of the revolt, but walked on to the outskirts of the city. his head swam from the excitement. his temples pounded like sledge hammers. as he walked on, his feet grew heavy and dragged. just how he got there hosea did not know, but suddenly he found himself in front of his own home. the day was now dawning. the first rays of the sun were shooting their way through the early morning mist and playing on the bedewed stones of the house. hosea entered quietly, and walked up to the children's bed room. to his amazement he found jezreel asleep on his arms at the table. as he gazed for a moment upon the children, hosea's heart was wrung with sorrow. he picked jezreel up from the chair. the boy, asleep, clung tightly about his father's neck. hosea laid him in his bed, covered him, kissed him and, with bowed head, went to his own room. and while little jezreel was dreaming that a great giant came to his home, picked up the house and shook it, carried it away to a beautiful valley and brought back his mother, hosea sat at the window and watched and watched, until the morning's duties called him. chapter ii. _the tragedy with a purpose._ king shallum soon discovered that a stolen throne is no sweeter than any other stolen thing. a palace is no more protection against conscience than a hovel; and shallum passed miserable days of fear and nights of sleeplessness, because of his murder of zechariah. smitten by his conscience and tortured in mind, shallum was not able to collect a large force of followers to protect him or his ill-gotten throne. when, therefore, a plot was set on foot to dethrone him, shallum was helpless. menahem, the son of gadi, one of jeroboam ii's generals, organized an expedition against the usurper in tirzah, the city that was the capital of israel for fifty years after the kingdom of solomon was divided. within a month after shallum had proclaimed himself king of israel, menahem marched from tirzah to samaria, attacked shallum, defeated him, and, in turn, mounted the throne of jeroboam. instead of ruling peaceably in samaria, however, menahem started a reign of terror, until nobody in the country seemed safe in his home or in his possessions. trouble came for the new king thick and fast. tiglath-pileser iii, who had been ruling in assyria since , and against whom amos had warned the weakened kingdom of israel, had accomplished many conquests north of israel, in phoenicia and in the frontier lands of damascus. in the year , tiglath-pileser was knocking at the gates of damascus and threatening samaria. in order to keep the assyrian conqueror off, and save their countries the spoliation and ruin that followed in the wake of the assyrian armies, menahem, together with rezin, king of damascus, the kings of tyre, hamath, and other small states, agreed to pay him tribute. menahem's share was the enormous sum of one thousand talents of silver. to raise this amount, he levied a tax of fifty silver shekels each on "all the mighty men of wealth," both priests and merchants, in the kingdom. now, the lawlessness started by shallum and the anarchy continued by menahem had had their effect. the great sum of money needed for tiglath-pileser was raised by "all the mighty men of wealth;" but it was ground out of the poor by cheating, robbery and even murder. the conditions against which the prophet amos cried out were now apparent to all observers. the final overthrow of the kingdom, which amos declared to be but a matter of time, was now evident to all patriotic lovers of their country. these conditions were clear as the light of day, especially to hosea. being a priest himself, he knew how the very priests at the sanctuaries had entered upon secret understandings with rebel associates of menahem and the wealthy merchants to raise the assyrian tribute at the expense of the people. being a lover of his fatherland, he knew that these sins and crimes against god and men must react upon the nation as a whole and rush it on to destruction. hosea, like amos, therefore, felt himself called upon by god to warn his people, and, if possible, to save his country. he could no longer stand aside and see rulers, priests and "all the mighty men of wealth" despoiling his well-beloved fatherland. he must speak words of reproach and warning. he must open the eyes of his people to the calamity that was ahead of them. one night hosea was at home brooding over his own family troubles and thinking of the future of his country. he had just seen the children to bed and his mind was dwelling on gomer, their mother, from whom he had not heard a single word since she went away. as he came downstairs he heard shouting and screaming and hurrying footsteps. going into the street, he learned that another of those attacks on peaceful people had been made by a company of menahem's followers for the purpose of robbery. this did not surprise hosea in the least. what did chagrin and pain him was the discovery that the attacking party was under the direction of several priests whom, he knew personally. all that night this phrase kept running through his mind--"like people, like priest." and, strange to say, the thought of gomer, his wife, whom he loved devotedly, whom he never ceased loving, kept on intruding itself into his thoughts about his country. by morning, however, the whole situation had cleared up for him. israel, its rulers and priests were like gomer. god loved the whole people of israel devotedly as hosea loved gomer, but israel does not always understand what god desires of his people any more than gomer understood what hosea desired of her. if gomer had continued loving her husband, as from the beginning, she would never have left him; if israel had continued loving god, as from the beginning, israel would never have strayed away from his law and commandments. what is to be done? israel lacks knowledge of god and his will! israel is being taught falsehoods by priests and prophets! israel does not understand god's loving-kindness toward his people! israel must be warned! israel must be taught! hosea had determined what to do. his unhappiness at the departure of his wife was somewhat lightened now, because he read god's mission to him in the tragedy of his home. he felt himself ordained to be a preacher to israel--and he went to work. from that day on he traveled the wide land over, preaching to the people against the corrupt priesthood and against the usurpers of the throne of samaria. "hear the word of god, ye children of israel, for god hath a controversy with the inhabitants of the land, for there is no truth, nor loving-kindness, nor knowledge of god in the land; there is naught but perjury and lying, murder and stealing, violence and bloodshed. therefore doth the land mourn, and all its inhabitants languish. "yet, let none bring charges, and let none reprove, since my people are but as their priestlings. my people are being destroyed for lack of knowledge. because thou has rejected knowledge i will also reject thee, that thou shalt be no priest to me. since thou hast forgotten the instruction of thy god, i will also forget thy children. i will change their glory into shame, and it shall be, like people, like priest. the people that doth not understand shall be overthrown!" hosea naturally, met opposition everywhere on the part of the priesthood and the hirelings of the king. undaunted, he rebuked menahem and the usurping rulers in samaria, as well as the priests and the unrighteous people. "hear this, o ye priests! and hearken, o house of israel, and give heed, o house of the king, since for you is the judgment. they themselves have made kings, without my consent; they have made princes, but without my knowledge. for they commit falsehood; the thief entereth in and the troop of robbers ravageth without. and they consider not in their hearts that i remember all their wickedness." then, his heart aching with pain, and remembering the sorrow of his life, which led him to prophesy, he concludes: "what shall i do unto you, o ephraim! what shall i do unto you, o israel-- since your love is like a morning cloud, yea, like the dew which goes early away." but the people as a whole, having been taught by the unworthy prients, still believed that, in offering sacrifices, all their sins and crimes were forgiven them by god. amos had objected strenuously to this common belief. hosea went a step further and decried the act of sacrificing as an act of idolatry. referring bitterly to bethel as bethaven (the house of violence) hosea replied: "come not ye into gilgal, neither go ye up to beth-aven, nor swear, 'as god liveth.' in bethel i have seen a horrible thing; all their wickedness is in gilgal; for there i hated them. because of the wickedness of their doings, i will drive them out of my house; i will love them no more. they shall go with their flocks and with their herds to seek god; but they shall not find him; he hath withdrawn himself from them." every place where hosea denounced the sacrifices, the people who heard him, but could not or would not understand, called him a fool and said that he was mad. "yes," replied hosea: "the prophet is a fool, the man that hath the spirit is mad because of the abundance of thine iniquity. they shall cry unto me, 'my god, we israel know thee.' (but) israel hath cast off that which is good; israel hath forgotten his maker. and now they go on sinning, they make for themselves molten gods, from their silver, idols according to their own model, smith's work, all of it! to such they speak! men who sacrifice, kiss calves! they sow the wind and shall reap the whirlwind!" after that hosea followed up his rebuke and denunciation with most pathetic entreaties: "sow to yourselves righteousness, so shall ye reap loving-kindness. break up your fallow ground, for it is time to seek the lord, that the fruit of righteousness may come upon you. but ye have plowed wickedness, ye have reaped disaster, ye have eaten the fruit of lies. it is love i delight in, and not sacrifice, knowledge of god and not burnt-offering." when the time came for menahem to send the tribute to tiglath-pileser, hosea discovered that even here the king and his advisers were double-dealing with assyria. the sending of the money to the great emperor was only a blind on the part of menahem. secretly he was in communication with the king of egypt, sending precious gifts to him. menahem wanted to create an alliance between israel and egypt against tiglath-pileser. hosea saw the folly of it all. he knew that neither the tribute to assyria nor the proposed alliance with egypt could help the corrupt, degraded people. he compares menahem's double-dealing to the action of a silly dove, and concludes: "samaria shall bear her guilt, for she has rebelled against her god. shall i deliver them from the power of sheol? shall i redeem them from death? come, on with thy plagues, o death! on with thy pestilence, o sheol! repentance is forever hid from mine eyes." this terrible pronouncement, almost a curse, brought hosea back to his home all wrought up. never had he spoken so harshly. never had he felt so deeply the doom of israel. he found his children in the playroom, playing an old game called "mother." after watching them for a moment in silence and in thought, his heart was almost crushed by a question his little girl put to him: "when is our real mother coming home?" for answer he drew lo-ruhamah close to his heart--and wept. hosea did not know; only god knew. all the love he bore for gomer came back in an overwhelming flood. she had strayed from him, but his love had never lessened. would that he could find her! with all her faults he would forgive her, if she would repent and return. and yet, that morning, he had been so harsh. he preached that israel must bear its guilt and that god had forever hid repentance from before him. if he, a man, could love so deeply and could be willing to forgive, how much the more so does god love his people; how much the more so will god have compassion and forgive, if israel will repent and return to him? and that very night it seemed that god had ordained an ordeal for hosea to test him and inspire him in his further work as a prophet. a message was brought to hosea that his wife, gomer, was to be sold as a slave at public auction, in the slave market of samaria, on the morrow! chapter iii. _the repentant returns._ with a bowed head, though with a stout heart, hosea went to the market place on the following morning. he mingled with the people in the vicinity of the slave auction district, watching particularly a certain block, on which, he was told, gomer was to be offered for sale. he studied carefully every woman that was put upon the block. at last he recognized her. but how changed she seemed. her beauty, for which she had been famous, was gone. her straight erect form was stooped. her eyes, once proud, were cast down. she had a forlorn, hopeless look, as if she didn't care what happened to her. evidently she had suffered greatly. where had she been during the past four years? what hardships had she been through that she was so changed? why did she fall so low that she had to be sold into slavery? the answers to these questions would have made no difference in the plan hosea had determined to follow with gomer. standing on the outskirts of the crowd, he raised bid after bid, until he bought her for "fifteen pieces of silver and a homer of barley and a half-homer of barley." gomer was not at all concerned about the one who had purchased her. she did not take a single glance in the direction of those who were bidding for her. when sold, she stepped wearily down from the block and waited listlessly to be claimed by the owner and taken away. hosea approached her, stepped to her side and spoke her name in a low voice: "gomer!" she raised her eyes and looked at him as through a haze. hosea, too, had changed much during the past four years. his love for gomer, the uncertainty of her whereabouts, his grief, his constant preaching to israel that fell on deaf ears, had made deep furrows in his face and brought wrinkles to his forehead. "come with me," he said softly to her. for a moment gomer stared at him; then she fell in a dead faint at his feet. it was a long time before she revived. sorrow and repentance for her foolishness in leaving a home where her husband loved her and where her children would have worshiped her, had she permitted them to do so, had sapped all her strength. the sudden shock of seeing hosea and the knowledge that he had bought her as a slave nearly killed her. but hosea had no thought of revenge. in his great heart there was naught but love for gomer. on their way home gomer began: "i regret," she said, "i am sorry--" but hosea stopped her. he would not even listen to words of explanation from her whom he loved. he knew that she must have suffered much, that she was unhappy. it was sufficient now that she was sorry, that she had repented. hosea did not want to cause her the pain of a recital of her sorrows. that is the way people who love truly do. they forgive and forget, quickly and without causing pain. hosea had the children removed to the home of a friend for several months. during that time gomer quickly recovered from her trials and returned to health and beauty. then he brought the children back and restored them to their real mother. once, after the reunited family had spent a very happy evening, a tremendous truth came home to hosea. here they were all happy, as if trouble had never entered to disturb the sweetness and beauty of their lives! why had sorrow and suffering come upon them at all? then and there hosea realized that there was a purpose in his home tragedy. he understood better than ever before that god had selected him to be a prophet to his people; that god had taught him through sorrow and suffering, the lesson he was to teach to israel. israel had become faithless to god and had left his law; even as gomer had left her husband. god grieved for the sins of israel; even as he had grieved for gomer who had strayed from him. god loved his people, nevertheless; even as he loved gomer, continually. god was prepared to take israel back under his guiding and loving care, when israel would repent of its backsliding and sinning; even as he did with gomer. from that day on hosea's preaching took on a different form. he no longer scolded and condemned, but entreated and pleaded with his people: "return, o israel, to the lord thy god, for thou hast stumbled through thine iniquity. take words with thee and return to god. say to him, 'pardon thou wholly iniquity and receive (us) with favor. assyria will not save us, we will not ride upon horses (to egypt); we will no more say to the work of our hands, "ye are our god."'" and, in the fervor of his poetic soul, the prophet hears god's answer to repenting and returning israel: "i will heal their backsliding, i will love them freely, for my anger is turned away from them. i will be as dew to israel; he shall blossom as the lily and strike his roots deep as lebanon. his saplings shall spread out, and his beauty shall be as the olive tree. they shall return and dwell in my shadow, they shall live well-watered like a garden, they shall flourish like a vine, their renown shall be like that of the wine of lebanon." but such hopefulness and promise of divine love had no more effect upon the doomed people than did the attacks upon their sinfulness and wrongdoing. the judean prophet, amos, it will be remembered, drew a picture of god as a stern judge and israel as the criminal. israel is proved guilty of all the prophet's accusations, and the judge pronounces sentence. the experiences that led the samarian, hosea, to prophesy were different than those of the tekoan. understanding the lasting love that dwelt within him for gomer, and how he yearned for her return to him, he cried out to his people, from the depths of a wounded heart, speaking through the inspiration of a loving and merciful god: "o my people! how can i give thee up, o ephraim! how can i surrender thee, o israel! how can i give thee up as admah! or make thee as zeboim! my heart asserts itself: my sympathies are all aglow. i will not carry into effect the fierceness of my anger; i will not turn to destroy ephraim. for god am i, and not man, holy in the midst of thee; therefore i will not utterly consume. turn thou to thy god, keep kindness and justice, and wait for thy god continually." although hosea saw that he was laboring to no good effect, he did not for an instant give up. time and again he recalled the early days of love and devotion between god and israel. he recounted the times when israel deserted god, from the exodus on, but god always received israel back, when the people repented of their sins and returned to acts of justice, righteousness and love. "i am the lord, thy god, from the land of egypt; thou knowest no god but me, and besides me there is no savior." hosea could not conceive the idea that god would desert israel forever. he recognized, however, that the doom of the sinful nation was sealed. and so he read the drama of israel in his own life. assyria would destroy samaria. israel would leave the fatherland as gomer left her home. in exile israel would learn through suffering and hardships as gomer had done. israel would redeem itself and, eventually, would return to god. god, loving israel always, would wait to receive his repentant people, as he himself had received gomer. and so hosea drew a beautiful picture of that future day in these words: "and i will betroth thee unto me forever. yea, i will betroth thee unto me with righteousness, and with justice and with loving-kindness and in mercy; yea, i will betroth thee unto me with faithfulness, and thou shalt know god." * * * * * the compiler of the fragments of hosea's speeches in the book bearing the prophet's name--the most fragmentary book in the bible, and from which this story has been built up--concludes his labors with this admonition: "whoso is wise, let him understand these things; whoso is prudent, let him realize them; for straight are the ways of the lord. the righteous walk in them, but transgressors stumble upon them." the statesman prophet chapter i. _the vision in the temple._ even his closest friends could not explain what had come over young isaiah, since the physicians announced that king uzziah was nearing his end. amoz, isaiah's father, was of a noble family, very near the throne in jerusalem, and a dear personal friend of the king. isaiah, too, was a prime favorite of uzziah's, not by virtue of his father's friendship for the king, but because of his own fine qualities and excellent disposition. often isaiah had been invited, with the crown prince, jotham, to be present at the great councils of state--a very distinguished honor for so young a man. but no one thought, for an instant, that this change in manner and behavior, so noticeable to everyone, had come upon isaiah because of his grief over the aged king's fatal illness. isaiah was being trained to enter upon a political career. his politics was the only serious thing in life for him. the country was so peaceful and prosperous, however, that even politics was a matter of little consequence to most of the royalty in jerusalem. they lived the joyous life, paid little attention to the temple and its priests, and often laughed at the whole religious ritual. but when great state functions occurred at the palace or foreign ambassadors appeared at court, all royalty celebrated with feasting--and isaiah was among those present and in high favor. he always came to these occasions in rare good humor and with cheerful enthusiasm. he was a young man of many accomplishments. his knowledge of affairs was wide and extensive. his cleverness and wit had made him famed far and wide. his occasional poems, written for sport and festivals, showed a genuine talent, almost a genius, for the poetic art. he was considered by all the very life and spirit of the younger court set. a great future as a statesman and man of letters was predicted for him by everybody. now, however, since king uzziah became so critically ill that his life was despaired of, this unexplainable change took place in isaiah. he seemed to have quarreled with prince jotham, who had been reigning as king since uzziah was smitten beyond hope of recovery, though both laughed at the rumor and denied it. what proved the greatest surprise to all, was the fact that isaiah often went to the temple and talked earnestly with the priests. at times he would linger about the place long after the evening sacrifices had been offered and the priests had gone home. his jolly friends would make sport of him; but his more sober-minded companions became quite alarmed when, instead of displaying his usual good humor, he spoke with bitter sarcasm. his contagious laugh began to ring forced and hollow. he was morose and always ill at ease, as if he were laboring under a great strain that burdened his heart and mind. king uzziah's death was a lingering one. for many weeks reports from the sick chamber were to the effect that he was passing away, but he clung to life. jerusalem had doffed its gala attire and the whole of judah was prepared to go into mourning for its king. for a month or more the nobility and the court had not indulged in any social functions, state or private. the capital and the country were awaiting the royal funeral. uzziah had been a great king and a good ruler. he had done much for the whole country, and especially for the capital. the mourning in jerusalem and all through judah was, therefore, genuine and sincere, when the king died. the pomp and ceremony that characterized the funeral procession were not mere royal show, but expressions of honor and deep regret of a loyal people for its beloved sovereign. the young isaiah was accorded an honored place in the long list of notables who followed the body of the king to its last resting place. he walked beside jotham, his bosom friend; but did not accompany the new king on the return to the palace. in the slight confusion that followed after uzziah had been "buried with his fathers," isaiah slipped quietly away and took the road to the temple mount. taking his way through the water gate, on the west side of the temple, he entered the inner court. then he mounted the twelve steps leading to the vestibule of the temple proper. two priests, who had just come out of the chamber where the implements for sacrificing were kept, bowed low to him and passed out into the inner court. isaiah was evidently so absorbed in his thoughts that he did not notice them, for he did not return their salute, but walked forward to the entrance of the hekal, or temple proper. there he stood for a moment in silence; then he leaned wearily against one of the entrance pillars. behind him the priests' hall and the inner court were deserted. before him, in the hekal, was the altar of incense, on which coals from the recent sacrifices were still alive. to the right of the altar was the menorah, the seven-light candlestick, and to the left the table of showbread. behind these hung the golden curtains that separated the holy of holies from the rest of the temple. a thin line of blue and purple smoke rose from the live coals on the incense altar and wound its way upward to the ceiling of the hekal. as isaiah watched the rising smoke, it became thicker and thicker, and filled the whole temple. his eyes gazed from the altar to the glittering gold curtains behind it. the reflection from the coals, and the playing of the blue and purple smoke on the golden sheets, caused them to sheen and shimmer until they faded entirely away into the blue and purple maze that filled the hekal. isaiah was gazing right into the holy of holies, where no human eyes, except those of the high priest, once a year, ever looked, and behold! he saw a most remarkable vision. there, instead of the wooden ark of the covenant, he beheld a great and lofty throne on which was god, himself. instead of the two cherubim of wood and gold, that surmounted the ark, he beheld seraphim, the fiery angels, standing attendant before him. each of the seraphim had six wings, with two he covered his face, with two he covered his feet and with two he flew. and one cried unto another and said: "holy, holy, holy, is the lord of hosts, the whole earth is full of his glory." isaiah felt the very foundations of the threshold shake under him, at the sound of the calling. covering his face with both hands, he cried out: "woe is me! i am undone. for i am a man of unclean lips. and i am dwelling among a people of unclean lips; yet mine eyes have seen the king, the god of hosts." uncovering his face, he stretched out his hands towards the throne in mute appeal. thereupon one of the seraphim flew to the altar and, with a pair of tongs, took from it a live coal. from the altar the seraph flew directly to isaiah and, touching his mouth with the live coal, said: "see, this has touched thy lips, therefore thine iniquity is gone and thy sin forgiven." then isaiah heard the voice of god himself, saying: "whom shall i send, and who will go for us?" falling to his knees, and again stretching out his hands towards the throne, isaiah answered: "here am i! send me!" kneeling there, motionless, hardly breathing, his lips apart, his face expressing the fear and anguish that were in his heart, isaiah heard the reply: "go and say to this people: hear and hear again, but understand not; see and see again, but perceive not. make fat the heart of this people, and their ears dull, and besmear their eyes, lest they see with their eyes and hear with their ears and their heart should understand and they be healed." the force of this message struck isaiah to the heart. he understood its meaning very well. it was terrible! it carried with it the sound of doom and the end of his nation. the very thought of it terrified him. holding his head with both hands his back bent forward as under a heavy weight, until his face touched his knees upon the floor, he cried in heartbreaking tones: "lord! how long?" and god answered him: "until the cities are in ruin without an inhabitant, and the houses without a human occupant, and the land become utterly desolate, and god hath sent the men far away, and in the midst of the land the deserted territory be great. and should there be a tenth in it, it must in turn be fuel for flame, like the terebinth and the oak, of which, after falling, but a stump remains." for a long time after the voice had ceased speaking, isaiah remained in the position in which he had listened to the last reply. when, finally, in fear and trembling, he slowly raised his head, the vision had gone! behind him the priests' hall and the inner court were deserted. before him a thin line of blue and purple smoke rose from the live coals on the incense altar and wound its way upward to the ceiling of the hekal. isaiah passed his hands over his eyes. for a moment he let his cool palm rest against his burning forehead. then he slowly found his way out of the temple and passed out into the silent night. chapter ii. _the parable of the vineyard._ the fact was that isaiah did not grieve particularly over king uzziah's illness and approaching death. what troubled him was the attitude taken by his dear friend, the crown prince, jotham, toward the political future of the kingdom of judah, since his sick father had placed the reins of government in his hands. the differences of opinion between isaiah and jotham, as to what was best for the nation were so great as to be almost hopeless. so that, even before uzziah died the two stopped discussing problems of state, although they continued their warm friendship. as long as king uzziah lived, it was plain nothing serious could happen to the country. to the south, uzziah was feared by the philistines and arabians, whom he had subdued, and his name was honored even at the court of egypt. to the north jeroboam ii was prosperous and at peace; syria was weak and assyria had not yet made its power felt. within the extended borders of his own country, uzziah had established peace and had built up commercial enterprise and prosperity. to the average citizen of judah, therefore, the country was all right, the king was all right, and the future had not the slightest cloud before it. to isaiah, the keen-sighted and well-posted young statesman, however, neither the country nor the king was fit to deal with a great national crisis--and the future had one in store. when uzziah became sick and abdicated, quietly, in favor of jotham, then a young man of twenty-five, isaiah began to call jotham's attention to the internal social conditions of the country; but jotham had such a high respect for his father's ruling power that he would not alter a single law nor make a single reform. when isaiah attempted to drum into jotham's head the causes of the reign of anarchy in samaria and the lessons to be drawn therefrom for judah, jotham, desiring to show his power as a ruler while his father was yet alive, busied himself fighting with the ammonites and extending the boundaries of his kingdom. when, finally, in the year b. c. e., the news came to jerusalem that king menahem, of israel, had sent a heavy tribute to the assyrian tiglath-pileser, isaiah's worries over the future of his own country became very acute. it was in this year uzziah died; and it was on the day of the king's funeral that isaiah saw the remarkable vision in the temple. up to that hour isaiah was conscious only of the fact that something must be done in judah to save it from the evils of injustice and unrighteousness that were being practiced by the rich and powerful upon the poor and weak. from that hour on he knew that god had called him to be his prophet, that god had selected him to bring the truth home to the judeans and, if possible, to save the nation from the doom that awaited the sister-nation, israel. what isaiah saw and heard in the temple at the close of that memorable day, gave him the germ of an idea as to what god demanded of him to do. time, thought and experience ripened that idea into a plan. the course of events offered him the opportunity to put the plan into action. isaiah could not count on jotham to institute and carry out reforms in the religious beliefs and practices of the people, in their commercial wrongdoings, in the corrupt law courts and in the general oppression of the lower classes. he had to begin work on his own initiative; and he began it with the people themselves, in the city of jerusalem. he came to the temple mount one day, when many pilgrims were gathered there. he listened attentively, with the rest, to travelers from arabia, who were relating wonderful tales of adventure. from stories of adventure in foreign lands the pilgrims drifted into stories of happenings in their own country. some related rumors of what was going on in samaria; others spoke of the possibility of judah's being forced to fight assyria some day. some laughed at such a suggestion; others were in grave doubt whether such an emergency would find the nation prepared. some spoke of the evils that were sapping the strength of the people; others complained that the king, instead of attending to his business of state, was busying himself with his wealth of herds and vineyards. here isaiah, who had been silently listening to the discussions, offered to recite a poem, an original composition. the suggestion was received with loud applause and isaiah began: "let me sing a song of my friend, my friend's song about his vineyard." at this introduction everybody settled down comfortably to listen, and isaiah continued: "my friend hath a vineyard on a fertile hill; he digged it and gathered out the atones, and planted it with choicest vine; a tower he built in the midst of it and hewed out a wine press. he looked to find grapes that were good, and it yielded only wild grapes." isaiah's listeners were disappointed. the story not only lacked excitement, it even lacked interest. they shifted in their places uneasily, but isaiah caught their attention again by continuing: "and now, o inhabitants of jerusalem, and ye people of judah. judge, i pray you, betwixt me and betwixt my vineyard. what more could be done to my vineyard than that which i have done? when i looked to find grapes that were good why yielded it wild grapes? "and now, pray, i will tell you what i will do to my vineyard: i will take away the hedge thereof, that it shall be devoured; i will break down the wall thereof, that it shall be trodden down; yea, i will make a waste thereof, that it shall not be pruned or weeded. then it shall put forth thorns and thickets of brambles; the clouds i will command that they rain not thereon." everybody understood now that isaiah was speaking a parable and that its application was to them and to their country. but who was the "friend" who possessed this vineyard? isaiah did not hold the questioners in long suspense: "for the vineyard of the lord of hosts is the house of israel, and the men of judah are his cherished plant; and he looked for justice, but, behold! bloodshed; for righteousness, but, behold! a cry of distress." then isaiah launched forth into a powerful denunciation of the social evils of which judah and the leading judeans were guilty--a sixfold woe that was rushing the nation on to destruction. "woe unto them that join house to house, who add field to field, until there is no space left, and they dwell alone in the midst of the land. "woe unto them that rise at dawn to pursue strong drink, who tarry late into the night until wine inflames them; but they regard not the work of the lord and see not what his hands have made "woe unto them that draw guilt upon themselves with cords of folly, and sin as with a cart rope! "woe unto them that call evil good, and good evil; that put darkness for light, and light for darkness; that put bitter for sweet, and sweet for bitter! "woe unto them that are wise in their own eyes, and prudent in their own conceit! "woe unto them that are heroic in drinking wine, and valiant in mixing strong drink! who, for a bribe, justify the wicked and strip the innocent man of his innocence! "therefore, as the fire devours stubble, and as hay shrivels in a flame, so their root shall be as rottenness and their blossom go up as dust; because they have rejected the teaching of the lord of hosts, and despised the word of israel's holy one." so intensely absorbed in his speech was isaiah, and so deeply interested was the vast assembly whom he was addressing, that no one took note of a splendidly arrayed group of men who had come up and stood with the rest, listening. when isaiah had finished speaking, and the people had caught their breath again, some one shouted: "behold! the king!" isaiah looked over the heads of the crowd toward the newcomers, and there he beheld jotham and a retinue of nobles, laughing heartily, no doubt, at his masterful effort. fearlessly, and without a moment's hesitation, the prophet did what he had threatened jotham he would do--he denounced his friend, the king, before his people: "the lord standeth forth to present his case, and he standeth up to judge his people. the lord entereth into judgment with the elders of his people and their princes. 'ye, yourselves, have devoured the vineyard. the spoils of the needy are in your houses. what do you mean by crushing my people and by grinding the face of the needy?' saith the lord, god of hosts." laughing still more heartily at this madness of his old friend, jotham easily made his way to where the prophet stood. he placed his arm around isaiah's shoulder and invited him to go with him and his companions to the palace. isaiah did as he was bidden. all the way jotham and his friends made fun of the feverish enthusiasm with which the denunciations were delivered, but isaiah did not feel hurt. his heart was quite at peace. at last he had launched forth upon the work to which god had so unexpectedly and so marvelously called him! when jotham and his friends arrived at the palace, a joint embassy from rezin, the king of syria, and from pekah, the king of israel, was awaiting them. to the amazement of them all, the ambassadors placed before jotham a demand that judah join forces with syria and israel, forthwith, and fight tiglath-pileser, the king of assyria, who was then threatening to invade damascus and samaria! chapter iii. _a coward on the throne._ king jotham was wise enough to follow the advice of the prophet isaiah in his reply to the embassy from rezin and pekah. at the council of state, called to consider the message from the kings of syria and israel, isaiah counselled an unhesitating and decisive refusal of their demand. while, therefore, the ambassadors were received and entertained royally in jerusalem, they returned to their respective sovereigns, their mission unaccomplished. the answer that jotham sent back to damascus and samaria was plain, simple and to the point. judah, he said, had no interest in the political policies and intrigues of syria and israel and would not join a coalition against assyria. both rezin and pekah stormed against jotham and his advisors, but to no avail. judah was strong, independent and at peace, and jotham would not involve his country in a quarrel with which he had nothing to do. conditions in israel were different, however. the majority of the people chafed under the indignity of being tributary to assyria. they hated king menahem who, in his fear, sent the tribute to tiglath-pileser and became his voluntary subject. menahem was hated by the rich merchants and large landowners as well as by the people generally, because on them the burden of the tribute fell the heaviest. the powerful samarians, therefore, formed themselves into a party to oppose the king. king rezin, of syria, who was watching his opportunity to rebel against assyria, kept alive this hostile spirit against menahem in samaria and israel. rezin was working toward a coalition of all the countries along the mediterranean sea that were tributary to tiglath-pileser, so that in their combined strength they might rise and throw off the assyrian yoke. the leaders of the opposition to the king,--the national patriots--in samaria, hoped that pekaiah, menahem's son and successor, would prove himself a truer son of his country than his father. they looked to him to refuse the payment of the assyrian tribute and to re-establish the independence of the kingdom of israel; but they were disappointed. pekaiah followed in the political footsteps of his father and the hopes of the samarian patriots waned when he succeeded his father on the throne. rezin, however, was not to be denied in the plan he had laid out for himself and for the other assyrian tributaries. pekaiah reigned in samaria less than two years, when, in , through the assistance of rezin and the connivance of the patriotic party in samaria, he was assassinated by one of his generals, pekah, the son of remaliah. pekah was thus raised to the throne of israel with the avowed purpose of uniting with rezin in the proposed rebellion against tiglath-pileser. israel wanted, and needed, the help of judah in the desperate conflict that awaited them. the smaller countries north of israel and syria, crushed under the burden of their assyrian tribute, gladly joined the syro-israelitish coalition; but the embassy to jerusalem returned empty-handed. rezin and pekah, however, were not dismayed by the refusal of judah to join them. they bided their time for a better opportunity. this opportunity came the very next year when jotham died, suddenly, and his son, ahaz, a young man of twenty, came to the throne of judah. without any notice whatever, rezin and pekah united their armed forces and marched upon jerusalem. this sudden invasion of judah had been carefully planned beforehand. it was so arranged that, when the syro-israelitish forces attacked jerusalem, a certain man, the son of tabeal, who was willing to play the traitor, was to assassinate ahaz, proclaim himself king, admit the enemy into the city and throw all the power and wealth of judah into the scale with syria and israel in the war against tiglath-pileser. ahaz was entirely unprepared for such a move on the part of pekah and rezin. the news that the two armies were on the march caused consternation, not alone in the palace of the king, but in jerusalem and in the entire country. the northern part of judah, as far as jerusalem, was unprotected and at the mercy of the enemy. neither uzziah nor jotham looked for a foe from that direction. in fact, the syro-israelitish forces met no opposition whatever until they came within sight of jerusalem. the very first thing that ahaz and his generals did, when they had recovered from their consternation, was to prepare the capital for a siege. the fortifications were examined and strengthened. the water supply to the south of the city, without which jerusalem could not have withstood a siege for three months, was especially looked after. now, ahaz was like that ancient pharaoh who did not know joseph, or like his own predecessor, rehoboam, who "took council with the young men that were grown up with him." ahaz did not call isaiah, the old friend and counsellor of the royal house, to advise him in his great extremity. isaiah, however, called to god to save his nation--if the nation would be saved--and did not wait for an invitation from the young king. while ahaz, his advisors and the commanders of his army, were examining the water supply of jerusalem, preparatory to the inevitable siege, isaiah went out to meet him. the prophet came upon the royal party at the end of the conduit of the upper reservoir, in the highway of the fuller's field. isaiah, who had been quietly and carefully studying the entire situation since the embassy came to jotham, understood well enough that an intrigue must be brewing in jerusalem against the young king. when the report reached the city that the enemy was on the march, isaiah's searching inquiries and careful observation of the leaders of the capital resulted in the discovery that the son of tabeal was in league with rezin and pekah. it was isaiah at this meeting, who informed ahaz that his immediate danger was as much within his own city as from the enemy that was approaching. no wonder, then, that "his heart trembled, and the heart of his people, as the trees of the forest tremble with the wind." but isaiah immediately reassured the trembling ahaz in the following words: "take heed and keep thyself calm; fear not, neither be fainthearted because of these two fag ends of smoking firebrands, because of the fierce anger of rezin and syria and of the son of remaliah. syria, with israel, hath purposed evil against thee, saying, 'let us go up against judah and distress it and overpower it and appoint the son of tabeal king in its midst.' but thus saith the lord god: it shall not stand, neither shall it come to pass, for, the head of syria is damascus and the head of damascus is rezin, and the head of israel is samaria and the head of samaria is remaliah's son. verily, if you will not hold fast, ye shall not stand fast." ahaz laughed at the idea of keeping quiet and having no fear, under the conditions. he turned away impatiently from the prophet and proceeded with his business of examining the reservoir. isaiah, however, would not be put off with mere impatience. "ask thee a sign of the lord, thy god," he cried to ahaz. "ask it either in the depths of sheol or in the heights above." but ahaz replied, "i will not ask, neither will i put the lord to the test." then isaiah said: "hear now, o house of david! is it too small a thing for you to weary men, that ye must also weary my god? therefore the lord, himself, will give you a sign. behold, a young woman will bear a son and call his name immanuel (god is with us). before this child shall know to refuse the evil and choose the good those two kings before whom thou tremblest shall be deserted." ahaz was tired of mere words. advice he had enough; he wanted now to act. in fact, when the knowledge of the political intrigue in jerusalem became known to him, he immediately made up his mind what to do. he, therefore, again turned from isaiah and ordered his retinue to continue the examination of the water supply. isaiah then tried another form of argument with this cowardly young king, in order to bring him to his senses. he, himself, was positive that tiglath-pileser, who was at that time in asia minor, had, no doubt, been informed by his spies of the action taken by rezin and pekah. isaiah felt sure, also, that tiglath-pileser would immediately invade syria. he knew, in addition, that neither rezin nor pekah was strong and powerful enough, at this time, to wage a protracted war with assyria; that is why he described them as "two fag ends of smoking firebrands." he, therefore, concluded that, at the first information of tiglath-pileser's march into the northern country, rezin and pekah would have to return to defend their own lands. on the other hand, isaiah knew that, if ahaz did anything that would in any way displease the mighty king of assyria, the latter would, after finishing his campaign in syria and israel, attack judah. therefore, he warned ahaz in these words: "god will bring upon thee and upon thy people and upon thy father's house days such as have not been, since the day ephraim departed from judah, through the king of assyria. curds and honey will be that child's food (in the wilderness) when he knows to refuse evil and choose the good." isaiah ceased. he had delivered his message, had counseled and warned the king. he made it clear to ahaz that, if he did anything except trust in the power and care of god for his people, judah, like syria and israel, was destined to become a wilderness in the short time that it takes a child to reach that age when it can begin to think for itself. ahaz, however, acted upon his own and his young men's counsel. hardly had he returned to the palace that day, when he sent messengers carrying the following letter to tiglath-pileser, king of assyria: "i am your servant and your son. come up and save me from the power of the king of assyria and from the power of the king of israel, who have attacked me." ahaz followed up this message by ransacking the temple in jerusalem and the treasures of the royal palace, sending both as a gift and bribe to tiglath-pileser. then exactly what isaiah foresaw happened. tiglath-pileser immediately invaded syria and attacked damascus. rezin and pekah were forced to hurry back to defend their own countries, and judah was saved from syro-israelitish attack; but ahaz had already thrown himself at the feet of the great assyrian conqueror, with terrible results to his own country. chapter iv. _on deaf ears._ though the spineless ahaz sent his cowardly note, and the presents that followed, to tiglath-pileser secretly, the truth leaked out. great indignation was aroused among certain opponents of the king in jerusalem at the discovery of his act of treachery to the nation, and a new party was formed to fight against submission to assyria. the aim of the new movement was, principally, to preserve the independence of judah. the only avenue open seemed to be the alliance with israel and syria that the lamented king, jotham, would not enter into. with ahaz looked upon as a traitor, the only one whom these patriots could turn, was the prophet isaiah, who loved his land and knew its traditions. so, the leaders of the patriotic party came to him with their plans. but isaiah stood firm in the position he had taken with jotham against entangling alliances. he shocked these gentlemen with a well-spoken rebuke. he told them that the patriotism judah needed was not of alliances and war, but of faith in god, of trust in him who always guards and protects a righteous nation against its enemies. isaiah knew well enough the weakened and helpless condition of both israel and syria. to join with them in a war against tiglath-pileser would mean even greater ruin for judah than the peaceful submission of ahaz. he pictured the results of such an alliance in the following words: "because this people have rejected the waters of shiloah that flow softly, and rejoice in rezin and remaliah's son, therefore the lord is about to bring upon them the waters of the river euphrates, mighty and great, (even the king of assyria, in all his glory). and it shall rise above all its channels, and overflow all its banks; and it shall sweep onward into judah, and it shall overflow and pass over it, reaching even to its neck, and its outstretched wings shall cover the breadth of thy land, o immanuel." to the king, the prophet sent a concise message that would have been heeded and understood by any one but a weakling like ahaz. isaiah referred to the utter helplessness into which ahaz had cast judah by his cowardly self-subjugation to tiglath-pileser. he pictured what might happen when that mighty monarch would receive the king's pitiful cry for help: "in that same day the lord will shave with the razor hired beyond the euphrates the head and the hidden hair; and it shall even sweep away the beard." despite isaiah's efforts, the peace party that stood by ahaz, and the war party that desired an alliance with pekah and rezin, continued their separate agitations. the capture of the town of elath, at the head of the arabian gulf, by a detachment of the syrian army, strengthened ahaz in his belief that help could come only from tiglath-pileser. on the other hand, it convinced the war party that only the union with samaria and damascus could restore to the country this center of judah's lucrative trade, that commanded the commerce to the south. isaiah recognized the uselessness of appealing to either of these opposing parties. he determined to appeal to the country at large, to the whole people, who were interested not in party quarrels, but in the welfare of the nation. he wanted to create a public opinion in favor of peace and in opposition to entangling alliances, either with assyria or with the palestinian coalition. on his own property, in the heart of jerusalem, where all the passers-by could see and read it, isaiah erected a great sign which read: "swift booty--speedy prey." he meant this to indicate to the people that the triumphs of either the champions of peace or the champions of war would mean ruin to the nation at the hands of assyria. about this time a son was born to isaiah. he gave a magnificent feast to the leading people of jerusalem and, to bring his conviction home more forcibly, named the boy "swift booty--speedy prey." at the close of the feast he addressed his guests and said, in part: "before the boy knows how to cry, 'my mother' and 'my father,' they shall carry off the riches of damascus and the spoil of samaria before the king of assyria." at a great meeting in jerusalem, soon thereafter, isaiah again took up the burden of his argument against israel and syria. he predicted the inevitable destruction of these two kingdoms, because they were in rebellion against assyria, and he pointed out the consequent foolhardiness of involving judah in the oncoming disaster. regarding israel he said: "in that day the glory of jacob shall grow dim, and the fatness of his flesh wax lean. and it shall be as when a harvester gathers standing grain, and his arms reap the ears; yea, it shall be as when he gleans in the valley of rephaim, and the gleanings thereof shall be as the beating of an olive tree-- two or three berries on the topmost branch, four or five on the boughs of a fruit tree, saith the lord, the god of israel." then, addressing himself as if he were speaking to the people of israel, but hoping to drive the lesson home to the people of judah, who were listening to him, he spoke most regretfully: "for thou hast forgotten the god of thy salvation and hast not been mindful of the rock of thy strength." turning to a consideration of the second of the allies, syria, isaiah continued: "soon shall damascus cease to be a city and shall be a ruinous heap. its cities shall be given up to flocks which shall lie down, with none to make them afraid. ephraim shall lose her bulwark, and damascus her sovereignty, and the rest of syria shall perish; like the israelites shall they be, saith the lord of hosts." these descriptions of what would happen to syria and israel, however, did not go unchallenged. the prophet was told that he had evidently forgotten that all the nations in palestine and along the mediterranean, except judah, were parties to this coalition against tiglath-pileser. isaiah laughed. with fine scorn he cried: "ah! the multitude of many peoples that roar like the roaring of the seas! and the rushing of nations, that rush like the rushing of many waters! but he shall rebuke them and they shall flee far off, and shall be chased as the chaff of the mountains before the wind, and like the whirling dust before the storm. at eventide, behold, terror; before the morning, they are no more." then, as if addressing himself to all the petty northern countries that were trying to drag his own beloved fatherland into the whirlpool of disaster, isaiah spoke as follows: "make an uproar, and be broken in pieces; and give ear, all ye of far countries; gird yourselves and be broken in pieces, take counsel together, and it shall be brought to naught; speak the word and it shall not stand; for god is with us." and in answer to the appeal of the people as to what ought to be done in this national crisis, isaiah replied: "call ye not conspiracy all that this people calleth conspiracy. what they fear do not fear, nor be filled with dread. the lord of hosts, him regard as the conspirator! let him be your fear and your dread!" chapter v. _the survival of the fittest._ while isaiah was thus attempting to influence the two parties in jerusalem, exactly what he had warned ahaz of happened. the assyrian forces made a speedy march into syria, with damascus as the point of attack. the combined syro-israelitish army, upon hearing of tilgath-pileser's new move, abandoned the siege of jerusalem and hurried back to defend their own countries. the great assyrian conqueror easily subdued all the land about damascus and finally besieged the city itself. rezin offered him desperate resistance, but it was useless. tiglath-pileser destroyed all the forests, fruit groves and fertile fields in the vicinity of the city, until both food and water failed the defenders. in a last sally from the doomed city, the syrian troops were literally cut to pieces. rezin escaped with his life, and, disguised and alone, re-entered damascus. but he was caught, brought before tiglath-pileser and put to death. in the meantime, all israel and samaria quaked at the fate that awaited them. pekah, who had been lending rezin what help he could, without entirely weakening himself, was ready and willing to give the assyrian battle. tiglath-pileser, however, had his hands full with damascus. he therefore, welcomed the suggestion of a certain hoshea, son of elah of samaria, who offered to follow the example of the traitor menahem. tiglath-pileser assented gladly. he promised help and protection to hoshea, as he did to ahaz, for voluntary submission to assyrian rule. so hoshea conspired against pekah in samaria, slew him, proclaimed himself king under the protection of assyria. and sent tribute to tiglath-pileser at damascus. cowardice and treachery thus once more sealed the fate of the kingdom of israel. after the fall of damascus, the victorious assyrian ordered a great _durbar_ to celebrate his victory in that city. all the tributary kings in palestine were commanded to meet him and pay homage to him there. the splendor and display of the gathering was rivaled only by the magnificence of the welcome the terrible monarch received on his return to asshur, his own capital. among the princes who hob-nobbed with their master at damascus were the cowardly ahaz and the traitorous hoshea. but both were happy in that their countries escaped the awful havoc they witnessed in damascus and throughout syria. tiglath-pileser always carried with him a wonderfully wrought altar on which he offered sacrifices to asshur, the assyrian god. during the religious exercises at the damascus festival, in which all the assyrian vassals participated, ahaz was particularly struck with the beauty of this altar. thereupon he sent to urijah, the high priest in jerusalem, "the fashion of the altar, and the pattern of it, according to all the workmanship thereof," with instructions to have it duplicated for the temple in jerusalem. isaiah, when he heard of this, was thunderstruck by the audacity of the king who had no respect for his people or for his god. not only was this heathen altar built, but it replaced the ancient one, which was set aside. ahaz even went further. when he returned from damascus, he himself, instead of the regularly appointed priest, offered the sacrifices upon the new altar, as he had seen tiglath-pileser do. to cap the climax, ahaz introduced certain pagan religious ideas, copied from the assyrian worship, into the cult of the temple, simply to please and gratify his assyrian master. with so base a king, isaiah could hope nothing for the nation. truly could he cry out in the anguish of his spirit: "my people--a boy is their leader!" "my people--thy guides lead thee astray." of one thing, however, isaiah was positive. when messengers came to him from various parts of the country to inquire what to do in this national crisis he answered them all alike: "god hath founded zion, and in her shall the afflicted of his people take refuge." he was certain that neither a weakling like ahaz nor a terror like tiglath-pileser could bring destruction upon the city that god had selected as the center of his worship, or upon the people whom god had chosen, to reveal himself to them and to entrust them with his law. the patriotic and religious backsliding of ahaz and his counselors, however, seemed to point to the destruction of both. but isaiah was not dismayed. trusting faithfully in god's protecting hand over his people, he could not conceive that god would desert them for long. god would not permit a backboneless king to reign over his people. the successor to ahaz would be a different type of man--an ideal prince in the sight of god and men: "and there shall come forth a shoot out of the stock of jesse, and a branch of his roots shall bear fruit. and the spirit of the lord shall rest upon him, the spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the lord. and he shall not judge after the sight of his eyes, neither arbitrate after the hearing of his ears; but with righteousness shall he judge the poor, and arbitrate with equity for the afflicted of the land: and he shall smite the tyrannous with the rod of his mouth, and with the breath of his lips shall he slay the wicked, and righteousness shall be the girdle of his loins, and faithfulness the girdle of his reins, and the wolf shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid; the calf and the young lion shall feed together; and a little child shall lead them. and the cow and the bear shall make friends; their young ones shall lie down together; and the lion shall eat straw like the ox. and the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall stretch out his hand to the serpent's eye. none shall do evil or act corruptly in all my holy mountain, for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the lord as the waters cover the sea." in all literature there is no more beautiful and meaningful description of what an ideal ruler should be and of the peaceful and happy state to which such a ruler could bring his country. but isaiah did not lose sight of the fact that just as little as an ahaz could accomplish the destruction of the nation, so little could an ideal king, even if his fond dream would come true, accomplish the reconstruction of the nation, single-handed and alone. what was necessary, therefore, was the raising and educating of a new generation of citizens in judah; a just, patriotic, god-fearing company of men who, when the hoped-for king shall have come to the throne, would support him, with their valor and their lives, in building up the entire nation to walk in god's way. so isaiah began quietly with his own family first, and later with a few friends and disciples who believed as he did. "binding up the admonition and sealing the instruction among my disciples," said isaiah, "i will wait for the lord who is hiding his face from the house of jacob, and in him will i trust. behold, i and the children whom the lord hath given me are signs and symbols in israel from the lord of hosts who dwells in mount zion." isaiah's idea was similar to that of moses in the olden days in the wilderness. the present generation, ruler and people, that did not place its trust wholly in god, would slowly die out; a new generation, better and more fit, would survive to save the nation. just at this time, when isaiah began his slow work of upbuilding the nation, a son and heir was born to the king. isaiah accepted this incident as a message of approval of his course from god. he and his disciples looked to this prince to be the ideal king; and in celebration of the event isaiah greeted the heir apparent in the following fine outburst of hope for the future: "unto us a child is born, unto us a son is given; and the government shall be upon his shoulder; and his name shall be called wonder-counselor, divine hero, father of glory, prince of peace. for the increase of dominion and for peace without end, upon the throne of david and upon his kingdom, to establish and support it by justice and by righteousness from henceforth, even forever; the favor of the lord of hosts will perform this." chapter vi. _working with the remnant._ isaiah called his little band of disciples and followers "the remnant." he referred to them as "the remnant" because he knew that, if only these remained true and faithful to god, for their sakes god would not forsake the fatherland. it was upon "the remnant" that he placed the future welfare of his country. through these few he hoped to regenerate the rest of his people, despite the corruption and wrongdoing of their leaders. he aimed, especially, to prepare the young generation for patriotic, god-fearing, god-trusting lives. the prophet had set for himself no easy task. he met opposition from many directions. the king himself opposed him for political reasons. the priests, who sided with the king in his introduction of assyrian rites and practices in the temple service, opposed him on religious grounds; so that, for many years, isaiah simply devoted himself to teaching and preaching moral living, just and righteous dealing and absolute trust in god. "hear, o heavens, and give heed, o earth, for the lord speaketh: sons have i brought up and placed on high, but they have proved false to me. the ox knows its owner and the ass its master's crib, but israel has no knowledge; my people have no insight; ah! sinful nation, people deep laden with guilt, race of evil-doers, perverse children! they have forsaken the lord; they have spurned the holy one of israel; they have become rebellious. "on what place can you yet be smitten since you continue rebelling? the whole head is sick and the whole heart faint, from the sole of the foot to the head there is no soundness, only wounds and bruises and fresh sores, which have not been dressed nor bound up nor softened with oil." with words of this kind, and in similar speeches, isaiah tried to describe the condition of judah to its people. the cowardice of ahaz in throwing himself at the feet of the assyrian had, indeed, smitten the land and the people very sore. the large tribute to tiglath-pileser had to be collected and paid. the burden was terrible to bear. in the meantime, judah's enemies from the south and along the mediterranean coast took advantage of the weakened condition of judah and attacked the country from many points. isaiah tried, with all his might, to bring the people, as a whole, to an understanding of judah's condition. he wanted them to join "the remnant" and to live their lives in accordance with his teaching, which were really not his, but god's. only in this way, isaiah said, could a country that had fallen deeply into sin and unrighteousness, and was at the mercy of its enemies, be saved: "your land is a desolation, your cities are burned with fire, your tilled land--before your eyes strangers devour it; and the daughter of zion is left like a booth in a vineyard, like a lodge in a field of cucumbers, like a watchtower. unless the lord of hosts had left us a remnant, we should almost be as sodom, we would have been like gomorrah." this simile, comparing jerusalem to these ancient cities of evil repute, was answered by isaiah's opponents with the statement that the people of sodom and gomorrah were idol worshipers, but that the people of judah brought their sacrifices to the temple and observed the holydays in accordance with the ancient laws. this was the same kind of an argument as the citizens in samaria gave to amos and hosea. isaiah, however, who knew, and had taught "the remnant" that sacrificing animals was not the true manner of worshipping god, replied as follows: "hear the word of the lord, ye rulers of sodom; give heed to the instruction of our god, ye people of gomorrah! what care i for the great number of your sacrifices? saith the lord. i am sated with the burnt offerings of rams and the fat of fed beasts, and in the blood of bullocks and lambs and he-goats i take no pleasure. when ye appear before me--who has required this of you? trample no more my courts, bring no more offerings, vain is the odor of incense--it is an abomination to me; i am not able to endure a fast and a solemn assembly. your new moons and your appointed days my soul hateth. i am tired of bearing it. when ye spread forth your hands, i will hide mine eyes from you. also, if ye make many prayers, i will not hear." then isaiah launched forth into one of the most beautiful speeches that he delivered in his whole career. in it he brought home to the people the true idea of the religion which god had commanded to israel, and through which judah could be regenerated, strengthened and saved: "your hands are stained with blood; wash, that ye may be clean; remove the evil of your deeds from before mine eyes. cease to do evil; learn to do good; seek justice; relieve the oppressed; vindicate the orphan; plead for the widow." in one of the sublimest passages that any prophet ever uttered, isaiah promised the people god's forgiveness in the following wonderful appeal: "come now, let us argue together, saith the lord. though your sins be as scarlet, they may become white as snow; though they be red as crimson, they may become as wool; if ye willingly yield and are obedient, ye shall eat the good of the land, but if you refuse and rebel, ye shall be devoured by the sword. the mouth of the lord hath spoken it!" while isaiah thus pleaded and threatened, he gained many additions to "the remnant," but he failed to create a deep impression either with the reigning house or with the powerful priesthood or with the majority of the rich in jerusalem and judah. in the meantime, a vassal of assyria, in far-off babylonia, rebelled successfully. immediately, various palestinian states, including judah, began to prepare a similar attempt to free themselves from the assyrian yoke. ahaz had died in , the year in which sargon the great captured samaria, after a two year's siege, and effectually reduced the kingdom of israel. hezekiah, his young son, to whom isaiah looked for the ideal prince he had pictured, succeeded him. the calamity of the northern kingdom did not seem to bring isaiah or ahaz any warning. the king had been paying his assyrian tribute regularly and faithfully; the prophet had centered his hope in "the remnant" and in the crown prince, and bided his time. when, however, six years later, in the year , hezekiah joined the coalition of palestinian states against assyria, isaiah was not only disappointed, but became greatly alarmed. to permit hezekiah to follow the advice of his father's counselors, isaiah knew would be national suicide. for three years, therefore, while the agitation for coalition and rebellion was going on, isaiah cast off his prophet's mantle and sandals, and walked barefooted and in the garb of a captive through the treets of jerusalem, as an object lesson to the people of judah, to show them what might await them if they rebelled against assyria. but even this, for the time being, was of no avail. rebellion was in the blood of the king and the court clique. somehow the very thought of it in jerusalem seemed to reach the assyrian capital. hardly had hezekiah begun to carry his contemplated revolt into action when sennacherib, the new assyrian king, was on the march. once more judah was invaded by the assyrian hosts, and once more judah's rulers bent their knee in submission and undertook to pay a tribute that was heavier than ever before. yet isaiah, though heartbroken, was in no way dismayed. his unbounded faith in the final triumph of god's purposes led him to go on, fearlessly, to oppose the king and his associates to the very end. chapter vii. _like father, like son._ a chain, we are told, is as strong as its weakest link. the weak link in the long chain of assyrian provinces was the fact that whenever a new king came to the throne, if he happened to be away, fighting in the field, he had to hurry back to the capital, backed by the complete military force under his command, in order to establish himself firmly in his dominions. immediately upon the withdrawal of the king's armies from the field, all the provinces that hated assyria bitterly, rebelled. naturally, all the work of conquest had to be done over again. then, when another change took place in the rulership of assyria, the new king met the same conditions and the same difficulties. when tiglath-pileser died, shalmaneser iv., who laid siege to samaria, was forced to reconquer all the syrian and palestinian tributaries. the great sargon, who reduced samaria and carried its inhabitants captive into the northern part of the assyrian empire, left his successor, sennacherib, no better legacy. with sennacherib's ascension to the throne in the year , therefore, the usual thing happened--rebellion broke out all along the line of his possessions. in palestine, king hezekiah of judah became the leader of a movement for a strong organization of all palestinian and syrian states and cities with the purpose of concerted rebellion against the new king. so strong was the patriotism aroused among the various peoples that padi, king of the city of ekron, who would not join the proposed coalition, was captured by the citizens, bound in chains and handed over a prisoner to hezekiah in jerusalem. it did not take sennacherib long to make up his mind what to do. his predecessors had shown him the way. he organized a strong force, composed mostly of mercenaries, and marched at once into phoenicia. city after city fell before his prowess and he worked his way rapidly into palestine. unfortunately for hezekiah and his allies, no concerted action could be agreed upon by them. each one feared for himself; each one tried to be on the safe side. sennacherib took advantage of the situation in this rebellious district of his empire. he marched his armies, victorious throughout phoenicia, into palestine, meeting with success after success. the city of tyre resisted most nobly on its own account, but it was no match for the assyrians. immediately after that ekron, too, fell, and judah itself was overrun by sennacherib's troops. the great disappointment of the palestinian allies in this struggle for independence during the years - , was that the help they looked for from the arabian tribes to the south was very meagre, and that the horses and chariots they counted upon from egypt did not materialize at all. in jerusalem, the prophet isaiah counseled against the proposed rebellion from its very beginning. he warned hezekiah, the leaders in jerusalem, and even the nations who were entering into the coalition with hezekiah, of the folly of this step. knowing, as he did, the situation, the weakness of the leaders, the corruption within judah and the demoralization of the army and the people generally, because of greed and oppression, he understood that sennacherib's forces would rout the palestinian forces unmercifully. he wanted no coalition. he wanted hezekiah and the judeans to trust wholly in god. "quietness and trust" was his motto and "abiding faith in god" his standard. "by repenting and remaining quiet you shall be delivered; in resting and in trusting shall your strength consist." hezekiah, like his father, ahaz, however, placed his trust in himself and in the power of his armies. there was no doubt in hezekiah's mind but that the assistance that would come from egypt would strengthen him sufficiently to defeat sennacherib and gain complete independence for judah. isaiah, who knew differently, preached openly against hezekiah; but he had no more influence with the king than he had had with his father: "woe to the rebellious sons, is the oracle of jehovah, carrying out a plan which is not mine, establishing a treaty contrary to my spirit, so that they heap sin upon sin; who would set out for egypt without asking my decision, to flee to the shelter of pharaoh, and the refuge in the shadow of egypt. the shelter of pharaoh will be your shame, and the refuge in the shadow of egypt your confusion." while isaiah's position among the people, and his standing in the community in jerusalem, made hezekiah fear to do him bodily harm, or even to arrest him, the king and his counselors, who were, naturally, eager to gain all the assistance possible from the people at home, sent out men who were in favor of fighting assyria to refute the opinions and arguments of isaiah. these men also called themselves prophets of god; but isaiah saw in them only false prophets: "for it is a rebellious people, lying sons, sons who will not heed jehovah's instruction, who say to the seers, 'see not!' and to those who have visions, 'give us no vision of what is right! speak to us what is agreeable, give us false visions! turn from the way, go aside from the path, trouble is no more with israel's holy one.'" when sennacherib's armies finally came into judah, isaiah still saw the possibility of saving the country from the horrors of devastation, and he warned the king and people in these words: "therefore, thus saith the holy one of israel, because ye reject this word, and trust in perverseness and crookedness and rely thereon, therefore this guilty act shall be to you like a bulging breach in a high wall about to fall, suddenly, in an instant, will come its destruction; yea, its destruction shall be as when one dashes an earthen vessel in pieces, shattering it ruthlessly, so that not a potsherd is found among the pieces with which to take up fire from the hearth or to draw water from a cistern." notwithstanding the utter failure that faced hezekiah in his course, neither he nor his counselors gave heed until sennacherib had captured and destroyed forty-six fortified judean cities and towns and had actually begun preparations for a siege of jerusalem. it was then that hezekiah came to his senses. when sennacherib was at lachish, hezekiah sent him a message which was almost a duplicate of the one sent by ahaz to tiglath-pileser: "i have offended; withdraw from me; whatever you lay on me i will bear." the tribute that sennacherib laid on hezekiah was three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold. to meet this, hezekiah was forced to ransack the temple in jerusalem and the treasure-chamber of the royal palace. he was even forced to strip the doors and pillars of the temple of their gold decorations in order to make up the enormous tribute to send to sennacherib. judah once more lay a helpless tributary at the feet of assyria. sennacherib withdrew his armies and returned to nineveh. hezekiah had proved himself both a coward and a traitor; a traitor because he did not do all in his power to assist such allies as tyre and ekron; a coward because, unlike tyre and ekron, he did not fight sennacherib to the bitter end. it was only after his own country had been terribly devastated by the assyrian mercenaries that he followed the advice which isaiah gave him in the first place. had he followed it before, he would have saved not alone his country and his people from the ravages of war, but he would have been spared the payment of so large a tribute and the desecration of the temple. the real reason why sennacherib withdrew from before jerusalem was the fact that, while he was engaged in palestine, all the babylonian provinces rebelled. he, therefore, received hezekiah's message with a great deal of pleasure. in truth, he was eager to act upon it, for he had to hurry to babylonia to subdue the rebels there. immediately after the assyrian troops were out of palestine, however, hezekiah returned to his old policy and began a war to regain the forty-six cities which sennacherib had conquered and in which he had left assyrian governors. chapter viii. _the prophet triumphs._ the fearful crisis through which judah and jerusalem had passed, before sennacherib withdrew from judah to fight his subjects in babylonia, set both the king and the people to thinking. hezekiah had evidently become convinced that isaiah's counsel for peace with assyria was the best; for, after he had reconquered several of the fortified cities and towns captured by sennacherib, he made an arrangement with the assyrian king to pay an annual tribute peacefully, in order that his country should be at rest. during the ten years that followed, hezekiah, instead of seeking alliances with foreign nations, for the purpose of rebellion, devoted himself to building up his own country, and to reforming his own people, in line with the preaching of isaiah. once, when hezekiah was sick, isaiah called on him at the palace. the prophet cheered him in his illness and expressed his hope for the king's speedy recovery. this call established a friendlier relationship between the king and the prophet. at another time, hezekiah invited isaiah to the palace; and isaiah was glad to go, because hezekiah, in his new policy, was following the commandments of god which, as taught by isaiah, were destined to save the nation from its enemies. "the remnant," which isaiah educated, now grew in great proportions, until it included the majority of jews who were leading upright lives. isaiah, himself, was established as a true prophet of god among his people. upon his recovery from his illness, hezekiah began to reform the religious life of the country. he destroyed the "high places" on which many people offered sacrifices to strange gods. he broke up the brazen serpent to which the people sacrificed and which they worshiped from the days of the wilderness. he destroyed many idols and practically banished idolatry from the land. men turned from their evil ways; they left off their wrongdoing and dealt justly and honorably, one with another. not only did they worship their god, but they had full faith in him. it so happened, therefore, in the year , when sennacherib marshaled his great assyrian army, in order to conquer egypt, that another crisis came upon hezekiah and judah; but neither king nor people feared the assyrians, because they now trusted in the god of their fathers to save them from the hands of their enemy. sennacherib had determined to conquer egypt for two reasons: first, because none of his great predecessors on the assyrian throne had ever gone so far south in their conquest; second, because egypt was always stirring up rebellion in the assyrian provinces of asia minor, by promising them help. sennacherib figured, therefore, that, with egypt thoroughly subdued, the great assyrian empire would be permanently established and strongly founded on absolute union. sennacherib made one of his whirlwind marches toward egypt. a little poem describing his march, is preserved in an ancient record: "he has gone up from rimmon. he has arrived at aiath. he has passed through migron. at michmash he lays up his baggage. they have gone over the pass. at geha they halt for the night, ramah trembles. gibeah of saul flees. shriek aloud, o people of gallim. hearken, o laishah. answer her, anathoth. madmenah flees. the inhabitants of gebin are fled. this very day he halts at moab. he shakes his fist against mount zion, against the hill of jerusalem." finally, sennacherib had a problem to solve: he wanted to be sure of the friendship of hezekiah, through whose land he would have to pass on his way to egypt. he was afraid on the one hand, that, having passed through judah, hezekiah might rebel and attack him from the rear; on the other hand, he wanted the city of jerusalem to be a safe-guard to himself, so that, if he should be defeated by the egyptians, he could escape to its shelter. therefore, when he came within hailing distance of jerusalem, he sent word to hezekiah to deliver the city into his hands peacefully, and also to join with him in the proposed conquest of egypt. sennacherib was willing to furnish two thousand horses if hezekiah would furnish him two thousand men to mount them, and to join the assyrian cavalry. he did not want to attack jerusalem, because he could not afford to waste his strength on a long siege, and thus weaken his forces before he met egypt on the battlefield. but this time, hezekiah, being older and wiser, and knowing that his people were certain that god was on their side, sent word back to sennacherib that there was no reason whatever for such action on the part of judah at this time since the country was at peace with assyria, paying the tribute annually. encamped at lachish, on the western border of palestine, and eager to press on toward egypt, sennacherib thought to force hezekiah into helping him by an unusual display of his power; so he sent his commander-in-chief, with a great retinue, to the king in jerusalem. a meeting was arranged between them and hezekiah's representatives just outside of jerusalem, at the conduit of the upper reservoir, the place where isaiah first confronted king ahaz. king hezekiah, himself, did not go out to receive the emissaries from the assyrian army. instead, he sent eliakim, who was governor of the royal palace, shebnah, the secretary of state, and joah, the chancellor of the treasury. a great assembly of the leading citizens of jerusalem gathered upon the walls to see and hear the interview between the agents of sennacherib and hezekiah. the spokesman for the assyrians began: "thus saith the great king, the king of assyria, 'what confidence is this which you cherish? you, indeed, think, a simple word of the lips is counsel and strength for the war!' now, on whom do you trust, that you have rebelled against me? "indeed, you trust in the staff of this bruised reed, even upon egypt, which, if a man lean on it, will go into his hand and pierce it. so is pharaoh king of egypt to all who trust in him." eliakim, speaking of his king, attempted to make clear to the assyrians that they were misjudging hezekiah. he did not lean upon egypt; no alliance had been entered into between the two nations; judah did not desire to enter into this quarrel at all and relied upon neither egypt nor assyria. "we trust in the lord our god," concluded eliakim. quick as a flash came back the reply from assyria: "if you say to me, 'we trust in the lord our god,' is not _he_ the one whose high places and altars hezekiah has taken away, and has said to judah and jerusalem, 'you shall worship on this altar in jerusalem?' "now, therefore, give pledges to my master and king of assyria, and i will give you two thousand horses, if you are able on your part to set riders upon them. "how can you repulse one of the least of my master's servants? and yet you trust in egypt for chariots and horsemen! have i now come up against this place to destroy it without god's approval? god it was who said to me, 'go up against this land and destroy it'" shaken a little bit in their argument, and a great deal in their faith, eliakim, shebnah and joah held a short consultation. then eliakim said to the spokesman, in a whisper: "speak, i pray you, to your servants in the aramaic language, for we understand it; but do not speak with us in the jewish language in the hearing of the people who are on the wall." the assyrian caught the drift of this request at once. he understood that the people had evidently not given up their idolatrous practices very graciously and that their trust in the lord their god was not as great as that of hezekiah. he, therefore, answered eliakim, so that all could hear: "has my master sent me to your master and to you to speak these words? is it not rather to the men who sit on the wall, that they shall eat their own refuse and drink their own water together with you?" then, walking away from the official group and facing the assembly on the walls, he cried with a loud voice in the jewish language, saying: "hear the message of the great king, the king of assyria. thus saith the king, 'let not hezekiah deceive you; for he will not be able to deliver you out of my hand.' "neither let hezekiah make you trust in god by saying, 'god will surely deliver us, and this city shall not be given into the power of the king of assyria.' "hearken not to hezekiah, for thus saith the king of assyria, 'make your peace with me and come over to me; thus shall each one of you eat from his own vine and his own fig tree and drink the waters of his own cistern, until i come and take you away to a land like your own land, a land full of grain and of new wine, a land full of bread and vineyards, a land full of olive trees and honey, that you may live and not die.' "but hearken not to hezekiah, when he misleads you, saying, 'god will deliver us!' has any of the gods of the nations ever delivered his land out of the power of the king of assyria? where are the gods of hamath and arpad? where are the gods of sepharvaim, hena and ivvah? where are the gods of the land of samaria that they have delivered samaria out of my power? who are they among all the gods of the countries, that have delivered their country out of my power, that god should deliver jerusalem out of my power!'" this speech cast a deep gloom upon the people gathered upon the wall. all were silent. not a single man, not even the representatives of the king, could answer the assyrians' arguments. then eliakim, shebnah and joah hastened back to hezekiah and repeated to him the message of sennacherib through his commander-in-chief. as soon as king hezekiah heard it, he tore his clothes and covered himself with sackcloth and went into the temple. he sent eliakim, shebnah and the eldest of the priests, covered with sackcloth, to isaiah, and they said to him: thus saith hezekiah: "this is a day of trouble and of discipline and of contumely. it may be god, thy god, will hear all the words of the high official, whom his master, the king of assyria, has sent to defy the living god, and will rebuke the words which the lord your god has heard; therefore lift up your prayer for the remnant that is left." when isaiah heard the message of the king, he sent back this reply of hope and courage to the palace: "thus saith the lord: 'be not afraid of the words that thou hast heard, with which the servants of the king of assyria have blasphemed me. behold i will put forth a spirit in him so that he shall hear tidings and shall return to his own land, and i will cause him to fall by the sword in his own land.'" hezekiah, acting upon the advice of isaiah, then sent sennacherib's emissaries back to lachish with a flat refusal to do what the king had asked him. when the commander-in-chief returned to lachish, to his great amazement, sennacherib and his army were not there. an officer who was left behind, however, told him that sennacherib had broken camp and had marched against libnah. the next that was heard of the assyrian armies in jerusalem was that a plague had fallen upon the camp of sennacherib and that, in great disgust and disappointment, the king and what remained of his forces, had returned to nineveh. it was at that time that isaiah gave expression to a conception of god's relationship to the nations of the earth that was entirely different from that held by the people up to this time. according to isaiah, god had used assyria as a rod with which to whip the people of judah, god's chosen people, into an understanding of his law and commandments, by which they should live. now that hezekiah and his people had thoroughly reformed and were following in the ways of god and his commandments, assyria's work was done. because assyria, however, had prided herself that she had become a great power in the world on account of her own strength, god would now destroy assyria. this is the dirge that isaiah sang regarding assyria and god's hand in the life and death of nations, while sennacherib was retreating toward nineveh, his capital: "woe, assyria, rod of mine anger, the staff in whose hand is mine indignation. against an impious nation am i wont to send him. and against the people of my wrath i give him charge, to take spoil and gather booty, and to tread them down like the mire in the streets. but he--not so doth he plan; and his heart--not so doth it purpose. for destruction is in his heart, and to cut off nations not a few. for he saith, by the strength of my hand have i done it, and by my wisdom, for i have discerned it; and i have removed the bounds of thy peoples, and i have robbed their treasuries, and like a mighty man i have brought down those who sit enthroned. and my hand hath seized, as on a nest, the riches of the peoples. and as one gathers eggs that are unguarded, i, indeed, have carried off all the earth." to this boasting of assyria, god answers, speaking through isaiah: "before me is thy rising up and thy lying down, thy going out and thy coming in. i know thy raging against me and thine arrogance hath come to my ears. therefore i will put my ring through thy nose, and my bridle between thy lips, and will make thee return, by the way in which thou hast come." not long after this, while sennacherib was worshiping in the temple of nisroch, in nineveh, he was attacked by his own sons and killed, and esarhaddon, one of his sons, succeeded him on the throne of assyria. chapter ix. _the fruit of his labor._ blessed is the man whose toil and striving of a lifetime bring results, even though he, himself, does not live to see them! thrice blessed is the man, the fruit of whose labor is garnered while he is among the living, to see and enjoy it! the prophet isaiah was a thrice-blessed man. although no one knows where or how he died, every one knows where and how he lived, and how his life was fruitful in blessings for his people. he saw kings come and go on the throne of judah. he passed through many crises in the history of his country. he experienced many woes because of his patriotic devotion to the welfare of his land and people. but through it all he remained, uncomplainingly, staunch in his faith and true to his god. he believed, implicitly, in the justness of god and, therefore, in his demand of righteousness as the standard of living for the people. isaiah's own strength, in time of trial and tribulation, came from his trust in god; and that same trust he urged upon jerusalem and judah in his day and, through his discourses, upon all men, for all time. thus it was given isaiah to see the fruit of his labor in the peace and prosperity of judah during the remainder of his life which he, undoubtedly, spent in peace with his family in his home in jerusalem. it is no wonder that he conceived the ideal of a time of universal peace, in which god shall be the god of all the nations, an era in which all peoples shall come to him, and believe in him, and follow in his law, and live such just and righteous lives that there would be an end to war in all the earth: "it shall come to pass, in the end of days, that the mountain of the lord's house shall be established at the top of the mountains, and it shall be exalted above the hills; and peoples shall flow unto it. and many nations shall go and say, 'come ye, and let us go up to the mountains of the lord, and to the house of the god of jacob; and he will teach us of his ways, and we will walk in his paths.' for out of zion shall go forth instruction, and the word of the lord from jerusalem, and he shall judge between the nations, and arbitrate for many peoples; and they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more." the commoner chapter i. _his awakening._ sloping down from the judean hills toward the plain of philistia and the mediterranean sea is the shefelah, or lowlands, a section of palestine, far-famed for its stretches of rich farm lands, vineyards and olive groves. these foothills were once the constant battlefield on which the israelites from the hill country and the philistines from the plain struggled for mastery; but, since the days of king amaziah, who conquered philistia soon after he came to the throne of judah, in the year , the shefelah, far away from the political turmoils in samaria and jerusalem, was one of the most peaceful and richest farm sections in israel or judah. up in samaria, in the year , hoshea, son of elah, had played the traitor and had bent his head to tiglath-pileser, the assyrian conqueror. up in jerusalem, ahaz, son of jotham, had acted the coward and had slipped his neck under the assyrian yoke. but down in the shefelah, on the lower highlands, politics and political intrigues played little part in the lives of the humble peasant folk. numerous towns and villages dotted the shefelah, especially on the highway running northeast from gaza, in philistia, to jerusalem, in judah. these towns and villages were the centers where the neighboring farmers gathered at set times and where the many daily wage earners lived all the time. rich and fertile sections like the shefelah were the backbone, the strength and the power of israel and judah. while the high and mighty princes and merchants lived in the capitals and squandered their wealth, the simple and hard-working farm folk and wage earners made up the bone and muscle of the population, raised the necessities of life and, in times of need, furnished the sinews of war. yet, notwithstanding the fertility of the shefelah, its rich fields and olive groves, its plentiful and well-watered pasture lands, the farmers in the entire section, had to live from hand to mouth. though they labored hard at their toil, they were, in fact, poor and unable to lay aside anything for a rainy day. it was very difficult to become reconciled to such a condition of affairs. no one seemed interested enough to fathom the reason for it, except a certain young peasant, named micah, who had a home in the town of moresheth, and was the proud possessor of several well-paying olive groves and vineyards in the vicinity. micah's interest in the population was aroused, one day, when the widow of one of his neighbors came to him for advice. her husband had owned a farm, adjoining one of micah's pastures, on which there was a heavy mortgage. now that the head of the family was gone, the merchant in jerusalem, who held the mortgage, threatened to eject the widow and the children, because they could neither pay the amount borrowed nor the interest due thereon. the sturdy young peasant, brought up in a home of severe simplicity, where gentleness and kindness were taught and practiced, pitied the woman and her children in their sad plight and loaned her the needed interest payment to stave off ejection from her home. thereafter, he looked after her family until the oldest son was able to manage his own affairs. talking to some of his day-laborers he discovered a very amazing situation. he found that most of them had, at one time or another, owned their farms, but had lost possession of them through lawsuits, in which mortgage holders from jerusalem had involved them, or through unjust treatment on the part of tax collectors and corrupt judges. more amazing still was the knowledge that, all through the shefelah, the majority of vineyards and olive groves were not owned by those who cultivated them, at all, but that they formed the vast estates of the princes and wealthy men of jerusalem. the beautiful and fertile shefelah, then, was not the habitation of happy and contented tillers of the soil, who sang at their tasks and prided themselves upon their independence! it was in the heavy grip of a _land trust_, controlled by the great interests in the capital! this knowledge caused micah to enter upon his investigations with greater interest and deeper feeling. he discovered that the nobility and the rich were fattening upon the sweat and toil of the rural and working population. a farmer thrown into debt was sure to lose his acres, and a wage earner, having no possessions that could be taken from him, was sure to lose his liberty. widows and orphans were quickly robbed of their inheritances by the greedy land-grabbers of the metropolis, aided by a corrupt judiciary. all this was a severe shock to the young peasant. he, himself, born and raised on a farm, had inherited his father's estates free from debt. he lived simply, worked hard, saved a neat sum every year--and imagined that every one else was doing the same. awakened to the real condition of affairs, micah now determined to leave his estates in the care of his trusted overseers and to go to the great and famed cities of his land, to study at first hand the causes that had made possible the terrible economic and social wrongs in his section of the country. chapter ii. _the cause of the common people._ micah, the moreshtite, came to jerusalem when the capital was at comparative peace. the struggle between king ahaz and the prophet isaiah had narrowed down to an armed neutrality, as it were--the king was paying his tributes to tiglath-pileser and the prophet was preparing his "remnant" for the day when the crown prince, hezekiah, would come to the throne. the young peasant took no sides and embraced no causes in jerusalem. he stood aside, the better to study conditions as an onlooker. to his great dismay and sorrow, he found the situation even worse than he had imagined it. it was true of the rich and mighty of the capital that "they covet fields and seize them, and houses, and take them away. they oppress a man and his house, even a man and his heritage." this much was clear on the surface of things. rapacity on the part of the rich meant oppression of the poor; increase of power for the mighty meant decrease of opportunity for the humble tiller of the soil and for the wage earner. seeing all this and understanding it, micah felt himself impelled to fight the cause of the common people. conditions and a sympathetic soul thus made micah a prophet. one of the people, he spoke in their behalf with the feeling and passion of a man who has been through the mill of bitter experience: woe is me! for i am as when they have gathered the summer fruits, as when they glean the grapes of the vintage: there is no cluster to eat, nor first-ripe fig which my soul desireth. the godly man has perished out of the earth, and the upright among men is no more: they all lie in wait for blood; they hunt every man his brother with a net. both hands are put forth for evil, to do it diligently. the prince asketh and the judge is ready for reward, and the great man, he uttereth the evil of his soul; thus they weave it together. the best of them is as a brier; the most upright is worse than a thorn hedge. a man's enemies are the men of his own house. where shall he look for help and guidance--he, a commoner, without power, without influence? to whom shall he go for instruction, for inspiration, to struggle against conditions in the face of which he was helpless? micah returned to moresheth to think matters over at his leisure. it was not an easy or simple task that he had voluntarily assumed. one source of strength he always had to rely upon. close to the soil, seeing the creator's handiwork in the fields at his feet by day and in the wonders of the starry firmament by night, he was full of the spirit of god. at the very outset of his self-imposed mission he could exclaim, fervently: "but as for me, i will look unto the lord: i will wait for the god of my salvation: my god will hear me." god's guiding hand often leads us to our destinations by winding and unexpected paths. it is strange to record that micah's first opportunity, in the task he had set before himself, came to him by way of egypt and an ethiopian usurper. the ambitions of that wily pharaoh led directly to the fall of samaria and to the commoner's first great prophetic utterance. chapter iii. _when samaria fell._ a man who is a traitor to his country will, in all likelihood, prove traitorous to his avowed friends. hoshea, son of elah, of samaria, was such a man. tilgath-pileser, the assyrian conqueror of damascus assisted hoshea to assassinate king pekah, and appointed the assassin to rule in pekah's stead, in the year b. c. e., merely as a matter of expediency. it was an easier method of re-annexing the rebellious kingdom of israel to the assyrian empire without cost of life or treasure, and he stooped to it. but when tiglath-pileser died and shalmaneser iv succeeded him on the throne in nineveh, hoshea gave ear to the siren voice of egypt, and rebelled. it is related that hoshea sent an embassy to king so, more correctly, pharaoh sabako, of egypt, when that energetic ethiopian prince became master over the whole of the ancient nile country. the new pharaoh had ambitions northward. it was he who organized a coalition of assyrian provinces in the mediterranean country, with an eye to nineveh. the traitor, hoshea, proved the miserable stuff he was made of by joining actively in sabako's ambitious schemes. in answer to sabako, shalmaneser rushed his veteran troops toward egypt. the kingdom of israel was the first rebellious province he had to deal with. hoshea was prepared when, in , samaria was besieged. samaria held out bravely enough for two years, waiting all the time for help from egypt. but sabako's promised armies and funds never came. shalmaneser died during this siege; but his successor, the great sargon, came on with re-enforcements and finally, in , captured and reduced samaria, before hoshea's egyptian ally had been heard from. that was the end of the kingdom of israel, founded by jeroboam ben nebat, in the year , b. c. e., when he rebelled from rehoboam, king solomon's son. the kingdom of israel had lasted just years. sargon sent away , captives, the youth and pride of israel and samaria, and had them scattered widely apart, in all his provinces. the conqueror, himself, proceeded southward to meet and defeat sabako, at raphia, on the great nile-delta-highway along the mediterranean coast. while the records do not show that these events made any impression upon the leaders of thought, such as isaiah, in jerusalem, they brought micah his first opportunity to prohesy. living in moresheth, on the highroad from gaza to jerusalem, micah, who up to this time knew only of the corruption of the classes and the oppression of the masses of judah, now had first-hand information of the political situation, as well. sargon's armies captured and passed through gaza on their march to raphia. by way of gaza, micah learned that samaria had not been razed to the ground. there was, therefore, hope for the city and for israel. micah's hope, however, was not political. he, unlike isaiah in jerusalem, was not concerned with politics. his concern was with the social wrongs and economic outrages of which, as he had now learned, both israel and judah were victims. there was this distinction, however, israel had already collected the wages of its sins, had paid the price and had been chastised by the rod of assyria. judah might be recalled to its better self and escape a similar calamity. so, before the dust of sargon's victorious armies, passing through gaza, had settled in the roads, micah went again to jerusalem and launched forth earnestly and with vigor upon his prophetic mission. in his very first public utterance he drew a deadly parallel between israel and judah: "hear, ye peoples, all of you; hearken, o earth, and all that therein is: and let the lord god be witness against you, the lord from his holy temple. for, behold, the lord cometh forth out of his place. and will come down, and tread upon the high places the earth. and the mountains shall be molten under him, and the valleys shall be cleft, as wax before the fire, as waters that are poured down a steep place. for the transgression of jacob is all this, and for the sins of the house of israel. what is the transgression of jacob? is it not samaria? and what are the high places of judah? are they not jerusalem?" fearlessly, with bold strokes, and in vivid pictures, he described the terrible conditions as he knew them: "hear, i pray you, ye chiefs of jacob, and ye judges of the house of israel! you surely ought to know what is just! yet, you hate good and love evil; you who devour the flesh of my people, flay their skin from off of them, and break their bones!" it was possible for judah to be saved, if the governing classes, the judiciary, the great landowners and the wealthy merchants dealt justly and righteously with the common people, the poor, the peasant and the wage earner: "for this will i lament and wail; i will go stripped and naked; i will make a wailing like the jackals, and a lamentation like the ostriches." micah did more than merely preach and wail. down in the shefelah he set himself to help his fellow-peasants and to correct the injustices practiced upon them, wherever he could. but the western foothills were not the whole of judah; and the origin and source of the demoralizing wickedness lay not in the farm sections, but in the capital; and as to the capital, "her wounds are incurable." the cause of the downfall of samaria and israel "is come even to judah; it reacheth unto the gate of my people, even unto jerusalem." therefore micah, less hopeful than isaiah, who was biding his time for a change of heart in the rulers and chiefs of the country, said of the coming of the day of reckoning: "then shall they cry unto the lord, but he will not answer them: yea, he will hide his face from them at that time, according as they have wrought evil in their doings." chapter iv. _judah learns its lesson._ king hezekiah's preparation for rebellion against sennacherib, in , shattered any optimistic hopes that micah held for a continuation of improvement in the condition of the common people, in which he had been instrumental up to this time. the costs of war always fell heaviest on the poor, and the devastating results of war upon the farming population. younger and readier to act than his older contemporary, isaiah, he was not satisfied with a negative warning, such as the older prophet gave the leaders in jerusalem when he walked about the city barefoot and in the garb of a slave. micah came up to the capital to stir it up; and he did set the people to talking and to thinking when, in a memorable speech, he differed fundamentally from isaiah in his declaration that the temple, the very house of god, as well as the city in which it was situated, could and would be destroyed: "hear this, i pray you, ye heads of the house of jacob, and rulers of the house of israel, that abhor justice and pervert all equity; that build up zion with blood, and jerusalem with iniquity. the heads thereof judge for reward, and the priests thereof teach for hire, and the prophets thereof divine for money; yet will they lean upon the lord, and say, 'is not the lord in the midst of us? no evil shall come to us.' therefore shall zion, for your sake, be plowed as a field, and jerusalem shall become heaps, and the mountain of the house as the high places of a forest." micah, naturally, received opposition from the same clique of false prophets that opposed isaiah, and made his labors so difficult and, at first, unsuccessful; that misled king and people, "that bite with their teeth and cry, 'peace,' to make my people to err." to these micah gave as well as he received: "the seers shall be put to shame, and the diviners confounded. yea, they shall all cover their lips, for there is no answer of god. but as for me, i am full of power by the spirit of the lord, and of judgment and of might, to declare unto jacob his transgression and unto israel his sin." for years micah kept at his task. he was indeed a tribune of the people, the champion of their rights against the vested interests, the great commoner of his day and time, fearlessly and courageously standing out against all opposition, trusting absolutely in god. at last came the crisis of - and hezekiah's memorable change of mind and heart. micah played no mean part with isaiah, in hezekiah's reforms that followed. reforms were needed, however, not alone by "the heads of the house of jacob" and "the rulers of the house of israel," not alone in the courts of law and among the priests and prophets; they were needed as well in the religious beliefs and practices of the common people, whose cause was micah's cause. with the passing of all political danger to the fatherland, micah retired permanently to his farms in moresheth. there he devoted the remainder of his peaceful, happy years to teaching the common people, "_my_ people," as he fondly refers to them, the religious, moral and ethical life that god demanded of them. micah employed the same vivid, picturesque language in his speeches of peace as he did in his addresses of war. there is extant a remarkable oration in which he pictures a religious controversy between god and his people, and in which he makes a declaration of what _true religion_ is that has not been better phrased in all the thousands of books that have been written on religious subjects since that day. the address is in the form of a dialogue between god and israel, and reads as follows: "hear ye now what the lord is saying: 'arise, contend thou before the mountains, and let the hills hear thy voice. hear, o ye mountains, the lord's controversty, and ye enduring rocks, the foundations of the earth: for the lord hath a controversy with his people, and he will plead with israel." then god is pictured pleading with the people: "o my people, what harm have i done unto thee? and wherein have i wearied thee? testify against me. is it because i brought thee out of the land of egypt, and redeemed thee out of the house of bondage, and sent before thee moses, aaron and miriam? o my people, remember now what balak, king of moab, devised, and what balaam, the son of beor, answered him; (remember what took place) from shittim unto gilgal, that ye may know the righteous acts of the lord." as with the purely religious teachings of the older prophets, the people could not quite understand micah. they believed that religion consisted in offering the prescribed sacrifices regularly, and that, in having fulfilled this obligation they had performed their religious duties. the average judean's idea of religion, of the relationship between man and god, was that of a _bargain_ between man and god; so many sacrifices brought to god, so many favors from god, in return; the more precious and numerous the sacrificial oils and burnt offerings, even to one's children, offered to god, the more precious and numerous would be the blessings from god. to this false idea micah replies, with irony that stings, in these words: "wherewith shall i come before the lord, and bow myself before god on high? shall i come before him with burnt offerings, with calves of a year old? will the lord be pleased with thousands of rams, or with ten thousands of rivers of oil? shall i give my first-born for my transgression, the fruit of my body for the sin of my soul?" to which god answers, through micah, in the world-famed and unparalleled definition of religion: "it hath been declared unto thee, o man, what is good: yea, what doth the lord require of thee, but to do justice, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy god?" the prophet of woe and hope chapter i. _the escape._ the entirely unexpected assassination of king amon, of judah, in the year , surprised and appalled the entire country, as well as jerusalem, the capital. king amon had succeeded his father, manasseh, to the throne of judah but two years before. he had had no chance to show the character of man he was and the type of a ruler he would be, and yet, without apparent knowledge on anybody's part that a conspiracy was brewing among the princes of the royal palace itself, amon's life was snatched away in a most cruel manner. the evening of the tragedy in the king's household was no different than the many others that had preceded it during the time of amon's reign. the king and queen had just said good-night to their eight-year-old son josiah and his little friend jeremiah, who had spent the day with the young prince, and had sent them to bed, in the wing of the palace occupied by the princes, in care of ebed-melech, a young ethiopian slave, of whom both boys were very fond. jeremiah, who was the son of the high priest hilkiah, lived in anathoth, the exclusive suburb to the north of jerusalem, where the wealthy, priestly families had their homes. it was after much begging on the part of josiah with his royal father, and on the part of jeremiah with his mother, that permission was given jeremiah to accompany his father into jerusalem and to spend the day and night with josiah in the palace. the high priest and the king were great friends, though they differed from each other on matters of politics and religion. hilkiah was a follower of the religious practices and ideals of the prophet isaiah, while amon was inclined to follow the religious practices and ideals of his father, king manasseh. a very strange thing happened in jerusalem and judah when both the good king hezekiah and the great prophet isaiah died and young manasseh came to the throne. the many religious and social reforms that were instituted by hezekiah under the guidance and inspiration of isaiah, and which saved the country from the ravages of the assyrian conqueror, were brought to a sudden halt by king manasseh. it seems that the young king was entirely under the influence of the party at court. this party composed mostly of manasseh's young friends differed with the opinions of the old men who stood by hezekiah and isaiah. it was the story of rehoboam and of ahaz all over again. the king listened to the advice of his boon companions instead of to the counsel of the sages. manasseh had another reason which, in his own mind and in the minds of his advisers, justified the reaction he led against the teachings of "the remnant" founded by isaiah, and later taken up by hezekiah. assyria, after the death of sennacherib, had become the great world power at which all the assyrian kings, from tiglath-pileser iii down, had aimed. sennacherib's successors actually conquered egypt twice, thus extending the sway of assyria, with its capital at nineveh, over the whole of the then known world. during both wars in which egypt was defeated, the little kingdom of judah was, by its geographical location, the stamping ground for the assyrian armies. judah was called upon during these wars to do more than pay its regular tribute. it was forced to furnish food, supplies, horses, shelter and camps to the assyrians. the suffering of the jewish people at the hands of the assyrians was greater than ever before, and the court party asked the king whether the nation was better off when following in the footsteps of isaiah and hezekiah and worshiping the god of isaiah and hezekiah, than it would be if it worshiped the gods of the assyrians, the worshipers of which were always victorious over their enemies. while the assyrian armies were coming and going through judah, manasseh was anxious not alone to show his loyalty to the assyrian throne by the punctual payment of the tribute levied on judah, but to show also his personal faithfulness to the kings of assyria by paying homage to their gods. so manasseh began a bloody campaign against "the remnant", who were now called the prophetic party in opposition to the court party. jerusalem flowed with the blood of the martyrs, who were nowhere safe from the power of manasseh and the princes. so great and good a man as the high priest hilkiah, jeremiah's father, had to hide his most inward religious beliefs and convictions in order to escape the sword of king manasseh. when, after a reign of forty-five years, manasseh died, the prophetic party looked eagerly to amon, the new king, in the hope that he would change conditions in the land from those established by his father; but amon permitted all the heathen shrines that were erected everywhere in judah, and even in the temple in jerusalem, to remain. just why, therefore, the court party assassinated king amon will never be known. the fact remains that on this particular evening in the year , armed men sprang up in the palace as if by magic. the royal family was completely exterminated, with the exception of the boy josiah, who had retired with jeremiah, his young guest, to the nursery. hilkiah, jeremiah's father, who, after taking leave of his boy and seeing the two youngsters in the care of ebed-melech, was preparing for the hour's trip to his home in anathoth, was as completely dazed by the uprising and as unprepared for it as was the king himself. the conspirators, however, had no design on hilkiah's life; and so, in the pandemonium that reigned in the palace, hilkiah stole quietly up to the nursery. at the door he met ebed-melech on guard. the young ethiopian always waited just outside the little princes' apartment until he was sure that the boys' every wish was satisfied and that they were asleep, before retiring to the servants' quarters. hilkiah did not speak to ebed-melech. in his excitement he probably did not see him. he opened the door, which was not locked, hurriedly, and entered, followed closely by the ethiopian, who surmised, from hilkiah's appearance, that something unusual had happened. instead of finding the boys tucked away in bed, asleep, he found them wide awake, at play. josiah had leaned a tiny chair up against the posts at the foot of the bed, propped it up with pillows, and, with a wand in his hand, was playing at king. jeremiah, in another part of the room, had bound and laid several toy animals upon a little table and was playing at high priest. when hilkiah broke into the nursery the boys stopped suddenly at their play and looked shamefacedly at the priest. they did not notice the flushed face nor the anxious, eager look in his eyes that changed immediately to hope as he snatched both lads in his arms, bade them be silent and started out of the nursery. ebed-melech was at his heels, asking what was wrong. hilkiah told him of the uprising, in a few whispered words. the ethiopian thereupon took the amazed josiah in his brawny arms and led the way through the servants' hall to the court yard. in the tumult that reigned within the palace hilkiah, ebed-melech and their burdens were not noticed by the conspirators. unmolested, they made their way into the royal gardens. there they hid in the shrubbery with the boys, whose cries had been stopped by commands and pleading. when the noise quieted down in the palace and the conspirators had evidently been satisfied with their work, hilkiah, carrying jeremiah, and ebed-melech, carrying josiah, quietly stole out of the garden and made their way through a narrow by-way crossing the mount of olives to anathoth. they arrived at hilkiah's home at daybreak, both boys asleep. jeremiah's mother, almost distracted by anxiety, met the four eagerly at the door, and, after a few words of whispered explanation by her husband, she understood what had happened. silently and with the help of servants the two boys were brought into jeremiah's room, where they slept peacefully, being none the wiser for the tragedy in the palace in jerusalem. chapter ii. _the boy king._ it was interesting to see, the next morning, the effect upon the two boys when they discovered that instead of being in josiah's bed in the palace in jerusalem they were in jeremiah's, at his home in anathoth. josiah thought it was a great joke and laughed at the miracle, as he called it, that was performed during the night. jeremiah, however, being two years older than his friend and of a more active mind and imagination, tried quietly to study out what had taken place. just as josiah was figuring the miracle all out, jeremiah's mother entered the room. the dear woman was choked up with tears and could not say a word. in reply to the volley of questions with which she was greeted, she merely pressed the two boys to her bosom and kissed them. her trembling arms made the lads feel that something had gone wrong. they clung to her most affectionately. she told them to dress quickly; that it was already late in the day; that breakfast was waiting for them and, she added smilingly, that if somebody did not reach the breakfast room in a hurry somebody would be scolded. at breakfast she unfolded the story of the tragedy at the palace very guardedly and with great care, so that the blow should not fall too heavily upon josiah. when she finally told them that the king and queen were dead, the boys broke out in loud weeping. it was all she could do to comfort and quiet them. just at this time, hilkiah, jeremiah's father, who had gone back to the city for news, returned. he related that jerusalem was in a great uproar. the conspirators in the palace, who had proclaimed one of their number as king, were having a hard time of it with the army and the people. it seemed that the assassins were not at all well organized and that the assassination was most unpopular. the army proved faithful to the royal house and the people sided with the army. when hilkiah had announced to the leaders of the army and the people that the whole of amon's family was not destroyed, but that young josiah was safe at anathoth, there was great public rejoicing amid the mourning for the king. within a few hours the army laid siege to the palace which was in the possession of the conspirators. during the three days that followed the palace was besieged by a detachment from the army. many of the leading men of jerusalem and many of the army officers came to hilkiah's home, in the meantime, to see the young prince and to pay homage to him as his father's successor on the throne; but hilkiah would not permit them to see or speak to josiah until the siege was successful and the usurpers put out of the way. when the palace finally fell and the conspirators were put to death, a great concourse of people, headed by the king's guard, marched to anathoth, gathered before hilkiah's home and called for the prince. hilkiah brought josiah to a window in the second story of the house. upon seeing him a great shout went up from the crowd below: "the king!" "the king!" the captains of the host then entered the house and consulted with hilkiah while the crowd outside carried on happily over the survivor of the ancient dynasty. after a little while the captains, surrounding josiah who was sitting on hilkiah's shoulders, reappeared. a shout of acclaim greeted them. then began a triumphant march back to jerusalem. at the gates the whole city of loyal people greeted them. the royal chariot was waiting. instead of horses, picked young men drew it to the palace where josiah was proclaimed king in his father's stead. so it happened, in the year , that a boy eight years old reigned as king in jerusalem. chapter iii. _jeremiah's call._ josiah and jeremiah passed through the first great and vital experience of their lives together and the friendship between these two lads was thereby knit as closely as was that of david and jonathan. from the very beginning of josiah's mounting the throne of judah, this friendship promised even to outrival that of the king's great ancestor and saul's son. every day hilkiah had to bring jeremiah to the palace, because the young king was not permitted to leave jerusalem and go to anathoth. one of the very first official acts of the king was to make ebed-melech a freedman; but the young ethiopian chose to remain at the palace in jerusalem, to be at the right hand of his master, even to put the young king to bed, for many years after he was crowned, as he had done the baby prince. this friendship of josiah and jeremiah had an unlooked-for effect upon the former; for, though teachers in all the subjects that pertained to the education of the young king were appointed, hilkiah, the high priest, practically became the young monarch's guardian and father. in fact, the older josiah grew the more he understood the love of hilkiah for him and the heroic act he had performed in saving him on that terrible night of the conspiracy. so it happened that while the boy king was instructed by special tutors in the laws and intricacies of government, his religious and moral training came under the influence of hilkiah. this meant that the moral qualities that make for manhood and character, and the principles of religious belief that were developed in josiah, were identical with those that hilkiah taught his own son. at the suggestion of hilkiah, a cousin of the young king, named zephaniah, a member of the prophetic party and follower of the teachings of isaiah, was appointed josiah's religious instructor. the king, therefore, grew up in total ignorance of the idolatrous religious beliefs and practices introduced by his grandfather, manasseh, and practiced by his father, amon. josiah was so busy with the many things relating to the government of his kingdom that he had no time to study his religion very deeply, but the moral influence of zephaniah and hilkiah was very apparent in his development and showed their effect in his later years. jeremiah, on the other hand, received an education on much broader and more general lines. not burdened with cares of state, he studied first of all the history of his own people and his own religion, and the history and religion of the other peoples with whom his country came in contact. in his religious training he was grounded deeply in the religious history of now almost forgotten israel as well as of judah. he paid special attention to the moral and religious condition of his country and of its people and made himself master of his father's ideals, which meant the ideals and hopes of the older prophets. as jeremiah advanced in years and josiah took the reins of government more and more into his own hands, the former's visits to the palace became less and less frequent. jeremiah delighted to stay in anathoth. he spent many hours studying in his own room. he roamed among the barren hills near his village from which, looking down the ravine, a view could be had of the blue waters at the north end of the dead sea. he often came across the many altars that had been erected on the high hills and in thick groves in imitation of the heathen. even in the city of jerusalem, the religious legacy left by king manasseh had not been destroyed. the temple courts were desecrated by images and the temple itself defiled by idolatrous practices. the teachings of his father and the religious influence of his home were great factors in turning jeremiah's mind to view these abominations with alarm for his people. idolatry and heathen worship led the people to practice vice and commit crimes that were abhorrent to the religious ideas and ideals taught by such men as amos, hosea and isaiah in the days gone by, and by zephaniah and hilkiah in jeremiah's time. now jeremiah knew very well that when josiah reached the age of manhood the influence of zephaniah and hilkiah upon him would tell. he felt quite sure that, in due time, religious and moral reforms would be introduced into the country by the king. he was convinced, nevertheless, that a movement for reform of some kind must come from the people at large as well as from the king. sometimes he thought that the people ought to be prepared for the reforms that josiah would surely introduce. often, therefore, he felt the voice of god speaking within him, urging him on to go down into the city and there speak to the people of the living god, of his love for them and of his religious and moral demands upon them. one day, in the early spring, while roaming among the hills, meditating upon the thoughts that consumed all his waking hours, he stopped before an almond tree. it was just beginning to shoot its earliest leaves. he contemplated this wonderful miracle of nature. he saw the hand of god working through that tree; he saw that god must be very watchful over the things he created; he saw in that tree a symbol--god's message to him that the immoral and ungodly people of jerusalem and judah could be awakened to a new life, even as the almond tree was blooming into new life. at another time he was watching carelessly a boiling caldron. a wind unexpectedly came up from the north, so strong that jeremiah thought the caldron would turn over and empty its contents upon the ground. in this, too, jeremiah saw a symbol--a call from god to warn the people of judah against the oncoming of the scythian hordes that were roaming at large over the once great assyrian empire, even reaching the little states along the mediterranean. one night, in his room, jeremiah was thinking over these and similar incidents that had been happening to him quite frequently of late. though ready to retire, he knew that he could not sleep, because a terrible restlessness was consuming his mind and heart. noiselessly, he stole out of the house into the open. it was one of those wonderful full-moon, spring nights, when the sky is clear blue, unclouded and studded with myriads of stars, stars, stars. jeremiah breathed in deeply and tramped out into the hills. he walked lightly, as on air, without fatigue. a strange feeling, as if he wished to get away from himself, drove him on. finally, he reached a point from which he could discern the most northerly corner of the dead sea. for awhile he stood in his favorite spot and meditated, though he could not, for the world of him, say what was passing through his mind. he pressed his temples with his open palms, hoping in that way to clear up the jumble of thoughts tumbling about in his head. he clenched his fists. he beat the palm of his left hand with the fist of his right. he raised his arms to heaven, as if pleading for advice and guidance. he was, evidently, passing through a great, inward struggle. then he heard a voice, clearly and distinctly, saying over and over again: before i formed thee, i knew thee; before thou camest forth, i sanctified thee. i have appointed thee a prophet unto the nations. and he knew that god was speaking to him. a stifled groan escaped his lips. the muscles of his face and body, tense up to this moment, relaxed. he dropped to his knees and gave up the fight. he buried his face in his arms and cried, in a muffled voice: alas, o lord god! behold, i do not know how to speak; i am only a youth. this plea showed clearly what inward agonies jeremiah had been through. timid by nature, he shrank from god's call to him to go out and prophesy to the people of judah and jerusalem, and he struggled against it. although he was now a young man of twenty-four or five, he feared to undertake this great task and to answer the call. he felt that he was yet too young and unprepared to deliver the message of god to his people. but god answered him, saying: do not say, "i am only a youth"; for to all to whom i shall send thee, thou shalt go, and whatever i command thee, thou shalt speak. be not afraid of them, for i am with thee to deliver thee. and jeremiah tells us that god, having stretched out his hand toward him and touched his lips to purify them, spoke to him further:-- behold, i have put my words in thy mouth; see, i have set thee this day over the nations and kingdoms, to tear up, to break down and to destroy, to build up and to plant. now that god had selected him for a distinct and set purpose in life, no matter how incapable and unworthy he deemed himself, and being assured of his help and protection, jeremiah walked slowly homeward. for the first time he noticed that the sun had risen big and bright and warm. his mind was calm and at rest, but his heart was filled with woe because of what the future held out for him and his people. chapter iv. _the seething caldron._ an old hebrew proverb says, "train up a child in the way he should go, and even when he is old he shall not depart from it." if one should say that the man who wrote this proverb must have thought of king josiah, the statement could not be entirely denied. for the religious training he received at the hands of zephaniah and hilkiah soon showed itself in the way he began to revolutionize the religious life of judah. when he was only eighteen years old he began to uproot the heathen worship that had been reintroduced by his grandfather, after the death of hezekiah and isaiah. his aim was to cleanse the land entirely of the foreign altars and sanctuaries that manasseh had erected to the gods of babylonia and assyria. in the twelfth year of his reign, that is, in the year , the old chronicler tells us, josiah "brake down the altars of the baalim in his presence; and the sun-images that were on high above them he hewed down; and the asherim, and the graven images, and the molten images, he brake in pieces, and made dust of them, and strewed it upon the graves of them that had sacrificed unto them, and purged judah, and jerusalem." it was at this time that the decline in the fortunes of assyria set in. esarhaddon and his successor, ashurbanipal, preserved a semblance of holding the empire together; but it was not for long. built up by mercenaries, whose fighting was for pay and not for their country, the weak rulers who followed ashurbanipal on the throne in nineveh hurled the empire quickly to its fall. even in the last days of the cultured and illustrious ashurbanipal the outlying provinces of assyria became independent. the assyrian governors were slowly withdrawn from the tributaries along the mediterranean sea, and judah, always ready to resist a foreign yoke, began to feel its independence. josiah added to his territory most of what had been the kingdom of israel and reigned over a country that nearly equalled in size that of david and solomon. this good fortune of judah, perhaps more than anything else, convinced the king that god was again favoring his nation, and that, therefore, it was time to remove from his dominions all those things that were abominations in the sight of god. now, it is one thing to cleanse a land of its outward show of idolatrous worship and abominable practices and another to purge the hearts and minds of a people that have been sotted with these for more than two generations. to do the latter never entered into josiah's calculations. he didn't even give it a thought. but the uselessness of outward reforms, without inward chastening, did not escape the deep-thinking jeremiah. it was evident to him that josiah was only scratching the surface and he wanted to come to the well-meaning king's help. notwithstanding his call and his conviction that his life work as a prophet had been determined upon even before his birth, jeremiah was yet too timid to take up his burden among the people until the word of god came to him a second time, saying: "gird up thy loins and arise, speak to them all that i command thee, do not be terrified before them, lest i terrify thee in their presence; for behold, i myself make thee this day a fortified city, and a brazen wall against the kings of judah, its princes, and the common people. and they shall fight against thee, but they will not overcome thee, for i am with thee to deliver thee." so jeremiah's course was not to be smooth and easy! he would encounter opposition from the common people, the princes, the king himself! but there was no turning back for him now! though his heart was heavy, it was determined. jeremiah went down to jerusalem to preach. his first pleadings were in line with josiah's reforms: "a voice is heard upon the bare heights, the weeping and the supplications of the children of israel; because they have perverted their way, they have forgotten the lord their god. return ye backsliding children; i will heal your backsliding." jeremiah began his eventful career with the old cry of amos and hosea, against the widespread evil, the seething caldron of idolatry and wrongdoing that threatened the destruction of the nation. it was far more serious, however, than in the days of the earlier prophets. then the people worshiped idols and seemed to know no better; now the people employed all the ancient idolatrous practices for worshiping the idols and the heavenly bodies and god at the same time. therefore, jeremiah heard from the people at the idols' shrines, in reply to his pleadings, practically the same answer that greeted amos at bethel: "behold, we have come unto thee, for thou art the lord our god." to this false idea that god-worship and idol-worship are the same thing, jeremiah gave answer patiently and kindly, as if reasoning with children, recalling what god had accomplished for israel in the past and the duty of obedience to his voice by israel's descendants in the present: "truly in vain is the help that is looked for from the hills, the tumult of the mountains; truly the lord our god is the salvation of israel. but the shameful thing (idolatry) hath devoured the labor of our fathers from our youth, their flocks and their herds, their sons and their daughters. let us lie down in our shame, and let our confusion cover us; for we have sinned against the lord our god, we and our fathers, from our youth even unto this day; and we have not obeyed the voice of the lord our god." then jeremiah delivered a message of hope, of god's promise to the people, in case they should return from their backsliding: "if thou wilt return, o israel," saith the lord, "if thou wilt return to me and if thou wilt put away thine abominations out of my sight; then shalt thou not be removed; and thou shalt swear, 'as the lord liveth,' in truth, in justice, and in righteousness; and the nations shall bless themselves in him, and in him shall they glory." jeremiah aimed at first merely to arouse the people to a knowledge of their false point of view toward god; but he soon discovered that he was on the wrong track. pleading, persuasion, promises and prophecies of hope had no more effect upon the daily life of the people than did josiah's destruction of the shrines and sanctuaries upon their religious practices. it was at this time that evil days came upon the empire of assyria. it was crumbling to pieces. from north of the black sea and from east of the carpathian mountains savage hordes of scythians were swarming over assyria. nomads, without any settled country whatever, they were sweeping eastward and southward, down across the shores of the mediterranean, creating devastation everywhere. they were not only eager for the far-famed riches of assyria, but looked toward the south, even as far as egypt. and the little kingdom of judah lay directly in their path, as it did during former attempted conquests of egypt. jeremiah once more recalled the vision of the seething caldron, with the strong wind from the north, threatening to pour out the hot contents over the land. poor judah! the country was seething with destructive idolatry within, and the seething hordes of scythians were endangering its life from without. poor jeremiah! what was there for him to do now? a double calamity was hanging over his people and his beloved country. even if he stood alone he must try to save them both. so he began a campaign, the burden of which was two-fold. he undertook to warn the people against the danger which even king josiah had recognized and of the new danger that was threatening from the north. he felt sure, as had the other prophets before him, that unless the people turned from their backsliding they would lack the moral courage to withstand the foreign foe and could never gain god's help and protection in fighting their enemies. once more he returned to his early methods of pleading with the people. he appealed to them to restore the relationship of children and father that had existed between them and god from the earliest days. he recounted their history from the slavery of egypt to his own day. he pointed to the wonderful things that god had performed for them, but it all seemed of no avail. then he turned to the people with the threats of the danger from the north. he tried to impress them with the idea that god was sending the scythians as an instrument with which to punish the idolatrous and immoral judeans. "behold a people is coming from the northland, and a great nation is arousing itself from the uttermost parts of the earth. they lay hold on bow and spear; they are cruel and merciless. their din is like the roaring of the sea, and they ride upon horses. everyone is arrayed as a man for battle against thee, o daughter of zion. "we have heard the report of it, our hands become feeble; anguish taketh hold upon us; go not forth into the field, nor walk by the highway, for there is the sword of the enemy, terror on every side. o, my people, gird thee with sackcloth, and sprinkle thyself with ashes; take up mourning as for an only son, bitter lamentation; for the destroyer shall suddenly come upon us." from dan and mount ephraim in the north the evil tidings announcing the approach of the scythians had already been brought to jerusalem. these savages were approaching judea like a destructive hot wind and a whirlwind from the wilderness, like a lion gone up from his lair "to lay waste the earth." "announce in jerusalem, 'there they are!' robber bands are coming from a far distant land; yea, they are raising their cry against the cities of judah, lying in wait in the field over against her on every side, because she hath rebelled against me, saith the lord." the farmers were deserting their lands and the villagers in the outlying parts of the country their homes, rushing south to the protecting walls of jerusalem. the roads were filled with frightened men, women and children. they were not the happy pilgrims who went down to jerusalem for the great holidays. in their fear they jostled each other and even fought to get ahead of each other. they cared nothing for their fellows. everyone aimed to reach the capital first. jeremiah saw all this, and knew exactly what the result would be when the robber bands came to besiege the city. already the farthest outlying sections had been ravaged, towns destroyed, fields laid waste, and the inhabitants driven in all directions. no wonder that jeremiah was filled with woe. he tried very hard to restrain himself, not to pronounce the doom of his people. but a great force within him urged him to speak: "my anguish, my anguish! i am pained to the depths of my heart. my heart is in a tumult within me, i cannot keep silent, for i have heard the sound of the trumpet, the alarm of war! destruction succeeds destruction, for the whole land is laid waste. how long must i see the signal, hear the sound of the trumpet! for my people are senseless, they know me not, they are foolish children, and they have no understanding; they are skilled! in doing evil, but they know not how to do right!" in jerusalem there were many who believed that they were innocent of any wrong-doing because they were worshiping god the only way they knew; but what they knew was the same old heathen way. there were many, indeed, who continued their wicked practices secretly even in places where, by king josiah's orders, the idolatrous shrines and sanctuaries had been destroyed. what brought pain and sorrow to jeremiah more than anything else was the fact that the people insisted that they were not sinning, that they were living in accordance with the laws of god. to them jeremiah answered: "run to and fro through the streets of jerusalem and see and know, and seek in its open spaces, if ye can find a man, if there is any who does right and seeks after the truth! and though they say, 'as the lord liveth,' surely they swear to a falsehood. o lord, do not thine eyes look upon truth?" always wanting to be fair and honest in his condemnation of the people, jeremiah bethought himself that perhaps only the common people who "know not the way of the lord and the law of their god" were at fault. therefore he turned himself to the nobles, to the princes of the realm, to the wealthy and exalted, saying to himself, they "know the way of the lord and the law of their god." but to his great dismay he found that these, too, "have all broken the yoke and burst the bonds" that made them the beloved of god in the ways of their righteousness. "therefore i am full of the wrath of the lord; i am weary of restraining myself. i must pour it out upon the children in the street and upon the assembly of young men, for both the husband and the wife shall be taken, the aged and him that is advanced in years. and their houses shall be turned over to others, their fields to robbers. for from the least even to the greatest of them, each greedily robs, and from the prophet even to the priest, each deals deceitfully. they heal the hurt of my people as though it were slight, saying, 'peace, peace,' when there is no peace." this condition was reason enough for jeremiah to point out, regretfully, "thy conduct and thy acts have procured these things for thee! this is the cause of thy calamity; verily it is bitter, for it toucheth thy heart." yet hopefully he pleaded, "cleanse thy heart, o jerusalem, from wickedness, that thou mayest be delivered. how long shall thy evil thoughts stay within thee?" this preaching, pleading, threatening, in which jeremiah was assisted greatly by zephaniah, king josiah's teacher, and the little crowd of men, "the remnant" of isaiah's days, whom hilkiah had gathered about him, now known as the prophetic party was not a matter of days or months, but of years. josiah, standing practically single-handed among the nobles and the court party, the legacy fron his grandfather manasseh, continued his reforms to the best of his ability. at last the work was having its effect. the constant hammering away began to tell. great progress was actually being made in the religious and moral awakening of the people. and now came the joyous news that psammetich i., pharaoh of egypt, had sent an embassy to meet the invading scythians in the north, before they approached egyptian territory; that he bought the savages off by means of gifts and large sums of money; that the danger of an invasion of egypt, and therefore of judah, was past. the prophetic party pointed to the sparing of judah from the ravages of the scythian scourge as god's way of showing his approval, not alone of the king's outward reforms, but of the people's inner awakening to lives of righteousness. and soon after, the most important event in the whole history of israel up to that time, an event that had a lasting influence, not alone upon the jews but upon the whole world, occurred in the temple in jerusalem. chapter v. _the great discovery._ the great deliverance from the scythian invasion strengthened josiah and the prophetic party in their work of reform. they felt that their god had spared them because much of the idolatrous worship had already been stopped in jerusalem and many of the pagan shrines destroyed. the king also determined to repair and rebuild certain parts of the temple. the great building that solomon erected now looked like a hodge-podge of architecture. no repairs whatever had been made on it since the days of king joash, about two hundred years before, while many additions in the interior and in the courts had been made by ahaz and manasseh. josiah determined to clear out everything foreign connected with the temple; inside and out he was going to restore it as it was in the days of solomon, and to beautify it. walls were cracked and foundations had settled at different points. the alterations and repairs planned, accordingly, were very extensive and were to be done immediately. but the temple treasury and the coffers of the royal house were empty. the enormous tributes that the predecessors of josiah were forced to pay to assyria had greatly reduced the financial resources of both king and temple. josiah, therefore, introduced a new method of collecting funds for the proposed work. he placed great collection boxes at the temple gates. all who visited jerusalem and the temple were expected to make some contribution. money came in fast, especially when, under the supervision of hilkiah, the masons and the artisans and the workmen of all kinds had actually started operation. in addition, josiah caused collections to be made for this purpose all through his kingdom, including the old kingdom of israel, where a remnant of the people still remained. with theis money, the hewn stone and the timber necessary for the repairs were bought and the workmen paid. it is recorded that everyone did his work faithfully and efficiently and that the building, for that reason, was being restored in exceptionally quick time. on a certain day, in the year , josiah sent shaphan, his minister of foreign affairs, to the temple to empty the collection boxes and to report back to him on the progress of the repairs. when shaphan came to the temple, hilkiah approached him carrying a parchment statement, "i have found the book of the law in the house of god;" and hilkiah handed the book to shaphan. being questioned, hilkiah explained that the book was discovered in one of the corner-stones of the temple. it had probably been placed there by king solomon himself, he explained, at the time when the temple was built. but after solomon's death, during the constant war between israel and judah and the inroads that idolatry had made in both countries, the real, genuine "book of the law" that was to have been the basis for government, the constitution of both israel and judah, had evidently been lost sight of and forgotten. now, by the merest accident, it was found again. when shaphan glanced through it he immediately saw what a wonderful discovery had been made. so he took the book to the king. he reported to josiah first, that the money was collected, material paid for and workmen satisfied; then, that the king's orders regarding the repairs of the temple had been faithfully carried out; finally, that hilkiah had discovered a book and that he had delivered it to him. the king, having heard the whole story of the discovery, ordered shaphan to read the book to him, aloud. what shaphan read amazed josiah and the few advisers whom he had called in to listen to the reading. everything in it seemed to be the exact opposite of conditions as they existed in judah. the laws for sacrifices and ceremonies in the temple; the statutes regarding the priesthood in the temple; the observances of the holidays; the commandments regarding duties of officers of the law and the administration of justice; the humane laws between man and man, all were different from, actually opposed to, the practice of priest, judge and people in josiah's entire kingdom. during the reading of the book josiah recognized how little real headway his reforms thus far had made. when he heard shaphan read: "the judges shall judge the people with righteous judgment. thou shalt not pervert justice; thou shalt not respect persons; neither shalt thou take a bribe, for a bribe blindeth the eyes of the wise and perverteth the words of the righteous. justice and only justice shalt thou follow, that thou mayest live and inherit the land which the lord thy god giveth thee", he understood how far from this ideal his people had strayed. when he heard the great declaration of god's unity, "hear, o israel! the lord is our god, the lord is one; and thou shalt love the lord thy god with all thy heart, with all thy soul, with all thy might", he understood how little he had accomplished throughout his reign, in attempted suppression of the worship of many gods. when he heard the scribe read aloud that it is god's will to be worshiped only in that "place which the lord your god shall choose out of all your tribes to put his name there," he determined, more than ever before, to pull down every shrine and pagan sanctuary and to center the worship of the lord in the temple in jerusalem alone. at the end of the book, shaphan read a series of wonderful blessings that were promised king and people, if they would live in accordance with the commandments contained in the book of the law--and josiah saw visions of peace and prosperity for his kingdom. but the reading of the last lines cast a heavy gloom upon the little party, for the book concluded with the enumeration of a series of evils upon evils that would surely befall king and people should they not live in accordance with these commandments: "all these curses shall come upon thee and follow thee and overtake thee until thou art destroyed, because thou hast not hearkened unto the lord thy god, to keep his commandments and his statutes which he commanded thee." upon hearing this very dramatic conclusion, josiah came down from his throne and bowed himself to the ground. he rent his clothes and wept aloud, as if he were mourning for one who had died and whom he had loved best of all in the world. then, restraining himself and collecting all his strength, he turned to shaphan and hilkiah and the others, who had been listening to the reading, and said: "go ye, inquire of the lord for me, and for them that are left in israel and judah, concerning the words of the book that is found; for great is the wrath of the lord that is poured out upon us, because our fathers have not kept the word of the lord, to do according unto all that is written in this book." leaving the king's presence, hilkiah and his companions held a short council to determine what to do next. the book of the law was so extraordinary that they needed the wisdom of some sage to explain to them how to proceed. those of the prophetic party understood well enough what this book was. they considered that it was a copy of the law which moses was ordered to "put by the side of the ark" and which solomon probably placed in the corner-stone of the temple when he built it. they who had been trained by the descendants of the little party of faithful judeans whom isaiah had gathered about him, knew that this law had been continually violated since the days of hezekiah and practically forgotten. therefore they wanted someone who was an authority, one who would be trusted by all the people, to interpret this book and to declare it to be the genuine law of moses. first, someone suggested that jeremiah be called in to interpret the book, but hilkiah objected on the ground that jeremiah was still a young man and that his opinion probably would not be heeded by all the people. shaphan then suggested that the book be taken to huldah, the prophetess, a wise and aged mother in israel, then living in jerusalem. this suggestion was agreeable to all. with hilkiah as leader of the delegation, they came to huldah, bringing the request from the king. her face lighted up benignly when she had read the book, but when she thought of the reply she had to send back, her brows knitted and wrinkles of care and pain showed in her face. returning the scroll to shaphan, huldah said: "thus saith the lord, the god of israel; tell ye the man that sent you unto me: thus saith the lord, 'behold, i will bring evil upon this place, and upon the inhabitants thereof, even all the curses that are written in the book which they have read before the king of judah. because they have forsaken me, and have burned incense unto other gods, that they might provoke me to anger with all the works of their bands; therefore is my wrath poured out upon this place and it shall not be quenched.' "but unto the king of judah, who sent you to inquire of the lord, thus shall ye say to him: 'thus saith the lord, the god of israel: as touching the words which thou hast heard, because thy heart was tender, and thou didst humble thyself before god, when thou heardest his words against this place and against the inhabitants thereof, and hast humbled thyself before me and hast rent thy clothes and wept before me; i also have heard thee, saith the lord. behold, i will gather thee to thy fathers and thou shalt be gathered to thy grave in peace, neither shall thine eyes see all the evil that i will bring upon this place and upon the inhabitants thereof.'" the good prophetess knew that what happens to individuals must happen to whole nations. here was a people that had been adding evil to evil and transgression to transgression for many generations. just as a person who keeps on sinning and sinning, without reforming in his heart and in his deeds, arrives at a time when, no matter how anxious he is to turn from his evil ways, it is too late and he must finally pay the penalty for his misspent life, so this nation of judah, into the very heart of which the cancer of wrongdoing had long been eating, could not, at this late date, escape its final destruction. but it is different, as the prophetess huldah expressed it, with individuals who turn from their evil paths while they are young, or who, like josiah, attempt to do the right thing in the very midst of evil. therefore, she could send back the message to the king, that he, because of the tenderness of his heart, because of his humility before god, because of his unquestioned effort to act in accordance with god's commandments, would return unto the god who sent him here before the evil days were to come upon the land, before the doom that awaited his people would encompass them. the king had been anxiously awaiting the return of his messengers, when they arrived at the palace from the house of the prophetess. they were quickly ushered into the throne room. it was with great hesitation that hilkiah finally made up his mind to report the words of the prophetess, exactly as she had spoken them. when the priest had finished, a deep, deathlike silence hung over the room, as if some catastrophe were impending. josiah turned away from the little group, rested his arm heavily upon the throne and leaned his head upon it. hilkiah, shaphan and the others saw and felt the emotion that surged through the young king and caused his whole frame to tremble. a soft, gentle sound escaped him, as if he were weeping. suddenly, however, josiah's attitude changed. he ran the back of his hand over his eyes, straightened up and faced his friends. he was calm, composed, determined. he had concluded that he, himself, was the least to be considered in this matter. he needed advice from more older and more experienced men. consequently, before the counselors present left him, josiah ordered shaphan to call an assembly of the elders of the entire people to meet in jerusalem before the coming passover. chapter vi. _a new covenant._ josiah was determined not to give up so easily. he would not admit to himself that his country and his people were beyond hope. he figured that perhaps the prophetess had exaggerated purposely in order to recall the people to their duty to their god and to the country, more quickly and more conscientiously. he was not at all happy over the fact that he himself would escape the threatened destruction of his people. what he wanted was to discover some possible way, and to make every attempt, to save all his people. at the council of the elders, as a first step, he suggested that the coming passover be celebrated faithfully in accordance with the commandments in the rediscovered law book. messengers were therefore sent throughout judah, and even up into israel, to announce a pilgrimage to jerusalem for the celebration of the passover, by order of the king and the elders. great and happy throngs came to the capital for the festival. it was a multitude of people far different in mien and behavior from that same multitude that had rushed to the protection of the fortified city when the scythian invaders had threatened the country a few years before. now, when the passover eve, that is the fourteenth day of the first month, was at hand, it was found that the great majority of the people did not bring with them the prescribed sacrifices, either because they did not know of the custom or because they were too poor. such a condition, however, did not dismay josiah and his officers. he, himself, out of his own treasury, distributed the means for making the sacrifices to over thirty-three thousand people. hilkiah and the heads of the temple service, out of their own means, did the same for the priests and the levites. so that everyone present in jerusalem that day observed the passover properly and happily. on the following morning, that is, on the first day of the festival, an assembly of all the people present, both great and small, was called in the temple courts. the king and his advisers sat on a platform especially erected for the purpose. when order was secured, the king arose and stood in his place and "read of the words of the book of the covenant that was found in the house of god, before all the people." the impression made upon the assembly was wonderful. as josiah proceeded with his reading the murmurs and low exclamations of surprise changed into a deep and impressive silence that was not broken even when the king had finished and had laid aside the book of the law. reverently and with bowed head, josiah raised a prayer unto god: "look down from thy holy habitation, from heaven, o lord, and bless thy people israel." and with one voice the whole assembly answered, softly: "amen, oh lord, amen." then josiah addressed the people. he pleaded with all the fervor and sincerity of his soul for them to re-establish, on that day, the ancient covenant between them and their god. this they did with a great shout of acclamation. josiah continued: "this day the lord thy god commandeth thee to do these statutes and ordinances; thou shalt therefore keep and do them with all thy heart, and with all thy soul. thou hast avouched the lord this day to be thy god, and that thou wouldest walk in his ways, and keep his statutes, and his commandments, and his ordinances, and hearken unto his voice; and the lord hath avouched thee this day to be a people for his own possession, as he hath promised thee, and that thou shouldest keep all his commandments; and to make thee high above all nations that he hath made in praise, and in name, and in honor; and that thou mayest be a holy people unto the lord thy god, as he hath spoken." when the king had finished and sat down, a great murmur welled up from the assembled people, until it grew into one great shout from the multitude: "we have heard and shall do accordingly." thus the people of judah and israel once more took upon themselves the duty and burden to be a holy people unto the lord their god, as they had done at sinai in the days of moses. there was one man in the assembly, however, who not entirely carried away by the enthusiasm of the moment. it was jeremiah. he knew well enough how a people, excited by a new and novel situation, would make promises which perhaps later they would be disinclined to keep. the mere acceptance of the covenant did not already mean the carrying out of its statutes in their daily life. therefore, jeremiah arose in the midst of the assembly, and, before the people were dispersed, struck one note of warning: "cursed be the man that heareth not the words of this covenant, which i commanded your fathers in the day that i brought them forth out of the land of egypt, out of the iron furnace, saying, 'obey my voice, and do them according to all which i command you; so shall ye be my people, and i will be your god; that i may establish the oath which i sware unto your fathers, to give them a land flowing with milk and honey, as at this day.'" in conclusion, jeremiah bowed his head and expressed the hope of the realization of the new covenant with the words: "amen, oh lord." and all the assembly once more responded: "amen, oh lord." great feasting and rejoicing throughout the entire city by all the people followed during the whole festival. it was the greatest passover in the history of judah and jerusalem, and of it is recorded: "and the children of israel that were present kept the passover at that time, and the feast of unleavened bread seven days. and there was no passover like to that kept in israel from the days of samuel the prophet; neither did any of the kings of israel keep such a passover as josiah kept, and the priests and the levites, and all judah and israel that were present, and the inhabitants of jerusalem. in the eighteenth year of the reign of josiah was this passover kept." when the festival and the celebration were over, the spirit thereof did not die with the departure of the people from jerusalem to their homes in all parts of the country. josiah went to work in earnest to accomplish his share of the keeping of the new covenant. he dismissed every idolatrous priest in the land and destroyed every vestige of their worship in jerusalem, in every town and village and on every high place. up in israel he carried on this work under his personal direction, and at bethel, with his own hands, he destroyed the altar erected by jereboam i. at the time of the division of the kingdom. it was while in northern israel, where he ordered the dead bones of the idolatrous priests to be burned upon the very altars at which they worshiped, that josiah espied two sepulchers, of a type that he had not met before. they were so unlike the sepulchers of the idolators that he marked them especially and talked about them. one of the monuments, he was told, "is the sepulcher of the man of god who came from judah and proclaimed these things that thou hast done against the altar at bethel;" and when he found that the other ancient monument was the last bed on earth of "the prophet that came out of samaria," he ordered that neither one should be touched. the memory of those early prophets was sacred and hallowed to the king. within a few years, all this work undertaken by josiah was accomplished. genuine love of god and genuine living in accordance with his commandments seemed to have been restored everywhere among the people. in addition, the political changes that were taking place in assyria, babylonia and egypt, left josiah entirely at peace to work out the destiny of his own people and kingdom. in the year , however, in the thirty-ninth year of josiah's reign, he entered upon a political campaign that proved to be the first and greatest mistake of his life and resulted not alone in his death, but in a great religious and moral decline that eventually led to the destruction of jerusalem and judah. chapter vii. _to the fore again._ the mystery of the scythian invasion of asia has not yet been clearly solved. the results of that invasion, however, shook thrones and shattered kingdoms and changed the face of the then known civilized world. assyria was the greatest sufferer, for the scythian ravages had so weakened the great empire that it never recovered. incidentally, this same cause reawakened the spirit of conquest in the medes, led to the re-establishment of the independent babylonian kingdom and brought about, indirectly and unnecessarily, the death of the good king josiah. during the last years of ashurbanipal's long and brilliant reign over assyria, the medes, under their king, phraortes, turned the tables on assyria and invaded the empire. ashurbanipal's army defeated the ambitious mede and drove him back into his own territory. but his son and successor, cyaxerxes, having made certain changes in the organization of the median army, again invaded assyria and actually besieged nineveh. at the same time the scythians began to swarm over media, and cyaxerxes was forced to return to his own country and defend it. cyaxerxes, being a wise as well as a great king, managed to buy off the barbarian scythians and later actually trained them for service in his army, both as teachers of archery and as mercenaries. in the meantime, the assyrian successor of ashurbanipal made the mistake that cost him his life and his empire. he appointed nabopolassar, a chaldean of ancient lineage and of enthusiastic patriotism for his age-old country. nabopolassar immediately entered into an alliance with cyaxerxes that had for its purpose the overthrow of nineveh and the establishment of babylonia as an independent state. nabopolassar declared himself king of babylonia, to the great dismay of the assyrian court. to seal his alliance with the medes, a marriage was arranged between amytis, cyaxerxes' daughter, and nebuchadrezzar, his son and crown prince. nineveh was attacked at the same time by the babylonians and medians in the year . the great capital was besieged for two years. so fierce was the vengeance wrought upon the city and its inhabitants by the united armies that when the capture was finally made both were completely blotted out. for many centuries not even the location of nineveh could be found. this occurred in the year . the end of nineveh brought to a close the history of the great assyrian power that had ruled so masterfully over the then known entire world. it also brought about a situation that had its direct effect upon the beginning of the end of the kingdom of judah. in egypt history was in the making. psammetich i, a libyan soldier, recognizing in the crumbling of assyrian power his own opportunity, made himself master of the country and established a new dynasty in egypt. his son and successor, pharaoh necho, grasped the chance given him by nabopolassar's attack on nineveh to win back the provinces along the mediterranean, that had been egyptian before they were conquered by assyria. without further ado, therefore, necho, with a great army, started north, to conquer all of assyria that he could and add it to his own empire. this meant an invasion of judah. king josiah was by no means ready to sit still and fall helplessly from the frying pan into the fire, as it were. once entirely free from assyria, he intended to maintain his independence. at least, he was not going to allow pharaoh necho to slip the noose around his neck without a struggle. josiah, therefore, organized his armies and went out to meet necho. this was when the campaign against nineveh began. to the pharaoh's great surprise, when he reached the plain of megiddo, he was confronted by josiah. necho sent him word that he had no quarrel with judah whatever; but josiah could see nothing in the future but the sovereignty of egypt over his dominions and was determined to retain his independence at all costs. so, the war was on. it did not last long, however. it seems that not even a single pitched battle was fought. josiah was picked off by a libyan archer in the very first skirmish and wounded mortally, to the dismay of his entire army. his old and devoted servant, ebed-melech, was with the king in his chariot. the faithful ethiopian carried the wounded josiah from the royal chariot to another one. protected by a detachment of the body guard, as if in mockery, josiah was taken back to jerusalem, dying. before he reached the capital he was dead, and necho declared himself master over judah without the least resistance. he made it, at once, an egyptian province. the mourning for the dead king in jerusalem and judah was sincere and widespread. it is recorded that many odes by the poets and musicians of that day were written in his memory and that jeremiah lamented for his friend in accents more woeful than did david for jonathan. ebed-melech hung around the sepulcher of his beloved master for many days. it was months before he returned to the palace to resume his duties. "like unto him was there no king before him, that turned to the lord with all his heart, and with all his soul, and with all his might, according to the law of moses; neither after him arose there any like him." to indicate the force and power of josiah's life with the people of judah, and the genuine value in their own lives of the late king's reforms, the people at large passed over eliakim, josiah's eldest son, and raised his second son, jehoahaz, to the throne of judah. eliakim was a weakling, who loved ease and luxury above everything else. the people feared that he would not continue the life and work of his father. jehoahaz, on the other hand, was a true son of his father, and would have made a splendid successor to the throne of josiah, had not pharaoh necho interfered with the will of the people of judah. in the third month of the young king's reign (he was only twenty-three years old) necho ordered him to appear before him at riblah, on the orontes. arrived there, jehoahaz was immediately thrown into chains and sent a prisoner to egypt. necho then proclaimed eliakim king of judah and to show his complete mastery over king, land and people, he changed eliakim's name to jehoiakim. the mourning in jerusalem and judah was now twofold. the people wept for their beloved king who was dead and for his beloved son who was a prisoner beyond hope. a few men like hilkiah and jeremiah, and the others of the prophetic party, saw in jehoahaz's successor the coming of more evil days for judah. to those who hoped that there might again be a political change and that jehoahaz would return from egypt, to reign in his father's stead, jeremiah held out no hope: "weep not for him who is dead, nor wail for him; weep rather for him who is gone, for he shall not return, and never again shall he see the land of his birth. for thus saith the lord, concerning shallum (jehoahaz), the son of josiah, who was king instead of josiah his father, who went forth from this place: 'he shall not return thither again, but in the place whither they have led him away captive he shall die, and this land shall not see him again.'" soon after jehoiakim came to the throne, word came from egypt that jehoahaz had died. it was then that jeremiah, who with shaphan and hilkiah had quietly aided the king in his policy of reform, but had retired to his home in anathoth when these reforms began to bear fruit, heard again the call to go out and prophesy to the people of judah. danger was threatening from the throne and this danger brought jeremiah out of his seclusion, to the fore again. chapter viii. _the shadow of a king._ pharaoh necho's ambitions were short-lived. the child's-play conquest of judah was not to be repeated in dealing with the conquerors of nineveh. nebuchadrezzar really had no thought of extending the sway of his reborn babylonia to egypt; but he would not countenance for a moment necho's encroachment upon assyrian territory. in dividing up the assyrian empire, cyaxerxes was perfectly satisfied with the absolute independence of media and such assyrian possessions as adjoined his country. the rest, to the west and south, including ancient syria and judah, was apportioned to his son-in-law. there was no quarrel about the division. syria and judah being his, nebuchadrezzar swore by all his gods that necho should be made to suffer for his audacity. necho encamped at riblah, after the victory over josiah. riblah, situated in the broad valley between the lebanon and hermon ranges, was destined to be the scene of several tragedies in judean history. it was here that necho awaited the outcome of the struggle at nineveh. he did not have long to wait. nineveh gasped her last in the year . nebuchadrezzar left his father-in-law to complete the destruction of the glory of assyria, and, flushed with victory, marched at once against the egyptian invader. necho was prepared for this. he broke camp at riblah and proceeded to meet nebuchadrezzar. the babylonian and egyptian armies faced each other at carchemish by the euphrates, in ; and the result once more cast judah into the political balance. in the meantime, jeremiah was forced back to his labors by the conditions at jerusalem. necho knew what he wanted when he substituted jehoiakim for jehoahaz on the throne of judah. jehoiakim was weak, pliable, incapable of big things. jeremiah knew that, too. therefore, he had to go to work again. jeremiah raised no false hopes, based on anything jehoiakim would do for himself or for judah. even while josiah lived, the crown prince showed the type of man he was. instead of applying himself to the work of succeeding to the throne, he spent his time in riotous pleasure, and his father's money in lavish extravagance. as crown prince, he built himself a sumptuous new palace. unlike josiah, when the temple was repaired, jehoiakim did not pay fair wages, and oppressed his artisans and mechanics. when he sat in judgment, he did not judge righteously. therefore, at josiah's unexpected death, jeremiah approved the action of the people in raising the unfortunate jehoahaz to the throne. necho's substitution of jehoiakim filled the prophet with alarm. the happy years of josiah's reign vanished like a mist; and, with a heart that was heavy-laden, jeremiah left anathoth, where he had been living quietly with his relatives and friends, and went down to the turmoil in jerusalem. satisfying himself that he had not exaggerated the situation in the capital, and, seeing now that the calamity of josiah's death was more far-reaching than he had at first supposed, jeremiah addressed himself to jehoiakim with the following warning: "woe to him who buildeth his house by unrighteousness, and his chambers by injustice; who causeth his neighbor to labor without wages, and giveth him not his pay; who saith, 'i will build me a vast palace with spacious chambers; provided with deep-cut windows, ceiled with cedar and painted with vermillion.' dost thou call thyself king because thou excellest in cedar? thy father--did he not eat and drink and execute law and justice? he judged the cause of the poor and needy; then it was well. 'was not this to know me?' saith the lord. but thine eyes and heart are bent only on thy dishonest gain, and on the shedding of innocent blood and on oppression and violence!" nor did jeremiah hesitate to point out that such a state of affairs could not exist long and that such a king could not reign long over israel. he even foretold the fate of jehoiakim. he knew that the political situation, as it would develop when nineveh was conquered, would once more embroil judah. jehoiakim, he was sure, could not stand the test. therefore, he could see nothing but the fall and untimely death of jehoiakim, and he added, "they shall not lament over him, saying one to another, 'oh, my brother!' or 'oh, my sister!' they shall not wail for him, saying, 'oh, lord!' or 'oh, his glory!' but shall be glad when he is 'buried as an ass is buried, drawn out and cast forth.'" on that very day came the news of the battle of carchemish. it was one of the epoch-making struggles of ancient history. victory perched proudly on the banner of nebuchadrezzar and necho was utterly routed, fleeing toward egypt, the babylonians in hot pursuit. within that very year all signs of egyptian rule in syria and palestine were wiped out. "the king of babylon had taken from the brook of egypt unto the river euphrates all that pertained to the king of egypt." judah became a babylonian province and jehoiakim but the shadow of a king. chapter ix. _the temple of the lord._ nebuchadrezzar had taken up his headquarters where pharaoh-necho had encamped at riblah, and there received the homage of the little syrian and palestinian states that he had wrested from egypt. to jeremiah's great surprise, jehoiakim sent a secret embassy to nebuchadrezzar vowing allegiance to babylon. jehoiakim's submission pleased jeremiah. he saw in it a splendid opportunity for judah. all that was needed now was to keep the people in the path of right. their future, he felt, could be worked out well enough as long as the country was at peace, free from the ravages of war. but here jeremiah was met by a new difficulty. josiah's reformation, followed by his death and the quick changes in the country's political fortunes, had not worked out very satisfactorily. people began to doubt the wisdom of the whole proceeding. in the first place, some said that god was displeased at josiah's overriding the traditional forms of worship. the opportunity for god to show that displeasure was at megiddo, and, therefore, josiah lost his life there. all the people, it was plain, had not yet arrived at the conception of god held by a jeremiah or josiah. again, there were others who fell back into the old reasoning that the gods of the other nations were mightier than judah's god, and, therefore, they fell back into the old idolatrous ways. they were merely awaiting the opportunity to worship the other gods publicly as some of them were already doing privately. then, again, there were many who believed that the new book of the law and the new order of things prohibiting sacrifices in any place except the temple in jerusalem, did not permit of enough sacrificing to god, and, therefore, was he again visiting the land with the rod of egypt and babylonia. and, opposing all these, jeremiah and his followers were positive in their hearts and souls that sacrifices were by no means the all-important feature of the worship of god, but, as jeremiah had reminded the people on the day of the great passover, god asked them only to obey his voice and to live in accordance with the moral law that he had commanded them. "so shall ye be my people, and i will be your god; that i may establish the oath which i sware unto your fathers, to give them a land flowing with milk and honey." king jehoiakim had no interest whatever in these differing religious opinions among the people. as long as he could pay his tribute to nebuchadrezzar and live luxuriously and voluptuously in his newly built palace, he cared not further. religiously and morally he permitted things to take their own course, as if morals and religion had no part to play in the strength and safety of his people and in their national welfare. jeremiah was now convinced that it was his duty once more to take up the brave fight for god and his law. the opportunity came during the feast of the ingathering, in the year . many thousands had come from all parts of the country to jerusalem to celebrate the festival. all brought with them many heads of cattle and bags of grain and flour for the prescribed sacrifices. they were a happy company. when the temple came into view, rising majestically in the distance, they shouted to each other, "the temple of the lord! the temple of the lord!" out of sheer joy in beholding the sacred structure that meant so much to them. "the temple of the lord! the temple of the lord!" they cried, and pointed to the magnificent edifice which some of them had never seen before. jeremiah listened to these joyous shouts and observed sorrowfully the self-satisfaction of those who had come to offer their sacrifices. he was much alone these days. his parents had been dead some years and a new priest was in charge of the temple. shaphan and all josiah's old counsellors were either gone to their reward or had been dismissed from service by jehoiakim. shaphan's two sons, ahikam and gemariah, were indeed high in the counsels of the king, but they bothered little about jeremiah and his teachings. so jeremiah stood alone, on the first day of the festival, at the temple gates. a multitude of people passed him, taking their turn at bringing their offerings. from within the temple he heard the sounds of cattle being slaughtered and smelt the odor of burning flesh. the noise deafened him; the odors choked him. here were king, priest and people leading unrighteous lives and believing that this wholesale slaughtering and burning was what god demanded of them! here were elaborate form and ritual, but no justice and love! jeremiah fairly gasped for breath when the full meaning of this came to him. turning upon a great crowd that was jammed at the gates, waiting their turn to enter the temple, he cried: "thus saith the lord of hosts, the god of israel: "'add your burnt-offerings unto your sacrifices, and eat ye flesh. for i spake not unto your fathers, nor commanded them in the day that i brought them out of the land of egypt, concerning burnt-offerings or sacrifices. "'but this thing i commanded them, saying: hearken unto my voice, and i will be your god, and ye shall be my people; and walk ye in all the way that i command you that it may be well with you. "'yet they hearkened not, nor inclined their ear, but walked in their own counsels and in the stubbornness of their evil heart. this is the nation that hath not hearkened to the voice of the lord their god, nor received instruction. truth is perished and is cut off from their mouth.'" what an amazing outburst! god did not command them concerning burnt-offerings and sacrifices! the man is ridiculous! religious discussions and controversies had often taken place in the temple courts. here was the forum of the people, in fact, and several men who had often proclaimed themselves as prophets, speaking the word of god, joined issue with jeremiah, whom they now recognized. "here is the temple--the temple of the lord," they exclaimed. "what was it built for, if not for sacrifices?" they wanted to know. "what other way is there for men to worship god than to bring their offerings to him?" jeremiah replied that sacrifices were instituted by men, by the priesthood, not by god, and continued, making plain once for all his understanding of the way god wanted men to show their religion: "thus saith the lord of hosts, the god of israel: amend your ways and your doings, and i will cause you to dwell in this place. trust ye not in lying words, saying, 'the temple of the lord! the temple of the lord! the temple of the lord! "'for, if you really amend your ways and your deeds, if ye faithfully execute justice between a man and his neighbor, if ye oppress not the resident alien, the fatherless and the widow, and shed not innocent blood in this place, and do not go after other gods to your hurt; then i will cause you to dwell in this place, in the land that i gave to your fathers, forever and ever.'" here was a very amazing accusation! what does he mean by saying that the people are trusting in "lying words?" jeremiah insisted: "but now ye _are_ trusting in lying words that cannot profit." then he hastened to explain fully and without reserve: "will ye steal, murder and commit adultery; swear falsely and offer sacrifices to baal, and go after other gods whom ye have not known, and then come and stand before me in this house which is called after my name and say 'we are free to do all these abominations?' "is this, my house, which is called by my name, a den of robbers in your eyes? "behold: i, indeed, have seen it, saith the lord." the crowds stood there, mouths agape. they had never heard anything so outspoken and fearless before. several so-called prophets were prepared to go on with the argument, but a number of assistant priests, who were marshalling the people with their sacrificial offerings into the temple in proper order and to their appointed places, put a halt to the debate. word had come from the interior of the temple that the chief priests were waiting for the sacrifices. the assistants wanted the people to move on. so it was arranged that, on the day following, jeremiah should meet a chosen few of the jerusalem prophets to discuss their differences of opinion publicly, in the temple courts. jeremiah's acceptance of this challenge nearly cost him his life. chapter x. _a narrow escape._ the issue was squarely drawn. either the temple prophets were the true spokesmen of the god of judah and jeremiah was an impostor, or jeremiah spoke the truth that had been "cut off from their mouth" and the temple prophets were feeding the people on "lying words." a great concourse of citizens of jerusalem and pilgrims to the city gathered for the debate. jeremiah, much older looking than his years, was the center of attraction. he was tall and erect. his face was somewhat drawn and showed wrinkles of worriment. he was dressed in an unadorned brown mantle that singled him out among the holiday-attired priests and prophets with whom he was conversing. evidently this was to be a friendly argument, without ill-feeling on either side. jeremiah was the first to speak. as soon as he began it was plain to be seen that his worry was not fear of the arguments with which his opponents were about to attack him, but that it was deeper-seated. he started by informing his hearers that he was well acquainted with the things that were being preached in jerusalem as the word of god. "i hearkened and heard, but they spake not aright. no man repenteth him of his wickedness, saying, 'what have i done?' everyone turneth to his course as a horse that rusheth headlong into battle. "yea, the stork in the heavens knoweth her appointed time; the turtle dove and the swallow and the crane observe the time of their coming; but my people know not the law of the lord." "is that so?" queried one of the jerusalem prophets, with a sneer. in his reply, he pointed out that both the laws of the religion and the laws of the state were known to the priests and prophets, in whose charge were the temple and the government, and were obeyed by them and the people. with sweeping gestures he emphasized the prosperity of the people and the peace of the country. "thou art the disturber of the peace," he concluded hotly. "leave the temple and the state to the wise men, the scribes, the priests and prophets in jerusalem, and all will be well." "the same kind of argument," thought jeremiah, as he listened attentively to the speaker. "they always fail to grasp the vital things that god demands of them." in his rejoinder, therefore, jeremiah came back forcibly: "how do ye say, 'we are wise and the law of the lord is with us!' but, behold, the false pen of the scribes hath made falsehood of it. the wise men are put to shame. lo, they have rejected the word of the lord. "and what manner of wisdom is in them? every one, from the least even unto the greatest, is given to covetousness; from the prophet even unto the priest every one dealeth falsely. "and they have healed the hurt of the daughter of my people slightly, saying, 'peace, peace,' when there is no peace." instantly there came to jeremiah's mind the story of the kingdom of israel with its deceitful priests and false prophets, who, at bethel and shiloh, taught and preached untruths about god--and the sad end of them all. they, too, had thought everything was well with them and their sanctuary and the peace of the land. so jeremiah continued: "then go now to my sanctuary which is in shiloh, where i caused my name to dwell at first and see what i did to it because of the wickedness of my people israel. "and now because ye have done all these deeds, and although i spoke to you insistently, ye have not heeded, and although i called you, ye have not answered, therefore i will do to the house, which ye call by my name, in which ye trust, and to the place which i gave to you and to your fathers, as i did to shiloh." this speech started several commotions in different parts of the crowd. from the extreme edge, to the right of the speakers, one man began to come forward, shouting: "blasphemy!" the cry was taken up all around him. from various directions men, throwing their arms in the air and yelling at the top of their voices, made their way with difficulty toward the speakers, crying: "blasphemy! blasphemy!!" jeremiah, at first, could not understand the commotion. what had he said, what had he done, that was blasphemous? then, as the cry became general and the surging mob became threatening, the thought came to him that the people had been taught by the priests and prophets in jerusalem that the temple was inviolable, that no matter what the political fortunes of judah might be, god would never permit "the house which is called by his name" to be destroyed. now jeremiah understood and he was helpless. his simile of the sanctuary at shiloh suggested the destruction and ruin of the temple in jerusalem--and that was blasphemy. he did not know, however, that his opponents had purposely planted men in various sections of the assembly to wait and watch for any blasphemous hint in his argument and to raise the cry against him. "blasphemy! blasphemy!" the cry was now general. and the leader who started it, when he came within reach of jeremiah, grasped his mantle and shouted: "you must die!" the temple guard rushed to the prophet's assistance. blasphemy was punishable by death, but the punishment must come in the regular, legal way and not by the hands of the mob. under protection of the guard, therefore, jeremiah was led to the new gate, built by king josiah, where the princes sat as judges. at his heels was the threatening, gesticulating crowd, goaded on by jeremiah's enemies, demanding his life. the trial was opened without delay. here were thousands of witnesses who had heard the man and there seemed little hope for him to escape being stoned to death. one of the prophets opened the case for the prosecution, addressing himself to the judges: "this man is worthy of death; for he hath prophesied against this city in the name of god, saying, 'this house shall be like shiloh. this city shall be deserted, without an inhabitant.'" turning dramatically to the crowd, he swept his arm over their heads, adding for the purpose of affirmation: "as ye have heard with your ears." "aye, aye," many responded. "blasphemy! blasphemy!" shouted others. and still others demanded, "he must die! he must die!" when a semblance of quiet was restored, jeremiah stepped forward from between the two guards who had him in charge, faced the accusing people, and said, very calmly and humbly: "it was the lord who sent me to prophesy against this temple and against this city all the words that you have heard." "bah!" jeered the leaders of the opposition, and many took up the signal and joined in the jeering. jeremiah did not permit the jeers to interrupt him: "now therefore reform your ways and your acts and obey the voice of the lord your god; and the lord will repent of the evil that he has pronounced upon you." "hear him! hear him!" arose from all directions. "he blasphemes! he blasphemes!" jeremiah paid no attention to these outcries, but turned to the judges and concluded his defense: "but as for me, see, i am in your hand; do with me as appears to you to be good and right. "only be assured that, if you put me to death, you will bring innocent blood upon yourselves and upon this city and upon its inhabitants, for verily the lord hath sent me to you to speak all these things in your ears." jeremiah ceased. he walked back to his place between the two guards to await his sentence. the mob was rather taken by surprise at the prisoner's defense. he made no arguments for release, no pleas for his life, but stated his belief in his work and his faith in god, trusting for the rest in the justness of his cause. from out among the princes arose ahikam, the eldest son of shaphan, who was the royal scribe for jehoiakim, as his father had been for josiah. ahikam and jeremiah had been close friends as young men, even as their fathers had been all their lives. recently, however, they had not seen much of each other. jeremiah was busy about his business and ahikam was permanently stationed in jerusalem, at the palace. jeremiah hardly recognized ahikam when he began to address the judges. his interest in the speaker was greatly stirred, however, when he heard ahikam say that he had no apology to offer for the position he was taking, nor for his friendship and love for the man who was accused of the crime of blasphemy. he said that he believed that his and jeremiah's fathers were of the greatest service to king josiah in the prosperity that attended his reign, and that, though the priests and prophets of jerusalem might not understand it, jeremiah wanted the peace and prosperity of the nation and of the capital, not their doom. then, rising to a pitch of oratorical flight, he cried: "this man is not worthy of death, for he hath spoken to us in the name of the lord our god." up jumped pashhur, the chief officer of the temple, and told the story of uriah, the son of shemaiah, who also had prophesied in the temple in the name of god. pashhur continued: "and he prophesied against the city and against this land according to all the words of jeremiah; and when jehoiakim, the king, with all his mighty men and all the princes, heard his words, the king sought to put him to death; but when uriah heard it, he was afraid, and fled and went into egypt. "and jehoiakim, the king, sent men into egypt, and they fetched forth uriah out of egypt, and brought him unto jehoiakim, the king, who slew him with the sword, and cast his dead body into the graves of the common people." but ahikam, who, like his father, was acquainted with the history of his people, arose and answered pashhur: "micah the moreshtite, prophesied in the days of hezekiah, king of judah, and he spake to all the people of judah, saying, 'thus saith the lord of hosts: "zion shall be plowed as a field, and jerusalem shall become heaps and the mountain of the house as the high places of a forest."' "did hezekiah, king of judah, and all judah put him to death? did he not fear the lord and entreat the favor of the lord so that the lord repented him of the evil which he had pronounced against them? but we are on the point of doing great injustice to ourselves." to the surprise of the priests and the prophets ahikam's argument prevailed with the princes who sat in judgment, and with the people themselves. they dispersed without further ado, but they continued discussing the situation among themselves. no punishment was visited upon jeremiah, but he had a narrow escape. jeremiah and ahikam left the gate arm in arm. they were happy at the renewal of their friendship, even if it took place in the shadow of death. ahikam warned his friend to be more careful, when they parted. jeremiah left him with much to think about. it was the first time that he had been attacked and his life threatened. in addition, though jeremiah did not hear of it that day, pashhur had sworn to corner jeremiah yet, so that he could not escape. chapter xi. _a taste of martyrdom._ jeremiah returned home a very sad man, but not a wiser one from the point of view of his safety. he kept much to himself in the city of anathoth and devoted his time to teaching a group of young men with whom he had surrounded himself. among them was baruch, son of neriah, of a distinguished jerusalem family, whose members had always stood high in the counsels of the kings. baruch was not only a disciple of jeremiah, but also acted as his secretary when writing was to be done. baruch was intimate with jeremiah's family in anathoth, and he informed jeremiah that his cousins did not approve of his actions in the temple. they did not like the notoriety it brought them and hoped he would hold his peace. these cousins did not have the courage to speak their mind to jeremiah face to face, and so he did not trouble about them, their likes or dislikes, their approval or disapproval. he had on his mind a very troublesome problem when it began to be rumored that jehoiakim was about to re-introduce human sacrifices in ge-hinnom. ge-hinnom was the "valley of the son of hinnom, which is by the entry of the gate of potsherds, called tophet." the southwestern gate of the city of jerusalem overlooked this valley where an altar had been erected for the atrocious moloch-worship, but which was destroyed by josiah during the reformation. jeremiah had but to hear of the king's proposal to re-establish the moloch-rites, to act. he went to jerusalem, despite the pleading of baruch not to go, gathered a number of the elders who had been his father's and josiah's friends and co-workers, and asked them to accompany him to tophet. they proceeded through the southwestern gate, "the gate of the valley," followed by a number of idlers, the curious who keep at a distance to see what will happen. arrived at the ruins of the altar of moloch, jeremiah drew from under his mantle a potter's earthen bottle, and, without giving a hint of what he was about to do, broke it on one of the altar stones. turning to the elders, he said: "thus said the lord of hosts: 'even so will i break this people and this city, as one breaketh a potter's vessel, that cannot be made whole again.'" that was all! he had portrayed more vividly than he could ever have done in a long speech what would be the consequences if the king persisted in bringing back the horrible worship of moloch. returning to the city, jeremiah stopped at the temple. he had not been in jerusalem since he narrowly escaped stoning at the hands of the mob. as soon as he was recognized--and the word of his coming had been spread by the onlookers, who had returned from tophet ahead of him--the crowd gathered about him, anxious to hear what he would have to say. he told them a story first. he had been down at a potter's house that morning, watching the potter at work. the vessel the potter made didn't suit him, so he destroyed it while the clay was yet soft and pliable. then he made another vessel out of that same clay, "as seemed good to the potter to make it." this story he followed up with a passionate plea to the people: "'o house of israel cannot i do with you as this potter?' saith the lord. 'behold, as the clay in the potter's hand, so are ye in my hand, o house of israel.' "'at what instant i shall speak concerning a nation, and concerning a kingdom, to pluck up and to break down and to destroy it; if that nation, concerning which i have spoken, turn from their evil, i will repent of the evil that i thought to do unto them. and at what instant i shall speak concerning a nation, and concerning a kingdom, to build and to plant it; if they do that which is evil in my sight, that they obey not my voice, then i will repent of the good, wherewith i said i would benefit them.' "'now, therefore,' thus saith the lord: 'behold, i frame evil against you, and devise a device against you. return ye now every one from his evil way, and amend your ways and your deeds.'" several of the jerusalem prophets, upon jeremiah's coming to the temple, gathered quickly in pashhur's chambers to talk the matter over. they had thought that the charge of blasphemy had frightened jeremiah so that he would not return; but here he was again, as persistent in his course as ever. not one was willing to admit that there was some truth in jeremiah's pleadings and threats, but all of them came to this conclusion: "come and let us devise devices against jeremiah; for the law shall not perish from the priest, nor counsel from the wise, nor the word from the prophet. come, and let us smite him with the tongue, and let us not give heed to any of his words." pashhur listened to all their talk with amusemsnt. jeremiah had been a nuisance around the temple, of which he was chief officer, long enough. here was his chance to fix him, he thought. "come, and let us smite him with the tongue?" he asked, with a jeering laugh. he told them that they were fools to argue with the pest. he would show them how to deal with him. pashhur buckled up his mantle, gritting his teeth. he fairly ran to the open place where jeremiah was speaking. he burst through the crowd with curses upon them all. facing jeremiah, he shouted: "thou--" but his anger and hate overcame him. he almost foamed at the mouth with rage and could not speak a word. before jeremiah understood what the matter was, pashhur slapped him on both cheeks with his hands. then he struck him square on the jaw with his right fist--and jeremiah dropped to the slabbed marble of the courtyard, where he had been standing. the crowd was startled and amazed at what had happened. but pashhur gave no opportunity for remonstrance. a number of the temple guards, who had come up with their chief, dispersed the people with curses and blows. pashhur stood over the prostrate body of jeremiah, like the victor over his defeated adversary--waiting for him to show signs of rising that he might strike him again. when jeremiah regained consciousness, however, the brutal pashhur had thought better of it. another such blow and he would have killed the prophet--and pashhur knew the law on shedding innocent blood. therefore, when jeremiah had fully recovered and had once more risen to his feet, pashhur arrested him and had him led to the upper temple gate, which is the gate of benjamin. there he put him into the stocks with his own hands. that whole day and that whole night jeremiah remained pilloried. hundreds of people passed him. some, urged on by the priests and the false prophets, mocked at him; some, pitying him from the depths of their hearts, sympathized with him; some spat upon him. near the pillory, all that day and night, there hovered a gray-haired ethiopian who longed to speak a word of cheer and comfort to the unfortunate prophet and to give him water to drink and food to eat, but he dared not because of the guard that pashhur had placed over him. during all the terrible agony and shame, jeremiah did not utter a loud word of complaint or condemnation. on the following morning pashhur ordered jeremiah to be brought to his chamber. there twenty-one stripes were administered to him; and after warning him never to enter jerusalem again, pashhur ordered him to leave the city and be thankful he wasn't carried out of it a corpse. before going, however, jeremiah turned on pashhur and said to him: "the lord hath not called thy name pashhur, but magor (terror), for thus saith the lord: 'behold i am about to make thee a terror to thyself and to all thy friends; and they shall fall by the sword of your enemy before your very eyes. but thee and all judah will i give into the hands of the king of babylon, and he will carry them into captivity and slay them with the sword. "'moreover, i will give all the riches of this city and all its possessions and all the treasures of the king of judah into the hands of their enemies, and they shall carry them away to babylon; and thou and all that dwell in thy house shall go into captivity, and thou shalt die at babylon and be buried there, together with all thy friends to whom thou hast prophesied falsely.'" here, for the first time, jeremiah spoke of babylon as the source from which all the evil impending over judah was to come. for, one of the elders who had accompanied him to tophet, the day before, had whispered to him that jehoiakim was preparing for a revolt from nebuchadrezzar. the reason why such a dangerous idea had entered the mind of jehoiakim was that nebuchadrezzar had received word, while yet at riblah, that his father, nabopolassar, had died. without delay, and before having subdued the palestinian states to his entire satisfaction, he marched to babylon to be crowned and to establish himself firmly upon his throne. jehoiakim thought he saw an opportunity here to regain his independence. jeremiah knew how foolhardy and impossible this undertaking would be. he so informed pashhur, therefore, and received a kick and a cuff for his pains, as a farewell from that worthy officer upon leaving jerusalem. chapter xii. _the woe of the prophet._ "what now?" jeremiah asked himself. without an idea as to what his next move should be or where he should now turn, he took the road leading to anathoth. a day and a night in the stocks and the smarting lashes at pashhur's hands, had given him a taste of martyrdom, and left him sick of heart and soul. he wanted to go home! yes, he would go home where he would find, among his relatives and those dear to him, the shelter and comfort and rest that he longed for so much. his heart yearned for love and his soul for peace. he turned northward. head bent, spirit crushed, wounded in mind and in body, he approached the town of his birth, where he had spent the happy days of his youth, where he had received his call to prophesy, that ended now in humiliation and disgrace. the painful, bitter thoughts that passed through his mind were suddenly disturbed by the noise of someone running toward him and calling his name. jeremiah looked up to see young baruch, all out of breath, coming toward him, both his arms waving in the air as if giving a warning. "flee, master, flee!" baruch cried, looking back in fear lest some one was pursuing him or would overhear him. "baruch!" exclaimed jeremiah, stretching out his arms in welcome. the sight of the young man was the first moment of joy he had had since his encounter with pashhur. baruch did not hear the joyous note in his master's greeting. his face was pale and he was trembling from head to foot. mechanically he ran into jeremiah's embrace, but did not return it. facing anathoth and pointing toward it, he whispered, rapidly, "they have devised devices against thee, saying, 'let us destroy the tree with the fruit thereof; let us cut him off from the land of the living, that his name may be no more remembered.'" jeremiah finally succeeded in calming baruch and drew out of him the fact that his cousins had conspired to kill him, and that, to save himself, he must not enter anathoth. jeremiah's family had been poor but respectable citizens of anathoth for many generations. they traced their ancestry back to eli and to the high priest, abiathar, who served in the temple during the time of david, but whom solomon banished to the suburb. his relatives had always looked upon jeremiah as the black sheep of the family. now, in addition to their poverty, he had cast ridicule upon them by his actions, and contempt by his punishment in the stocks. so they decided to put him out of the way and be rid of him, once for all. by this time the two men had reached the gray, barren hillside from which the jordan valley and the dead sea can be seen in the distance. it was here where jeremiah received his call and commission to be a prophet to his people. with deep emotion did he now bewail his lot: "ah! i was like a gentle lamb led to the slaughter and i knew it not." the injustice and the unrighteousness of it all came to him more forcibly at this place of sacred memories, and he cried: "oh, lord god of hosts, who judgest righteously, who triest the heart and the mind, i shall see thy vengeance on them; for unto thee have i revealed my cause." in the bitterness of his spirit he could no longer restrain his woe. outcast and disgraced, persecuted in jerusalem and his life sought for by his own family, jeremiah cursed the very day of his birth: "cursed be the day in which i was born. let not the day wherein my mother bore me be blessed. cursed be the man who brought joyful tidings to my father, saying, 'a man child is born to thee,' making him very glad. let that man be as the cities which the lord pitilessly overthrew, because he did not let me die. why was i born to see labor and sorrow, that my days should be consumed with shame?" baruch did not break in upon the grief and anguish of jeremiah. he turned away, sat down quietly at the foot of a tree and listened, with a fast-beating beating heart, to the sobs that were racking the very frame of his beloved teacher. for a long time the two sat there, each engrossed in his own thoughts. the tree-clad hills of gilead, to the northeast of them, were now bathed in the deep shadows cast by the rapidly setting sun. baruch walked over to jeremiah and laid a light hand upon his shoulder. jeremiah felt his presence but did not raise his head. "master!" baruch called softly. jeremiah looked up into a tear-stained face in which he read sympathy, love and sincere devotion. he arose slowly. the lines of a faint smile of appreciation played about his mouth. he grasped the young man in his embrace and clung to him as if he were his only remaining hope. "baruch! baruch!" he cried, in a tear-choked voice, and held him tight and stroked his head and kissed his forehead. the boy melted into tears in the man's almost crushing embrace, and his very soul went out to him in sympathy and love. there in the twilight, the bond of friendship had been established between jeremiah and baruch, to be broken only in death! baruch attempted to comfort his friend, but he at once saw the hopelessness of the task. then he suggested to jeremiah that they run away, that they go to babylonia, to egypt, anywhere, to escape the horror of it all at home. but jeremiah showed him the uselessness of trying to run away from duty's call: "and if i say, i will not think of it nor speak any more in his name, then there is in mine heart, as it were, a burning fire shut up in my bones." there was a fire burning within the heart of jeremiah, impelling him to prophesy. he could not help himself! he would not escape it! and, what is more, that day of woe and trial, and the night that followed, bound up baruch's destiny with that of jeremiah. chapter xiii. _teacher and pupil._ wonderful is the love of teacher and pupil! there is no blood relationship to fuse that love. no selfishness enters into it. there is only the common interest of the spirit upon which it feeds and grows. it is, therefore, a love of the purest type. such a love was that of jeremiah and his pupil, baruch. just as the friendship between josiah and jeremiah was lasting, because as boys they passed through the same danger at the time of the death of josiah's father, and just as the friendship between david and jonathan before them was knit closely together at the time when david was in flight before the anger of king saul, so jeremiah and baruch were closely bound together in friendship and love from the very first night that they spent outside of anathoth together, when the pupil saved his teacher's life from the conspiracy of his relatives. who knows what would have happened to the despondent, disgraced, heart-broken old man that day had not baruch warned him of the fate that awaited him in his home town! yes! at fifty jeremiah was an old man. his beard was gray, his hair white, his shoulders prematurely bent. deep wrinkles, lines of care and woe, were furrowed in his face. only at times, when he delivered his fiery addresses to the people or when he courageously faced an enemy like pashhur, would he straighten up to his full height and show a semblance of his gaunt form and strong physique. teacher and pupil passed many days and nights together in the foothills, undecided on the next step for jeremiah to take. just then he dared go neither to anathoth nor to jerusalem--and baruch would not leave him. fortunately, for both of them, old ebed-melech, who had followed jeremiah from the pillory to pashhur's chamber and from there, at a distance, when he started for anathoth, brought them food and drink late that first night of their hiding, and continued to do so every night. for the present jeremiah had little hope of returning to his task in jerusalem. he, therefore, often prayed to god in behalf of his people; but always the answer came back to him: "seest thou not what they do in the cities of judah and in the streets of jerusalem? therefore pray not thou for these people, neither lift up cry nor prayer for them, neither make intercession to me, for i will not hear thee." but the effect of prayer is mightier upon the persons who pray than upon those prayed for. while jeremiah's prayers could not bring back the people of judah to just and righteous lives without effort on their own part, and while jeremiah knew well enough that god could not save these people simply because he prayed for them, yet the very act of praying brought comfort and consolation to the distracted and despondent prophet and to his loving pupil who clung to him. after some days spent in discussing various plans for returning to jerusalem, an inspiration came to jeremiah. he would write out the addresses he had previously delivered in judah and jerusalem and add such new thoughts as occurred to him, exactly as the prophet amos had done when he was driven out of bethel to tekoah! many weeks were then spent by jeremiah in dictating, and by baruch in writing down the prophecies. at last, when the scroll was completed and baruch looked up into jeremiah's face, as if to ask "what now?" jeremiah took the young man by the shoulders and looking straight into his eyes, said to him: "i cannot go into the house of the lord; therefore, go thou, and read in the roll, which thou hast written from my mouth, the words of the lord in the ears of the people, in the lord's house upon the fast-day; and thou also shalt read them in the ears of all judah that come out of their cities. "it may be they will present their supplication, before the lord, and will return every one from his evil way; for great is the anger and the wrath that the lord hath pronounced against this people. "it may be that the house of judah will hear all the evil which purpose to do unto them; that they may return every man from his evil way; that i may forgive their iniquity and their sin." this suggestion, or rather command, for the moment stunned baruch. he was not prepared to devote his life to the work of god in behalf of his people, as his master had done. the son and heir of neriah, baruch had a splendid future before him. he was a young man, full of hope that his country's trouble would end, and full of ambition to become a great man in judah's history; but he knew that if he accepted the mission that the prophet was entrusting to him, he might as well give up all thought of such a future. the same fate that had overtaken jeremiah would probably overtake him, too. all this baruch had told jeremiah with hesitation and a trembling voice. jeremiah, both his hands resting on the young man's shoulders, listened very sympathetically. he knew that the great ambitions of his pupil could never be realized. the country was doomed to destruction, unless a great religious and moral revolution should change the character and the lives of the people. for a moment jeremiah looked straight into baruch's eyes with the tenderness of a mother. then, embracing him tightly in his arms, he pressed him to his heart and said: "o baruch! thou didst say, woe is me now! for the lord hath added sorrow to my pain; i am weary with my groaning--and i find no rest. thus shalt thou say unto him, thus saith the lord: 'behold, that which i have built will i break down and that which i have planted i will pluck up; and this in the whole land.' "'and seekest thou great things for thyself? seek them not; for, behold, i will bring evil upon all flesh,' saith the lord; 'but thy life will i give unto thee for a prey in all places whither thou goest.'" for a long time baruch's head was buried in jeremiah's arms. neither spoke a word. finally, when jeremiah released baruch from his embrace, the young man's knees were shaking and he would have dropped to the ground but for the support of jeremiah's hands. tears streamed down his face. baruch kissed his master's hands again and again and cried out that he would go, that he would do jeremiah's bidding, which was god's bidding. "and baruch, the son of neriah, did according to all that jeremiah, the prophet, commanded him," and he went down to jerusalem and "read in the book, the words of the lord, in the lord's house." chapter xiv. _baruch's first venture._ it was the year after, that is , the fifth year of the reign of jehoiakim, and the ninth month, that baruch took the completed scroll and went down to jerusalem. he had timed his coming so as to arrive at the temple on a great fast-day, when many people were in the temple courts attending to their sacrifices. the young man met very few whom he knew and was practically lost in the crowd. standing at the new gate in the upper court of the temple, the one built by josiah, baruch was wondering what to do. the day was rather cold and everyone was hurrying about his duties, personal or religious, or else seeking a place of warmth and shelter. baruch could see no chance of gathering a crowd, to whom to read from his scroll. like every young man who is about to attempt a big and unusual thing, baruch hesitated. then he decided to give up for the present and try again some other time. he tucked the scroll under his arm and prepared to go down from the temple mount into the city. just as he turned to pass through the gate, however, he ran into no less a prominent personage than gemariah, son of shaphan and brother of ahikam, who had defended jeremiah during his trial at this very gate. gemariah knew baruch and greeted him most kindly. baruch, too, was delighted to find someone he knew. after gemariah had inquired about anathoth and baruch's family, he asked "what is that scroll?" baruch replied that it was something he desired to read to the people assembled in the temple. gemariah laughed affectionately, slapped the young man heartily on the shoulder and asked whether it was some new poem or tale of adventure that he had written. baruch replied simply that it was something he desired to read in the hearing of the assembled people. gemariah laughed again and very generously offered him one of the chambers above the new gate for his purpose. then he actually sent out a crier to assemble a crowd for the young author. with expressions of good wishes gemariah left baruch and proceeded to the place of the king, where, in the chambers of the chief scribe, a meeting of the king's counselors had been called to discuss jehoiakim's proposed revolt from nebuchadrezzar. before long, gemariah's chamber was overflowing and baruch was reading from the scroll. his voice was clear and strong. he was evidently very well acquainted with his text, for he emphasized and enthused over particular passages with all the power of an orator: thus saith the lord: "cursed is the man that trusteth in man, and maketh flesh his arm, and whose heart departeth from the lord. for he shall be like the heath in the desert, and shall not see when good cometh, but shall inhabit the parched places in the wilderness, a salt land and not inhabited. "blessed is the man that trusteth in the lord and whose trust the lord is. for he shall be as a tree planted by the waters, that spreadeth out its roots by the river, and shall not fear when heat cometh, but its leaf shall be green; and shall not be anxious in the year of drought, neither shall cease from yielding fruit." then baruch turned to a passage of a different character. he was following a pre-arranged program. he aimed at interesting his audience first with selections of poetic charm and beauty. so he read: "the heart is deceitful above all things, and it is exceedingly corrupt; who can know it? i, the lord, search the mind, i try the heart, even to give every man according to his ways, according to the fruit of his doing. as the partridge that sitteth on eggs that she hath not laid, so is he that getteth riches, and not by right; in the midst of his days they shall leave him, and at his end he shall be a fool." these beautiful figures of speech brought baruch a round of applause. he now had his audience; so he proceeded, and, with the fire and fervor of a jeremiah, delivered the following: "the sin of judah is written with a pen of iron, and with the point of a diamond: it is graven upon the tablet of your heart, and upon the horns of your altar. "thus saith the lord of hosts: "'because ye have not heard my words, behold i will send and take all the families of the north,' saith the lord, 'and i will send unto you nebuchadrezzar, the king of babylon, my servant, and will bring them against this land, and against the inhabitants thereof, and against all these nations round about; and i will utterly destroy them, and make them an astonishment, and a hissing, and perpetual desolations. "'moreover, i will take from them the voice of mirth and the voice of gladness, the voice of the bridegroom and the voice of the bride, the sound of the millstones, and the light of the lamp. and this whole land shall be a desolation and an astonishment; and these nations shall serve the king of babylon.'" ah! the young man, then, was a prophet! this was evident to everyone. he was speaking as did the prophet uriah, whom the king had put to death, and as spoke the prophet jeremiah who, last year, had been pilloried and driven out of jerusalem! murmurs of astonishment and of pity arose from the audience. men whispered to each other about the brilliant young man's probable arrest, punishment and, perhaps, death. baruch felt instinctively the drift of the conversations, and smiled. with a well-selected passage he brought the talkers back to attention by the power and forcefulness of his oratory. he was a transformed man, cool, collected, eyes ablaze and peering at the very souls of his hearers. he held them and swayed them and finally moved many to tears and to ask, "wherefore hath the lord pronounced all this great evil against us?" "what is our iniquity?" "what is our sin that we have committed against the lord our god?" now baruch told them who he was and whose the addresses were. and in answer to the questions put to him he quoted from jeremiah: "because your fathers have forsaken me, saith the lord, and have walked after other gods, and have served them, and have worshiped them, and have forsaken me, and have not kept my law; and ye have done evil more than your fathers; for, behold, ye walk every one after the stubbornness of his evil heart, so that ye hearken not unto me; therefore will i cast you forth out of this land, into the land that ye have not known, neither ye nor your fathers." it was, indeed, fortunate for baruch that none of the temple prophets happened to be in the audience. there was present, however, a young man who was at first amused at baruch's poetic fancies, then interested, then outraged when he discovered that he was listening to jeremiah's prophesies. this young man was micaiah, son of gemariah, in whose chamber baruch was speaking. now, micaiah, grandson of the illustrious shaphan, was growing up to be a different type from his noble ancestor. he was proud of his father's position at court and in the temple. he moved in the choicest royal circles and was a devoted court follower. when baruch had finished his answer to the questioners, macaiah had had enough. without a word he made his way through the crowd and ran all the way to the palace where, he knew, his father was at the counsel of the princes. post-haste and out of breath, he entered the scribe's chamber and repeated, as best he could, the words he had heard baruch read out of the book to the people. here was a very awkward situation. the princes admitted jeremiah's cleverness and baruch's courage; but just at this time, when the king was contemplating rebellion from babylonia, such preaching was treasonable and would prove injurious to the cause. they held a hurried conference. some were for the immediate arrest of baruch; some were for his immediate death; some, who were opposed to rebellion, were for hearing the book read to them. among the latter was gemariah. one of their number, therefore, jehudi by name, was despatched to the temple with orders to bring baruch and his scroll to the palace. chapter xv. _the king hears and acts._ jehudi arrived in gemariah's chamber to hear baruch finish this: "thus saith the lord: "'let not the wise man glory in his wisdom; neither let the mighty man glory in his might. let not the rich man glory in his riches; but let him that glorieth, glory in this, that he hath understanding, and knoweth me, that i am the lord who exerciseth loving-kindness, justice and righteousness in the earth; for in these things i delight, saith the lord.'" jehudi pushed his way roughly through the crowd to baruch. he laid his hand upon the speaker's shoulder and ordered him, in the name of the princes, to accompany him. baruch did not hesitate. his mind had been made up to face any consequences that might result from his mission. his heart, therefore, was strong and he accompanied jehudi without protest. some of the princes marveled at the youth of baruch, when they beheld him. he felt much reassured when gemariah stepped forward, smiled at him and took the scroll from his hands. the son of shaphan glanced at several columns of the scroll, returned it to baruch and said: "sit down, now, and read it in our ears." while selecting his passages, baruch thought very quickly. why not select prophecies that these princes would repeat to the king? nothing could please his master more than that jehoiakim should hear; perhaps, at last, he would understand. therefore baruch chose the following, addressed to the "king of judah that sittest upon the throne of david, thou and thy servants and thy people". "execute ye justice and righteousness and deliver him that is robbed out of the hand of the oppressor; and do no wrong, do no violence, to the sojourner, the fatherless, nor the widow; neither shed innocent blood in this place. "for if ye do this thing, indeed, then shall there enter in by the gates of this house kings sitting upon the throne of david, riding in chariots and on horses, he, and his servants and his people. but if ye will not hear these words, i swear by myself, saith the lord, that this house shall become a desolation." as baruch proceeded, he noted the restlessness of the princes under the thunderbolt denunciations contained in his master's words. so, he selected for his concluding passage this warning: "for thus saith the lord concerning the house of the king of judah: "'thou art gilead unto me, and the head of lebanon; yet surely i will make thee a wilderness, and cities which are not inhabited. "'and i will prepare destroyers against thee, every one with his weapons; and they shall cut down thy choice cedars, and cast them into the fire. "'and many nations shall pass by this city, and they shall say every man to his neighbor, "wherefore hath the lord done thus unto this great city?" then they shall answer, "because they forsook the covenant of the lord their god, and worshiped other gods, and served them."'" upon hearing this, the princes "turned in fear one toward another," and the spokesman said, "we will surely tell the king of all these words." baruch was happy. his first venture upon his mission had proved more successful than even jeremiah could have hoped. he handed the scroll to jehudi, expressed his thanks for the courtesy shown him, made his adieus and prepared to leave. gemariah stopped him at the entrance, however, and said to him, warningly and with emphasis: "go, hide thee, thou and jeremiah, and let no man know where ye are." baruch left the palace completely satisfied. not only had he read the prophecies to the people, but also to the princes; and now the princes themselves were to read them to the king. on his way to jeremiah's hiding place, however, some of the joy in his heart left him, because, thinking of gemariah's suggestion, he feared lest the anger of the king should be aroused and a search be sent out for jeremiah with the purpose of arresting him. the winter palace was one of the achievements upon which jehoiakim always congratulated himself because of its structure and beauty. gemariah and the princes found the king in the sun parlor. though the day was bright and clear, it was unusually cold. a charcoal fire in an assyrian-wrought brass brazier, provided warmth for jehoiakim who, at this time, was by no means a well man. the king was greatly amused by gemariah's story of the incidents at the temple gate and in the scribe's chamber. he laughed heartily at the fact that neriah's son was turning prophet. jehoiakim asked to see the scroll. gemariah, not knowing what the king's attitude would be, had left it behind. jehudi was sent for it. jehoiakim seated himself comfortably in front of the brazier, while the princes were standing, and ordered jehudi to read to him. jehudi had read but three or four columns when the king, to the amazement of the princes, rose and in anger snatched it out of his hands. he glanced through parts of the papyrus, and, with an amused smile, took a penknife out of his robe and began to slice the scroll into pieces. several of the princes appealed to the king not to destroy it. in reply, jehoiakim walked up and down the chamber, cursing and swearing that such things should be in his kingdom. he punctuated his remarks by throwing piece after piece of the scroll into the brazier until it was all consumed. then he dismissed the princes, called them back and ordered that the army prepare for rebellion, dismissed them again, once more called them back and gave command that jeremiah and baruch be found and brought before him, dead or alive. chapter xvi. _beginning of the end._ jeremiah waited eagerly for the return of baruch and listened most attentively to the story of his adventure at the temple and in the palace of the king. his pupil's bravery and courage in trying moments pleased the master greatly, and he complimented baruch on his achievements thus far. the question of the restoration of the scroll never entered jeremiah's mind at all, on account of his gladness in having had his discourses brought home to the king. three days later, however, ebed-melech brought with the provisions the news that jehoiakim had burned the scroll. upon hearing this, all the spirit of hopefulness left jeremiah. he lost his temper and, at once, dictated the following prophecy against jehoiakim: "concerning jehoiakim, king of judah, thou shalt say," thus saith the lord: "'thou has burned this roll, saying "why hast thou written therein saying, the king of babylon shall certainly come and destroy this land, and shall cause to cease from thence man and beast?"' "therefore, thus saith the lord concerning jehoiakim, king of judah: "'he shall have none to sit upon the throne of david; and his dead body shall be cast out in the day to the heat, and in the night to the frost. and i will punish him and his seed and his servants for their iniquity; and i will bring upon them, and upon the inhabitants of jerusalem, and upon the men of judah, all the evil that i have pronounced against them.'" then jeremiah took another papyrus and began once more the laborious task of dictating his discourses to baruch. those were indeed days of pain and sorrow for jeremiah and baruch. they were not troubled so much by jehoiakim's designs upon their lives--for ebed-melech kept them well informed on the progress of the search--as they were by the preparations for rebellion. they knew that this was the beginning of the end. at one time the faithful, old ethiopian warned them that the search party was near at hand. they were forced to hide in a cave for two days. it was then that jeremiah cried: "woe is me, my mother, that thou hast borne me a man of strife and a man of contention to the whole earth." this danger past, jeremiah and baruch continued their laborious task of finishing the new scroll of prophecies. then came spring, and with it jehoiakim's rebellion. nebuchadrezzar had not yet fully established himself on his throne in babylon. he was too busy to deal with the rebellious judean, himself. so he ordered a guerrilla warfare to be carried on by detached troops in all parts of judah. it was only a question of time, however, when nebuchadrezzar would invade judah with his entire army and crush jehoiakim like a snail under foot. no wonder that jeremiah asked: "who will have pity on thee, o jerusalem? or who will bemoan thee? or who will turn aside to ask for thy welfare!" his grief was not alone for the great and glorious city and for its people, but for himself as well, that he should have to witness what he knew was inevitable: "oh, that i could comfort myself against sorrow! my heart is faint within me. the harvest is past, the summer is ended and we are not saved. for the hurt of the daughter of my people am i hurt. i mourn; dismay hath taken hold of me. is there no balm in gilead? is there no physician there? why, then, is not the health of the daughter of my people recovered? "oh, that my head were waters and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that i might weep day and night for the slain of the daughter of my people. oh, that i had in the wilderness a lodging place of wayfaring men; that i might leave my people and go from them." this despondency and hopelessness did not last long, however. as nebuchadrezzar's guerrillas continued their cruel and merciless warfare, destroying crops and whole villages, jeremiah determined that he must once more return to jerusalem. he was ready and willing to pay for his efforts in behalf of his country with his life, if need be. a comforting and encouraging message came to him from god, at this time: "i will make thee unto this people a fortified, brazen wall; and they shall fight against thee, but they shall not prevail against thee, for i am with thee to save thee and to deliver thee. "and i will deliver thee out of the hand of the wicked, and i will redeem thee out of the hand of the terrible." but baruch and ebed-melech counseled against undue risks. they had heard that the rechabites, that tribe of wandering nomads, which, because of the vow their ancestor, jonadab, son of rechab, had taken never to settle permanently in any definite place and never to follow agricultural pursuits, had been driven south by the marauding guerrillas and were making their way toward jerusalem. jeremiah and baruch fell in with them and came, unobserved, into the city. many strange stories had been told about these nomads and the whole population turned out to gape and wonder at them. jeremiah directed them to the temple, and hundreds of people followed them. at the temple, jeremiah ordered bowls of wine and cups and invited the rechabites to refresh themselves with drink. jazaniah, their leader, arose in his place and, with a courteous bow to jeremiah, replied: "we drink no wine. for, jonadab, our father, commanded us: 'ye shall never drink wine, neither ye nor your sons. and we have obediently done just as jonadab, our forefather, commanded us.'" this incident gave jeremiah the opportunity once more to pen his artillery against the people of judah and jerusalem. "thus saith the lord: "'will he not learn instruction as to how one should heed my words? for, while the sons of jonadab, the son of rechab, have performed the command of their forefather, this people hath not hearkened unto me.' "therefore, thus saith the lord: 'behold i am about to bring upon judah and the inhabitants of jerusalem all the evil that i have pronounced against them.'" jeremiah thus revealed dramatically the meaning of all his preaching. just as the rechabites had remained faithful to the ancient vow of their ancestors, so must judah remain faithful to the covenant between them and their god, if the country was to be saved from the hands of the babylonians. yet, this proved to be but one more act in the hopeless part that jeremiah was playing in the drama of judah. hopeless, indeed, it was now. as jeremiah himself expressed it: "can the ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots? then may ye also do good that are taught to do evil." the very next year, the year , nebuchadrezzar gathered his full army at riblah and prepared to march on jerusalem. chapter xvii. _the first deportation._ poor, miserable jehoiakim! he was not even given an opportunity to meet nebuchadrezzar on the battlefield in a single engagement. the babylonian had hardly entered judean territory when jehoiakim died and was buried with his ancestors. of course, jeremiah's prophecy, at the moment of his anger, that jehoiakim's body would be thrown to the dogs, did not come true; but the king's death did not in any way put off the calamity that was to befall jerusalem and its people. upon hearing of jehoiakim's death, nebuchadrezzar, at riblah, hastened his preparations to besiege jerusalem. an eighteen-year-old boy, coniah, also known as jehoiachin, succeeded his incapable father to the throne. jeremiah's advice to the young king was to submit to nebuchadrezzar and remain in peace. the policy of nebuchadrezzar, with regard to his dependencies, was that of peace. as long as they did not rebel and paid their tribute, he left them entirely undisturbed to work out their own futures. so jeremiah hoped that if jehoiachin would at once show his willingness to be honest with nebuchadrezzar, there would still be a chance for the country. therefore he sent this message to the king: "say to the king and to the queen mother, 'sit ye down low, for from the head hath fallen your fair crown.'" urged on by the queen mother and his father's counselors, however, jehoiachin proposed to hold out against the babylonian siege. jeremiah, therefore, delivered the following oration in jerusalem: "as i live, saith the lord, though coniah (jehoiachin), the son of jehioakim, wore the signet ring upon my right hand, i would pluck him thence. and i will give thee into the hand of them that seek thy life, whom thou dreadest, into the hands of the chaldeans, and i will hurl thee forth, and thy mother who bore thee, into a land where ye were not born, and there ye shall die. but to the land for which they long they shall not return. "is coniah despised as a broken vessel and thrown forth into a land which he knoweth not? o land, land, hear the word of the lord! write down this man as childless! for no man of his seed shall prosper, sitting upon the throne of david and ruling any more in judah." but jehoiachin continued his stubborn defense until, driven by the horrors of famine, he "together with his mother and his servants, his princes and his chamberlains went to meet nebuchadrezzar." on this unconditional surrender, nebuchadrezzar determined never again to be troubled by stiff-necked, rebellious judah. to that end he thoroughly ransacked the treasuries of the temple and of the royal palace. he took away all the gold vessels that belonged to the worship of the temple and, in addition, carried away "as captives, all jerusalem and all the princes and all the mighty warriors, even ten thousand, and all the craftsmen and the smiths; none remained, except the poorest people of the land. "and he carried away jehoiachin to babylon; and the king's mother and the king's wives, and his chamberlains, and the chief men of the land he carried into captivity from jerusalem to babylon. "and all the men of ability, even seven thousand, and the craftsmen and the smiths, a thousand, all of them strong and ready for war; these the king of babylon took captive to babylon." this was the first great deportation, in the year . the pride and strength of the country were taken away and led captive to a strange land. poor jeremiah! now he did not glory in the fact that all that he had spoken had finally come true. he wept bitterly. he mourned as if every one of the exiles had been his brothers and sisters. he could not be consoled. but when his first grief had worn off and the prophet had a chance to study the conditions and to consider the future, god vouchsafed to him a new message for his people--a message of hope and of promise. chapter xviii. _in exile and in the homeland._ stripped of all its best people the country was in a sorry plight when, in the year , nebuchadrezzar, on departing for babylon, raised zedekiah to the throne of judah. zedekiah was an uncle of the ill-fated jehoiachin. he was the third son of josiah, and, like his brothers, jehoahaz and jehoiakim, he was to see the fortunes of judah ebb to their lowest point, and finally to witness the destruction of the capital and the end of judah. the king had to surround himself with a vulgar, arrogant and uncouth set of people. all of the princes and leading judeans who were taken to babylon had been forced to sell their estates and properties at whatever price they would bring. these were bought up by anyone that came along and created a class of newly-rich that the country had never had before. the court was now, therefore, composed of these newly-rich, who knew nothing about affairs of state, but who prided themselves on the fact that because they were spared in judah, they were the choice remnant of god. zedekiah himself was feeble, slow to make up his mind and to come to a decision. he went to everybody for suggestions and help, including jeremiah and the horde of false prophets that swarmed in jerusalem. unfortunately, he always took the wrong advice. notwithstanding these unpromising conditions, jeremiah was filled with new hope for his land and people. he believed that now they would understand his position regarding them and the meaning of his constant preaching and teaching. one day he was walking through a fig orchard near anathoth. it was harvest time and everywhere there were baskets laden with figs. under a particularly fine tree he noticed two baskets. one was filled with very good figs; the other with very bad ones. immediately he saw in them a symbol for his people. he compared zedekiah, his upstart courtiers and the remnant in jerusalem to the basket of bad figs. the princes, elders, mechanics and artisans, whom nebuchadrezzar had carried away, he compared to the basket of good figs. there was no message of hope in the "bad figs" now ruling the country; there was hope, however, in the exiles. therefore jeremiah sent the following letter to the jews in babylonia: "build ye houses, and dwell in them; and plant gardens and eat the fruit of them. take ye wives and beget sons and daughters; and take wives for your sons and give your daughters to husbands, that they may bear sons and daughters; and multiply ye there, and be not diminished. "and seek the peace of the city whither i have caused you to be carried away captive, and pray unto the lord for it; for in the peace thereof shall ye have peace. "for, thus saith the lord: 'after seventy years are accomplished for babylon, i will visit you and perform my good word toward you, in causing you to return to this place. for i know the thoughts that i think toward you,' saith the lord, 'thoughts of peace and not of evil, to give you hope in your latter end. "'and ye shall call upon me, and ye shall go and pray unto me, and i will hearken unto you. and ye shall seek me and find me, when ye shall search for me with all your heart. "'and i will be found of you,' saith the lord, 'and i will turn again your captivity, and i will gather you from all the nations, and from all the places whither i have driven you,' saith the lord; 'and i will bring you again unto the place whence i caused you to be carried away captive.'" jerusalem, however, swarmed with false prophets who took themselves seriously. they prophesied the immediate fall of babylonia; they promised the people that within two years the very temple vessels that nebuchadrezzar had carried away would be restored and judah rejuvenated in its ancient glory. politicians, too, became active. zedekiah, urged on by them, was making alliances with the little countries about judah, with edom, moab, ammon, tyre, and sidon, for the purpose of rebellion against babylon; and behind them all was pharaoh hophrah, who came to the throne of egypt in , and who immediately turned his eyes to babylon, hoping to accomplish what pharaoh necho had failed to do. jeremiah denounced both prophets and politicians most bitterly. when ambassadors from the neighboring states came to jerusalem, to consult with zedekiah and to receive a message from the egyptian king that he was ready to send an army to assist them against babylon, jeremiah appeared in the market place with thongs and yokes around his neck and on his arms. he sent a yoke to each of the foreign ambassadors, with a message to all of them advising that they permit the yoke of babylon to remain around their necks, resting assured that the rebellion was doomed to failure. in the market place jeremiah was met by hananiah, one of the false prophets. hananiah tore the yoke from jeremiah's neck, broke it over his knee and exclaimed: "thus saith the lord: "'so will i break the yoke of the king of babylon from the neck of all the nations.'" jeremiah answered: "thus saith the lord: "'thou hast broken the yoke of wood, but i will make a yoke of iron. i will put a yoke of iron on the necks of all these peoples that they may serve the king of babylon.'" and to zedekiah he sent the following message: "bring your neck into his yoke and serve the king of babylon; for these prophets prophesy a lie to you. 'i have not sent them,' saith the lord, 'and they prophesy in my name falsely, that they might drive you out, and that ye might perish, together with the prophets who have prophesied falsely to you.'" but jeremiah's efforts were all in vain. that same year, , the rebellion broke out. nebuchadrezzar did not delay long. he poured his trained veterans into palestine. they marched through the country with the ease and assurance of a brook running along in its smooth course. within a few months they were before jerusalem and, in , besieged it. chapter xix. _a friend in need._ zedekiah sent messenger after messenger into egypt, urging, pleading, begging hophrah to come to his assistance. jeremiah cried that it was too late; that hophrah would not come. "pharaoh, king of egypt, is but a noise; he hath let the appointed time pass by." hophrah, however, did finally bestir himself. word came to jerusalem, and it reached the besieging forces, that a vast army of egyptians was on the march northward. to the surprise of all, nebuchadrezzar withdrew from jerusalem. the jerusalem prophets were jubilant. they saw their hopeful forecasts all fulfilled and judah once more independent. but jeremiah knew better. he held out no such false hopes: "behold, pharaoh's army, which has come out to help you, shall return to egypt. then the chaldeans shall come back and fight against the city and shall take it and burn it with fire. "do not deceive yourselves with the idea that the chaldeans will depart from you; for they shall not depart. for though ye had smitten the whole army of the chaldeans that fight against you, and there remained but wounded men, yet would these arise up each in his tent, and burn this city with fire." although this sounds like a trumpet call of doom, jeremiah was not without hope. the course of events, as he saw it, included the fall of judah at the hands of nebuchadrezzar; but he hoped also for a later rehabilitation of the land and rebuilding of the capital. jeremiah pinned his faith on the exiles in babylonia and the certainty of their return to judah. to picture his hope vividly, he determined to purchase his family estate in anathoth. while jerusalem was celebrating the withdrawal of the babylonian troops and awaiting the coming of hophrah's army, jeremiah, with this in mind, started for anathoth. at the gates of the town, however, he was arrested and brought back to jerusalem in chains. he was accused of high treason, of having spied out jerusalem, and of attempting to escape to the babylonians with the secrets. without trial he was sentenced to prison and jailed in the guard house of the temple garrison. but this was not sufficient for the princes who had trumped up this charge against jeremiah. they came to zedekiah and charged that, by his speeches and actions, he was undermining discipline in the army and weakening the spirit of the people. they demanded that he be put to death. zedekiah, always weak and uncertain, replied, "behold, he is in your hands." but they dared not kill jeremiah outright. "then took they jeremiah and cast him into the cistern that was in the court of the guard; and they let down jeremiah with cords. and in the cistern there was no water, but mire; and jeremiah sank in the mire." there was one person in the court of the guard who might have drawn jeremiah right up out of the cistern where he had been left to die, had he not feared the wrath of the princes. it was ebed-melech, the old, faithful friend. the ethiopian was not afraid to die; but he felt that it would be useless to attempt to spirit jeremiah away, for both would surely be caught. he cast about for some other means to save him whom he loved only as he had loved josiah, the friend of his youth. had ebed-melech known, however, that jeremiah was sunk thigh-deep in mud, and that he had given himself up to die, he would have acted more quickly. it was on the second evening that he stole quietly out of the palace and up to the court of the guards. with great care, so as not to be discovered, he crawled to the cistern prison and leaned his gray head on the rim to listen. jeremiah was praying: "o lord, thou knowest. remember me and visit me. know that for thy sake i have suffered reproach. thy words were found, and i did eat them, and thy words were unto me a joy and the rejoicing of my heart; for i am called by thy name. o lord, god of hosts, why is my pain perpetual?" yes! there was no mistake about it--jeremiah wanted to die! hot tears coursed down ebed-melech's cheeks as he listened. then he whispered a hurried word of hope to the prisoner and was off for the palace as fast as his old legs could carry him. twice he was stopped by the guards, but each time quickly released. everyone knew ebed-melech, his story of josiah's escape, his privileges in the palace. he was a fixture at the court, and people said that he would never die. arrived at the palace, he demanded to see the king. brought into the presence of zedekiah he asked to speak to him alone. when both were left alone, he fell at zedekiah's feet. pointing to the door through which several princes had just gone out, he said: "my lord, the king! "these men have done evil in all that they have done to jeremiah, the prophet, whom they have cast into the pit. he is like to die in the place where he is." raising his head and looking straight into the king's eyes, he pleaded for the life of jeremiah. he spoke very fast, his grey head shaking and his lips trembling. at last he finished his impassioned speech, prostrated himself before zedekiah and kissed the hem of his robe. zedekiah graciously yielded to ebed-melech's pleading and sent three men with him to raise jeremiah out of the cistern. more dead than alive, jeremiah was again taken to the guard house. ebed-melech was given free access to his cell at all times. a few days later zedekiah requested ebed-melech to bring jeremiah to him, secretly. rumor had it that pharaoh hophrah had halted in his march northward, because the babylonians had lifted the siege, and was returning to egypt. zedekiah, therefore, wanted to know from jeremiah: "is there any word from the lord? conceal nothing from me." jeremiah answered him: "if i declare it to you, will you promise not to put me to death? and if i give you counsel, you will not hearken to me." but zedekiah wanted to hear. vacillating as he was, he hoped that perhaps this time jeremiah would bring him a message of assurance. so, he swore to him, saying: "as the lord liveth, who hath given us this life, i will not put you to death; neither will i give you into the hands of these men." thereupon jeremiah fearlessly delivered his final message to the king: "they have betrayed thee; they have overcome thee, thy familiar friends! they have caused thy feet to sink in the mire; they turn back! they shall also bring out all your sons to the chaldeans. you yourself shall not escape out of their hands, but shall be taken by the hand of the king of babylon; and this city shall be burned." zedekiah did not tear and rage as his brother, jehoiakim, would have done at such a message. he did not possess enough energy or determination for that. in a hopeless sort of voice he simply sent jeremiah back to the guard house, where ebed-melech continued looking after him. once more jeremiah proceeded to give practical evidence of his faith in the future of judah, if the country would only submit to babylonian rule; or, if king and princes and false prophets persisted in pushing the country to its fall, of his faith in the babylonian exiles, who, he truly believed, would return and build up judah again. therefore, with the assistance of ebed-melech and baruch, who was a frequent visitor to his master, jeremiah arranged for and purchased the family property near anathoth from his uncle, hananel, and turning the deed over to baruch, said to him: "take this purchase deed and put it in an earthen vessel, that it may remain for years to come. for, thus saith the lord, 'houses and fields and vineyards shall yet again be bought in this land.'" events that followed, however, seemed to mock his enthusiasm and his hope. the rumor of hophrah's return to egypt was verified--and nebuchadrezzar was still encamped at riblah. chapter xx. _in the midst of despair._ the year ! what a terrible year it was for jerusalem and judah--and jeremiah! oh, the famine, the misery, the horrors within jerusalem when the babylonians besieged the city for the second time. oh, the carnage, the massacre, the hopeless destruction when the babylonians finally captured jerusalem and burned the temple! on the ninth day of the fourth month the first breach was made in the outer walls of jerusalem by nebuzaradan, the commander of nebuchadrezzar's body guard, who led the besieging forces. true to his character of weakling, zedekiah, with his nobles, at this first sign of danger to the city, fled from jerusalem through the king's gardens and the south gate, by night. when the news of the king's departure reached the babylonians, nebuzaradan, with a chosen troop, followed immediately in hot pursuit. the whole renegade lot were captured in the plains of jericho. thrown into chains, they were sent to riblah, to nebuchadrezzar, while nebuzaradan returned to his command, to push the final capture of jerusalem with an energy equal to that with which his master had destroyed nineveh. two terrible tragedies were being enacted at about the same time, in jerusalem and at riblah. nebuchadrezzar timed his performances at riblah with the news that was brought to him from the doomed jerusalem. on the day when the report of the capture of the second defenses reached riblah, nebuchadrezzar gathered all his court in the market place, which had been transformed into a festive arena. zedekiah, his sons and the judean princes of the blood, in full regalia, were enthroned on platforms, on one side of the arena. nebuchadrezzar and his courtiers were enthroned in full state on the other. zedekiah and his people, who had heard no news from the besieged capital, were greatly astonished at this whole procedure. they were soon to understand, however. at a given signal heralds entered and announced the report from the front. following this came nebuchadrezzar's body guard leading the lesser judean nobles in chains; and, at a command given by a babylonian officer from nebuchadrezzar's platform, these were slaughtered before the eyes of zedekiah, and of his sons and princes, in cold blood. when the news was brought that jerusalem had finally fallen, a second festival was held in riblah in the same way. to all appearances, zedekiah and his sons were the royal guests of the royal nebuchadrezzar at a great royal celebration. it was noticeable, however, that the judean princes of the blood were missing from the side of their king and his sons. at the proper time the heralds announced the tidings from before jerusalem, the judean princes were marched into the center of the festive throng--and beheaded. finally, on the eighth day of the fifth month, the month of ab, news came to riblah that on the day before, the seventh of ab, the destruction of the city had begun. the report stated that the little garrison in the temple was holding out, but that nebuzaradan hoped to finish up his work and burn the temple on the day after; that is, on the ninth day of ab. nebuchadrezzar took it for granted that nebuzaradan's estimate of events was correct. just at about the time, therefore, that nebuchadrezzar calculated the temple ought to be burning, on the ninth day of ab, the final horror in riblah began. this time zedekiah sat alone on his platform, a hopeless, shrunken figure, the mockery of a king. his heart told him the tragedy that he was about to behold; but he did not know what terrible thing the babylonian had prepared for the climax. zedekiah's sons, mere boys, were brought into the open space before nebuchadrezzar. rings had been pierced through their noses and they were led by chains, like animals. a loud fanfare announced their coming. the trumpet notes were like so many sword points in zedekiah's heart. the young princes, too, knew what awaited them. innocent of any crime, they marched bravely to their fate. one after another they laid their heads on the block, brave descendants of king david. zedekiah saw the executioner's axe rise--and fall; and again; and again! his heart stopped beating. his brain was numb. his body was without feeling. he never knew just when he was led from his mock throne, nor by whom, nor where he was led to. he did not hear the jeers and howling of the blood-infuriated chaldeans, nor the commands given him by his captors, nor the words addressed to him by nebuchadrezzar himself. all at once he felt a severe pain in his head, a shock through his entire nervous system, a red-fire-like blur before his eyes--and he was blind forever. the eyes that, for the last time, had looked upon the writhing bodies of his headless children had been pierced out by the royal spear in nebuchadrezzar's hand! in jerusalem the tragedy was less studied and, therefore, the carnage was much greater. imprisoned in the guard house, jeremiah did not know the worst; but he surmised it. he had not seen ebed-melech or baruch for several days. he did not know what progress the siege was making. no one had time to stop and speak with him. even food was no longer brought to him. in his loneliness and helplessness, he turned to god: "there is none like unto thee, o lord! thou art great and thy name is great in might. who should not fear thee, o king of the nations? the lord is the true god. he is the living god and an everlasting king. he hath made the earth by his power; he hath established the world by his wisdom; by his understanding hath he stretched out the heavens. o lord, i know that the way of man is not in himself; it is not in man that walketh to direct his steps. o lord god, correct me, but in judgment, not in thine anger, lest thou bring me to nothing." finally came the seventh day, and then the ninth day of ab! he heard the shouts and the clang of hand-to-hand fighting. the thick prison walls could not shut out the curses of hating, contending men, the shrieks of the wounded, the prayers and moans of the dying. on the night of the seventh day of ab he knew that the babylonian had entered jerusalem. the red sky told him that the city was burning. on the next day, he judged from the noises and commands within the garrison that preparations were being made for the last stand. all that day and all that night long he heard the fighting on the temple mount. he pictured to himself every step of the retreating, beaten judeans and the oncoming, victorious babylonians. on the morning of the next day, the fatal ninth of ab, the oppressive heat told him that the temple was on fire. through the day, the shouting and the fighting died slowly away. jeremiah knew that the end had come for his beloved fatherland--and for himself. his presence in the guard house had been accidentally or purposely forgotten! at sunrise the next day, he was suddenly aroused from his aimless, mental wanderings by the noisy marching of troops. they passed his prison without stopping. he shouted, but they did not hear him. he could not see who they were, but surmised that they must be babylonians. several hours passed and once more he heard the heavy steps of troops. this time he shouted at the top of his feeble voice and pounded the iron bars. they halted. several were dispatched to the guard house. they broke open the door and brought forth a gray-headed, gray-bearded, unkempt little man, whose face and bearing showed the horrors he had been through. the soldiers made sport of him, but the commander did not permit them to kill a helpless old man. instead, he sent jeremiah, through the ruins of the temple and the city, with hundreds of others, to the prisoners' camp at ramah, five miles north of jerusalem. chapter xxi. _lamentations and a vain hope._ it is said that ties of true friendship are often stronger than ties of blood. of such stuff were the ties made that bound together the families of hilkiah, the priest, and shaphan, the scribe. hilkiah and shaphan labored hand in hand with king josiah in his reforms. shaphan's sons, ahikam and gemariah, came to the assistance of hilkiah's son, jeremiah, when the latter was in sorest need. now a grandson of shaphan, gedaliah, son of ahikam, was to give a temporary haven to the weary jeremiah. the whole of the shaphan family followed in the footsteps of their noble ancestor. both ahikam and gemariah belonged to the prophetic party; though, unlike jeremiah, they took the course of least resistance and continued in favor with the royal house. nebuchadrezzar, who kept himself informed concerning the political leanings of the leading families in jerusalem, therefore believed that if he raised a scion of shaphan's family to the governorship of judah, the country would remain loyal and leave him to his peace in upbuilding babylon. accordingly, ahikam's and gemariah's families were spared during the general slaughter in jerusalem, and gedaliah, ahikam's son, was made governor of judah when the victorious babylonians had finished their work in the land. there was still another person whom nebuchadrezzar had given orders to spare--jeremiah. nothing would have pleased nebuchadrezzar better than for jehoiakim and zedekiah to have followed the counsel of jeremiah. therefore, the prophet was not only to be saved from the carnage, but he was to be rewarded. nebuzaradan had strict orders to find jeremiah. in fact, the troop which jeremiah had heard in the garrison and that accidentally saved him was in search of him at the time. nebuzaradan knew that jeremiah was alive, through baruch. baruch had been captured and thrown into chains on the seventh day of ab. when he heard that the babylonians were searching for jeremiah to save him, he informed them that he was imprisoned in the garrison. the captain of the troop had no idea that the emaciated old man was a prophet; but he thanked his stars that he had not permitted his soldiers to slay the poor fellow. he complimented himself when, at ramah, he discovered that he had jeremiah in his keeping and was complimented by the commander-in-chief when he brought jeremiah to nebuzaradan's tent. while in the prisoners' camp, jeremiah could not get out of his mind's eye the picture of devastation that he had beheld while passing through jerusalem. he kept entirely away from his fellow prisoners. he wanted, and needed, to be alone. it was during these days he composed his lamentations on jerusalem: "how doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people? she is become as a widow, that was great among the nations! she that was a princess among the provinces is become a tributary! she weepeth sore in the night and her tears are on her cheeks; among all her lovers she hath none to comfort her: all her friends have dealt treacherously with her; they are become her enemies. all that pass by clap their hands at thee: they hiss and wag their head at the daughter of jerusalem, saying, is this the city that men called the perfection of beauty, the joy of the whole earth? all thine enemies have opened their mouth wide against thee: they hiss and gnash the teeth: they say, 'we have swallowed her up: certainly this is the day that we looked for; we have found, we have seen it.'" but jeremiah, even in this great extremity, was not a man without hope for the future. he knew his god and understood that his anger with the worst of men or nations does not last forever: "this i recall to my mind; therefore have i hope. it is of the lord's loving-kindnesses that we are not consumed, because his compassions fail not. they are new every morning; great is thy faithfulness. the lord is my portion, saith my soul; therefore will i hope in him. the lord is good unto them that wait for him, to the soul that seeketh him. it is good that a man should hope and quietly wait for the salvation of the lord. it is good for a man that he bear the yoke in his youth; let him sit alone and keep silence, because he hath laid it upon him; let him put his mouth in the dust, if so be there may be hope. let him give his cheek to him that smiteth him; let him be filled full with reproach. for the lord will not cast off forever." jeremiah was not particularly interested when he was ordered to appear before nebuzaradan. it did not really matter to him any longer what would happen to him. he had fought a brave fight--and had lost. life or death made no difference now. in fact, he would rather have died at the hands of the babylonians than at the hands of his own people. so, he replied listlessly that he was ready. even when given clean garments and ordered to bathe and told to brighten up and be cheerful, because all would be well with him, he could not figure out what it all meant until he was in the tent of nebuzaradan. then, hope was born anew in his heart, as he listened to what the commander had to say to him: "the lord your god pronounced evil upon this place; you have sinned against the lord and have not obeyed his voice, therefore this thing is come to you. "and now behold, i loose you this day from the chains which are upon your hand. if it seem good to you to come with me to babylon, come and i will look out for you. but if it seem undesirable to you to come with me to babylon, do not come; but go back to gedaliah, the son of ahikam, the son of shaphan, whom the king of babylon has made governor over the cities of judah, and dwell with him among the people; or go wherever it seems right to you to go." jeremiah replied, shortly, that he preferred to remain in judah. a clear look again came to his eyes; his shoulders straightened up; he carried his head erect once more; he had new work, on the old lines, to do. he also asked a favor--that baruch, son of neriah, and ebed-melech, an ethiopian freedman of the royal house, if alive, should be permitted to remain with him. both his preference and his request were granted. baruch was found among the living in riblah and ebed-melech at the camp in ramah. nebuzaradan gave jeremiah provisions and presents and sent him, with his two companions, to gedaliah, who had established his capital at the ancient city of mizpah, on the dividing line between the old kingdoms of israel and judah. on his departure from judah, nebuchadrezzar had deported with him practically the entire population that was of any consequence. he left behind only the poorest of vine dressers and farmers. gedaliah's position as governor, therefore, seemed to be but an empty honor. the country a wilderness, the capital in hopeless ruins, the temple a pile of smoking and smouldering ashes--it was not a picture to bring rejoicing to a governor's heart. but jeremiah laid a new plan for rehabilitating the land. neither jerusalem nor the temple were to be rebuilt, for the present. all efforts were to be bent toward building up a new conscience in the simple farmers and vine dressers; to fit these for entering a new covenant with their god and to make them worthy, indeed, to be god's people. in politics the land was to stand, above all, for faithfulness and loyalty to babylonia. that was what nebuchadrezzar expected from gedaliah and that was what gedaliah proposed to do. with the religion nebuchadrezzar never did and never would interfere. therefore, first of all, the new governor issued this proclamation to the remnant that remained in judah: "do not be afraid to serve the chaldeans. settle down and be subject to the king of babylon, and it shall be well with you. as for me, i will dwell at mizpah, as your representative to receive the chaldeans who shall come to us; but you gather for yourselves wine and fruits and oil, and put them in your vessels and dwell in your cities of which you have taken possession." the future again looked bright. under gedaliah there was promise of a peaceful restoration of judah. jewish refugees in moab, ammon and edom began to return, because they looked for a just and benevolent rule from shaphan's grandson; and they would not have been disappointed had not scheming selfishness and hateful treachery stepped in to shatter the last possible judean hope. chapter xxii. _cowardice and treachery._ gedaliah had governed in mizpah seven months when he was pleased to welcome back to his fatherland, ishmael, son of nethaniah, a judean chieftain of the royal family, who had been driven to ammon during the guerrilla warfare with babylonia, under jehoiakim. a few days later, johanan, son of kareah, who was one of the governor's chief assistants, came to gedaliah with the news that ishmael was not sincere in his protestations of loyalty, that he was in the employ of baalis, king of ammon, and that his mission to mizpah was to put gedaliah out of the way. baalis, johanan reported, was contemplating rebellion some time in the future, and did not want in judah a governor faithful to babylonia. in addition, johanan said, ishmael was hoping, through the assistance of baalis, to regain the throne of judah for his family. gedaliah, nobleman that he was, refused to suspect ishmael of treachery. on the contrary, a few days later he prepared a great banquet in ishmael's honor and invited, in addition, all the chaldean nobles whom nebuchadrezzar had left behind in judah to assist gedaliah in restoring order and in establishing law and government. ishmael came with ten followers who had accompanied him from ammon. at a given signal, ishmael and his ten men fell upon the unsuspecting gedaliah and his chaldean guests and turned the banquet hall into a house of death. on the next day, word came to mizpah that eighty men from shechem, shiloh and samaria, were coming to mizpah, on their way to jerusalem to offer sacrifices in the temple ruins. these men had been selected by the survivors in that section of the country to express their thanks to god, in this manner, for having been spared by the babylonians. ishmael went out to meet them. with tears in his eyes he told them that he was a messenger from gedaliah to welcome them to mizpah. once in mizpah, however, these eighty men were slaughtered by the ruthless and treacherous cowards from ammon. under ishmael's direction, all the dead were thrown into the great reservoir that was built by king asa of judah at the time when he was at war with baasha of israel. his work completed, ishmael gathered his men to return to baalis, in ammon. johanan, who had warned gedaliah of ishmael's treachery, did not propose to let the murderer escape. he gathered up such faithful men as he could. by a quick march of two miles to the north, his little force confronted ishmael just outside of gibeon, on the well-traveled road leading to beth horon. before the little armies came to an engagement, johanan sent word to ishmael demanding surrender. ishmael answered with a request for a parley on the next morning, which was granted. during the night, however, ishmael's men deserted him and went over to johanan. ishmael, himself, escaped to ammon, and johanan did not even pursue him. on the next morning all returned to mizpah. in mizpah, johanan was confronted with a new problem. what would happen when the news reached babylon that all the chaldean officers in mizpah had been slain? the entire population knew what nebuchadrezzar's vengeance meant. they feared to remain in judah and, at a council of elders called by johanan, it was determined to leave the fatherland altogether and emigrate to egypt. before making a definite move, however, johanan and the elders sought the advice of jeremiah. they came to the prophet with this petition: "permit us to bring our petition before you that you may supplicate the lord your god for us, even for all this remnant, for we are left but a few out of many--you yourself see us here--that the lord your god may show us the way wherein we should walk, and the thing that we should do." jeremiah answered them: "i have heard you; behold i will pray to the lord your god according to your words, and whatever the lord shall answer you, i will declare it to you; i will keep nothing back from you:" to which the leaders replied: "god be a true and faithful witness against us, if we do not according to all the word with which the lord your god shall send you to us. whether it be good or whether it be evil, we will obey the voice of the lord our god, to whom we send you, that it may be well with us, when we obey the voice of the lord our god." jeremiah took ten days to consider the matter. then the message came to him from the lord his god and he delivered it to johanan and his chieftains: "if ye will still abide in this land, then will i build you and not pull you down, and i will plant you and not pluck you, up; for i am sorry for the evil that i have done to you. be not afraid of the king of babylon, for i am with you to save you and to deliver you from his hand." johanan and the chieftains had hoped that jeremiah would advise them to go to egypt. they were disappointed. they took time, therefore, to discuss the matter further among themselves. jeremiah had had experience enough to know what the result would be. so he backed up his advice concerning egypt with a public discourse, every line of which breathed hope for the future in judah. he tried to show that the old order of things had passed; that the old covenant between god and his people had been broken, never to be renewed again; that god would enter into a new covenant with them, a spiritual covenant, not so much with the whole nation, as with each individual. this is jeremiah's memorable address at mizpah: "behold the days are coming, that i will sow israel and judah with the seed of man and the seed of beast, and as once i watched over them to pluck up and to afflict, so will i be watchful over them to build and to plant. "'behold the days are coming,' saith the lord, 'that i will make a new covenant with the house of israel and the house of judah, not like the covenant which i made with their fathers, in the day that i took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of egypt, my covenant which they themselves broke and i was displeased with them; but this is the covenant which i will make with the house of israel: "'after those days,' saith the lord, 'i will put my teaching in their breast and on their heart will i write it; and i will be to them a god and they shall be to me a people. and they shall not teach any more every man his neighbor, and every man his brother, saying, "know the lord," for they shall know me, from the least of them to the greatest; for i will forgive them their iniquities and remember their sins no more.'" on the day of the meeting to settle finally the question of emigration to egypt, another shocking surprise awaited jeremiah. he was accused of being a false prophet; of not having received the message against going into egypt from god, at all. he was accused of having conspired with baruch, who, jeremiah was told, being of noble family, had ambitions to become king of judah. finally he was warned that baruch intended to hand all the remnant over to nebuchadrezzar. more than that! it was determined to emigrate to egypt at once and that both jeremiah and baruch must accompany the self-exiled. chapter xxiii. _jeremiah, the martyred._ the forcing of jeremiah into egyptian exile with the others was the stroke that finally broke jeremiah's heart. against such stiff-necked perversity he could hold out no longer. he submitted, like a lamb, this time to be led, literally, to the slaughter. judah was destroyed, the temple burnt, the royal family exterminated, the last of the friends of jeremiah's family dead, the strength and nobility of the nation in babylonian captivity, and now, the miserable remnant that was left in judah, self-exiled to egypt! the destination of the emigrants was tehaphenes, just across the boundary from judah. there was already a small colony of jews there. being a frontier city on the main road to jerusalem, judeans often found refuge there from the many destructive armies that swept judah. these gave all the emigrants a hearty welcome. jeremiah might have settled down there to pass the remaining years of his life quietly and at peace; or, he might have gone to babylon where nebuzaradan had promised to look after him. the course of events however, bade him remain where he now was. pharaoh hophrah still had in mind the conquest of babylon. but jeremiah had preached all his life that nebuchadrezzar was god's chosen servant for smiting the nations, egypt among them. he had, many times, dared death rather than dare be untrue to god and to his mission as a prophet. therefore, in tehaphenes, before pharaoh's palace, jeremiah delivered the following oration: "take great stones in thine hand and hide them in the clay of the pavement which is at the entry of pharaoh's house in tehaphenes, in the sight of the men of judah; and say unto them, thus saith the lord of hosts, the god of israel: behold, i will send and take nebuchadrezzar, the king of babylon, my servant, and will set his throne upon these stones that i have hid; and he shall spread his royal pavilion over them. and when he cometh, he shall smite the land of egypt." both the jews and the egyptians who heard him were thoroughly enraged. their rage swelled into an outcry, and the outcry into an attack upon jeremiah. the very stones of which he spoke were showered upon him by the infuriated mob. death, that he had often faced but escaped, now came to jeremiah in this way--and baruch, loving disciple and friend that he was, and ebed-melech, faithful admirer and servant that he was, stood by jeremiah's side to the last, sharing his fate with him. through no fault of his own, but as god's chosen servant, speaking naught but the word of god as it was revealed to him, jeremiah had been despised, degraded, spat upon, made to suffer for the sins of his people and, finally, he was martyred at their hands. it is held by some that the martyrdom of jeremiah inspired a later prophet to write the following remarkable lines, although most jewish scholars explain these lines as personifying the people of israel and referring to its sufferings: "who would have believed what now we hear? and to whom was the lord's arm revealed? why, he grew up like a sapling before us, like a shoot out of dry ground! "he was despised and forsaken of men, a man of pain and familiar with sorrow: yea, like one from whom men hide their faces, he was despised, and we esteemed him not. "surely our sufferings he himself bore, and our pains he carried; yet we esteemed him stricken, smitten of god and afflicted. "but he was wounded for our transgressions, crushed because of our iniquities; the chastisement for our well-being was upon him, and through his stripes healing came to us. "all of us, like sheep, had gone astray, we had turned each his own way; and the lord laid upon him, the guilt of us all. "he was sore pressed, yet he resigned himself, and open not his mouth, as a lamb is led to the slaughter, and as a sheep that before her shearers is dumb. "shut out from justice he was hurried away; and as for his fate, who regarded it?-- that he was cut off out of the land of the living, stricken to death for our transgressions. "they made his grave with the wicked, and his tomb with the ungodly, although he had done no violence, neither was any deceit in his mouth. "but the lord hath pleasure in his servant; he will deliver his soul from anguish; he will let him see and be satisfied, and will vindicate him for his woes." (isaiah liii.) [end of volume one.] supplement chronological tables [transcriber's note: the following table was presented across two pages in original text, and cannot be fit into an -column format. i have presented it across columns. as such, it may not display properly on some screens, especially if word wrap is turned on.] kingdom of united hebrew kingdom of damascus assyria egypt babylonia persia judah kingdom israel b.c.e. th and th centuries, settlement of canaan by children of israel united hebrew kingdom established saul david solomon division of the kingdom kingdom of ------ ------ kingdom of judah israel rehoboam jeroboam asa baasha omri jehoshaphat _elijah_ ahab ben hadad ii - five jehoram jehoram expeditions ahaziah _elisha_ against damascus athaliah jehu joash hazael defeats jehoahaz joash amaziah jehoash uzziah (azariah) _isaiah_ jereboam ii tiglath-pileser _amos_ iii--two _hosea_ expeditions ahaz against israel _micah_ hoshea and judah destruction of damascus by shalmaneser iv hezekiah assyria destroys destruction of kingdom of kingdom of israel israel by manasseh assyria sargon _zephaniah_ expedition _nahum_ against judah _jeremiah_ _habakuk_ sennacherib expedition against judah josiah and egypt shabataka jehoiakim esarhaddon conquered by - two babylon expeditions zedekiah against judah necho first captivity and egypt by babylon _ezekiel_ ashurbanipal _obadiah_ two expeditions against judah egpyt under destruction of and egypt assyrian rule nabopolassar kingdom of nebuchadrezzar judah by babylon destruction of defeats judah _isaiah ii_ assyria by in battle cyrus restores babylonia destroys captives to judah kingdom of cyrus _haggai_ judah conquers _zachariah_ babylonia _malachi_ cambyses conquest of nehemiah egypt conquered bayblonia by artaxerxes i governor of by persia persia jerusalem _joel_ ________________________ transcriber's comments where hebrew letters appeared within the english text, these have been transliterated and included in brackets. in many cases the hebrew has also been spelled out, thus: [tov (tet-vov-bet)]. a rare additional transcriber's note may be found within brackets []. the source text contained only one comment in a bracket, that should not be confused as a transcriber's note. this is the word [baden] that appeared in the bibliography. each [s] is the special character known as "section sign." where the source text referenced a page number within the same book, the transcriber substituted a reference in brackets [] that will be useful for readers of this e-text version. the source book contained the complete pirkei avot, in hebrew, with vowels. this has, of necessity, been omitted from the current e-text document, which uses only roman font. footnotes all appeared at the bottom of the page, separated by a line from the main text, and printed in the same font and size as the main text. the transcriber has moved these footnotes to follow the paragraph they supplement, and indented them. at the end of this e-text, readers will find a section titled transcription notes which deals with issues such as accent marks. following this, readers will find a page reference index. this reference will help maintain the stability of references to this book from outside sources. end of transcriber's comments library of jewish classics ========================== i. leopold zunz: the sufferings of the jews during the middle ages ii. hyman hurwitz: talmudic tales iii. "pirek abot": the sayings of the jewish fathers library of jewish classics-iii. ________________________________________ the sayings of the jewish fathers [pirkei avot] "pirke abot" ________________________________________ translated, with an introduction and notes by joseph i. gorfinkle, ph.d. author of "the eight chapters of maimonides on ethics" _______ _second edition_ ________________________________________ contents preface introduction name purpose description contents language development of abot abot in liturgy bibliography chapter i chapter ii chapter iii chapter iv chapter v chapter vi hebrew text (appendix) preface notwithstanding the fact that there are many editions of the _sayings of the jewish fathers_, and that it has been translated innumerable times in all modern tongues, no apology need be given for the appearance of this little volume in the series of _jewish classics_. the _pirke abot_ is indeed a classical bit of that ancient jewish classic, the _mishnah_. the translation in this edition is based largely upon that of taylor, in his _sayings of the jewish fathers_, and upon the excellent version of singer, in his _authorized daily prayer book_. this edition is intended mainly for popular reading, but it has been thought wise to amplify the notes, especially with bibliographical references, so that it may serve the purpose of a teacher's handbook, and also be useful as a text-book for the higher grades of religious schools and for study circles. the references are to books that are generally accessible, and, wherever possible, to books in english. the notes are by no means intended to be exhaustive, but rather to be suggestive. it is the humble hope of the editor that this little book may be the means of further popularizing the practical and, at the same time, high-minded wisdom of the "fathers"; that it may serve as an incentive to a more detailed study of their philosophy of life, and that its appearance may help us to lead in a revival of that most ancient and praiseworthy custom of reading the _pirke abot_ in the house of worship on the sabbath, during the summer months. let him into whose hands these sayings fall "meditate upon them day and night," for "he who would be saintly must fulfil the dicta of the fathers." joseph i gorfinkle. mt. vernon, n. y. february, . introduction name _the tractate abot_ (_massechet abot_) is the ninth treatise of _the order_ or _series on damages_ (_seder nezikin_), which is the fourth section of the _mishnah_ ( ). it is commonly known in hebrew as _pirke abot_, _the chapters of the fathers_, and has also been termed _mishnat ha-chasidim_, _instruction for the pious_, because of the rabbinic saying, "he who wishes to be pious, let him practise the teachings of _abot_" ( ). on account of the nature of its contents, it is generally designated in english as the _ethics of the fathers_. taylor entitles his edition _dibre aboth ha-olam_, sayings of the fathers of the world_, and has as the english title, _sayings of the jewish fathers_. gustav gottheil refers to the _abot_ as the _sayings of the pharisaic fathers_ ( ). its german title is generally _die spruche der vater_, and in french it is usually rendered _chapitres_ or _maximes des peres_. ( ) see _infra_, [chapter v], n. . ( ) _baba kamma_, a. see taylor, _sayings of the jewish fathers_, p. . maimonides refers to this saying in the _foreword_ of his _eight chapters_; see gorfinkle, _the eight chapters_, etc., p. . ( ) see _sun and shield_, p. _et passim_. see _infra_, n. , which accounts for the use of "_pharisaic_." the use of the word _abot_ (fathers), in the title, is of very ancient date. we can only guess at the reason for its being used, and, consequently, there are various explanations for it. samuel de uceda, in his collective commentary, says that as this tractate of the _mishnah_ contains the advice and good counsel, which, for the most part, come from a father, the rabbis mentioned in it adopt the role of "fathers," and are therefore so designated. this explanation does not, however, deter him from advancing another to the effect that this treatise is the basis of all subsequent ethical and moral teachings and doctrines, and the rabbis are, in consequence, the "fathers" or prototypes of all ethical teachers and moralists ( ). loeb attributes its use to the fact that the rabbis of _abot_ are the "fathers" or "ancestors of rabbinic judaism" ( ). hoffman states that the word _abot_ means "teachers of tradition" (_traditionslehrer_), and points to the expression _abot ha-olam_ (_eduyot_, i. ), which, translated literally, is "fathers of the world," but is used to designate the most distinguished teachers, which is a true characterization of the rabbis of _abot_ ( ). taylor says in regard to the title, "it takes its name from the fact that it consists to a great extent of the maxims of the jewish fathers whose names are mentioned in the pages" ( ). hoffmann's seems the most acceptable explanation. ( ) _midrash shemuel_ (ed. warsaw, ), p. . the _midrash shemuel_ is a collective commentary, first published in venice in , and which has since passed through six editions. see p. , n. . ( ) _la chaine_, etc., p. , n. . ( ) see hoffman, _seder nesikin, introd._, p. xx, and p. , n. . in this passage of _eduyot_, hillel and shammai are referred to as _abot ha-olam_; in _yerushalmi shekalim_, iii, b, rabbi and ishmael and rabbi akiba, and in _yerushalmi chagigah_, ii, d, all the pairs of _abot_ i are similarly designated. ( ) taylor, _loc. cit._ purpose the original aim of _abot_ was to show the divine source and authority of the traditional law revealed to moses on mt. sinai, and to demonstrate its continuity from moses through joshua, the elders, and the men of the great synagogue, down to those rabbis who lived during the period between b.c.e. to c.e. loeb maintains that _abot_ was originally a composition of the pharisaic rabbis who wished to indicate that the traditions held and expounded by them, and which the sadducees repudiated, were divine and, in time and sequence, uninterruptedly authoritative ( ). this line of continuous tradition is plainly seen in the first two chapters. a second and probably later purpose was to present a body of practical maxims and aphorisms for the daily guidance of the people. ( ) _la chaine_, etc. the sadducees belonged to the priestly and aristocratic families. they made light of the oral traditions, did not believe in the future life, and were indifferent to the independence of the jewish nation. the pharisees, on the other hand, were constituted largely from the common people; they were believers in, and strict observers of, the traditional laws, and were ardent nationalists. the bitter attack of jesus on them, which has resulted in making the word "pharisee" synonymous with "hypocrite" and "self-righteous person," was, to say the least, unjust, as herford has so lucidly pointed out in his sympathetic study of the pharisees. herford, though not a jew, has taken up the cudgels most ably in defence of this sect, with remarkable insight into the life and literature of the ancient jews. he demonstrates conclusively that though there were hypocrites among the pharisees, as among all classes and creeds, yet the average pharisee was a man of the most elevated religious ideals, who misunderstood jesus, but who, in turn was misunderstood by him. huxley, in his _evolution of theology_, says, "of all the strange ironies in history, perhaps the strangest is that 'pharisee' is current as a term of reproach among the theological descendants of that sect of nazarenes who, without the martyr spirit of those primitive puritans, would never have come into existence." such great teachers and men of sterling quality and golden utterance as antigonus of soko (i, ), hillel (i, - ; ii, - ), jochanan ben zakkai (ii, - ), gamaliel, whose pupil was paul, the apostle (i, ), and judah, the prince (ii, ), whose sayings grace the pages of _abot_, were, as loeb points out, of the pharisaic school or party. there is naturally a large literature on the pharisees. herford's _pharisaism_ deserves careful perusal. see, also, josephus (ed. whiston-margoliouth), _antiq._, xiii, . , xviii, , - ; schurer, _history of the jews_, etc., ii, ii, p. _et seq._; _jewish encyclopedia_ and literature mentioned there; geiger, _judaism and its history_, p. _et seq._, and friedlander, g., _the jewish sources of the sermon on the mount_, p. _et seq._ description the _sayings of the jewish fathers_ is the oldest collection of ethical dicta of the rabbis of the _mishnah_ ( ). it is a rabbinic anthology. it has been happily styled "a compendium of practical ethics" ( ), and, as mielziner has said, "these rabbinical sentences, if properly arranged, present an almost complete code of human duties" ( ). the _abot_ is, then, a sort of moral code. ( ) there was another, and apparently older, recension of _pirke abot_ on which is based the _abot de-rabbi natan_, an _hagadic_ or homiletical exposition of _abot_. two recensions of _abot de-rabbi natan_ exist, and have been edited by schechter. on this work, see hoffman, _die erste mischna_, p. _et seq._, mielziner, article _abot de-rabbi natan_, in _jewish encyclopedia_, strack, _einleitung_, p. _et seq., and pollak, _rabbi nathans system_, etc., _introduction_, pp. - . an english translation is found in rodkinson's edition of the _talmud_, vol. v, p. _et seq._ ( ) taylor, _loc. cit._ lazarus, _ethics of judaism_, ii. , calls it "a compendium of ethics." ( ) in _jewish encyclopedia_, art. _abot_. contents even a superficial reading of _abot_ will bring home to one the fact that it is made up of various strata. in fact, it falls naturally into the following strands or divisions: a. chapter i, - : chronologically arranged sayings of the oldest authorities, from the men of the great synagogue to hillel and shammai. b. ( ) chapters i, -ii, : sayings of the men of the school of hillel to rabban gamaliel (about c.e.), the son of judah ha-nasi ( ) chapter ii, - : additional sayings of hillel. c. ( ) chapter ii, - : the sayings of jochanan ben zakkai, the pupil of hillel, and of his disciples. ( ) chapter ii, - : the sayings of rabbi tarfon, a younger contemporary of jochanan ben zakkai. d. chapter iii: the maxims of seventeen _tannaim_ (authorities mentioned in the _mishnah_) to the time of and including rabbi akiba. these are not arranged in strictly chronological order. e. chapter iv: the sayings of twenty-five _tannaim_ after the time of rabbi akiba, who were contemporaries of rabbi meir and of rabbi judah ha-nasi. these are not chronologically arranged. f. ( ) chapter v, - : anonymous sayings forming a series of groups of ten, seven, and four things, dealing with the creation of the world, with miracles, and with the varieties of men and minds. ( ) chapter v, - : anonymous sayings touching upon the varieties of motives and contrasting the good and evil dispositions. ( ) chapter v, : sayings of judah ben tema. ( ) chapter v, : the ages of man. ( ) chapter v, , : the sayings of ben bag bag and of ben he he. g. chapter vi: the acquisition of the _torah;_ praise of the _torah_. language the language of _abot_ is easy mishnaic hebrew, with portions of four verses (i, ; ii, ; v, , and v, ) in aramaic, which is closely related to hebrew. it is worthy of note that these aramaic portions originated with the school of hillel ( ). ( ) on the language of the _mishnah_, see mielziner, _introduction to the talmud_, pp. - , and lauterbach in _jewish encyclopedia_, vol ii, p. . on the use of aramaic in the _mishnah_, see schurer, _history_, i, ii, p. _et seq._, and bacher, in _jewish encyclopedia_, art. _aramaic language among the jews_. several centuries before the common era, aramaic was the vernacular of the jews. hebrew, however, remained in use as the sacred language ([lashon ha-kodesh]), it being the language of the learned, and was employed for literary, liturgical, and legal purposes. this accounts for the mishnah being written almost entirely in hebrew, though aramaic was spoken on the streets. it is related of judah ha-nasi that he disliked the aramaic jargon to such an extent that he forbade its use in his home, where even the servants spoke hebrew with elegance (_rosh ha-shanah_, b). when scholars used aramaic in his presence, he chided them for not speaking in hebrew or in greek (_baba kamma_, b). development of abot ( ) ( ) on the subject-matter of this section, consult hoffmann, _die erste mischna_, pp. - ; idem, _mischnaiot seder nesikin_, _introd._, pp. xx-xxi; brull, _enstehung und ursprunglicher inhalt des traktates abot;_ loeb, _la chaine_, etc.; ginzburg, _spruche der vater, erstes capitel historisch beleuchtet_ (liepzig, ); strack, _die spruche der vater_, _introd._, pp. - ; idem, _einleitung_, p. , and rawicz, _commentar des maimonides_, p. , n. . it is apparent from the literary construction of _abot_ that it has been edited several times, and that, in its earliest form, the _abot_ collection was much smaller than we have it to-day. originally, probably shortly after the time of hillel, it may have been merely a sort of appendix to the _tractate sanhedrin_, with typical sayings of each of the heads of the _sanhedrin_. these dicta are contained in what is designated as section a. later, presumably by rabbi akiba, there were added to this original kernel of _abot_ the sayings of rabbi jochanan ben zakkai and his most illustrious pupils, which comprise section c. this resulted in the grouping together of the sayings of ten generations of traditional authorities, as follows: ( ) the men of the great synagogue, ( ) simon, the just, ( ) antigonus of soko, ( ) jose ben joezer and jose ben jochanan, ( ) joshua ben perachiah and nittai, the arbelite, ( ) judah ben tabbai and simeon ben shatach, ( ) shemaiah and abtalion, ( ) hillel and shammai, ( ) jochanan ben zakkai, and ( ) the latter's disciples. by association of idea with this number ten, there were added to this collection numerical sayings of ten, and, then, others of seven and four, found in chapter v, - and - . into this enlarged kernel of pithy sayings of the oldest authorities, which may be characterized as the _abot of rabbi akiba_, later _tannaim_--rabbi meir, rabbi judah ha-nasi, and others--interpolated additional sayings of the afore-mentioned rabbis, and also typical utterances of their disciples, and of other well-known teachers. this accounts for the presence in _abot_ of the body of maxims of the six generations of the school of hillel, designated above as section b , and which was very properly introduce after the aphorisms of hillel and of his contemporary, shammai. the thread of tradition being interrupted by this interpolation, it was again taken up by the introduction of another body of hillel's sayings (b ), thus providing for a natural transition from hillel to jochanan ben zakkai. proof of the fact that section b is an addition is that in the _abot de-rabbi natan_--which, as has been said above, is based on an older version of _abot_ ( )--the sayings of jochanan ben zakkai follow immediately upon those of shammai. the sayings of judah ha-nasi, the redactor of the _mishnah_, and of rabbi gamaliel, his son, were undoubtedly added after the time of judah. ( ) see _supra_, p. , n. . chapter iii contains the sayings of authorities who were the predecessors of judah, the first two having lived before the destruction of the second temple. chapter iv is made up of the dicta of a number of rabbis who were contemporaries of judah. these two chapters were, no doubt, inserted by judah, the redactor of the _mishnah_ as we virtually have it to-day. evidence that chapter iv is an addition to the original _abot_ is that it has a number of aphorisms which are repetitions of some found in chapters i and ii. the greater part of chapter v, as stated above, was a portion of the _abot_ of rabbi akiba. chapter vi, which is known as _the chapter on the acquisition of torah_ (_perek kinyan torah_), as _the external teaching of the abot_ (_baraita de-abot_) ( ), as _the chapter of rabbi meir_ (_perek rabbi meir_) ( ), and as _the external teaching of rabbi meir_ (_baraita de-rabbi meir_), is a supplement of the treatise _abot_, as is claimed for it by its superscription, "the sages taught in the language of the _mishnah_," a formula generally used in the _talmud_ to introduce a _baraita_. one of the authorities mentioned in it is joshua ben levi, a palestinian _amora_ (an authority of the _gemara_) who lived during the third century. this demonstrates the comparatively late date of the final redaction of this chapter. by the middle of the ninth century it formed a part of the treatise _abot_. it was added to the prayer-book to be read on the sixth sabbath of the period between passover and the festival of weeks (_shebuot_) ( ). ( ) a _baraita_ contains traditions and opinions of authorities of the _mishnah_ which are not embodied in the _mishnah_ or rabbi judah ha-nasi. see mielziner, _introduction to the talmud_, pp. - , strack, _einleitung in den talmud_, p. , and the _jewish encyclopedia_, _s.v._ a _gemara_ (talmudical commentary) to the _baraita de-abot_ was published from a ms. by coronel in _chamishah kuntresin_ (vienna, ). this _baraita_ is found also in the seventeenth chapter of _tanna de-be eliyahu sutta_, but with different textual readings. see ginzberg, in the _jewish encyclopedia_, ii, pp. - . ( ) known thus because rabbi meir's name is found in the first verse. ( ) see next section. the sixth chapter is found in some editions of the _mishnah_. abot in the liturgy ( ) ( ) on the subject-matter of this section, see the citation from the sar shalom gaon, in the _siddur_ of r. amram, a; _midrash shemual_, pp. - ; zunz, _die ritus_, pp. - ; strack, _die spruche der vater_, p. , and _siddur_, ed. baer, p. , note. other portions of the _mishnah_ and also of the _talmud_ that are included in the liturgy are, in the morning service, _zebachim_ v (_siddur_, ed. singer, p. ); in the evening service for the sabbath, _sabbat_, ii (pp. - ), and, from the _talmud_, end of _berachot_ (p. ); in the additional service for sabbath and festivals, from the _talmud keritot_, a, from the _mishnah_, end of _tamid_, and from the _talmud_, end of _berachot_ (pp. - ). as taylor has said, "its simplicity and intrinsic excellence have secured for _abot_ a widespread and lasting popularity, and have led to its being excerpted from the _talmud_ and used liturgically in the synagogue, at certain seasons, from an early period" ( ). thus, the _abot_ is found not only in all editions of the _mishnah_ and the _talmud_, but also in the prayer-books of the ashkenazic rite ( ). the practice of reading a chapter from _abot_, on saturday, after the afternoon prayer (_minchah_), originated as early as gaonic times (seventh to eleventh centuries). during the middle of the ninth century, _abot_ and its _baraita_ were thus liturgically used. in spanish communities it was recited in the morning of the sabbath, and not in the afternoon. by the eleventh century, this custom was universally a part of the synagogal service. ( ) taylor, _loc. cit._ ( ) german and polish. originally, _abot_ was probably read only from passover to _shebuot;_ and, since this period has generally six sabbaths, and there are only five chapters of _abot_, the chapter _kinyan torah_ was appointed to be read on the sixth sabbath. later, the period of the year in which _abot_ was read varied in different communities. in germany, there were _kehillot_ in which it was recited during the winter as well as during the summer. in some communities it was read from passover to the feast of tabernacles (_sukkot_), in others from the sabbath of _parashah yitro_ (ex. xviii, -xx, ) to the sabbath of _parashah masse'e_ (num. xxxiii, -xxxvi, ), that is, from the sabbath on which is read an account of the giving of the law until the sabbath preceding the beginning of the reading of the "repetition of the law," _i.e._, deuteronomy. in many orthodox congregations to-day this practice is still adhered to, and _abot_ is read on sabbath afternoons during the summer, or from the sabbath after passover to the sabbath before the new year (_rosh ha-shanah_). a number of reasons have been suggested for the custom of reading the _abot_ in the synagogue, the most likely being that it was introduced to occupy the minds of worshippers during the long wait, on a summer's day, between the afternoon and evening services. whatever the reason for this custom may have been is immaterial and unimportant; but what is of importance is that, by this excellent practice, a whole body of moral dicta--each one summing up with remarkable conciseness a life's experience and philosophy, each one breathing the spirit of piety, saintliness, justice, and love for humanity--has sunk deeply into the innermost heart and consciousness of the jewish people, exerting such an influence that the principles set forth in the _abot_ have been eternally wrought into the moral fibre of the descendants of the rabbis. to the lips of the jew, these maxims spring spontaneously; to those who know them they are a safe and secure guide through life; they are not only heard in the synagogue, but are quoted and applied at home and abroad. such are the fruits of a benign custom, which israel will do well to prize and preserve. bibliography because of its great popularity, the _pirke abot_ has appeared in many editions. there is no _gemara_ (talmudic commentary) on the _abot_, which undoubtedly accounts for the numerous commentaries on it ( ). because of the attractiveness of its contents, and since it forms a part of the ritual, it has been translated many times into many tongues ( ), and a great deal has been written on it. the following bibliography will be helpful to the general reader and to the student who wish to get a more detailed and intimate knowledge of the _abot_ than can be imparted in this work. ( ) there are more than thirty-five. the best known is that of maimonides ( - ), which was written originally in arabic, as part of his commentary on the _mishnah_. a commentary has been attributed to rashi. other commentaries are by ( ) rabbi jacob ben shimshon, found in the _machzor vitry_ (see taylor, _introd._, p. ; _appendix_, p. ; ( ) rabbi israel of toledo, in arabic (twelfth to thirteenth century; see taylor, _introd._, p. , _appendix_, p. _et seq.__; ( ) simon duran ( - ), _magen abot;_ first edition, livorno, ; ed. jellinek, leipzig, ; ( ) bertinora (died ), in his popular commentary on the _mishnah;_ ( ) isaac ben judah abrabanel, _nachalot abot;_ ed. constantinople, ; ( ) samuel de uceda, _midrash shemual;_ venice, , , , , cracow, , frankfurt a. m., , warsaw, ; ( ) yom tob lippman heller ( - ), in _tosefot yom tob_, on the _mishnah;_ ( ) elijah, gaon of wilna ( - ), in _siddur tefillat yacob_, berlin, ; and ( ) s. baer, in _siddur abodat yisroel_, rodelheim, . there is also acommentary, by naphtali herts wessely, known as _yayin lebanon_, berlin, - , which has been translated into english, in the _hebrew review_ (edited by morris j. raphall, london, - ), vol. i, p. , p. , and further. ( ) mischoff, in his _kritische geschichte der talmud-uebersetzungen aller zeigen und zungen_ (frankfurt a. m., ), [s] , has a list of translations and of partial translations. others have appeared since this list was made. for english translation, consult this list. _editions_ ( ), _commentaries_, _and translations_ ( ) a list of editions, mostly earlier than those mentioned here, and of the _abot_ in _mishnah_ editions may be found in steinschneider, _catalogue librorum hebraeorum in bibliotheca bodleiana_ (berlin, - ), no. - , - ; m. roest, _catalog der hebraica und judaica_ (amsterdam, ), pp. - , - ; and strack, _spruche_, pp. - . . joshua ben mordecai falk ha-kohen, _abne yehoshua al pirke abot_ (new york, ). text and commentary ( ). ( ) falk has been called the "father of american hebrew literature." . abraham geiger, _pirke aboth_, in _nachgelassene schriften_ (berlin, ), vol. iv, pp. - . a commentary on chaps. i-iii. scholarly and valuable. . solomon schechter, _abot de-rabbi natan_ (vienna, ). contains two versions, a and b, with an introduction and notes in hebrew. a scholarly and valuable work. . joseph jabetz, _pirke abot_, with a commentary (warsaw, ). . charles taylor, ( ) _sayings of the jewish fathers, comprising pirqe aboth and perek r. meir in hebrew and english, with notes and excurses_. second edition (cambridge, ). ( ) _an appendix of the sayings of the jewish fathers, containing a catalogue of manuscripts and notes on the text of aboth_ (cambridge, ). these works are very comprehensive and full of valuable material. . a. berliner, _commentar zu den spruchen der vater, aus machzor vitry, mit beitragen_ (frankfurt a. m., ). . david hoffmann, _masseket abot_, in _mischnaiot seder nesikin_ (berlin, ), pp. - . fully annotated, with a translation in german, and constant reference to rabbinical sources. excellent. . hermann l. strack, _die spruche der vater_, ein ethischer mischna-traktat_, third edition (leipzig, ). an excellent text with notes. very valuable. . lazarus goldschmidt, in _talmud babli, der babylonische talmud_ (berline, ), vol. vii, p. _et seq_. based on oldest texts of _abot_. textual variants and german translation with notes. very valuable. . simeon singer, _perke abot, ethics of the fathers_, in _the authorized daily prayer book_. eighth edition (london, - ), pp. - . hebrew text, with an excellent english translation, and a few notes. . kaim pollak, _rabbi nathans system der ethik un moral_ (budapest, ). a translation in german, with notes, of _abot de rabbi natan_ (schechter's version a). . paul fiebig, _pirque 'aboth, der mischnahtraktat spruche der vater_ (tubingen, ). german translation and notes, with especial reference to the new testament. the _nachwort_, pp. - , consists of a comparison of _abot_ with the new testament, pointing out the likenesses and differences. . josef ibn nachmia's, _perush pirke abot, commentar zu den pirke abot . . . nach der parmaer hadschrift de rossi nr_. . . . _mit anmerkungen von_ m. l. bamberger (berlin, ). . m. rawicz, _der commentar der maimonides zu den spruchen der vater, zum ersten male ins deutsch ubertragen_ (offenberg [baden], ). contains "the eight chapters" ( ). ( ) the _eight chapters_ is the introduction of maimonides to his commentary on _abot_. its hebrew name is _shemonah perakim_. it is a remarkable instance of the harmonious welding of the ethical principles contained in _abot_ with mediaeval aristotelian philosophy. . _sefer musar, kommentar zum mischnatraktat aboth von r. joseph ben jehudah. zum ersten male herausgegeben von_ dr. wilhelm bacher. in the _schriften des vereins makize nirdamim_. . folge, nr. (berlin, ). . m. lehmann, _pirke aboth, spruche der vater uberzetzt und erklart_ (frankfurt a. m., ). . jehudah leb gordon, _perki abot_, in _siddur bet yehudah_ (new york, , - ), pp. - . prayer-book according to the ashkenazic rite, with yiddish translation and notes. contains biographical sketches of all the authorities mentioned in _abot_. . jules wolff, _les huit chapitres de maimonide, ou introduction a la mischna d'aboth, maximes des peres_ (_de la synagogue_). _traduits de l'arabe_ (lausanne, paris, ). . joseph i. gorfinkle, _the eight chapters of maimonides on ethics, edited, annotated, and translated with an introduction_ (new york, ). columbia university oriental studies, vol. vii ( ). ( ) a list of mss., editions, translations, and commentaries of the _eight chapters_, some including _abot_, is found on pp. - of this work. _homiletical works_ . lazarus adler, _spruche der vater_ (furth, ). . w. aloys meisel, _homilien uber die spruche der vater_ ( ). . alexander kohut, _the ethics of the fathers_ (new york, ). translated from the german by max cohen. _general works_ abelson, j. _the immanence of god in rabbinical literature_ (london, ). bacher, wilhelm, ( ) _die agada der tanaiten_, i, ii, (strassburg, , ). ( ) _zwei alte abotkommentare, in monatschrift fur geschichte und wiss. d. judenthums_, , pp. - ; , pp. - . brull, _enstehung und ursprunglicher inhalt des traktates abot_, in _jahrbucher fur jud. geschichte und lit._, vii ( ). danziger, _jewish forerunners of christianity_ (new york, ). dukes, _rabbinische blumenlese_ (leipzig, ), pp. - . friedlander, m. _the jewish religion_ (london, ). friedlander, g., _the jewish sources of the sermon on the mount_ (london, ). geiger, _judaism and its history_ (new york, ). graetz, _history of the jews_. herford, _pharasaism_ (london, ). hoffmann, _die erste mischna und die contraversen der tannaim_ (berlin, ). isaacs, _stories from the rabbis_ (new york, ). _jewish encyclopedia_. josephus, _antiquities_. jung, _kritik der samtlichen bucher aboth in der althebraischen literatur_ (leipzig, ). lazarus, _the ethics of judaism_ (philadelphia, ). loeb, ( ) _la chaine de la tradition dans le premier chapitre des pirke abot_, in _bibliotheque de l'ecole des hautes etudes, sciences religeuses_, vol. i, pp. - (paris, ). ( ) _notes sur le chapitre ier des perke abot_, in _revue des etudes juives_, vol. xix ( ), pp. - . mielziner, ( ) _introduction to the talmud_, second edition (new york, ). ( ) articles _abot_ and _abot de-r. natan_, in _jewish encyclopedia_. myers, _the story of the jewish people_, i (new york and london, ). schechter, _some aspects of rabbinic theology_ (new york, ). schurer, _some aspects of the jewish people in the time of jesus christ_ ( ) (new york, ), i, i, p. ; i, ii, p. _et seq_.; iii, ii, p. _et seq_. ( ) contains very full bibliographies and has other excellent characteristics, but it is a work that must be used with caution. its chief fault, according to schechter, is that it is one of a class of works in which "no attempt is made . . . to gain acquaintance with the inner life of the jewish nation" (_studies_, ii, pp. - ). strack, _einleitung in den talmud_, fourth edition (leipzig, ). zunz, ( ) _die gottesdienstlichen vortrage der juden_ (berlin, ), p. _et seq_. ( ) _die ritus des synagogalen gottesdienstes_ (berlin, ). sayings of the fathers _one of the following chapters is read on each sabbath from the sabbath after passover until the sabbath before new year._ all israel ( ) have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "and thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land ( ) for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that i may be glorified" ( ). ( ) this does not mean that israel alone, to the exclusion of other nations, will have a portion in the future world. on the future world ([olam haba]), see [chapter ii], n. . "the pious of all nations have a portion in the world to come" (_tosefta sanhedrin_, chap. xii; maimonides, in _mishneh torah_, i, _hilchot teshubah_, iii, ) sums up the rabbinic opinion. ( ) _i.e._, the land of everlasting life. ( ) _sanhedrin_, x (xi), ; isaiah lx, . this passage is recited before each chapter. chapter i . moses received the _torah_ ( ) from sinai ( ), and handed it down to joshua, and joshua to the elders ( ), and the elders to the prophets, and the prophets delivered it to the men of the great synagogue ( ). they said three things, "be deliberate in judgment; raise up many disciples; and make a fence about the _torah_" ( ). ( ) the word _torah_ is usually translated by "law," but it means rather "teaching," "instruction" of any kind, or "doctrine." this term is generally used to designate the _five books of moses_ or the _pentateuch_, called the "written law" ([torah shebichtav]), but it is also employed as a designation of the whole of the old testament. besides the "written law," according to tradition, there was also communicated to moses, on mt. sinai, the "oral law" ([torah she'b'al peh]), supplementing the former and other laws and maxims, and explaining it. this "oral law" was handed down by word of mouth from generation to generation, but subsequently, after the destruction of the second temple, it was committed to writing, and constitutes the _mishnah_, the _talmud_, and the _midrashim_. the "oral law" develops, illuminates, and comments upon the "written law." here, _torah_ means the "oral law," which moses communicated to joshua, joshua, in turn, to the elders, and so on. see taylor, _sayings of the jewish fathers_, p. _et seq._, and - ; friedlander, _the jewish religion_, p. _et seq._; _jewish encyclopedia_, arts. _law and oral law;_ schechter, _some aspects of rabbinic theology_, chapter viii; strack, _einleitung_, pp. - , and herford, _pharisaism_, chapter on "the theory of torah," p. _et seq._ ( ) _i.e._, from god. compare the expression [halacha l'moshe misinai], "the law to moses from sinai (god)," _peah_, ii, , _eduyot_, viii, , etc. ( ) the elders were the wise men who were the members of the supreme national tribunal. see joshua xxiv, . ( ) the great synagogue, whose establishment, after the return from babylonian captivity, tradition attributes to ezra the scribe, consisted of men, who comprised the highest judicial tribunal, and who occupied a position in the early days of the temple similar to that of the later _sanhedrin_. the historical foundation of this tradition is nehemiah viii-x, in which is recounted the solemn acceptance of the law by a great assembly of the people. the men of the great synagogue appear here in _abot_ as the depositaries of the tradition of the _torah_, coming in the chain between the last prophets and the earliest scribes. from this chapter and other rabbinical sources, we gather that the men of the great synagogue constituted a sort of college of teachers, one of the last survivors being simon, the just (chapter i, ). their work was to interpret, teach, and develop the _torah_, and to them were ascribed all kinds of legal enactments. they instituted the _shemoneh esrah_ (the eighteen benedictions) and other prayers, and cast the entire ritual into definite shape. they admitted _proverbs_, the _song of songs_, and _ecclesiastes_ into the old testament canon. a number of modern scholars, notably kuenen, are of the opinion that this body never existed in the form represented by jewish tradition (see schurer, _history_, i, ii, pp. - ). on the controversy regarding the existence of the great synagogue see schechter, _studies_, ii, - . consult taylor, _ibid._, pp. - ; graetz, _history of the jews_, vol. i, p. , , vol. ii, p. . for further bibliography, see strack, _spruche_, p. . see especially herford, _pharisaism_. pp. - . ( ) take measures to prevent the breaking of any of the divine precepts. thereby, certain things which are in themselves lawful are prohibited in order to enforce the observance of things the doing of which is unlawful. compare leviticus xviii, , "make a _mishmeret_ to my _mishmeret_" (_yabamot_, a), and _abot_, iii, , "the _massorah_ is a fence to the _torah_." . simon, the just ( ), was of the last survivors of the great synagogue. he used to say, "upon three things the world rests: upon the _torah_, upon the temple service ( ), and upon the doing of acts of kindness" ( ). ( ) simon, the just, son of onias, was high-priest about b.c.e. see josephus, _antiquities_, xii, ii, . consult sammter, _mischnaioth ordnung zeraim_ (berlin, ), _introduction_, pp. - ; meilziner, _introduction to the talmud_, pp. - ; the _jewish encyclopedia_, and strack, _einleitung_, p. _et seq._, for the lives of the authorities mentioned in _abot_ and for bibliographies. ( ) cf. _nedarim_, b, "great is the _torah_, for if it did not exist, the heaven and the earth would have no permanence." _abodah_ is the service and sacrifice of the temple which was then standing. after the destruction of the temple, this word was used to designate the service of prayer. it is used in one of the benedictions after the reading of the _haftarah_: _al ha-torah we-al ha-abodah_, "for the law and for the divine service," see _prayer-book_, ed. singer, p. . see friedlander, _ibid._, p. _et seq._ ( ) [g'milut chasadim] "benevolence," "the doing of kindnesses," consists of practical deeds of personal service, as visiting the sick, burying the dead, comforting mourners, peacemaking, etc. it is greater than [tzedakah] "charity" in its narrower sense, as benevolence may be shown to the rich as well as to the poor. see friedlander, _ibid._, pp. - . on this verse, see herford, _ibid._, p. _et seq._ . antigonus of soko ( ) received (the tradition) from simon, the just. he used to say, "be not like hirelings who work for their master for the sake of receiving recompense; but be like servants who minister to their master without any thought of receiving a reward; and let the fear of heaven ( ) be upon you." ( ) according to _abot de-rabbi natan_, chapter v, ed. schechter, p. , antigonus had two disciples, zadok and boethos, from whom arose the sadducees and the heretical sect of boethusians, from their misinterpretation of this verse, both denying the doctrines of immortality of the soul and resurrection. se kohut, _the ethics of the fathers_, p. ; schurer, _history_, ii, ii. p. _et seq._; geiger, _judaism and its history_, p. _et seq._; and _jewish encyclopedia_, arts. _boethusians_ and _sadducees_. ( ) "the fear of heaven" does not mean dread of punishment, but rather awe at the greatness and might of god, and is identical with love and service (see deuteronomy, vi, and x, ). it is produced by following out the practices ordained in the _torah_ (maimonides, _guide for the perplexed_, ed. friedlander, p. ). consult friedlander, _jewish religion_, pp. - , the _jewish encyclopedia_, art. _fear of god_, and schechter, _aspects_, p. . . jose, the son of joezer, of zeredah, and jose, the son of jochanan ( ), of jerusalem received (the tradition) from them ( ). jose, the son of joezer, of zeredah said, "let thy house be a meeting-place for the wise; cover thyself with the dust of their feet ( ), and drink in their words with thirst." ( ) in _chagigah_, ii, , we are told that when two leading teachers are named in the _mishnah_ as having received the _torah_, they constitute a "pair" ([zug]), the first being the president([nasi]), and the second the vice-president ([av beit din]) of the _sanhedrin_. there were five pairs of such teachers, flourishing between and b.c.e., the first being jose b. joezer and jose b. jochanan, and the last being hillel and shammai. see frankel, _monatschrift_, , pp. - , mielziner, _introduction_, pp. - , and strack, _spruche_, p. . ( ) some texts read "from him" ([mimenu]). "from them" must refer to disciples of antigonus whose sayings have been lost. ( ) it was the custom of pupils to sit at the feet of their teachers. . jose, the son of jochanan, of jerusalem said, "let thy house be open wide; let the poor be members of thy household, and engage not in much gossip with woman." this applies to one's own wife; how much more ( ), then, to the wife of one's neighbor? hence the sages say, "whoso engages in much gossip with woman brings evil upon himself, neglects the study of the _torah_, and will in the end inherit _gehinnom_" ( ). ( ) on the _kalwa-chomer_, "a conclusion _a minori ad majus_," see meilziner, _introduction to the talmud_, p. _et seq._, and strack, _einleitung in den talmud_, p. . cf. chapter vi, . the equivalent biblical expression is [af ki]. ( ) [gey-hinim (gimil-yud hey-nun-yud-mem(sofit))], [gei ben-hinim], a glen south of jerusalem where moloch was worshipped, whence a place where the wicked were punished in the hereafter; "hell, being the opposite of 'the garden of eden,'" "paradise." cf. chapter v, and . see friedlander, _jewish religion_, p. . . joshua, the son of perachyah, and nittai, the arbelite, received (the tradition) from them. joshua, the son of perachyah, said, "provide thyself with a teacher, and possess thyself of a companion ( ); and judge every man in the scale of merit." ( ) a fellow-student. . nittai, the arbelite, said, "keep aloof from a bad neighbor ( ); associate not with the wicked, and abandon not the belief in retribution" ( ). ( ) cf. chapter ii, . ( ) this may mean either that one must not imagine that punishment for evil deeds will not befall him, or when punishment has been meted out, one must not despair of the good. . judah, the son of tabbi, and simeon, the son of shatach ( ), received (the tradition) from them. judah, the son of tabbi, said, "(in the judge's office) act not the counsel's part ( ); while the litigants are standing before thee, let them be regarded by thee as guilty, but when they are departed from thy presence, regard them as innocent, the verdict having been acquiesced in by them." ( ) lived about - b.c.e. he was a leader of the pharisees at the time of alexander jannaeus. ( ) a judge should be strictly impartial. . simeon, the son of shatach, said, "be very searching in the examination of witnesses ( ), and be guarded in thy words, lest through them they learn to lie." ( ) it is related that the son of simeon b. shatach was innocently condemned to death, because the witnesses were not carefully cross-questioned. . shemaiah and abtalion ( ) received (the tradition) from them. shemaiah said, "love work; hate lordship ( ); and seek no intimacy with the ruling power" ( ). ( ) lived about the middle of the first century b.c.e. ( ) "woe to leadership, for it buries those who possess it." (_pesachim_, b). ( ) that is, rome. avoid office seeking. . abtalion said, "ye sages, be heedful of your words, lest ye incur the penalty of exile and be exiled to a place of evil waters, and the disciples who come after you drink thereof and die, and the heavenly name be profaned" ( ). ( ) scholars must be careful in their teachings, lest their disciples misinterpret their words, and thus adopt false doctrines, as was the case with the disciples of antigonus of soko (_supra_, n. ). "evil waters" may stand for evil doctrines or evil people. when a teacher went into banishment, he was usually followed by his disciples. departure from the law is equivalent to death. . hillel and shammai ( ) received (the tradition) from them. hillel said, "be of the disciples of aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace ( ), loving mankind and drawing them night to the _torah_" ( ). . he used to say, "a name made great is a name destroyed ( ); he who does not increase (his knowledge) decreases (it); and he who does not study deserves to die; and he who makes a worldly use of the crown (of the _torah_) shall waste away." . he used to say, "if i am not for myself, who will be for me? but if i care for myself only, what am i? ( ). and if not now, when?" ( ) hillel and shammai, the most renowned of the "pairs" ([zugot]), lived about years before the destruction of the temple. each was the founder of a school, _bet hillel_ and _bet shammai_, being generally opposed to one another in the interpretation of the _torah_. hillel was the embodiment of humility, gentleness, and kindness; shammai was irritable, and lacked gentleness and patience. the former's most celebrated saying is, "what is hateful to thee do not do unto thy fellow man; this is the whole _torah_, the rest is mere commentary." see bacher, _agada der tanaiten_; schurer, _history_, i, ii, p. _et seq._; myers, _story of the jewish people_, i, p. _et seq._; geiger, _judaism and its history_, p. _et seq._ ( ) psalm xxiv, : "seek peace and pursue it." ( ) draw men to the _torah_ by good example, not by endeavoring to make converts. ( ) he who seeks a name loses fame. ( ) be self-reliant, but not selfish. . shammai said, "set a fixed time for thy (study of) _torah;_ say little and do much ( ); and receive all men with a cheerful countenance." ( ) or "promise little." be like abraham, who promised only bread, but brought a "calf tender and good" (genesis xviii, and ). . rabban ( ) gamaliel said, "provide thyself with a teacher; be quit of doubt ( ); and accustom not thyself to give tithes ( ) by a conjectural estimate." ( ) "our teacher," "our master," a title given only to the presidents of the _sanhendrin_, gamaliel being the first to be thus known. gamaliel was a grandson of hillel and a teacher of paul. see strack, _einleitung_, p. . ( ) establish over you the authority of a teacher, to hold you from the clutch of doubt (kohut). ( ) there were three kinds of tithes (the tenth part of anything): (a) "the first tithe" (_maaser rishon), given to the lebites; "the second tithe" (_maaser sheni_), taken to jerusalem and consumed there by the owner and his family; and (c) the tithe paid to the poor (_maaser ani_). see leviticus xxvii, _et seq._, numbers xviii, - , and deuteronomy xiv, - ; also _tractates maasrot_ and _maaser sheni_ of the _mishnah_. consult babbs, _the law of tithes_. . simeon ( ) his son, said, "all my days i have grown up amongst the wise, and i have found nothing better for man than silence ( ); not learning but doing is the chief thing ( ); and whoso multiplies words causes sin" ( ). ( ) simeon beg gamaliel i lived at the time of the war with rome. see josephus, _jewish wars_, iv, , . ( ) cf. chapter iii, . ( ) where words fail, deeds tell. _non scholae sed vitae_. ( ) cf. proverbs x, . . rabban simeon, the son of gamaliel ( ) said, "by three things is the world preserved ( ); by truth, by judgment, and by peace, as it is said, 'judge ye the truth and the judgment of peace in your gates'" ( ). ( ) rabban simeon ii, son of gamaliel ii ( - c.e.) and grandson of simeon (verse ). ( ) cf. chapter i, . _torah_, temple service, and benevolence are the foundations and, at the same time, the aims of the world. truth, judgment, and peace maintain the world's permanency. ( ) zechariah viii, . rabbi chanania ( ), the son of akashia, said, "the holy one, blessed be he, was pleased to make israel worthy; wherefore he gave them a copious _torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'it pleased the lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _torah_ and make it honorable'" ( ). ( ) this saying did not belong originally to _abot_, but was taken from _makkot_, iii, . according to goldschmidt, it was introduced into the _mishnah_ from the separate editions, and then found its way into the talmudical texts of _abot_. this verse is recited at the end of each chapter. see rawicz, _commentor des maimonides_, p. , n. . ( ) isaiah, xlii, . chapter ii all israel have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "and thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that i may be glorified". . rabbi ( ) said, "which is the right course that a man should choose for himself? ( ) that which is a pride to him who pursues it and which also brings him honor from mankind. be as scrupulous about a light precept as about a grave one, for thou knowest not the grant of reward for each precept. reckon the loss incurred by the fulfilment of a precept against the reward secured by its observance ( ), and the gain gotten by a transgression against the loss it involves. consider three things, that thou mayest not come within the power of sin ( ). know what is above thee--a seeing eye, and a hearing ear, and all thy deeds written in a book" ( ). ( ) rabbi judah ( - c.e.), son of simeon (chapter i, ), was known as "rabbi," as a mark of distinction, owing to the fact that he was the chief reviser and compiler of the _mishnah_. earlier compilers of the _mishnah_ had been hillel, akiba, and r. meir. rabbi judah was also known as _rabbenu_ (our master), _ha-nasi_ (the prince), and _ha-kodesh_ (the holy). he is said to have died[*] on the day that akiba met his death at the hands of the romans. see danziger, _jewish forerunners of christianity_, pp. - , myers, _story of the jewish people_, i, - , and strack, _einleitung in den talmud_, p. . [* a prior owner of the source text annotated it by crossing out "died" and writing in "been born".] ( ) maimonides interprets this verse as meaning to pursue a medium course between two equally bad extremes, the _too much_ and the _too little_. on this subject, see his celebrated fourth chapter of the _shemonah perakim_ (_the eight chapters_) on the "mean"; ed. gorfinkle, p. , _et seq._ ( ) _i.e._, the loss in this world as against the reward in the future world. on the rabbinic idea of reward and punishment, see schechter, _aspects_, pp. - , and herford, _pharisaism_, p. _et seq._ ( ) cf. chapter iii, . no deeds, great or small, are lost sight of by god. ( ) on the divine books or book, see exodus xxxii, . malachi iii, , and daniel vii, , etc. the heavenly "book of life" is prominently mentioned in the ritual of the new year and the day of atonement, especially in the celebrated prayer, _u-netanneh tokef_ of rabbi amnon of mayence. the new year's greeting, "may you be inscribed for a happy year!" is evidence of the popularity of the idea of a divine book in which the fate of a man is written. see the _jewish encyclopedia_, art. _book of life_. . rabban gamaliel, the son of rabbi judah, the prince, said, "excellent is the study of _torah_ combined with some worldly pursuit ( ), for the effort demanded by them both makes sin to be forgotten. all study of _torah_ without work must at length be futile, and leads to sin ( ). let all who are employed with the congregation act with them for heaven's sake, for then the merit of their fathers sustains them, and their righteousness endures for ever ( ). and as for you (god will then say), 'i account you worthy of great reward, as if you had wrought it all yourselves.' . be on your guard against the ruling power ( ); for they who exercise it draw no man near to them except for their own interests; appearing as friends when it is to their own advantage, they stand not by a man in the hour of his need." . he used to say, "do his will as if it were thy will. nullify thy will before his will, that he may nullify the will of others before thy will." ( ) the expression _talmud torah_ (lit., "study of the law") means the study of all sacred learning. the word _torah_, here, is to be construed in its broadest sense. see chapter i, n. . such study was one of the duties to which no limit was fixed (_peah_ i, ). the expression [derech eretz] means "good manners" (chapter iii, ), or "worldly business," or "care" (chapter iii, ), according to the context. study combined with some trade or profession is, according to r. gamaliel, the proper thing. see chapter iv, n. . ( ) cf. _kiddushin_, a, "he who does not teach his son a trade teaches him to be a thief." ( ) in every community, the work and goodness of past generations live in the present, and the good that the community does in the present will live on in the future. on the "merit of the fathers" ([z'chut avot]), see schechter, _some aspects of rabbinic theology_, chapter xii, especially pp. - , where this passage is quoted. ( ) this verse is directed toward the leaders of the community. cf. above, chapter i, . . hillel ( ) said, "separate not thyself from the congregation ( ); trust not in thyself until the day of thy death ( ); judge not thy neighbor until thou art come into his place; and say not anything which cannot be understood at once, in the hope that it will be understood in the end ( ); neither say, 'when i have leisure i will study'; perchance thou wilt have no leisure." . he used to say, "an empty-headed man cannot be a sin-fearing man, nor can an ignorant person ( ) be pious, nor can a shamefaced man ( ) learn, nor a passionate man ( ) teach, nor can one who is engaged overmuch in business grow wise ( ). in a place where there are no men, strive to be a man" ( ). . moreover, he once saw a skull floating on the surface of the water. he said to it, "because thou didst drown (others) they have drowned thee, and at the last they that drowned thee shall themselves be drowned" ( ). . he used to say, "the more flesh, the more works; the more property, the more anxiety; the more women, the more witchcraft; the more maid-servants, the more lewdness; the more men-servants, the more robbery; the more _torah_, the more life ( ); the more schooling, the more wisdom; the more counsel, the more understanding; the more charity, the more peace. he who has acquired a good name has acquired it for himself; he who has acquired for himself words of _torah_ has acquired for himself life in the world to come" ( ). ( ) the chain of traditional sayings is continued here from chapter i, , with other maxims of hillel. see _introduction_, p. . ( ) _i.e._, share its weal and woe. cf. _taanit_, a, "he who does not join the community in times of danger and trouble will never enjoy the divine blessing." ( ) one should constantly be on guard against oneself. the _talmud_ (_berachot_, a) illustrates this saying by referring to a certain jochanan, who, after having been high-priest for eighty years, became a heretic. ( ) this verse may be variously translated and interpreted. its translation here is in accordance with the interpretation of maimonides. do not express yourself in such a way that your words may be understood only after careful study and deep thought, but let them be clear and intelligible. ( ) the word [bur (bet-vov-resh)] means "uncultivated" ([sadeh bur] "an uncultivated field"). it is used of an ignorant, uncultured, mannerless person, possessing no moral or spiritual virtues. taylor translates it by "boor." [am ha'aretz], literally "people of the land," "country people," is applied to an individual who may possess good manners, and may be literate, but who has no religious knowledge, nor training, nor does not observe religious customs. taylor renders it "vulgar." mayer sulzberger maintains that this term was applied to an assembly of representatives of the people constituting a body similar to the modern parliament, and divided into a lower and upper house. see his "_the am ha-aretz, the ancient hebrew parliament._" on the _am ha-aretz_ and his opposite the _chaber_, see schurer, _history_, ii, ii, pp. , and pp. _et seq._, also herford, _ibid._ pp. - . ( ) _i.e._, he who is ashamed to ask questions for fear of exposing his ignorance. ( ) he who has no patience to answer all the questions of his pupils. ( ) cf. chapter iv, . one of the qualifications necessary for the acquirement of the _torah_ is moderation in business. ( ) do not boldly push yourself forward; but where there is no one to fill the position of teacher or leader, or to be the head of the community, and you have the qualifications, do not shrink from being the man. ( ) retribution is sure. cf. _sanhedrin_, a and _sotah_, b, "with what measure a man measures, is it measured unto him." ( ) cf. prov. iii, and . ( ) the expression "the world to come" may mean the messianic days, the time after the messianic era, the days after the resurrection or the spiritual hereafter. maimonides discusses at length the various theories, in _perek chelek_ (commentary on _sanhedrin_, x, ), which has been translated into english by j. abelson, in the _jewish quarterly review_ (london), vol. xxix, p. _et seq._ see also _the hebrew review_ (london, ), p. _et seq._ consult schurer, _history_, ii, ii, . . rabban jochanan, the son of zakkai ( ) received (the tradition) from hillel and shammai. he used to say, "if thou hast learnt much _torah_, ascribe not any merit to thyself, for thereunto wast thou created." ( ) rabban jochanan ben zakkai was known as the least of the disciples of hillel. he was a contemporary of the historian josephus. escaping in a coffin from jerusalem, when it was besieged by the roman general vespasian, and predicting the latter's elevation to the imperial dignity, jochanan was allowed by vespasian to go to jabneh (jamnia), where he founded the celebrated academy which became the centre of learning in palestine, as jerusalem had previously been. he was the most important scribe in the first decade after the destruction of the temple ( c.e.). see strack, _einleitung in den talmud_, p. _et seq._, bacher, _agada der tanaiten_, pp. - , myers, _story of the jewish people_, i, pp. - , and danziger, _jewish forerunners of christianity_, pp. - . . rabban jochanan, the son of zakkai, had five disciples ( ), and these are they: rabbi eliezer, the son of hyrcanus; rabbi joshua, the son of hananiah ( ); rabbi jose, the priest; rabbi simeon, the son of nataniel; and rabbi eleazar, the son of arach. . he used thus to recount their praise: "eliezer, the son of hyrcanus, is a cemented cistern, which loses not a drop ( ); joshua, the son of hananiah, happy is she that bare him ( ); jose, the priest, is a pious man ( ); simeon, the son of nataniel, is a fearer of sin; eleazar, the son of arach, is like a spring flowing with ever-sustained vigor" ( ). . he used to say, "if all the sages of israel were in one scale of the balance, and eliezer, the son of hyrcanus, in the other, he would outweigh them all." abba saul ( ) said in his name, "if all the sages of israel were in one scale of the balance, and eliezer, the son of hyrcanus, also with them, and eleazar, the son of arach, in the other scale, he would outweigh them all." . he said to them, "go forth and see which is the good way to which a man should cleave." r. eliezer said, "a good eye" ( ); r. joshua said, "a good friend"; r. jose said, "a good neighbor" ( ); r. simeon said, "one who foresees the fruit of an action" ( ); r. eleazar said, "a good heart." thereupon he said to them, "i approve of the words of eleazar, the son of arach, rather than your words, for in his words yours are included" ( ). . he said to them, "go forth and see which is the evil way that a man should shun." r. eliezer said, "an evil eye" ( ); r. joshua said, "a bad friend"; r. jose said, "a bad neighbor"; r. simeon said, "one who borrows and does not repay--it is the same whether one borrows from man or the omnipresent ( ); as it is said, 'the wicked borroweth and payeth not again, but the righteous dealeth graciously and giveth'" ( ); r. eleazar said, "a bad heart." thereupon he said to them, "i approve of the words of eleazar, the son of arach, rather then your words, for in his words yours are included." ( ) of special excellence. ( ) on the life of r. joshua ( - c.e.), see bacher, _ibid._, - , myers, _ibid._, - , danziger, _ibid._, - . ( ) he forgets nothing he has learned. on r. eliezer, see danziger, _ibid._, - . ( ) when yet a child in the cradle, his mother took him into the synagogue that he might thus early hear the words of the _torah_. ( ) a _chasid_ ([chasid]), "saint," is one who does more than the strict letter of the law requires. see schechter, _studies_, ii, pp. - , _idem_, _aspects_, p. , rawicz, _commentar des maimonides_, pp. - , and gorfinkle, _the eight chapters_, pp. - . ( ) "a welling spring" (taylor). ( ) he lived in the first half of the second century, c.e. ( ) _i.e._, an eye that looks upon people with benevolence and kind feelings, free from envy and ill-will. ( ) a good friend is one who induces his associate to study _torah_, and who reproves him when he sees him doing wrong. the passage means not so much to gain a good friend as to _be_ a good friend. ( ) one who balances the present against the future. ( ) the heart was considered the seat of all moral and spiritual functions. see schechter, _aspects_, p. _et seq._ ( ) denotes niggardliness, envy, or jealousy. ( ) _i.e._, one who lacks foresight and incurs responsibilities he is unable to meet borrows from god, as all wealth belongs to him, and men are merely his stewards. the word [makom], literally "place," "space," was used to designate jerusalem, or the temple, as being _the_ place where god's spirit dwells; or it may also refer to the divine court of the _sanhedrin_. it then came to be used as an appellative for god. as schechter remarks, "the term is mainly indicative of god's ubiquity in the world and can best be translated by 'omnipresent.'" see hoffmann, _sanhedrin_ vi, note , taylor, _sayings_, p. , note , and schechter, _aspects_, pp. - , where the literature on this subject is given. see also friedlander, _the jewish religion_, p. , and the jewish encyclopedia_, art. _names of god_. ( ) psalm xxxvii, . . they each said three things. r. eliezer said, "let thy friend's honor be as dear to thee as thine own ( ); be not easily excited to anger; and repent one day before thy death" ( ). and (he further said), "warm thyself by the fire of the wise, but beware of their glowing coals, lest thou be burnt, for their bite is the bite of the fox, and their sting is the scorpion's sting, and their hiss is the serpent's hiss, and all their words are like coals of fire" ( ). . r. joshua said, "the evil eye, the evil inclination ( ), and hatred of his fellow-creatures ( ), put a man out of the world." . r. jose said, "let the property of thy friend be as dear to thee as thine own; prepare thyself for the study of _torah_, since the knowledge of it is not an inheritance of thine, and let all thy deeds be done in the name of god" ( ). . r. simeon said, "be careful in reading the _shema_ ( ) and the _amidah_ ( ); and when thou prayest, consider not thy prayer as a fixed (mechanical) task, but as (an appeal for) mercy and grace before the all-present, as it is said, 'for he is gracious and full of mercy, slow to anger, and abounding in loving-kindness, and repenteth him of the evil' ( ); and be not wicked in thine own esteem" ( ). . r. eleazar said, "be diligent in studying _torah_, and know what answer to give to the unbeliever ( ); know also before whom thou toilest, and who thy employer is, who will pay thee the reward of thy labor." ( ) cf. chapter iv, . ( ) man should repent every day of his life, for he knows not on what day he may die (_shabbat_, a). ( ) one who wishes to warm himself remains a certain distance away from the fire; if he approaches too near, he is burned; so, do not endeavor to become too intimate with the wise, as their opinion of you may change to your detriment. the "bite," the "sting," and the "hiss" represent the terribleness of the looks of the wise who have been angered. ( ) passion, evil nature, or evil inclination. ( ) misanthropy. ( ) in making man's highest ideal the comprehension of god, maimonides, in the _shemonah perakim_, supports his view by referring to the latter part of this verse. he says, "the sages of blessed memory, too, have summed up this idea in so few words and so concisely, at the same time elucidating the whole matter with such complete thoroughness, that when one considers the brevity with which they express this great and mighty thought in its entirety, about which others have written whole books and yet without adequately explaining it, one truly recognizes that the rabbis undoubtedly spoke through divine inspiration. this saying is found among their precepts, and is, 'let all thy deeds be done in the name of god.'" see gorfinkle, _the eight chapters_, p. . ( ) this prayer consists of three portions of the pentateuch (deut. vi, - ; xi, - ; num. xv, - ), and gets its name from the initial word of the first portion. it is appointed to be read twice daily, in the morning and in the evening. on the time when the _shema_ is to be read, see _berachot_ i, . see schurer, _history_, ii, ii, , , _et seq._; friedlander, _jewish religion_, pp. , ; _jewish encyclopedia_, art. _shema_, and adler, in the _jewish review_ (london, ), vol. i, number , p. . ( ) an important part of the ritual said at the daily morning, afternoon, and evening service, and also at the additional service on sabbaths and holy days, is known as ( ) _tefillah_ (prayer)_, or ( ) _shemoneh esreh_ (eighteen), or ( ) _amidah_ (standing). it is known as _tefillah_ because it is considered the prayer _par excellence;_ as _shemoneh esreh_ because originally it consisted of eighteen prayers (now nineteen); and as _amidah_ (by sephardic jews) because it must be said standing. the _shema_ and the _shemoneh esreh_ have been appropriately styled the "two pillars of the fabric of the liturgy." see schurer, _ibid._; friedlander, _ibid._, pp. , ; in the _jewish encyclopedia, art. _shemoneh esreh_; schechter, _studies_, ii, pp. ; adler, _ibid._, p. ; and herford, _ibid._, pp. - . ( ) joel ii, . ( ) do not do what your conscience tells you is wrong, even though it does not appear to others as such; or, do not sin in secret, thinking that you will escape punishment because others do not see you. ( ) _apikuros_ is a term originally used to designate a follower of the philosopher epicurus, whose axiom was that "happiness or enjoyment is the _summum bonum_ of life." later, this word was used by the rabbis to designate a free-thinker, a heretic, an unbeliever, or a despiser of the law, jewish or non-jewish. josephus (_antiquities_, x, , , ed. whiston-margoliouth, p. ) describes the epicureans as those "who cast providence out of human life, and do not believe that god takes care of the affairs of the world, nor that the universe is governed and continued in being by that blessed and immortal nature, but say that the world is carried along of its own accord without a ruler and a curator." maimonides, in his commentary on _sanhedrin_, x, , derives the word from the hebrew, [hefkeir (hey-fey-kuf-resh)], "freedom," and defines it as one who refuses obedience to the law. schechter (_studies in judaism_, i, p. ) says, "it implies rather a frivolous treatment of the words of scripture and tradition." see the _jewish encyclopedia_ art. _apikuros_, and barton, _ecclesiastes_, p. . this verse may also be rendered, "study _torah_, and also know ([v'da (vov-daled-ayin)]) how to answer an unbeliever," meaning that first one should study _torah_ and _talmud_, and then give his time to learning other knowledge, so as to be able to refute those who stray from the truth. . rabbi tafron ( ) said, "the day is short, the task is great ( ), the laborers are sluggish, the reward is much, and the master of the house ( ) is urgent." . he also used to say, "it is not thy duty to complete the work, but neither art thou free to desist from it; if thou hast studied much _torah_, much reward will be given thee; and faithful is thy employer to pay thee the reward of thy labor; and know that the grant of reward unto the righteous will be in the time to come" ( ). rabbi chanania, the son of akashia, said, "the holy one, blessed be he, was pleased to make israel worthy; wherefore he gave them a copious _torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'it pleased the lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _torah_ and make it honorable'". ( ) a contemporary of jochanan ben zakkai's five disciples and of akiba. see bacher, _ibid._, pp. - , and meyer, _ibid._, p. . ( ) the day, _i.e._, the life of man, is brief. art is long, but life is short. ( ) _i.e._, god. ( ) a man cannot finish the work of the world, yet he must not yield to idleness and despair, but must do his share to the best of his ability. his reward will come in the future. chapter iii all israel have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "and thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that i may be glorified". . akabia ( ), the son of mahalalel, said, "consider three things, and thou wilt not come within the power of sin ( ): know whence thou camest, and whither thou art going, and before whom thou wilt in the future have to give an account and reckoning ( ). whence thou camest: from a fetid drop; whether thou art going: to a place of dust, worms, and maggots ( ); and before whom thou wilt in the future have to give an account and reckoning: before the supreme king of kings, the holy one, blessed be he." ( ) he lived about the middle of the first century. ( ) cf. chapter ii, . ( ) compare with this saying the exposition by akiba of eccl. xii, : [uzechor et bor'ech (bor'ech is: bet-vov-resh-alef-yud-chof(sofit)] "but remember thy creator." playing upon the word [bor'ech], he says, "remember thy source ([bet-alef-resh-chof(sofit)]), thy grave ([bet-vov-resh-chof(sofit)]), and thy creator ([bet-resh-alef-chof(sofit)])," _kohelet rabbah, ad. loc._ if man thinks of whence he comes, he is rendered humble; if he reflects upon whither he is going, he prizes worldly things lightly; and if he considers him before whom he must give an account, he obeys god's laws. ( ) cf. job xxv, : "how much less the mortal, the mere worm ([rimah])? and the son of the earth, the mere maggot ([toleah])?" can be pure in god's eyes. . r. chanina, the vice-high-priest ( ), said, "pray for the welfare of the government, since but for the fear thereof men would swallow each other alive" ( ). ( ) chief of the priests, adjutant high-priest. the _segan_ was next in rank to the high-priest. none could be appointed high-priest unless he had occupied the office of the _segan_ (palestinian _talmud_, _yoma_, iii, a, top). according to schurer, he was "the captain of the temple," whose duty it was to superintend arrangements for keeping order in and around the temple. he was also present at all important functions in which the high-priest took part, such as the drawing of lots in the case of the two goats on _yom kippur_ (_yoma iii, , iv, ); when reading from the _torah_ (_yoma_, vii, ; _sotah_ vii, , ), and when offering the daily sacrifice (_tamid_ vii, ). rabbi chanina was the last to bear this title, his son being known as simeon ben ha-segan. see bacher, _agada der tanaiten_, pp. - , schurer, _history_, ii, i, - . ( ) cf. jer. xxxix, , "and seek the peace of the city whither i have caused you to be carried away captives, and pray unto the lord for it; for in the peace thereof shall ye have peace," and _abodah zarah_, b. . r. chananiah, the son of teradion ( ), said, "if two sit together and interchange no words of _torah_, they are a meeting of scorners, concerning whom it is said, 'the godly man sitteth not in the seat of the scorners' ( ); but if two sit together and interchange words of _torah_, the divine presence ( ) abides among them; as it is said, 'then they that feared the lord spake one with the other; and the lord hearkened and heard, and a book of remembrance was written before him, for them that feared the lord, and that thought upon his name,' ( ). now the scripture enables me to draw this inference in respect to two persons; whence can it be deduced that if even one person sedulously occupies himself with the _torah_, the holy one, blessed be he, appoints unto him a reward? because it is said, 'though he sit alone, and meditate in stillness, yet he taketh it (the reward) upon him'" ( ). ( ) he lived about c.e. he was the father of beruriah, the wife of rabbi meir. ( ) ps. i, . verse of this psalm continues, "but his delight is in the law of the lord." ( ) [shechinah] literally "dwelling," is a name applied to god when he is spoken of as dwelling among men. see schechter, _aspects, en passim_; abelson, _immanence of god_, p. _et seq._ ( ) mal. iii, . ( ) lam. iii, . . r. simeon ( ) said, "if three have eaten at a table and have spoken there no words of _torah_, it is as if they had eaten of sacrifices to dead idols, of whom it is said, 'for all their tables are full of vomit and filthiness; the all-present is not (in their thoughts)' ( ). but if three have eaten at a table and have spoken there words of _torah_, it is as if they had eaten at the table of the all-present, for scripture says, 'and he said unto me, this is the table that is before the lord'" ( ). ( ) rabbi simeon ben yochai lived about the middle of the second century c.e., and was a pupil of akiba. see danziger, _ibid._, pp. - . he was long thought to be the author of the well-known kabbalistic work _zohar_, which was, however, probably written in the thirteenth century by moses shem tob de leon. see the _jewish encyclopedia_, art. _zohar;_ graetz, _history_, iv, p. _et seq.;_ schechter, _studies_, i, pp. , , ; and h. sperling, in _aspects of the hebrew genius_, p. _et seq._ ( ) isa. xxviii, . the literal interpretation of [bli makom] is, there is "no place" clean of defilement; but the word [makom] being used to designate god (see above, chapter ii, n. ), suggests the interpretation, "without mention of the name of god." ( ) ezek. xli, . . r. chanina, the son of hakinai ( ), said, "he who keeps awake at night, and goes on his way alone, while turning his heart to vanity, such a one forfeits his own life" ( ). ( ) he lived about c.e., and was a pupil of akiba. see bacher, _ibid._, _et seq._ ( ) even the sleepless man and the solitary traveller must turn their thoughts to the _torah_. . r. nechunya, son of ha-kanah ( ), said, "whoso receives upon himself the yoke of the _torah_, from the yoke of the kingdom and the yoke of worldly care will be removed ( ), but whoso breaks off from him the yoke of the _torah_, upon him will be laid the yoke of the kingdom and the yoke of worldly care." ( ) he lived about c.e. see bacher, _ibid._, pp. - . ( ) the "yoke of the kingdom" refers to the taxes and burdens exacted by the government; the "yoke of worldly care" is anxiety of the struggle for existence. . r. chalafta, the son of dosa ( ), of the village of chanania said, "when ten people sit together and occupy themselves with the _torah_, the _shechinah_ ( ) abides among them, as it is said, 'god standeth in the congregation ( ) of the godly' ( ). and whence can it be shown that the same applies to five? because it is said, 'he hath found his band ( ) upon the earth' ( ). and whence can it be shown that the same applies to three? because it is said, 'he judgeth among the judges' ( ). and whence can it be shown that the same applies to two? because it is said, 'then they that feared the lord spake one with the other; and the lord hearkened, and heard' ( ). and whence can it be shown that the same applies even to one? because it is said, 'in every place where i cause my name to be remembered i will come unto thee and i will bless thee'" ( ). ( ) he was probably a disciple of r. meir. see below, n. . ( ) see above, n. . ( ) an _edah_, "assembly," "congregation," "prayer-meeting," consists of at least ten persons (_megillah_, b). see sulzburger, _the ancient hebrew parliament_, chapter i. ( ) ps. lxxxii, . ( ) an _agudah_ (lit., "bundle," "bunch"), "bond," "union," is constituted of at least five, though some authorities maintain that it stands for three. see taylor, _sayings_, p. , n. . this word is used in the name of a number of jewish societies whose members bind themselves to brotherly love and mutual assistance. as _agudat achim_, "united brethren," etc. ( ) amos, ix, . ( ) ps. lxxxii, . every _bet din_, "judicial tribunal," consisted of at least three members (_sanhedrin_, b). ( ) mal. iii, . ( ) ex. xx, . . r. eleazar of bertota ( ) said, "give unto him of what is his, for thou and thine are his: this is also found expressed by david, who said, 'for all things come of thee, and of thine own we have given thee'" ( ). ( ) he lived during the second century c.e. see bacher, _ibid._, pp. - . ( ) i chron. xxix, . . r. jacob said, "he who is walking by the way and studying, and breaks off his study and says, 'how fine is that tree, how fine is that fallow,' him the scripture regards as if he had forfeited his life" ( ). ( ) one must not interrupt his studies even to admire the beauties of nature. . r. dostai ( ), the son of jannai, said in the name of r. meir ( ), "whoso forgets one word of his study, him the scripture regards as if he had forfeited his life, for it is said, 'only take heed to thyself, and keep thy soul diligently, lest thou forget the things which thine eyes have seen' ( ). now, one might suppose (that the same result follows) even if a man's study has been too hard for him. (to guard against such an inference), it is said, 'and lest they depart from thy heart all the days of thy life' ( ). thus a person's guilt is not established until he deliberately and of set purpose removes those lessons from his heart." ( ) he lived about c.e. ( ) rabbi meir was the celebrated pupil of akiba. his wife was the well-known bruriah. on his interesting career, see blumenthal, _rabbi meir_, myers, _the story of the jewish people_, i, pp. - , and danziger, _jewish forerunners of christianity_, pp. - . ( ) deut. iv, . ( ) deut. iv, . . r. chanina, the son of dosa ( ), said, "he in whom the fear of sin precedes wisdom, his wisdom shall endure; but he in whom wisdom comes before the fear of sin, his wisdom will not endure" ( ). . he used to say, "he whose works exceed his wisdom, his wisdom shall endure; but he whose wisdom exceeds his works, his wisdom will not endure" ( ). . he used to say, "he in whom the spirit of his fellow-creatures takes not delight, in him the spirit of the all-present takes not delight." ( ) a contemporary of jochanan ben zakkai ( b.c.e.- c.e.). see friedlander, _ben dosa und seine zeit_ (prag, ), and bacher, _ibid._, _et seq._ ( ) cf. ps. cxi, : "the beginning of wisdom is the fear of the lord." "a man's fear of sin should be instinctive, rather than a result of calculation, . . . a man should build upon the foundation of religious feeling, rather than upon philosophy" (taylor). ( ) cf. above, chapter i, , "not learning but doing is the chief thing." . r. dosa, the son of horkinas ( ), said, "morning sleep, midday wine, childish babbling, and attending the houses of assembly of the ignorant waste a man's life" ( ). ( ) a contemporary of jochanan ben zakkai. ( ) idleness, etc., indispose one for the study of the _torah_ and for business. . r. eleazar ha-mudai said, "he who profanes things sacred, and despises the festivals, and puts his fellow-man to shame in public, and makes void the covenant of abraham, our father ( ), and makes the _torah_ bear a meaning other than the right ( ); (such a one) even though knowledge of the _torah_ and good deeds be his, has no share in the world to come" ( ). ( ) _i.e._ circumcision. ( ) or "acts barefacedly against the _torah_." ( ) knowledge and moral excellence alone are not sufficient. . r. ishmael ( ) said, "be submissive to a superior ( ), affable to the young ( ), and receive all men with cheerfulness" ( ). ( ) lived about c.e. see bacher, _ibid._, pp. - . ( ) or "be pliant of disposition." ( ) [l'tishchoret] is variously rendered as the "young" (maimonides, bartenora, geiger, jastrow), "impressment" (rashbam, taylor), "sovereign authority" (levy, chald. worterbuch, _sub_ [shachar (shin-chet-resh)], fiebig), and "a suppliant" (singer). ( ) cf. chapter i, . . r. akiba ( ) said, "jesting and levity lead a man on to lewdness. the _massorah_ ( ) is a rampart around the _torah_; tithes are a safeguard to riches ( ); good resolves are a fence to abstinence ( ); a hedge around wisdom is silence" ( ). . he used to say, "beloved is man, for he was created in the image (of god); but it was by a special love that it was made known to him that he was created in the image of god, as it is said, 'for in the image of god made he man' ( ). beloved are israel, or they were called children of the all-present, but it was by a special love that it was made known to them that they were called children of the all-present, as it is said, 'ye are children unto the lord your god' ( ). beloved are israel, for unto them was given the desirable instrument ( ); but it was by a special love that it was made known to them that that desirable instrument was theirs, through which the world was created, as it is said, 'for i give you good doctrine; forsake ye not my _torah_' ( ). . everything is foreseen, yet free will is given ( ); and the world is judged by grace, yet all is according to the amount of the work" ( ). . he used to say, "everything is given on pledge ( ), and a net is spread for all living ( ); the shop is open ( ); the dealer gives credit; the ledger lies open; the hand writes; and whosoever wishes to borrow may come and borrow; but the collectors regularly make their daily round, and exact payment from man whether he be content or not ( ); and they have that whereon they can rely in their demand; and the judgment is a judgment of truth ( ); and everything is prepared for the feast" ( ). ( ) akiba ben joseph (born about c.e., died about ) was the greatest of the _tannaim_ (teachers mentioned in the _mishnah_). he was a "proselyte of righteousness" (_ger tzedek_). until middle age, he remained illiterate and averse to study, but was spurred on to become learned in the _torah_ by the daughter of the rich kalba shabua, whom he subsequently married. he was the pupil of r. eliezer ben hyrcanos, r. jochanan ben chanania, and nahum of gimzo. he espoused the cause of bar kochba, acknowledging him as the messiah, and is said to have travelled throughout the land stirring up opposition to rome. at the fall of betar, he was captured by the romans, and most cruelly put to death, expiring with the _shema_ upon his lips. r. akiba definitely fixed the canon of the old testament. he compiled and systematized the traditional law, in this respect being the forerunner of r. judah ha-nasi (see chapter ii, n. ), whose _mishnah_ may be considered as being derived from that of the school of akiba. his importance may be gauged by the following statement from the _talmud_, "our _mishnah_ comes directly from r. meir (a disciple of akiba), the _tosefta_ from r. nehemiah, the _sifra_ from r. judah, and the _sifre_ from r. simon; but they all took akiba for a model in their works and followed him" (_sanhedrin_, a). akiba introduced a new method of interpreting scripture, in which not a word, syllable, or letter was considered superfluous, finding thereby a basis for many oral laws. his hermeneutical and exegetical activities were remarkable. many interesting legends have clustered around his name. see bacher, _ibid._, - ; meilziner, _introduction to the talmud_, pp. , - ; isaacs, _stories from the rabbis_, p. _et seq.;_ danziger, _ibid._, pp. - ; the _jewish encyclopedia_, arts. _akiba ben joseph_ and _akiba ben joseph in legend;_ myers, _story of the jewish people_, pp. - ; and geiger, _judaism and its history_, p. _et seq._, _et seq._ ( ) _massorah_, from root _masar_, "to deliver," "hand over," "transmit," means a "chain of tradition." it is used to designate tradition in general, and is thus correlative with _kabbalah_. the _massorah_ contains information for the correct transcription of the scripture. as used here, it means the traditional interpretation of the _torah_. cf. chapter i, , "moses received the _torah_ on sinai, and handed it down (_umsarah_) to joshua," and "make a fence around the _torah_." consult driver, _notes on samuel_, _intro._, p. _et seq._; schurer, _ibid._, ii, i, ; taylor, _sayings_, p. , n. ; friedlander _ibid._, p. , , ; _jewish encyclopedia s.v.;_ and _the companion bible_ (london, oxford university press), pt. i, _appendix_, . ( ) on tithes, see chapter i, n. . cf. _shabbat_, a, and _taanit_, a (play on [ayin-shin-resh tof-ayin-shin resh], deut. xxiv, ),* [ayin-sh-resh bet-shin-bet-yud-lamed shin-tof-tof-ayin-shin-resh] "give tithes in order that thou mayest become rich." [* transcriber's note: this text does not appear to be deuteronomy xxiv, .] ( ) lit., "separation," _i.e._ from defilement, hence "sanctity" (taylor). ( ) cf. chapter i, . ( ) gen. ix, . ( ) deut. xiv, . ( ) _i.e._, the _torah_. ( ) prov. iv, . ( ) the omniscience and prescience of god do not deprive men of free will. maimonides explains this in the last chapter of the _shemonah perakim_ (ed. gorfinkle, p. _et seq._). ( ) maimonides interprets the last phrase as meaning to do many small deeds of charity rather than one great deed of goodness. for instance, it is better to distribute one hundred coins among one hundred people than to give them all to one person. ( ) the world is compared to the office of a merchant. ( ) ecc. ix, : "for man also knoweth not his time, like the fishes that are caught in an evil net." ( ) the shop stands for the world and its enjoyments. ( ) man has free will, and is therefore responsible for all his acts. ( ) for everything is recorded. ( ) this world is merely a preparation for the next. the enjoyment of the world to come is likened by the rabbis to a banquet, which is shared in by the good and the bad, after they have paid off their moral debts. . r. eleazar, the son of azariah ( ), said, "where there is no _torah_, there are no manners; where there are no manners, there is no _torah_: where there is no wisdom, there is no fear of god; where there is no fear of god, there is no wisdom: where there is no knowledge, there no understanding; where there is no understanding, there is no knowledge ( ): where there is no meal, there is no _torah;_ where there is no _torah_, there is no meal" ( ). . he used to say, "he whose wisdom exceeds his works, to what is he like? to a tree whose branches are many, but whose roots are few; and the wind comes and plucks it up, and overturns it upon its face, as it is said, 'and he shall be like a lonely juniper tree in the desert, and shall not see when good cometh; but shall inhabit the parched places in the wilderness, a salt land and not inhabited' ( ). but he whose works exceed his wisdom, to what is he like? to a tree whose branches are few, but whose roots are many, so that though all the winds in the world come and blow upon it, they cannot stir it from its place, as it is said, 'and he shall be as a tree planted by the waters; and that spreadeth out its roots by the river and shall not perceive when heat cometh, but his leaf shall be green; and shall not be troubled in the year of drought, neither shall cease from yielding fruit'" ( ). ( ) r. eleazar ben azariah, a mishnaic scholar of the first century, was of a rich and influential family, and was a descendent of ezra the scribe. at seventeen or eighteen, upon the deposition of gamaliel ii, eleazar, because of his popularity and erudition, was chosen to fill the position of the president of the academy at jabneh. upon gamaliel's restoration, he was made vice-president (_ab bet din_). see bacher, _ibid._, - . ( ) cf. prov. ix, : "the fear of the lord is the beginning of wisdom, and the knowledge of the holy is understanding." ( ) where there is a want of the means of sustenance there is no studying of _torah_, and without spiritual nourishment, physical nourishment has no value. ( ) jer. xvii, . ( ) jer. xvii, . cf. verse , above. . r. eleazar chisma ( ) said, "the laws concerning the sacrifices of birds and the purification of women are essential ordinances ( ); astronomy and geometry are the after-courses of wisdom" ( ). rabbi chanania, the son of akashia, said, "the holy one, blessed be he, was pleased to make israel worthy; wherefore he gave them a copious _torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'it pleased the lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _torah_ and make it honorable'". ( ) a contemporary of akiba. ( ) _kinnim_, "nests," is the name of a tract in _seder kodashim_ of the _mishnah_, and tells of the young birds, which men and women were at times required to offer as sacrifice. _niddah_ is a tract of _seder teharot_ of the _mishnah_, and relates of the uncleannesses of woman. ( ) _i.e._, the mathematical sciences, in which r. eleazar was very proficient, are only to be considered as helps to the study of the essentials of _torah_. chapter iv all israel have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "and thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that i may be glorified". . ben zoma ( ) said, "who is wise? he who learns from all men, as it is said, 'from all my teachers have i gotten understanding' ( ). who is mighty? he who controls his passions, as it is said, 'he that is slow to anger is better than the mighty, and he that ruleth over his spirit than he that taketh a city' ( ). who is rich? he who rejoices in his portion, as it is said, 'when thou eatest the labor of thine hands, happy art thou, and it shall be well with thee' ( ); happy art thou in this world, and it shall be well with thee in the world to come. who is honored? he who honors others, as it is said, 'for them that honor me i will honor, and they that despise me shall be held in contempt'" ( ). ( ) simon ben zoma and simon ben azzai, _tannaim_ of the second century, were generally known as ben zoma and ben azzai, as they never received the title of rabbi, according to one view. according to another opinion, they were called by their fathers' names, because they both died young. together with akiba and elisha ben abuyah (_acher_), they entered, legend says, into the paradise of esoteric knowledge. "four (sages)," we are told, "entered paradise, ben azzai, ben zoma, acher, and akiba. ben azzai looked and died; ben zoma went mad; acher destroyed the plants; akiba alone came out unhurt" (_chagigah_, b). the interpretation of this passage is that ben azzai died prematurely, worn out by his activities in mystical and theosophic speculation; ben zoma became demented thereby; elisha, contemptuously referred to as acher (the other), became an apostate; but akiba was unaffected. ben zoma was famous for his wisdom, it being said of him, "whoever sees ben zoma in his dream is assured of scholarship" (_berachot_, b). with him, it was said, the last of the interpreters of the law (_darshanim_) died (_sotah_, b). his interpretation of the biblical passage "that thou mayest remember when thou camest forth out of egypt" is found in the _haggadah_ of passover eve. see bacher, _agada der tanaiten_, pp. - ; schechter, _studies_, i, pp. - ; h. sperling, in _aspects of the hebrew genius_, p. . ( ) ps. cxix, . ( ) prov. xvi, . ( ) ps. cxxviii, . the discontented rich man, even, is poor. ( ) i sam. ii, . . ben azzai ( ) said, "hasten to do even a slight precept ( ), and flee from transgression; for one virtue leads to another, and transgression draws transgression in its train; for the recompense of a virtue is a virtue, and the recompense of a transgression is a transgression" ( ). . he used to say, "despise not any man, and carp not at any thing ( ); for there is not a man that has not his hour, and there is not a thing that has not its place." ( ) simon ben azzai (see n. ) was a very assiduous student and a man of great piety. he was betrothed to the daughter of akiba, but separated from his prospective wife in order to devote all of his time to study. it was said of him, "at the death of ben azzai, the last industrious man passed away" (_sotah_ ix, ), and "he who sees ben azzai in a dream might hope for saintliness." he declared that the greatest principle of judaism is the belief in the common brotherhood of all mankind, which he derived from the passage, genesis vi, , "this is the generation of adam (man)." see bacher, _ibid._, - . ( ) cf. chapter ii, . ( ) well-doing is the fruit of well-doing, and evil-doing the fruit of evil-doing. ( ) or "do not consider anything as being impossible." . r. levitas of jabneh said, "be exceedingly lowly of spirit ( ), since the hope of man is but the worm." ( ) r. levitas lived probably about c.e. maimonides declares that the medium way between the extremes of the _too little_ and the _too much_ is the path of virtue, but he makes an exception in the case of humility, and, in accordance with this passage, considers the extreme of being very humble the virtue. see gorfinkle, _the eight chapters_, p. , n. . . r. jochanan, the son of berokah ( ), said, "whosoever profanes the name of heaven ( ) in secret will suffer the penalty for it in public; and this, whether the heavenly name be profaned in ignorance or in wilfulness." ( ) a contemporary of akiba. ( ) "name of heaven" is a common substitute for the "name of god." . r. ishmael ( ), his son, said, "he who learns in order to teach ( ), to him the means will be granted both to learn and to teach; but he who learns in order to practise, to him the means will be granted to learn, and to teach, to observe, and to practise." ( ) he lived about c.e. ( ) to one who learns _torah_ and does not teach it are applied the words in num. xv, : "he hath despised the word of the lord" (_sanhedrin_, a). . r. zadok said, "separate not thyself from the congregation; (in the judge's office) act not the counsel's part ( ); make not of the _torah_ a crown wherewith to aggrandize thyself, nor a spade wherewith to dig" ( ). so also used hillel to say, "he who makes a worldly use of the crown (of the _torah_) shall waste away" ( ). hence thou mayest infer that whosoever derives a profit for himself from the words of the _torah_ is helping on his own destruction. ( ) cf. chapter i, . ( ) _i.e._, for material and selfish ends. ( ) cf. chapter i, . . r. jose ( ) said, "whoso honors the _torah_ will himself be honored by mankind, but whoso dishonors the _torah_ will himself be dishonored by mankind." ( ) r. jose ben chalafta was a contemporary of r. meir. . r. ishmael ( ), his son, said, "he who shuns the judicial office rids himself of hatred, robbery, and vain swearing ( ); but he who presumptuously lays down decisions is foolish, wicked, and of an arrogant spirit." . he used to say, "judge not alone, for none may judge alone save one; neither say (to thy judicial colleagues), 'accept my view,' for the choice is theirs (to concur); and it is not for thee (to compel concurrence)." ( ) he lived about - c.e. ( ) the judge brings upon himself the hatred of the one who is disappointed by his judgment. an erroneous judgment is equivalent to robbery. when the judge exacts an unnecessary oath, perjury may result. . r. jonathan ( ) said, "whoso fulfils the _torah_ in the midst of poverty shall in the end fulfil it in the midst of wealth; and whoso neglects the _torah_ in the midst of wealth shall in the end neglect it in the midst of poverty." ( ) he lived about the middle of the second century c.e. he was a pupil of r. ishmael (verse ). . r. meir ( ) said, "lessen thy toil for worldly goods, and be busy in the _torah_; be humble of spirit before all men; if thou neglectest the _torah_, many causes for neglecting it will be present themselves to thee, but if thou laborest in the _torah_, he has abundant recompense to give thee." ( ) see chapter iii, n. . . r. elieser ( ), the son of jacob, said, "he who does one precept has gotten himself one advocate; and he who commits one transgression has gotten himself one accuser. repentance and good deeds are as a shield against punishment." ( ) he lived about c.e. . r. jochanan, the sandal-maker ( ), said, "every assembly which is in the name of heaven will in the end be established, but that which is not in the name of heaven will not in the end be established." ( ) most of the rabbis believed with rabban gamaliel that the study of the _torah_ without employment brings transgression (chapter ii, ). consequently, each invariably followed some vocation. hillel, the senior, gained his livelihood as a wood-chopper; shammai was a builder; r. joshua, a blacksmith; r. chanina, a shoemaker; r. huna, a water-carrier; r. abba, a tailor; r. pappa, a brewer, etc. other rabbis whose names indicate their trades, as r. jochanan ha-sandalar (lived about c.e.), were isaac nappacha (the smith) and r. abin naggara (the carpenter). many were merchants and others agriculturists. generally, the rabbi studied during two-thirds of the day, and worked at his trade during the remainder. those engaged in agriculture would study in the winter and till the soil in the summer. consult franz delitzch, _jewish artisan life in the time of christ_; and s. meyer, _arbeit und handwerk im talmud_, berlin, . . r. eleazer, the son of shammua ( ), said, "let the honor of thy disciple be as dear to thee as thine own, and the honor of thine associate be like the fear of thy master, and the fear of thy master like the fear of heaven." ( ) he lived about c.e. . r. judah ( ) said, "be cautious in study, for an error in study may amount to presumptuous sin" ( ). ( ) r. judah ben ilai lived about c.e. ( ) cf. chapter iii, . . r. simeon ( ) said, "there are three crowns: the crown of _torah_, the crown of priesthood, and the crown of royalty; but the crown of a good name excels them all." ( ) on r. simeon ben yochai, see chapter iii, n. . . r. nehorai ( ) said, "betake thyself to a home of the _torah_ ( ), and say not that the _torah_ will come after thee; for there thy associates will establish thee in the possession of it; and lean not upon thine own understanding" ( ). ( ) he lived about c.e. ( ) if there is no teacher where you live. ( ) prov. iii, . . r. jannia said, "it is not in our power (to explain) either the prosperity of the wicked or the afflictions of the righteous." . r. mattithiah, the son of heresh ( ), said, "be beforehand in the salutation of peace to all men; and be rather a tail to lions than a head to foxes" ( ). ( ) he lived about c.e. in rome. ( ) it is better to be a pupil of great teachers than to be a teacher of worthless pupils (maimonides). it is better to follow those who are greater than to lead those who are inferior. . r. jacob ( ) said, "this world is like a vestibule before the world to come ( ); prepare thyself in the vestibule, that thou mayest enter into the hall." . he used to say, "better is one hour of repentance and good deeds in this world than the whole life of the world to come; and better is one hour of blissfulness of spirit in the world to come than the whole life of this world." ( ) he lived about - c.e. ( ) this world is a bridge that leads to the future world (maimonides). . r. simeon, the son of eleazer ( ), said, "do not appease thy fellow in the hour of his anger, and comfort him not in the hour when his dead lies before him, and question him not in the hour of his vow, and rush not to see him in the hour of his disgrace." ( ) a pupil of r. meir. he lived about - c.e. . samuel ( ), the younger, used to say, "rejoice not when thine enemy falleth, and let not thine heart be glad when he stumbleth: lest the lord see it and it displease him, and he turn away his wrath from him" ( ). ( ) samuel (about c.e.) is said to have composed, at the request of r. gamaliel ii, the prayer against heretics, added to the "eighteen benedictions" (_shemoneh esreh_). see the _jewish encyclopedia_, vol. xi, p. . ( ) prov. xxiv, , . . elisha, the son of abuyah ( ), said, "if one learns as a child, what is it like? like ink written in clean paper. if one learns as an old man, what is it like? like ink written on used paper" ( ). ( ) see n. , above. elisha ben abuyah, otherwise known as acher, lived at the end of the first and the beginning of the second century. he is charged by the rabbis with having aided the romans in their attempts to suppress the jewish religion, with having endeavored to estrange the young from judaism and from the study of its literature, with having intentionally and openly broken the ceremonial laws, and with having desecrated the sabbath. r. meir, his pupil, maintained a close intimacy with him, in spite of his apostacy, having high regard for elisha's intellectual worth. when reproached for this, r. meir said, "i eat the kernel, and throw away the husks." elisha is often referred to as the "faust of the _talmud_." on his identification with the apostle paul, see i. m. wise, _the origin of christianity_, p. , and danziger, _ibid._, pp. - . some have even identified him with jesus. in _abot de-rabbi natan_, a parable that is very similar to that of jesus, in luke vi - , is attributed to elisha. "a man who does good deeds and diligently studies the law, to whom is he likened? he is like a man building a house with a stone foundation and with tiles (on the roof); and when a flood arises, and breaks against the walls, that house cannot be moved from its place. but the man who lives an evil life, in spite of having deeply studied the law, to whom is he like? he is like a man building a house with tiles for a foundation and with heavy stones (on the roof); and when a little rain comes, straightway the house falls in" (g. friedlander's translation, in _the jewish sources of the sermon on the mount_, pp. - ). on the career of acher, see bacher, _ibid._, pp. - ; graetz, _history_, ii, _passim_; myers, _ibid._, pp. - ; and strack, _einleitung in den talmud_, p. . ( ) what one learns in youth, one retains, while the opposite is true of learning in old age. the rabbis, elsewhere, liken learning in youth to engraving upon a stone, and learning in old age to writing on the sand. . r. jose, the son of judah ( ), of chefar babli said, "he who learns from the young, to what is he like? to one who eats unripe grapes, and drinks wine from his vat ( ). and he who learns from the old, to what is he like? to one who eats ripe grapes, and drinks old wine." ( ) a contemporary of judah ha-nasi. ( ) _i.e._, wine that is not forty days old, and not yet clarified. . rabbi meir said ( ), "look not at the flask, but at what it contains: there may be a new flask full of old wine, and an old flask that has not even new wine in it" ( ). ( ) some texts read "rabbi," _i.e._, judah ha-nasi (see chapter ii, n. ). ( ) this verse expresses an opinion contrary to that of the preceding one. the mind of a young man may be more mature than that of an old man. . r. eleazar ha-kappar ( ) said, "envy, cupidity, and ambition take a man from the world" ( ). ( ) a contemporary of judah ha-nasi. ( ) cf. chapter ii, . . he used to say, "they that are born are doomed to die; and the dead to be brought to life again; and the living to be judged, to know, to make known, and to be made conscious that he is god, he the maker, he the creator, he the discerner ( ), he the judge, he the witness ( ), he the accuser; he it is that will in future judge, blessed be he, with whom there is no unrighteousness, nor forgetfulness, nor respect of persons, nor taking of bribes ( ); and know also that everything is according to the reckoning ( ); and let not thy imagination give thee hope that the grave will be a place of refuge for thee; for perforce thou wast formed, and perforce thou wast born, and thou livest perforce, and perforce thou wilt die, and perforce thou wilt in the future have to give account and reckoning before the supreme king of kings, the holy one, blessed be he." ( ) cf. ps. xxxiii, : "he fashioneth their hearts altogether; he hath regard to all their works." ( ) cf. mal. iii, . ( ) cf. ii chron. xix, : "take heed and act; for with the lord our god there is no injustice, nor respect for persons, nor taking of bribes." maimonides interprets this verse of _abot_ as meaning that one cannot bribe god with good deeds in order to have bad deeds forgiven. the one bad deed is not forgiven even by the doing of one hundred good ones, but punishment is meted out for the bad deed and reward in full for the hundred good ones. that is, each action is judged entirely on its own merits. neither is god a respecter of persons. on the one hand, he punished moses for his anger at the waters of meribah, and, on the other, he rewarded esau for honoring his parents, and nebuchadnezzar for honoring god. ( ) maimonides interprets as follows, "think of the physical things in which man has no choice, as our sages said, 'all is in the power of god, except the fear of god.' it is not said that one must perforce, and against one's will, sin, or that one is constrained to journey, walk, stand, etc., for these are in the power of man, and are dependent upon his own free will, and not upon any (external) compelling force, as we have explained in chapter eight." see rawicz, _commentar des maimonides_, p. , n. , and garfinkle, _ibid._, p. _et seq._ rabbi chanania, the son of akashia, said, "the holy one, blessed be he, was pleased to make israel worthy; wherefore he gave them a copious _torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'it pleased the lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _torah_ and make it honorable'". chapter v all israel have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "and thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that i may be glorified". . with ten sayings the world was created. what does this teach us? could it not have been created with one saying? it is to make known the punishment that will befall the wicked who destroy the world that was created with ten sayings, as well as the goodly reward that will be bestowed upon the just who preserve the world that was created with ten sayings ( ). . there were ten generations from adam to noah, to make known how long-suffering god is, seeing that all those generations continued provoking him, until he brought upon them the waters of the flood ( ). . there were ten generations from noah to abraham, to make known how long-suffering god is, seeing that all those generations continued provoking him, until abraham, our father, came, and received the reward they should all have earned ( ). . with ten trials our father abraham was tried ( ), and he stood firm in them all, to make known how great was the love of our father abraham ( ). . ten miracles were wrought for our fathers in egypt ( ), and ten at the sea ( ). . ten plagues did the holy one, blessed be he, bring upon the egyptians in egypt, and ten at the sea ( ). . with ten temptations did our fathers tempt the holy one, blessed be he, in the wilderness, as it is said, "and they tempted me these ten times, and have not hearkened to my voice" ( ). . ten miracles were wrought for our fathers in the temple; no woman miscarried from the scent of the holy flesh; the holy flesh never became putrid; no fly ( ) was seen in the slaughter-house; no unclean accident ever befell the high-priest on the day of atonement; the rain never quenched the fire of the wood-pile on the altar ( ); neither did the wind overcome the column of smoke that arose therefrom ( ); nor was there ever found any disqualifying defect in the omer (of new barley, offered on the second day of passover) or in the two loaves (the first fruits of the wheat-harvest, offered on pentecost) ( ), or in the shewbread ( ); though the people stood closely pressed together, they found ample space to prostrate themselves; never did serpent or scorpion injure any one in jerusalem; nor did any man ever say to his fellow, "the place is too strait for me ( ) to lodge over night in jerusalem." . ten things were created on the eve of sabbath in the twilight ( ): the mouth of the earth ( ); the mouth of the well ( ); the mouth of the ass ( ); the rainbow ( ); the manna ( ); the rod ( ); the shamir ( ); the shape of written characters; the writing, and the tables of stone: some say, the destroying spirits also, and the sepulchre of moses ( ), and the ram of abraham our father ( ); and others say, tongs, also, made with tongs ( ). ( ) the expression "and god said" occurs ten times in genesis i (verses , , , , , , , , and ). many commentators count the opening phrase of this chapter, "in the beginning god created the heavens and the earth," as one of the sayings, maintaining that the idea of saying is implied in it. cf. ps. xxxiii, . according to the rabbis, the wicked destroy and the righteous preserve the world, and, since it required ten sayings to create the world, the guilt of the sinner and the righteousness of the just are emphasized more than if it had been created merely by one word. ( ) the ten generations are adam, seth, enosh, kenan, mahalalel, jared, enoch, methusaleh, lamech, and noah. the period from adam to noah is known as the "generation of the flood" (_dor ha-mabbul_). ( ) these are shem, arpachshad, shelah, eber, peleg, reu, serug, nahor, terah, and abraham. noah's good deeds were sufficient only to save himself and family, while abraham's were sufficient to sustain the whole world. ( ) these trials may be reckoned as follows: ( ) his migration, gen. xii, ; ( ) the famine in canaan, xii, ; ( ) the seizing of sarah by pharaoh, xii, ; ( ) the battle with the four kings, xiv; ( ) his marriage with hagar because of sarah's sterility, xvi, ; ( ) the circumcision, xvii, ; ( ) the seizing of sarah by abimelech, king of gerar, xx, ; ( ) the banishment of hagar, xxi, ; ( ) the banishment of ishmael, xxi, ; and ( ) god's command to sacrifice isaac, xxii, . see _pirke de-rabbi eliezer_, chapter , and friedlander, g., _rabbinic philosophy and ethics_ (london, ), p. , n. . ( ) for god. some interpreters explain this, however, as "the love of god for abraham." ( ) that they escaped the ten plagues with which the egyptians were afflicted. ( ) legend says that at the passage of the red sea the ten miracles wrought were as follows: ( ) the waters divided; ( ) the waters were like a tent, or a vault; ( ) the sea-bed was dry and hard; ( ) but when the egyptians trod upon it, it became muddy and slimy; ( ) the sea was divided into twelve parts, one for each tribe; ( ) the waters became as hard as stone; ( ) the congealed waters appeared like blocks of building-stone; ( ) the water was transparent so that the tribes could see one another; ( ) fresh drinking water flowed from the congealed water; ( ) after israel had partaken of the drinking water, it became congealed, and did not wet the ground under foot. see ginzberg, _legends of the jews_, iii, p. _et seq._ ( ) this verse is not found in the talmudic versions of _abot_. the plagues at the sea are alluded to in the "song of moses," ex. xv. see the commentary of bartenora. ( ) num. xiv, . the ten are enumerated by maimonides, bartenora, hoffmann, and others. ( ) the fly is a symbol of impurity. ( ) the altar stood in the midst of the roofless temple-hall. ( ) the straight column of smoke denoted the acceptance of prayer and sacrifice. ( ) see lev. xxiii, - . ( ) every sabbath, twelve loaves of bread were placed on a table in the sanctuary "before the lord" (lev. xxiv, - ) to serve as a constant reminder to the twelve tribes that their place was before the altar of god. ( ) isa. xlix, . ( ) since all things were said to have been created during the first six days of creation, and since "there is nothing new under the sun" (eccles. i, ), everything miraculous or supernatural that existed or occurred after creation was explained by the rabbis as having been made or preordained in the twilight at the moment of transition between the end of the work of creation and the beginning of the sabbath. see gorfinkle, _ibid._, pp. - and n. . ( ) to swallow korah and his followers. see num. xvi, . ( ) which supplied the israelites with water during their wandering in the wilderness. see num. xxi, , and _shabbat_, a. ( ) balaam's ass. see num. xxii, . ( ) ge. ix, . ( ) ex. xv, . ( ) of moses. see _ibid._, iv, . ( ) a miraculous worm that split stones by its look. it was used, according to legend, to engrave the names of the tribes on the jewels of the ephod of the high-priest, and was also employed by solomon in the construction of the temple, in which no tools of iron were used. see _gittin_, a, and _sotah_, b. consult p. cassel, _shamir, ein archaol. beitrag zur natur und sagenkunde_, erfurt, , and art. _shamir_, in _jewish encyclopedia_. ( ) deut. xxxiv, . ( ) gen. xxii, . ( ) an allusion to a saying found in _tosefta erubin_, "tongs are made with tongs; but how was the first pair made? it could only have been a creation of god." one instrument presupposes another; one thing is the cause of another, but the original cause is god. cf. _pesachim_, a. . there are seven marks of an uncultured, and seven of a wise man. the wise man does not speak before him who is greater than he in wisdom; and does not interrupt the speech of his companion; he is not hasty to answer; he questions according to the subject-matter; and answers to the point; he speaks upon the first thing first, and upon the last, last; regarding that which he has not understood he says, "i do not understand it;" and he acknowledges the truth. the reverse of all this is to be found in an uncultured man. . seven kinds of punishment come into the world for seven important transgressions. if some give their tithes ( ) and others do not, a dearth ensues from drought and some suffer hunger while others are full. if they all determine to give no tithes, a dearth ensures from tumult ( ) and drought. if they further resolve not to give the dough-cake ( ), an exterminating dearth ensures. pestilence comes into the world to fulfil those death penalties threatened in the _torah_, the execution of which, however, is within the function of a human tribunal ( ), and for the violation of the law regarding the fruits of the seventh year ( ). the sword ( ) comes into the world for the delay of justice, and for the perversion of justice, and on account of the offence of those who interpret the _torah_, not according to its true sense ( ). noxious beasts come into the world for vain swearing ( ), and for the profanation of the divine name ( ). captivity comes into the world on account of idolatry, immortality, bloodshed, and the neglect of the year of rest for the soil ( ). . at four periods pestilence grows apace: in the fourth year, in the seventh, at the conclusion of the seventh year, and at the conclusion of the feast of tabernacles in each year: in the fourth year, for default of giving the tithe to the poor in the third year ( ); in the seventh year, for default of giving the title to the poor in the sixth year ( ); at the conclusion of the seventh year, for the violation of the law regarding the fruits of the seventh year ( ), and at the conclusion of the feast of tabernacles in each year, for robbing the poor of the grants legally assigned to them ( ). ( ) see chapter i, n. . ( ) of war, when agriculture is neglected, and crops are destroyed, etc. ( ) num. xv, : "ye shall offer up a cake of the first of your dough for a heave offering." this commandment is observed in spirit to-day by the jewish housewife, who takes a part of bread which is kneaded, and burns it, after reciting the blessing, "blessed art thou, o lord, our god, king of the universe, who has sanctified us by thy commandments, and commanded us to separate the _challah_." the ninth treatise of the _order zeraim_ of the _mishnah_ is called _challah._ see friedlander, _jewish religion_, p. . ( ) the execution of which is in the hands of god. ( ) that is, the sabbatical year or the year of release (_ha-shemittah_). see ex. xxiii, _et seq._, and lev. xxv, - . it is commanded that the land be allowed to lie fallow during that year, that there be no sowing, nor reaping, nor pruning of the vineyards, and that the servants, strangers, and animals, as well as the owner, shall share in the spontaneous growth of the fields and the vineyards. see also deut. xv, - , and _tractate shebiit_ of the _mishnah_. ( ) _i.e._, war. ( ) by prohibiting the permissible and permitting the prohibited. ( ) cf. chapter iv, . ( ) cf. chapter iv, . ( ) see deut. xiv, , ; xxvi, , and also above, chapter i, n. . ( ) of the septennial cycle. the tithe was to be brought at the end of _every_ three years. ( ) _i.e._, the gleanings and the forgotten sheaves of the harvest, the single bunches of grapes of the vineyard, and the unreaped corners of the fields which were assigned to the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow. . there are four characters among men: he who says, "what is mine is mine and what is thine is thine," his is a neutral character; some say, "this is a character like that of sodom" ( ); he who says, "what is mine is thine and what is thine is mine," is a boor ( ); he who says, "what is mine is thine and what is thine is thine," is a saint; he who says, "what is thine is mine and what is mine is mine," is a wicked man. . there are four kinds of tempers: he whom it is easy to provoke and easy to pacify, his loss disappears in his gain; he whom it is hard to provoke and hard to pacify, his gain disappears in his loss; he whom it is hard to provoke and easy to pacify is a saint; he whom it is easy to provoke and hard to pacify is a wicked man. . there are four qualities in disciples: he who quickly understands and quickly forgets, his gain disappears in his loss; he who understands with difficulty and forgets with difficulty, his loss disappears in his gain; he who understands quickly and forgets with difficulty, his is a good portion; he who understands with difficulty and forgets quickly, his is an evil portion. . as to almsgiving there are four dispositions: he who desires to give, but that others should not give, his eye is evil toward what appertains to others ( ); he who desires that others should give, but will not give himself, his eye is evil against what is his own; he who gives and wishes others to give is a saint; he who will not give and does not wish others to give is a wicked man. . there are four characters among those who attend the house of study: he who goes and does not practise ( ) secures the reward for going; he who practises ( ) but does not go secures the reward for practising; he who goes and practises is a saint; he who neither goes nor practises is a wicked man. . there are four qualities among those that sit before the wise: they are like a sponge, a funnel, a strainer, or a sieve: a sponge, which sucks up everything ( ); a funnel, which lets in at one end and out at the other; a strainer, which lets the wine pass out and retains the dregs; a sieve, which lets out the bran and retains the fine flour. ( ) one who neither gives nor takes. one who does no labor of love. cf. ezek. xvi, . ( ) he does not know the sacredness of the rights of property. ( ) he does not want his neighbors to be blessed because of their liberality. ( ) the duties of which he has learned. ( ) the commands of the _torah_. ( ) the true and the untrue. . whenever love depends upon some material cause, with the passing away of that cause, the love, too, passes away ( ); but if it be not depending upon such a cause, it will not pass away for ever. which love was that which depended upon a material cause? such was the love of ammon and tamar ( ). and that which depended upon no such cause? such was the love of david and jonathan ( ). ( ) lasting love is disinterested love. ( ) see ii sam. xii. ( ) see i sam. xviii, . . every controversy that is in the name of heaven ( ) shall in the end lead to a permanent result, but every controversy that is not in the name of heaven shall not lead to a permanent result. which controversy was that which was in the name of heaven? such was the controversy of hillel and shammai ( ). and that which was not in the name of heaven? such was the controversy of korah and all his company ( ). ( ) _i.e._, a controversy to arrive at the truth. ( ) see chapter i, n. . ( ) see num. xv, _et seq._ . whosoever causes the multitude to be righteous, over him sin prevails not; but he who causes the multitude to sin shall not have the means to repent ( ). moses was righteous and made the multitude righteous; the righteousness of the multitude was laid upon him, as it is said, "he executed the justice of the lord and his judgments with israel" ( ). jeroboam, the son of nebat, sinned and caused the multitude to sin; the sin of the multitude was laid upon him, as it is said, "for the sins of jeroboam which he sinned and which he made israel to sin" ( ). ( ) he who leads the people astray is punished by being prevented from repenting. this does not mean, however, that man, in general, does not act in accordance with his own free will. maimonides, in discussing this problem, says, in the eighth chapter of the _shemonah perakim_, "just as some of man's undertakings, which are ordinarily subject to his own free will, are frustrated by way of punishment, as, for instance, a man's hand being prevented from working so that he can do nothing with it, as was the case of jeroboam, the son of nebat, or a man's eyes from seeing, as happened to the sodomites, who had assembled about lot, likewise how does god withhold man's ability to use his own free will in regard to repentance, so that it never occurs to him to repent, and he thus finally perishes in his own wickedness." see ed. gorfinkle, p. _et seq._ ( ) deut. xxxiii, . ( ) i kings xv, . cf. _sanhedrin_ x, : "three kings have no portion in the world to come . . . jeroboam, ahab, and manasseh." . whosoever has these three attributes is of the disciples of abraham, our father, but whosoever has three other attributes is of the disciples of balaam, the wicked ( ). a good eye ( ), a humble mind, and a lowly spirit (are the tokens) of the disciples of abraham, our father; an evil eye, a haughty mind, and a proud spirit (are the signs) of the disciples of balaam, the wicked. what is the difference between the disciples of abraham, our father, and those of balaam, the wicked? the disciples of abraham, our father, enjoy this world and inherit the world to come, as it is said, "that i may cause those that love me to inherit substance, and may fill all their treasuries" ( ); but the disciples of balaam, the wicked, inherit _gehinnom_ ( ), and descend into the pit of destruction, as it is said, "but thou, o god, wilt bring them down into the pit of destruction; bloodthirsty and deceitful men shall not live out half their days; but i will trust in thee" ( ). ( ) see num. xxii-xxiv. ( ) see chapter ii, note . ( ) prov. viii, : "substance," _i.e._, in the future world; "treasures," _i.e._, in this world. ( ) see chapter i, n. . ( ) ps. liv, . . judah, the son of tema, said, "be bold as a leopard, swift as an eagle, fleet as a hart, and strong as a lion, to do the will of thy father who is in heaven" ( ). . he used to say ( ), "at five years (the age is reached for the study of the) scripture, at ten for (the study of) the _mishnah_ ( ), at thirteen for (the fulfilment of) the commandments ( ), at fifteen for (the study of) the _talmud_ ( ), at eighteen for marriage, at twenty for seeking (a livelihood) ( ), at thirty for (entering into one's full) strength, at forty for understanding, at fifty for counsel, at sixty (a man attains) old age, at seventy the hoary head, at eighty (the gift of special) strength ( ), at ninety, (he bends beneath) the weight of years, at a hundred he is as if he were already dead and had passed away from the world." ( ) cf. "our father which is in heaven" of the "lord's prayer" (matt. vi, ). the conception of god as a "father" goes back to earliest times. see gen. xlix, , ; ex. iv, ; deut. xxxii, ; ii sam. v, ; ps. lxxxix, , ; isa. lxiii, , lxiv, , and mal. ii, . deut. xxxii, , reads, "is he not thy father?" and isa. lxiii, , "doubtless thou art our father." in the _mishnah_ we find, "who purifies you? your father which is in heaven" (_yoma_ vii, ); "on whom have we to lean? on our father which is in heaven" (_sotah_, ix, ), and similar passages. the rabbis constantly referred to god as "father" (see schechter, _aspects_, pp. , , - ). they took issue, of course, with the new testament conception of god, in not admitting and in denouncing the idea of a mediator. to them all mankind were the sons of god. that the rabbis borrowed this god-idea and the expression "our father which is in heaven" from christianity is untenable, for, as herford (_pharisaism_, _et seq._) points out, such borrowing would have been abhorrent to them. this expression was undoubtedly current long before and during the time of jesus, and it represented a conception of the divine acceptable to both the rabbis and jesus. the rabbis had no quarrel with christianity on this score, but did not admit the "sonship" of god in the christian sense. the expressions "our father" and "our father which is in heaven" are found frequently in the jewish prayer-book. on this subject, consult taylor, _sayings_, pp. , , and g. friedlander, _the jewish sources of the sermon on the mount_, chapter x. for a comparison of other parts of _abot_ with the new testament see feibig, _pirque 'aboth_, especially the _nachwort_, pp. - , and g. friedlander, _ibid._, _passim_. it seems that originally _abot_ ended here, as in the _machzor vitry_. the verses which follow were added from other sources. see bacher, _agada der tanaiten_, i, ; taylor, _ibid._, p. , n. , p. , n. ; hoffmann, _die erste mischna_, p. ; _idem_, _abot_, p. , notes and ; and strack, _spruche_, p. , notes _t_ and _u_. ( ) taylor makes this verse an _addendum_ to chapter v, and calls it "the ages of man." cf. shakespeare's "seven ages of man." see in the _jewish encyclopedia_, art. _ages of man in jewish literature_, _the seven_, and schechter, _studies_, i, pp. - . ( ) the _mishnah_ is the oral or unwritten law based on the written law contained in the pentateuch (see chapter i, n. ). the _mishnah_, _par excellence_, is the codification made by judah ha-nasi (see chapter ii, n. ). it is divided into six orders or sections known as _sedarim_. they are ( ) _zeraim_, "seeds," which contains the laws regarding the cultivation of the land and its products, introduced by a treatise concerning prayer and benedictions (_berachot_); ( ) _mode_, "festivals," treating of the laws of the sabbath and the festivals; ( ) _nashim_, "women," regulations concerning marriage and divorce; ( ) _nezikin_, "injuries" or "damages," civil and criminal law; ( ) _kodashim_, "holy things," the laws of sacrifice and of the service of the temple; and ( ) _tohorot_, "purifications," dealing with the clean and the unclean. each order is subdivided into treatises (_massektot_), there being in all such subdivisions. the _mishnah_ is known as the _shas_ ([shin''samech]), which word is formed from the first letters of the words _shishah sedarim_ (six orders). the _talmud_ is also similarly termed. for a discussion of the name, origin, contents, compilation, etc., of the _mishnah_, see mielziner, _introduction to the talmud_, p. _et seq._; art. _mishnah_, in the _jewish encyclopedia_ and the authorities cited there; strack, _einleitung_, p. , _et seq._, _et seq._, and geiger, _judaism and its history_, p. _et seq._ ( ) at thirteen, the jewish boy becomes _bar mitzwah_, _i.e._, "a son of commandment." the rites and ceremonies connected with the _bar mitzwah_ of to-day cannot "be clearly traced earlier than the fourteenth century" (abrahams, _jewish life in the middle ages_, p. ). see schurer, _history_, ii, ii, p. and n. ; schechter, _studies_, i, p. _et seq._, and art. _bar mitzwah_, in _jewish encyclopedia_. ( ) lit., "teaching," "learning," "study." here, it signifies study for the purpose of elucidating the _mishnah_. some texts read, "for the study of the _gemara_." the _gemara_ (from the aramaic, meaning "learning," "completion") is a collection of explanations and discussions on the _mishnah_. the word _talmud_ was afterwards applied to the _mishnah_ plus the _gemara_. there is a translation of the _talmud_ in english by rodkinson, but it is free and incomplete in parts. see meilziner, _introduction to the talmud_; bacher, art. _talmud_, in _jewish encyclopedia_; _idem_, art. _gemara_, in the _hebrew union college annual_ (cincinnati, ); e. deutsch, _what is the talmud?_; darmsteter, _the talmud_; strack, _einleitung in den talmud_, pp. - , _et seq._, _et seq._, _et seq._, _et seq._; schechter, _on the study of the talmud_ in _studies_, ii, p. _et seq._; herford, _pharisaism_, pp. - . ( ) lit., "at twenty, to pursue." this has been variously interpreted as follows: ( ) for seeking a livelihood (bartenora, hoffmann, strack, singer); ( ) for the pursuit of military service (cf. num. i, , and deut. xxiv, ; _machzor vitri_, p. . shakespeare's "then a soldier"); ( ) the age "to pursue him for his deeds," for the celestial _bet din_ (tribunal) does not punish at an age less than twenty (bartenora's second explanation; cf. rashi on num. xvi, ); ( ) for the pursuit of ideals (taylor); ( ) to pursue the commandments (_siddur korban minchah_). ( ) cf. ps. xc, . . ben bag bag said, "turn it ( ), and turn it over again, for everything is in it, and contemplate it, and wax grey and old over it, and stir not from it, for thou canst have no better rule than this." ( ) the _torah_. . ben he he said, "according to the labor is the reward" ( ). ( ) the last two verses are ascribed by _abot de-rabbi natan_ to hillel (chapter xii, ed. schechter, p. ). ben bag bag and ben he he were probably proselytes and disciples of hillel. see bacher, _ibid._, pp. - , taylor and hoffmann, _ad loc._, and _jewish encyclopedia_, art. _ben bag bag_. rabbi chanania, the son of akashia, said, "the holy one, blessed be he, was pleased to make israel worthy; wherefore he gave them a copious _torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'it pleased the lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _torah_ and make it honorable'". chapter vi the acquisition of the torah ( ) ( ) see introduction pp. - . [refers to the end of the section titled development of abot] all israel have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "and thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that i may be glorified". the sages taught (the following) in the language of the _mishnah_--blessed be he that made choice of them and their _mishnah_. . r. meir ( ) said, "whosoever labors in the _torah_ for its own sake merits many things; and not only so, but the whole world is indebted to him: he is called friend, beloved, a lover of the all-present, a lover of mankind: it clothes him with meekness and reverence; it fits him to become just, pious, upright, and faithful; it keeps him far from sin, and brings him near to virtue; through him are enjoyed counsel and sound knowledge, understanding and strength, as it is said, 'counsel is mind, and sound knowledge; i am understanding; i have strength' ( ). it gives him sovereignty and dominion and discerning judgment; to him the secrets of the _torah_ are revealed; he is made like a never-failing spring and like a river that flows on with ever-increasing vigor; he becomes modest, long-suffering, and forgiving of insults; and it magnifies and exalts him above all things." ( ) chapter iii, n. . ( ) prov. viii, . wisdom, representing the _torah_, utters these words. . r. joshua, the son of levi ( ), said, "every day a _bat-kol_ ( ) goes forth from mount horeb, proclaiming and saying, 'woe to mankind for contempt of the _torah_, for whoever does not occupy himself in the _torah_ is said to be under the divine censure, as it is said, 'as a ring of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman who turneth aside from discretion' ( ); and it says, 'and the tables were the work of god, and the writing was the writing of god, graven upon the tables' ( ). read not _charut_ ( ), but _cherut_ ( ), for no man is free but he who occupies himself in the learning of _torah_. but whosoever labors in the _torah_, behold he shall be exalted, as it is said, 'and from _mattanah_ to _nachaliel_, and from _nachaliel_ to _bamot_'" ( ). ( ) r. joshua lived about the middle of the third century. ( ) _bat kol_ (lit., "daughter of a voice" or "daughter-voice"), "a small voice," "sound," "resonance," not "echo," as it is often translated. the expression _bat kol_ was used in place of the longer one _bat kol min ha-shamayim_, which is "a heavenly or divine voice which proclaims god's will or judgment, his deeds, and his commandments to individuals or to number of persons, to rulers, countries, and even to whole nations." this celestial voice was a means of divine revelation lower than that of prophecy. according to schechter, it has two peculiar features: first, its messages are reproductions of verses or sentences from the old testament or from the apocrypha, and secondly, "it is audible only to those who are prepared to hear it." see weber, _altsynag. theol._, pp. - ; low, _gesammelte schriften_, ii, p. , n. ; kitto's _cyclopedia of biblical lit._, art. _bath kil_, and _ludwig blau_, art. _bat kol_, in _jewish encyclopedia_. ( ) proberbs xi, . the word [nazaf (nun-zayin-fey)] "censured," "placed under ban," by a form of rabbinical interpretation known as _notarikon_ (stenographer's method, abbreviation), is connected with the words of this verse in proverbs: [nezem zahav b'af (nun-zayin-mem(sofit) zayin-hey-bet bet-alef-fey(sofit), capitals indicating larger case hebrew letters)]. another instance of this kind of interpretation is in connecting the word [anochi] "i," the first word of the decalogue, with the phrase: [ana nafshi catvit yehavit (alef-nun-alef nun-pey-shin-yud chof-tof-bet-yud-tet yud-hey-bet-yud-tet)] "i (god) myself have written (the torah), and delivered it," or with the words [amirah n'imah k'tivah y'hivah (alef-mem-yud-resh-hey nun-ayin-yud-mem-hey chof-tof-yud-bet-hey yud-hey-yud-bet-hey)] "a pleasant saying, written and delivered" (_shabbat_, a). see art. _notarikon_, in the _jewish encyclopedia_, and strack, _einleitung_, p. . ( ) ex. xxxii, . ( ) graven. the phrase [al tikri . . . ele] "do not read . . . but" followed by a suggested reading different from the original, does not mean that the rabbis offered an emendation of the biblical text. it was merely a change of the text for homiletical purposes. see bacher, _die alteste terminologie der judischen schriftauslegung_, p. _et seq._; friedlander, _jewish religion_, p. , and talmudical dictionaries, _s.v._ ( ) freedom. ( ) num. xxi, _mattanah_, "gift"; _nachaliel_, "the heritage of god"; _bamot_, "high places." the names of these three encampments of the israelites in the wilderness are interpreted according to their literal meanings. . he who learns from his companion a single chapter, a single rule, a single verse, a single expression, or even a single letter, ought to pay him honor, for so we find with david, king of israel, who learned only two things from ahitophel ( ), and yet regarded him as his master, his guide, and familiar friend, as it is said, "but it was thou, a man, mine equal, my guide, and my familiar friend" ( ). now, is it not an argument from minor to major ( ), that if david, the king of israel, who learned only two things from ahitophel, regarded him as his master, guide, and familiar friend, he who learns from his fellow a chapter, rule, verse, expression, or even a single letter, is bound to pay him honor. and "honor" is nothing but _torah_, as it is said, "the wise shall inherit honor ( ) and the perfect shall inherit good" ( ). and "good" is nothing but _torah_, as it is said, "for i give you good doctrine, forsake ye not my _torah_" ( ). ( ) ahitophel deserted david to take up the cause of his rebellious son, absalom. see ii sam. xvi, ; xvii, _et seq._ ( ) see ps. lv, . the two things david learned are hinted at in ps. lv, . ( ) see chapter i, n. . ( ) prov. iii, . ( ) _ibid._, xxviii, . ( ) _ibid._, iv, . . this is the way that is becoming for the study of the _torah_: a morsel of bread with salt thou must eat ( ), "and water by measure thou must drink" ( ), thou must sleep upon the ground, and live a life of trouble the while thou toilest in the _torah_. if thou doest thus, "happy shalt thou be, and it shall be well with thee" ( ), "happy shalt thou be" in this world, and "it shall be well with thee" in the world to come ( ). ( ) even he who has only bread and salt to eat must busy himself with the study of the _torah_. ( ) ezek. iv, . ( ) ps. cxxviii, . ( ) cf. chapter iv, . . seek not greatness for thyself, and court not honor; let thy works exceed thy learning; and crave not after the table of kings; for thy table is greater than theirs, and thy crown is greater than theirs, and thy employer is faithful to pay thee the reward of thy work. . the _torah_ is greater than the priesthood and than royalty, for royalty demands thirty qualifications ( ), the priesthood twenty-four ( ), while the _torah_ is acquired by forty-eight. and these are they: by audible study; by a listening ear ( ); by distinct pronunciation; by understanding ( ) and discernment of the heart; by awe, reverence, meekness, cheerfulness ( ); by ministering to the sages, by attaching one's self to colleagues, by discussion with disciples; by sedateness; by knowledge of the scripture and of the _mishnah;_ by moderation in business, in intercourse with the world, in pleasure, in sleep, in conversation, in laughter; by long suffering; by a good heart; by faith in the wise; by resignation under chastisement; by recognizing one's place, rejoicing in one's portion, putting a fence to one's words, claiming no merit for one's self, by being beloved, loving the all-present, loving mankind, loving just courses, rectitude, and reproof; by keeping one's self far from honor, not boasting of one's learning, nor delighting in giving decisions; by bearing the yoke with one's fellow, judging him favorably, and leading him to truth and peace; by being composed in one's study; by asking and answering, hearing and adding thereto; by learning with the object of teaching, and by learning with the object of practising; by making one's master wise, fixing attention upon his discourse, and reporting a thing in the name of who said it. so thou hast learned, "whosoever reports a thing in the name of him that said it brings deliverance into the world," as it is said, "and esther told the king in the name of mordecai" ( ). ( ) see _sanhedrin_ ii, - . ( ) see _baba kamma_, b, etc. ( ) singer, combining the first two, reads "by audible study." ( ) taylor omits "understanding and." ( ) taylor and hoffmann add "by purity" ([b'taharah]). ( ) esth. ii, . . great is the _torah_, which gives life to those that practise it in this world and in the world to come, as it is said, "for they are life unto those that find them, and health to all their flesh" ( ); and it says, "it shall be health to thy navel, and marrow to thy bones" ( ); and it says, "it is a tree of life to them that grasp it, and of them that uphold it every one is rendered happy" ( ); and it says, "for they shall be a chaplet of grace unto thy head, and chains about thy neck" ( ); and it says, "it shall give to thine head a chaplet of grace, a crown of glory it shall deliver to thee" ( ); and it says, "for by me thy days shall be multiplied, and the years of thy life shall be increased" ( ); and it says, "length of days is in its right hand; in its left hand are riches and honor" ( ); and it says, "for length of days, and years of life, and peace shall they add to thee" ( ). ( ) prov. iv, . ( ) _ibid._, iii, . ( ) prov. iii, . ( ) _ibid._, i, . ( ) _ibid_, iv, . ( ) prov. ix, . ( ) _ibid._, iii, . ( ) _ibid._, iii, . . r. simeon, the son of judah, in the name of r. simeon, the son of yohai, said, "beauty, strength, riches, honor, wisdom, old age, a hoary head, and children are comely to the righteous and comely to the world, as it is said, 'the hoary head is a crown of glory, if it be found in the way of righteousness' ( ); and it says, 'the glory of young men is their strength, and the adornment of old men is the hoary head' ( ); and it says, 'a crown unto the wise is their riches' ( ); and it says, 'children's children are the crown of old men, and the adornment of children are their fathers' ( ); and it is said, 'then the moon shall be confounded and the sun ashamed; for the lord of hosts shall reign in mount zion and in jerusalem, and before his elders shall be glory'" ( ). r. simeon, the son of menasya, said, "these seven qualifications which the sages enumerated as becoming to the righteous were all realized in rabbi judah, the prince ( ), and in his sons." ( ) _ibid._, xvi, . ( ) _ibid._, xx, . ( ) prov. xiv, . ( ) _ibid._, xvii, . ( ) isa. xxiv, . ( ) see chapter ii, n. . . r. jose, the son of kisma ( ), said, "i was once walking by the way, when a man met me and saluted me, and i returned the salutation. he said to me, 'rabbi, from what place art thou?' i said to him, 'i come from a great city of sages and scribes.' he said to me, 'if thou art willing to dwell with us in our place, i will give thee a thousand thousand golden dinars and precious stones and pearls.' i said to him, 'wert thou to give me all the silver and gold and precious stones and pearls in the world, i would not dwell anywhere but in a home of the _torah';_ and thus it is written in the book of psalms by the hands of david, king of israel, 'the law of thy mouth is better unto me than thousands of gold and silver' ( ); and not only so, but in the hour of man's departure neither silver nor gold nor precious stones nor pearls accompany him, but only _torah_ and good works, as it is said, 'when thou walkest it shall lead thee; when thou liest down it shall watch over thee; and when thou awakest it shall talk with thee' ( ); 'when thou walkest it shall lead thee'--in this world; and 'when thou awakest it shall talk with thee'--in the world to come. and it says, 'the silver is mine, and the gold is mine, saith the lord of hosts'" ( ). ( ) he lived about c.e. ( ) ps. xcix, . ( ) prov. vi, . ( ) hag. ii, . . five possessions the holy one, blessed be he, made especially his own in his world, and these are they, the _torah_, heaven and earth, abraham, israel, and the house of the sanctuary. whence know we this of the _torah?_ because it is written, "the lord possessed me as the beginning of his way, before his works, from of old" ( ). whence of heaven and earth? because it is written, "thus saith the lord, the heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool: what manner of house will ye build unto me? and what manner of place for my rest?" ( ); and it says, "how manifold are thy works, o lord! in wisdom hast thou made them all: the earth is full of thy possessions" ( ). whence of abraham? because it is written, "and he blessed him, and said, 'blessed be abram of the most high god, possessor of heaven and earth" ( ). whence of israel? because it is written, "till thy people pass over, o lord, till the people pass over which thou hast acquired" ( ); and it says, "as for the saints that are in the earth, they are the noble ones in whom is all my delight" ( ). whence of the house of the sanctuary? because it is written, "the place, o lord, which thou hast made for thee to dwell in, the sanctuary, o lord, which thy hands have prepared" ( ); and it says, "and he brought them to the border of his sanctuary, to this mountain which his right hand had acquired" ( ). . whatsoever the holy one, blessed be he, created in his world he created but for his glory, as it is said, "everything that is called by my name, it is for my glory i have created it, i have formed it, yea, i have made it" ( ); and it says, "the lord shall reign for ever and ever" ( ). ( ) prov. viii, . ( ) isa. lxvi, . ( ) ps. civ, . ( ) gen. xiv, . ( ) ex. xv, . ( ) ps. xvi, . ( ) ex. xv, . ( ) ps. lxxviii, . ( ) isa. xliii, . ( ) ex. xv, . rabbi chanania, the son of akashia, said, "the holy one, blessed be he, was pleased to make israel worthy; wherefore he gave them a copious _torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'it pleased the lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _torah_ and make it honorable'". _____________________ transcription notes for any accent marks noted in the following, assume that the same accent appears with all subsequent occurrances of the word. introduction _die spruche der vater_ umlaut over the u and the a _maximes des peres_ grave over the last e role circumflex over the o footnote _jewish encyclopedia_: in the source, the word jewish was not italicized bibliography [s] the document contained a special character known as "section sign", resembling two lower-case s's one above the other. spruchen umlaut over tue u in vater umlaut over the a beitragen umlaut over the a spruche umlaut over the a tubingen umlaut over the u ubertragen umlaut over the u uberzetzt umlaut over the u erklart umlaut over the a maimonide umlaut over the i (in this french title) introduction a la ... umlaut over the first a peres grave accent over the first e furth umlaut over the u umber umlaut over the u fur geschichte umlaut over the u brull umlaut over the u ursprunglicher umlaut over the second u jahrbucher fur jud umlauts over all three u's friedlander, m. umlaut over the a. same in chapter i, notes , , , , etc. there is no umlaut in the next entry, "friedlander, g." samtlichen bucher umlauts over the a and u chaine circumflex over the i, and wherever this word appears elsewhere in the book (e.g. introduction, notes and ). loeb ... pirke abot acute accent over the e in pirke, for both entries ecole acute accent over the first e etudes acute accent over the first e le chapitre ier final er is superscript (premier) schurer umlaut over the u vortrage umlaut over the a chapters ii through vi: the source text included the following two lines: "all israel," etc., p. and "rabbi chanania," etc., p. . as the first and last line of each chapter, the page numbers referring to the beginning and ending of chapter i. rather than reference these two sentences as the source text did, this text version copies the two sentences to their intended locations. the transcriber believes this better captures the flavor of the text. chapter iii: r. meir umlaut over the i, wherever this name appears footnote mutual assistance. as _agudat achim_ period and lower-case 'as' are as found in the source text footnote chald. worterbuch: umlaut over the o chapter iv: happy art thou in this world, and in the source text, the comma was a period. chapter v: tables of stone are as written in the source text as a translation of the hebrew "luchot"; modern readers may better recognize the phrase 'tablets of stone'. footnote archaol.: umlaut over the second a. chapter vi: footnote to individuals or to number of persons: is as written in the source text footnote alteste: umlaut over the a judischen: umlaut over the u ______________________ page reference index this index is included strictly on the off-chance that an outside source would reference this text by page number. it lists some page numbers, and the first line that appears on that page. with the use of this index, readers will better be able to find the referenced materials. in the edition used as a source text, the table of contents appears as page iv on the back of the title page; there were no pages i through iii! the preface started on page . there were are no pages - ! preface . . . . . . . introduction name . . . . . . purpose . . . . . . description . . . . . . contents . . . . . . language . . . . . . development of abot . . . . abot in liturgy . . . . . bibliography . . . . . chapter i . . . . . . chapter ii . . . . . . chapter iii . . . . . . chapter iv . . . . . . chapter v . . . . . . chapter vi . . . . . . hebrew text (appendix) . . . . - 	page - first line of that page wisdom of the "father"; that it may serve as an and in french it is usually rendered _chaptres_ or line of continuous tradition is plainly seen in the b. ( ) chapters i, -ii, : sayings of the men of development of abot ( ) having lived before the destruction of the second all editions of the _mishnah_ and the _talmud_, but _gemara_ (talmudical commentary) on the _abot_, ( ) _an appendix to the sayings of the . jehudah leb gordon, _pirke abot_, in _siddur bet chapitre des pirke abot_, in _bibliotheque de ( ), and the elders to the prophets, and the proph- of the great synagogue. he used to say, "upon bers of thy household, and engage not in much . hillel and shammai ( ) received (the tradi- . rabban simeon, the son of gamaliel ( ), against the loss it involves. consider three things, the day of thy death ( ); judge not thy neighbor for himself words of _torah_ has acquired for him- which is the good way to which a man should the evil inclination ( ), and hatred of his fellow- also before whom thou toilest, and who thy em- . r. chanina, the vice-high-priest ( ), said, a table and have spoken there words of _torah_, it is . r. eleazar of bertota ( ) said, "give unto fanes things sacred, and despises the festivals, and rampart around the _torah;_ tithes are a safeguard "where there is no _torah_, there are no manners; chapter iv virtue is a virtue, and the recompense of a trans- not alone, for none may judge alone save one; home of the _torah_ ( ), and say not that the _torah_ learns as a child, what is it like? like ink written not thy imagination give thee hope that the grave ten generations from noah to abraham, to make nor was there ever found any disqualifying defect and upon the last, last; regarding that which he the conclusion of the feast of tabernacles in each love, too, passes away ( ); but if it be not depend- disciples of abraham, our father, enjoy this world at thirteen for (the fulfilment of) the command- . ben he he said, "according to the labor is becomes modest, long-suffering, and forgiving of friend, as it is said, "but it was thou, a man, mine courses, rectitude, and reproof; by keeping one's self once walking by the way, when a man met me and for his glory, as it is said, "everything that is next appears page , the end of the hebrew text. the hebrew text is numbered from to , in right-to-left format. ________________________ transcriber's comments the source book for this e-text included an introduction, preface, and extensive footnotes. these are omitted in this text, which consists of only the translation of the pirkei avot. a full version of this e-text may be found as a different entry in the gutenburg project archives. see the end of this e-text for transcriber's notes. library of jewish classics-iii. ________________________________________ the sayings of the jewish fathers [pirkei avot] "pirke abot" ________________________________________ translated, with an introduction and notes by joseph i. gorfinkle, ph.d. author of "the eight chapters of maimonides on ethics" _______ _second edition_ ________________________________________ sayings of the fathers _one of the following chapters is read on each sabbath from the sabbath after passover until the sabbath before new year._ all israel have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "and thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that i may be glorified." chapter i . moses received the _torah_ from sinai, and handed it down to joshua, and joshua to the elders, and the elders to the prophets, and the prophets delivered it to the men of the great synagogue. they said three things, "be deliberate in judgment; raise up many disciples; and make a fence about the _torah_." . simon, the just, was of the last survivors of the great synagogue. he used to say, "upon three things the world rests: upon the _torah_, upon the temple service, and upon the doing of acts of kindness." . antigonus of soko received (the tradition) from simon, the just. he used to say, "be not like hirelings who work for their master for the sake of receiving recompense; but be like servants who minister to their master without any thought of receiving a reward; and let the fear of heaven be upon you." . jose, the son of joezer, of zeredah, and jose, the son of jochanan, of jerusalem received (the tradition) from them. jose, the son of joezer, of zeredah said, "let thy house be a meeting-place for the wise; cover thyself with the dust of their feet, and drink in their words with thirst." . jose, the son of jochanan, of jerusalem said, "let thy house be open wide; let the poor be members of thy household, and engage not in much gossip with woman." this applies to one's own wife; how much more, then, to the wife of one's neighbor? hence the sages say, "whoso engages in much gossip with woman brings evil upon himself, neglects the study of the _torah_, and will in the end inherit _gehinnom_." . joshua, the son of perachyah, and nittai, the arbelite, received (the tradition) from them. joshua, the son of perachyah, said, "provide thyself with a teacher, and possess thyself of a companion; and judge every man in the scale of merit." . nittai, the arbelite, said, "keep aloof from a bad neighbor; associate not with the wicked, and abandon not the belief in retribution." . judah, the son of tabbi, and simeon, the son of shatach, received (the tradition) from them. judah, the son of tabbi, said, "(in the judge's office) act not the counsel's part; while the litigants are standing before thee, let them be regarded by thee as guilty, but when they are departed from thy presence, regard them as innocent, the verdict having been acquiesced in by them." . simeon, the son of shatach, said, "be very searching in the examination of witnesses, and be guarded in thy words, lest through them they learn to lie." . shemaiah and abtalion received (the tradition) from them. shemaiah said, "love work; hate lordship; and seek no intimacy with the ruling power." . abtalion said, "ye sages, be heedful of your words, lest ye incur the penalty of exile and be exiled to a place of evil waters, and the disciples who come after you drink thereof and die, and the heavenly name be profaned." . hillel and shammai received (the tradition) from them. hillel said, "be of the disciples of aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace, loving mankind and drawing them night to the _torah_." . he used to say, "a name made great is a name destroyed; he who does not increase (his knowledge) decreases (it); and he who does not study deserves to die; and he who makes a worldly use of the crown (of the _torah_) shall waste away." . he used to say, "if i am not for myself, who will be for me? but if i care for myself only, what am i? and if not now, when?" . shammai said, "set a fixed time for thy (study of) _torah;_ say little and do much; and receive all men with a cheerful countenance." . rabban gamaliel said, "provide thyself with a teacher; be quit of doubt; and accustom not thyself to give tithes by a conjectural estimate." . simeon his son, said, "all my days i have grown up amongst the wise, and i have found nothing better for man than silence; not learning but doing is the chief thing; and whoso multiplies words causes sin." . rabban simeon, the son of gamaliel said, "by three things is the world preserved; by truth, by judgment, and by peace, as it is said, 'judge ye the truth and the judgment of peace in your gates.'" rabbi chanania, the son of akashia, said, "the holy one, blessed be he, was pleased to make israel worthy; wherefore he gave them a copious _torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'it pleased the lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _torah_ and make it honorable.'" chapter ii all israel have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "and thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that i may be glorified". . rabbi said, "which is the right course that a man should choose for himself? that which is a pride to him who pursues it and which also brings him honor from mankind. be as scrupulous about a light precept as about a grave one, for thou knowest not the grant of reward for each precept. reckon the loss incurred by the fulfilment of a precept against the reward secured by its observance, and the gain gotten by a transgression against the loss it involves. consider three things, that thou mayest not come within the power of sin. know what is above thee--a seeing eye, and a hearing ear, and all thy deeds written in a book." . rabban gamaliel, the son of rabbi judah, the prince, said, "excellent is the study of _torah_ combined with some worldly pursuit, for the effort demanded by them both makes sin to be forgotten. all study of _torah_ without work must at length be futile, and leads to sin. let all who are employed with the congregation act with them for heaven's sake, for then the merit of their fathers sustains them, and their righteousness endures for ever. and as for you (god will then say), 'i account you worthy of great reward, as if you had wrought it all yourselves.' . be on your guard against the ruling power; for they who exercise it draw no man near to them except for their own interests; appearing as friends when it is to their own advantage, they stand not by a man in the hour of his need." . he used to say, "do his will as if it were thy will. nullify thy will before his will, that he may nullify the will of others before thy will." . hillel said, "separate not thyself from the congregation; trust not in thyself until the day of thy death; judge not thy neighbor until thou art come into his place; and say not anything which cannot be understood at once, in the hope that it will be understood in the end; neither say, 'when i have leisure i will study'; perchance thou wilt have no leisure." . he used to say, "an empty-headed man cannot be a sin-fearing man, nor can an ignorant person be pious, nor can a shamefaced man learn, nor a passionate man teach, nor can one who is engaged overmuch in business grow wise. in a place where there are no men, strive to be a man." . moreover, he once saw a skull floating on the surface of the water. he said to it, "because thou didst drown (others) they have drowned thee, and at the last they that drowned thee shall themselves be drowned." . he used to say, "the more flesh, the more works; the more property, the more anxiety; the more women, the more witchcraft; the more maid-servants, the more lewdness; the more men-servants, the more robbery; the more _torah_, the more life; the more schooling, the more wisdom; the more counsel, the more understanding; the more charity, the more peace. he who has acquired a good name has acquired it for himself; he who has acquired for himself words of _torah_ has acquired for himself life in the world to come." . rabban jochanan, the son of zakkai received (the tradition) from hillel and shammai. he used to say, "if thou hast learnt much _torah_, ascribe not any merit to thyself, for thereunto wast thou created." . rabban jochanan, the son of zakkai, had five disciples, and these are they: rabbi eliezer, the son of hyrcanus; rabbi joshua, the son of hananiah; rabbi jose, the priest; rabbi simeon, the son of nataniel; and rabbi eleazar, the son of arach. . he used thus to recount their praise: "eliezer, the son of hyrcanus, is a cemented cistern, which loses not a drop; joshua, the son of hananiah, happy is she that bare him; jose, the priest, is a pious man; simeon, the son of nataniel, is a fearer of sin; eleazar, the son of arach, is like a spring flowing with ever-sustained vigor." . he used to say, "if all the sages of israel were in one scale of the balance, and eliezer, the son of hyrcanus, in the other, he would outweigh them all." abba saul said in his name, "if all the sages of israel were in one scale of the balance, and eliezer, the son of hyrcanus, also with them, and eleazar, the son of arach, in the other scale, he would outweigh them all." . he said to them, "go forth and see which is the good way to which a man should cleave." r. eliezer said, "a good eye"; r. joshua said, "a good friend"; r. jose said, "a good neighbor"; r. simeon said, "one who foresees the fruit of an action"; r. eleazar said, "a good heart." thereupon he said to them, "i approve of the words of eleazar, the son of arach, rather than your words, for in his words yours are included." . he said to them, "go forth and see which is the evil way that a man should shun." r. eliezer said, "an evil eye"; r. joshua said, "a bad friend"; r. jose said, "a bad neighbor"; r. simeon said, "one who borrows and does not repay--it is the same whether one borrows from man or the omnipresent; as it is said, 'the wicked borroweth and payeth not again, but the righteous dealeth graciously and giveth'"; r. eleazar said, "a bad heart." thereupon he said to them, "i approve of the words of eleazar, the son of arach, rather then your words, for in his words yours are included." . they each said three things. r. eliezer said, "let thy friend's honor be as dear to thee as thine own; be not easily excited to anger; and repent one day before thy death." and (he further said), "warm thyself by the fire of the wise, but beware of their glowing coals, lest thou be burnt, for their bite is the bite of the fox, and their sting is the scorpion's sting, and their hiss is the serpent's hiss, and all their words are like coals of fire." . r. joshua said, "the evil eye, the evil inclination, and hatred of his fellow-creatures, put a man out of the world." . r. jose said, "let the property of thy friend be as dear to thee as thine own; prepare thyself for the study of _torah_, since the knowledge of it is not an inheritance of thine, and let all thy deeds be done in the name of god." . r. simeon said, "be careful in reading the _shema_ and the _amidah_; and when thou prayest, consider not thy prayer as a fixed (mechanical) task, but as (an appeal for) mercy and grace before the all-present, as it is said, 'for he is gracious and full of mercy, slow to anger, and abounding in loving-kindness, and repenteth him of the evil'; and be not wicked in thine own esteem." . r. eleazar said, "be diligent in studying _torah_, and know what answer to give to the unbeliever; know also before whom thou toilest, and who thy employer is, who will pay thee the reward of thy labor." . rabbi tafron said, "the day is short, the task is great, the laborers are sluggish, the reward is much, and the master of the house is urgent." . he also used to say, "it is not thy duty to complete the work, but neither art thou free to desist from it; if thou hast studied much _torah_, much reward will be given thee; and faithful is thy employer to pay thee the reward of thy labor; and know that the grant of reward unto the righteous will be in the time to come." rabbi chanania, the son of akashia, said, "the holy one, blessed be he, was pleased to make israel worthy; wherefore he gave them a copious _torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'it pleased the lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _torah_ and make it honorable'". chapter iii all israel have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "and thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that i may be glorified". . akabia, the son of mahalalel, said, "consider three things, and thou wilt not come within the power of sin: know whence thou camest, and whither thou art going, and before whom thou wilt in the future have to give an account and reckoning. whence thou camest: from a fetid drop; whether thou art going: to a place of dust, worms, and maggots; and before whom thou wilt in the future have to give an account and reckoning: before the supreme king of kings, the holy one, blessed be he." . r. chanina, the vice-high-priest, said, "pray for the welfare of the government, since but for the fear thereof men would swallow each other alive." . r. chananiah, the son of teradion, said, "if two sit together and interchange no words of _torah_, they are a meeting of scorners, concerning whom it is said, 'the godly man sitteth not in the seat of the scorners'; but if two sit together and interchange words of _torah_, the divine presence abides among them; as it is said, 'then they that feared the lord spake one with the other; and the lord hearkened and heard, and a book of remembrance was written before him, for them that feared the lord, and that thought upon his name.' now the scripture enables me to draw this inference in respect to two persons; whence can it be deduced that if even one person sedulously occupies himself with the _torah_, the holy one, blessed be he, appoints unto him a reward? because it is said, 'though he sit alone, and meditate in stillness, yet he taketh it (the reward) upon him.'" . r. simeon said, "if three have eaten at a table and have spoken there no words of _torah_, it is as if they had eaten of sacrifices to dead idols, of whom it is said, 'for all their tables are full of vomit and filthiness; the all-present is not (in their thoughts).' but if three have eaten at a table and have spoken there words of _torah_, it is as if they had eaten at the table of the all-present, for scripture says, 'and he said unto me, this is the table that is before the lord.'" . r. chanina, the son of hakinai, said, "he who keeps awake at night, and goes on his way alone, while turning his heart to vanity, such a one forfeits his own life." . r. nechunya, son of ha-kanah, said, "whoso receives upon himself the yoke of the _torah_, from the yoke of the kingdom and the yoke of worldly care will be removed, but whoso breaks off from him the yoke of the _torah_, upon him will be laid the yoke of the kingdom and the yoke of worldly care." . r. chalafta, the son of dosa, of the village of chanania said, "when ten people sit together and occupy themselves with the _torah_, the _shechinah_ abides among them, as it is said, 'god standeth in the congregation of the godly.' and whence can it be shown that the same applies to five? because it is said, 'he hath found his band upon the earth.' and whence can it be shown that the same applies to three? because it is said, 'he judgeth among the judges.' and whence can it be shown that the same applies to two? because it is said, 'then they that feared the lord spake one with the other; and the lord hearkened, and heard.' and whence can it be shown that the same applies even to one? because it is said, 'in every place where i cause my name to be remembered i will come unto thee and i will bless thee.'" . r. eleazar of bertota said, "give unto him of what is his, for thou and thine are his: this is also found expressed by david, who said, 'for all things come of thee, and of thine own we have given thee.'" . r. jacob said, "he who is walking by the way and studying, and breaks off his study and says, 'how fine is that tree, how fine is that fallow,' him the scripture regards as if he had forfeited his life." . r. dostai, the son of jannai, said in the name of r. meir, "whoso forgets one word of his study, him the scripture regards as if he had forfeited his life, for it is said, 'only take heed to thyself, and keep thy soul diligently, lest thou forget the things which thine eyes have seen.' now, one might suppose (that the same result follows) even if a man's study has been too hard for him. (to guard against such an inference), it is said, 'and lest they depart from thy heart all the days of thy life.' thus a person's guilt is not established until he deliberately and of set purpose removes those lessons from his heart." . r. chanina, the son of dosa, said, "he in whom the fear of sin precedes wisdom, his wisdom shall endure; but he in whom wisdom comes before the fear of sin, his wisdom will not endure." . he used to say, "he whose works exceed his wisdom, his wisdom shall endure; but he whose wisdom exceeds his works, his wisdom will not endure." . he used to say, "he in whom the spirit of his fellow-creatures takes not delight, in him the spirit of the all-present takes not delight." . r. dosa, the son of horkinas, said, "morning sleep, midday wine, childish babbling, and attending the houses of assembly of the ignorant waste a man's life." . r. eleazar ha-mudai said, "he who profanes things sacred, and despises the festivals, and puts his fellow-man to shame in public, and makes void the covenant of abraham, our father, and makes the _torah_ bear a meaning other than the right; (such a one) even though knowledge of the _torah_ and good deeds be his, has no share in the world to come." . r. ishmael said, "be submissive to a superior, affable to the young, and receive all men with cheerfulness." . r. akiba said, "jesting and levity lead a man on to lewdness. the _massorah_ is a rampart around the _torah_; tithes are a safeguard to riches; good resolves are a fence to abstinence; a hedge around wisdom is silence." . he used to say, "beloved is man, for he was created in the image (of god); but it was by a special love that it was made known to him that he was created in the image of god, as it is said, 'for in the image of god made he man.' beloved are israel, or they were called children of the all-present, but it was by a special love that it was made known to them that they were called children of the all-present, as it is said, 'ye are children unto the lord your god.' beloved are israel, for unto them was given the desirable instrument; but it was by a special love that it was made known to them that that desirable instrument was theirs, through which the world was created, as it is said, 'for i give you good doctrine; forsake ye not my _torah_.' . everything is foreseen, yet free will is given; and the world is judged by grace, yet all is according to the amount of the work." . he used to say, "everything is given on pledge, and a net is spread for all living; the shop is open; the dealer gives credit; the ledger lies open; the hand writes; and whosoever wishes to borrow may come and borrow; but the collectors regularly make their daily round, and exact payment from man whether he be content or not; and they have that whereon they can rely in their demand; and the judgment is a judgment of truth; and everything is prepared for the feast." . r. eleazar, the son of azariah, said, "where there is no _torah_, there are no manners; where there are no manners, there is no _torah_: where there is no wisdom, there is no fear of god; where there is no fear of god, there is no wisdom: where there is no knowledge, there no understanding; where there is no understanding, there is no knowledge: where there is no meal, there is no _torah;_ where there is no _torah_, there is no meal." . he used to say, "he whose wisdom exceeds his works, to what is he like? to a tree whose branches are many, but whose roots are few; and the wind comes and plucks it up, and overturns it upon its face, as it is said, 'and he shall be like a lonely juniper tree in the desert, and shall not see when good cometh; but shall inhabit the parched places in the wilderness, a salt land and not inhabited.' but he whose works exceed his wisdom, to what is he like? to a tree whose branches are few, but whose roots are many, so that though all the winds in the world come and blow upon it, they cannot stir it from its place, as it is said, 'and he shall be as a tree planted by the waters; and that spreadeth out its roots by the river and shall not perceive when heat cometh, but his leaf shall be green; and shall not be troubled in the year of drought, neither shall cease from yielding fruit.'" . r. eleazar chisma said, "the laws concerning the sacrifices of birds and the purification of women are essential ordinances; astronomy and geometry are the after-courses of wisdom." rabbi chanania, the son of akashia, said, "the holy one, blessed be he, was pleased to make israel worthy; wherefore he gave them a copious _torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'it pleased the lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _torah_ and make it honorable'". chapter iv all israel have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "and thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that i may be glorified". . ben zoma said, "who is wise? he who learns from all men, as it is said, 'from all my teachers have i gotten understanding.' who is mighty? he who controls his passions, as it is said, 'he that is slow to anger is better than the mighty, and he that ruleth over his spirit than he that taketh a city.' who is rich? he who rejoices in his portion, as it is said, 'when thou eatest the labor of thine hands, happy art thou, and it shall be well with thee'; happy art thou in this world, and it shall be well with thee in the world to come. who is honored? he who honors others, as it is said, 'for them that honor me i will honor, and they that despise me shall be held in contempt.'" . ben azzai said, "hasten to do even a slight precept, and flee from transgression; for one virtue leads to another, and transgression draws transgression in its train; for the recompense of a virtue is a virtue, and the recompense of a transgression is a transgression." . he used to say, "despise not any man, and carp not at any thing; for there is not a man that has not his hour, and there is not a thing that has not its place." . r. levitas of jabneh said, "be exceedingly lowly of spirit, since the hope of man is but the worm." . r. jochanan, the son of berokah, said, "whosoever profanes the name of heaven in secret will suffer the penalty for it in public; and this, whether the heavenly name be profaned in ignorance or in wilfulness." . r. ishmael, his son, said, "he who learns in order to teach, to him the means will be granted both to learn and to teach; but he who learns in order to practise, to him the means will be granted to learn, and to teach, to observe, and to practise." . r. zadok said, "separate not thyself from the congregation; (in the judge's office) act not the counsel's part; make not of the _torah_ a crown wherewith to aggrandize thyself, nor a spade wherewith to dig." so also used hillel to say, "he who makes a worldly use of the crown (of the _torah_) shall waste away." hence thou mayest infer that whosoever derives a profit for himself from the words of the _torah_ is helping on his own destruction. . r. jose said, "whoso honors the _torah_ will himself be honored by mankind, but whoso dishonors the _torah_ will himself be dishonored by mankind." . r. ishmael, his son, said, "he who shuns the judicial office rids himself of hatred, robbery, and vain swearing; but he who presumptuously lays down decisions is foolish, wicked, and of an arrogant spirit." . he used to say, "judge not alone, for none may judge alone save one; neither say (to thy judicial colleagues), 'accept my view,' for the choice is theirs (to concur); and it is not for thee (to compel concurrence)." . r. jonathan said, "whoso fulfils the _torah_ in the midst of poverty shall in the end fulfil it in the midst of wealth; and whoso neglects the _torah_ in the midst of wealth shall in the end neglect it in the midst of poverty." . r. meir said, "lessen thy toil for worldly goods, and be busy in the _torah_; be humble of spirit before all men; if thou neglectest the _torah_, many causes for neglecting it will be present themselves to thee, but if thou laborest in the _torah_, he has abundant recompense to give thee." . r. elieser, the son of jacob, said, "he who does one precept has gotten himself one advocate; and he who commits one transgression has gotten himself one accuser. repentance and good deeds are as a shield against punishment." . r. jochanan, the sandal-maker, said, "every assembly which is in the name of heaven will in the end be established, but that which is not in the name of heaven will not in the end be established." . r. eleazer, the son of shammua, said, "let the honor of thy disciple be as dear to thee as thine own, and the honor of thine associate be like the fear of thy master, and the fear of thy master like the fear of heaven." . r. judah said, "be cautious in study, for an error in study may amount to presumptuous sin." . r. simeon said, "there are three crowns: the crown of _torah_, the crown of priesthood, and the crown of royalty; but the crown of a good name excels them all." . r. nehorai said, "betake thyself to a home of the _torah_, and say not that the _torah_ will come after thee; for there thy associates will establish thee in the possession of it; and lean not upon thine own understanding." . r. jannia said, "it is not in our power (to explain) either the prosperity of the wicked or the afflictions of the righteous." . r. mattithiah, the son of heresh, said, "be beforehand in the salutation of peace to all men; and be rather a tail to lions than a head to foxes." . r. jacob said, "this world is like a vestibule before the world to come; prepare thyself in the vestibule, that thou mayest enter into the hall." . he used to say, "better is one hour of repentance and good deeds in this world than the whole life of the world to come; and better is one hour of blissfulness of spirit in the world to come than the whole life of this world." . r. simeon, the son of eleazer, said, "do not appease thy fellow in the hour of his anger, and comfort him not in the hour when his dead lies before him, and question him not in the hour of his vow, and rush not to see him in the hour of his disgrace." . samuel, the younger, used to say, "rejoice not when thine enemy falleth, and let not thine heart be glad when he stumbleth: lest the lord see it and it displease him, and he turn away his wrath from him." . elisha, the son of abuyah, said, "if one learns as a child, what is it like? like ink written in clean paper. if one learns as an old man, what is it like? like ink written on used paper." . r. jose, the son of judah, of chefar babli said, "he who learns from the young, to what is he like? to one who eats unripe grapes, and drinks wine from his vat. and he who learns from the old, to what is he like? to one who eats ripe grapes, and drinks old wine." . rabbi meir said, "look not at the flask, but at what it contains: there may be a new flask full of old wine, and an old flask that has not even new wine in it." . r. eleazar ha-kappar said, "envy, cupidity, and ambition take a man from the world." . he used to say, "they that are born are doomed to die; and the dead to be brought to life again; and the living to be judged, to know, to make known, and to be made conscious that he is god, he the maker, he the creator, he the discerner, he the judge, he the witness, he the accuser; he it is that will in future judge, blessed be he, with whom there is no unrighteousness, nor forgetfulness, nor respect of persons, nor taking of bribes; and know also that everything is according to the reckoning; and let not thy imagination give thee hope that the grave will be a place of refuge for thee; for perforce thou wast formed, and perforce thou wast born, and thou livest perforce, and perforce thou wilt die, and perforce thou wilt in the future have to give account and reckoning before the supreme king of kings, the holy one, blessed be he." rabbi chanania, the son of akashia, said, "the holy one, blessed be he, was pleased to make israel worthy; wherefore he gave them a copious _torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'it pleased the lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _torah_ and make it honorable'". chapter v all israel have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "and thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that i may be glorified". . with ten sayings the world was created. what does this teach us? could it not have been created with one saying? it is to make known the punishment that will befall the wicked who destroy the world that was created with ten sayings, as well as the goodly reward that will be bestowed upon the just who preserve the world that was created with ten sayings. . there were ten generations from adam to noah, to make known how long-suffering god is, seeing that all those generations continued provoking him, until he brought upon them the waters of the flood. . there were ten generations from noah to abraham, to make known how long-suffering god is, seeing that all those generations continued provoking him, until abraham, our father, came, and received the reward they should all have earned. . with ten trials our father abraham was tried, and he stood firm in them all, to make known how great was the love of our father abraham. . ten miracles were wrought for our fathers in egypt, and ten at the sea. . ten plagues did the holy one, blessed be he, bring upon the egyptians in egypt, and ten at the sea. . with ten temptations did our fathers tempt the holy one, blessed be he, in the wilderness, as it is said, "and they tempted me these ten times, and have not hearkened to my voice." . ten miracles were wrought for our fathers in the temple; no woman miscarried from the scent of the holy flesh; the holy flesh never became putrid; no fly was seen in the slaughter-house; no unclean accident ever befell the high-priest on the day of atonement; the rain never quenched the fire of the wood-pile on the altar; neither did the wind overcome the column of smoke that arose therefrom; nor was there ever found any disqualifying defect in the omer (of new barley, offered on the second day of passover) or in the two loaves (the first fruits of the wheat-harvest, offered on pentecost), or in the shewbread; though the people stood closely pressed together, they found ample space to prostrate themselves; never did serpent or scorpion injure any one in jerusalem; nor did any man ever say to his fellow, "the place is too strait for me to lodge over night in jerusalem." . ten things were created on the eve of sabbath in the twilight: the mouth of the earth; the mouth of the well; the mouth of the ass; the rainbow; the manna; the rod; the shamir; the shape of written characters; the writing, and the tables of stone: some say, the destroying spirits also, and the sepulchre of moses, and the ram of abraham our father; and others say, tongs, also, made with tongs. . there are seven marks of an uncultured, and seven of a wise man. the wise man does not speak before him who is greater than he in wisdom; and does not interrupt the speech of his companion; he is not hasty to answer; he questions according to the subject-matter; and answers to the point; he speaks upon the first thing first, and upon the last, last; regarding that which he has not understood he says, "i do not understand it;" and he acknowledges the truth. the reverse of all this is to be found in an uncultured man. . seven kinds of punishment come into the world for seven important transgressions. if some give their tithes and others do not, a dearth ensues from drought and some suffer hunger while others are full. if they all determine to give no tithes, a dearth ensures from tumult and drought. if they further resolve not to give the dough-cake, an exterminating dearth ensures. pestilence comes into the world to fulfil those death penalties threatened in the _torah_, the execution of which, however, is within the function of a human tribunal, and for the violation of the law regarding the fruits of the seventh year. the sword comes into the world for the delay of justice, and for the perversion of justice, and on account of the offence of those who interpret the _torah_, not according to its true sense. noxious beasts come into the world for vain swearing, and for the profanation of the divine name. captivity comes into the world on account of idolatry, immortality, bloodshed, and the neglect of the year of rest for the soil. . at four periods pestilence grows apace: in the fourth year, in the seventh, at the conclusion of the seventh year, and at the conclusion of the feast of tabernacles in each year: in the fourth year, for default of giving the tithe to the poor in the third year; in the seventh year, for default of giving the title to the poor in the sixth year; at the conclusion of the seventh year, for the violation of the law regarding the fruits of the seventh year, and at the conclusion of the feast of tabernacles in each year, for robbing the poor of the grants legally assigned to them. . there are four characters among men: he who says, "what is mine is mine and what is thine is thine," his is a neutral character; some say, "this is a character like that of sodom"; he who says, "what is mine is thine and what is thine is mine," is a boor; he who says, "what is mine is thine and what is thine is thine," is a saint; he who says, "what is thine is mine and what is mine is mine," is a wicked man. . there are four kinds of tempers: he whom it is easy to provoke and easy to pacify, his loss disappears in his gain; he whom it is hard to provoke and hard to pacify, his gain disappears in his loss; he whom it is hard to provoke and easy to pacify is a saint; he whom it is easy to provoke and hard to pacify is a wicked man. . there are four qualities in disciples: he who quickly understands and quickly forgets, his gain disappears in his loss; he who understands with difficulty and forgets with difficulty, his loss disappears in his gain; he who understands quickly and forgets with difficulty, his is a good portion; he who understands with difficulty and forgets quickly, his is an evil portion. . as to almsgiving there are four dispositions: he who desires to give, but that others should not give, his eye is evil toward what appertains to others; he who desires that others should give, but will not give himself, his eye is evil against what is his own; he who gives and wishes others to give is a saint; he who will not give and does not wish others to give is a wicked man. . there are four characters among those who attend the house of study: he who goes and does not practise secures the reward for going; he who practises but does not go secures the reward for practising; he who goes and practises is a saint; he who neither goes nor practises is a wicked man. . there are four qualities among those that sit before the wise: they are like a sponge, a funnel, a strainer, or a sieve: a sponge, which sucks up everything; a funnel, which lets in at one end and out at the other; a strainer, which lets the wine pass out and retains the dregs; a sieve, which lets out the bran and retains the fine flour. . whenever love depends upon some material cause, with the passing away of that cause, the love, too, passes away; but if it be not depending upon such a cause, it will not pass away for ever. which love was that which depended upon a material cause? such was the love of ammon and tamar. and that which depended upon no such cause? such was the love of david and jonathan. . every controversy that is in the name of heaven shall in the end lead to a permanent result, but every controversy that is not in the name of heaven shall not lead to a permanent result. which controversy was that which was in the name of heaven? such was the controversy of hillel and shammai. and that which was not in the name of heaven? such was the controversy of korah and all his company. . whosoever causes the multitude to be righteous, over him sin prevails not; but he who causes the multitude to sin shall not have the means to repent. moses was righteous and made the multitude righteous; the righteousness of the multitude was laid upon him, as it is said, "he executed the justice of the lord and his judgments with israel." jeroboam, the son of nebat, sinned and caused the multitude to sin; the sin of the multitude was laid upon him, as it is said, "for the sins of jeroboam which he sinned and which he made israel to sin." . whosoever has these three attributes is of the disciples of abraham, our father, but whosoever has three other attributes is of the disciples of balaam, the wicked. a good eye, a humble mind, and a lowly spirit (are the tokens) of the disciples of abraham, our father; an evil eye, a haughty mind, and a proud spirit (are the signs) of the disciples of balaam, the wicked. what is the difference between the disciples of abraham, our father, and those of balaam, the wicked? the disciples of abraham, our father, enjoy this world and inherit the world to come, as it is said, "that i may cause those that love me to inherit substance, and may fill all their treasuries"; but the disciples of balaam, the wicked, inherit _gehinnom_, and descend into the pit of destruction, as it is said, "but thou, o god, wilt bring them down into the pit of destruction; bloodthirsty and deceitful men shall not live out half their days; but i will trust in thee." . judah, the son of tema, said, "be bold as a leopard, swift as an eagle, fleet as a hart, and strong as a lion, to do the will of thy father who is in heaven." . he used to say, "at five years (the age is reached for the study of the) scripture, at ten for (the study of) the _mishnah_, at thirteen for (the fulfilment of) the commandments, at fifteen for (the study of) the _talmud_, at eighteen for marriage, at twenty for seeking (a livelihood), at thirty for (entering into one's full) strength, at forty for understanding, at fifty for counsel, at sixty (a man attains) old age, at seventy the hoary head, at eighty (the gift of special) strength, at ninety, (he bends beneath) the weight of years, at a hundred he is as if he were already dead and had passed away from the world." . ben bag bag said, "turn it, and turn it over again, for everything is in it, and contemplate it, and wax grey and old over it, and stir not from it, for thou canst have no better rule than this." . ben he he said, "according to the labor is the reward." rabbi chanania, the son of akashia, said, "the holy one, blessed be he, was pleased to make israel worthy; wherefore he gave them a copious _torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'it pleased the lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _torah_ and make it honorable'". chapter vi the acquisition of the torah all israel have a portion in the world to come, and it is said, "and thy people shall be all righteous; they shall inherit the land for ever, the branch of my planting, the work of my hands, that i may be glorified". the sages taught (the following) in the language of the _mishnah_--blessed be he that made choice of them and their _mishnah_. . r. meir said, "whosoever labors in the _torah_ for its own sake merits many things; and not only so, but the whole world is indebted to him: he is called friend, beloved, a lover of the all-present, a lover of mankind: it clothes him with meekness and reverence; it fits him to become just, pious, upright, and faithful; it keeps him far from sin, and brings him near to virtue; through him are enjoyed counsel and sound knowledge, understanding and strength, as it is said, 'counsel is mind, and sound knowledge; i am understanding; i have strength.' it gives him sovereignty and dominion and discerning judgment; to him the secrets of the _torah_ are revealed; he is made like a never-failing spring and like a river that flows on with ever-increasing vigor; he becomes modest, long-suffering, and forgiving of insults; and it magnifies and exalts him above all things." . r. joshua, the son of levi, said, "every day a _bat-kol_ goes forth from mount horeb, proclaiming and saying, 'woe to mankind for contempt of the _torah_, for whoever does not occupy himself in the _torah_ is said to be under the divine censure, as it is said, 'as a ring of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman who turneth aside from discretion'; and it says, 'and the tables were the work of god, and the writing was the writing of god, graven upon the tables.' read not _charut_, but _cherut_, for no man is free but he who occupies himself in the learning of _torah_. but whosoever labors in the _torah_, behold he shall be exalted, as it is said, 'and from _mattanah_ to _nachaliel_, and from _nachaliel_ to _bamot_.'" . he who learns from his companion a single chapter, a single rule, a single verse, a single expression, or even a single letter, ought to pay him honor, for so we find with david, king of israel, who learned only two things from ahitophel, and yet regarded him as his master, his guide, and familiar friend, as it is said, "but it was thou, a man, mine equal, my guide, and my familiar friend." now, is it not an argument from minor to major, that if david, the king of israel, who learned only two things from ahitophel, regarded him as his master, guide, and familiar friend, he who learns from his fellow a chapter, rule, verse, expression, or even a single letter, is bound to pay him honor. and "honor" is nothing but _torah_, as it is said, "the wise shall inherit honor and the perfect shall inherit good." and "good" is nothing but _torah_, as it is said, "for i give you good doctrine, forsake ye not my _torah_." . this is the way that is becoming for the study of the _torah_: a morsel of bread with salt thou must eat, "and water by measure thou must drink," thou must sleep upon the ground, and live a life of trouble the while thou toilest in the _torah_. if thou doest thus, "happy shalt thou be, and it shall be well with thee," "happy shalt thou be" in this world, and "it shall be well with thee" in the world to come. . seek not greatness for thyself, and court not honor; let thy works exceed thy learning; and crave not after the table of kings; for thy table is greater than theirs, and thy crown is greater than theirs, and thy employer is faithful to pay thee the reward of thy work. . the _torah_ is greater than the priesthood and than royalty, for royalty demands thirty qualifications, the priesthood twenty-four, while the _torah_ is acquired by forty-eight. and these are they: by audible study; by a listening ear; by distinct pronunciation; by understanding and discernment of the heart; by awe, reverence, meekness, cheerfulness; by ministering to the sages, by attaching one's self to colleagues, by discussion with disciples; by sedateness; by knowledge of the scripture and of the _mishnah;_ by moderation in business, in intercourse with the world, in pleasure, in sleep, in conversation, in laughter; by long suffering; by a good heart; by faith in the wise; by resignation under chastisement; by recognizing one's place, rejoicing in one's portion, putting a fence to one's words, claiming no merit for one's self, by being beloved, loving the all-present, loving mankind, loving just courses, rectitude, and reproof; by keeping one's self far from honor, not boasting of one's learning, nor delighting in giving decisions; by bearing the yoke with one's fellow, judging him favorably, and leading him to truth and peace; by being composed in one's study; by asking and answering, hearing and adding thereto; by learning with the object of teaching, and by learning with the object of practising; by making one's master wise, fixing attention upon his discourse, and reporting a thing in the name of who said it. so thou hast learned, "whosoever reports a thing in the name of him that said it brings deliverance into the world," as it is said, "and esther told the king in the name of mordecai." . great is the _torah_, which gives life to those that practise it in this world and in the world to come, as it is said, "for they are life unto those that find them, and health to all their flesh"; and it says, "it shall be health to thy navel, and marrow to thy bones"; and it says, "it is a tree of life to them that grasp it, and of them that uphold it every one is rendered happy"; and it says, "for they shall be a chaplet of grace unto thy head, and chains about thy neck"; and it says, "it shall give to thine head a chaplet of grace, a crown of glory it shall deliver to thee"; and it says, "for by me thy days shall be multiplied, and the years of thy life shall be increased"; and it says, "length of days is in its right hand; in its left hand are riches and honor"; and it says, "for length of days, and years of life, and peace shall they add to thee." . r. simeon, the son of judah, in the name of r. simeon, the son of yohai, said, "beauty, strength, riches, honor, wisdom, old age, a hoary head, and children are comely to the righteous and comely to the world, as it is said, 'the hoary head is a crown of glory, if it be found in the way of righteousness'; and it says, 'the glory of young men is their strength, and the adornment of old men is the hoary head'; and it says, 'a crown unto the wise is their riches'; and it says, 'children's children are the crown of old men, and the adornment of children are their fathers'; and it is said, 'then the moon shall be confounded and the sun ashamed; for the lord of hosts shall reign in mount zion and in jerusalem, and before his elders shall be glory.'" r. simeon, the son of menasya, said, "these seven qualifications which the sages enumerated as becoming to the righteous were all realized in rabbi judah, the prince, and in his sons." . r. jose, the son of kisma, said, "i was once walking by the way, when a man met me and saluted me, and i returned the salutation. he said to me, 'rabbi, from what place art thou?' i said to him, 'i come from a great city of sages and scribes.' he said to me, 'if thou art willing to dwell with us in our place, i will give thee a thousand thousand golden dinars and precious stones and pearls.' i said to him, 'wert thou to give me all the silver and gold and precious stones and pearls in the world, i would not dwell anywhere but in a home of the _torah';_ and thus it is written in the book of psalms by the hands of david, king of israel, 'the law of thy mouth is better unto me than thousands of gold and silver'; and not only so, but in the hour of man's departure neither silver nor gold nor precious stones nor pearls accompany him, but only _torah_ and good works, as it is said, 'when thou walkest it shall lead thee; when thou liest down it shall watch over thee; and when thou awakest it shall talk with thee'; 'when thou walkest it shall lead thee'--in this world; and 'when thou awakest it shall talk with thee'--in the world to come. and it says, 'the silver is mine, and the gold is mine, saith the lord of hosts.'" . five possessions the holy one, blessed be he, made especially his own in his world, and these are they, the _torah_, heaven and earth, abraham, israel, and the house of the sanctuary. whence know we this of the _torah?_ because it is written, "the lord possessed me as the beginning of his way, before his works, from of old." whence of heaven and earth? because it is written, "thus saith the lord, the heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool: what manner of house will ye build unto me? and what manner of place for my rest?"; and it says, "how manifold are thy works, o lord! in wisdom hast thou made them all: the earth is full of thy possessions." whence of abraham? because it is written, "and he blessed him, and said, 'blessed be abram of the most high god, possessor of heaven and earth." whence of israel? because it is written, "till thy people pass over, o lord, till the people pass over which thou hast acquired"; and it says, "as for the saints that are in the earth, they are the noble ones in whom is all my delight." whence of the house of the sanctuary? because it is written, "the place, o lord, which thou hast made for thee to dwell in, the sanctuary, o lord, which thy hands have prepared"; and it says, "and he brought them to the border of his sanctuary, to this mountain which his right hand had acquired." . whatsoever the holy one, blessed be he, created in his world he created but for his glory, as it is said, "everything that is called by my name, it is for my glory i have created it, i have formed it, yea, i have made it"; and it says, "the lord shall reign for ever and ever." rabbi chanania, the son of akashia, said, "the holy one, blessed be he, was pleased to make israel worthy; wherefore he gave them a copious _torah_ and many commandments, as it is said, 'it pleased the lord, for his righteousness' sake, to magnify the _torah_ and make it honorable'". _____________________ transcriber's notes chapters ii through vi: the source text included the following lines: "all israel," etc., p. and "rabbi chanania," etc., p. . as the first and last line of each chapter, the page numbers referring to the beginning and ending of chapter i. rather than reference these two sentences in this manner, this text version copies the two sentences to their intended locations. the transcriber believes this better captures the intent and functionality of the text. chapter iii: r. meir umlaut over the i, wherever this name appears chapter iv: happy art thou in this world, and in the source text, the comma after 'worls' was a period. this was corrected for this electronic text. chapter v: tables of stone are as written in the source text as a translation of the hebrew "luchot"; modern readers may better recognize the phrase 'tablets of stone'. [illustration: cover] the augustan reprint society john evelyn the history of sabatai sevi, _the suppos'd messiah_ of the jews. ( ) _introduction by_ christopher w. grose publication number william andrews clark memorial library university of california, los angeles general editors george robert guffey, _university of california, los angeles_ maximillian e. novak, _university of california, los angeles_ robert vosper, _william andrews clark memorial library_ advisory editors richard c. boys, _university of michigan_ james l. clifford, _columbia university_ ralph cohen, _university of virginia_ vinton a. dearing, _university of california, los angeles_ arthur friedman, _university of chicago_ louis a. landa, _princeton university_ earl miner, _university of california, los angeles_ samuel h. monk, _university of minnesota_ everett t. moore, _university of california, los angeles_ lawrence clark powell, _william andrews clark memorial library_ james sutherland, _university college, london_ h. t. swedenberg, jr., _university of california, los angeles_ corresponding secretary edna c. davis, _william andrews clark memorial library_ introduction _and you should if you please refuse till the conversion of the jews._ the reader of john evelyn's _history of sabatai sevi, the pretended messiah of the jewes_ or of the _history of the three late famous impostors_ ( ) in which it is the most significant part, discovers a fascinating, if unoriginal, addition to the work of the great diarist and dilettante, the amateur student of engraving and trees--and smoke. evelyn's work was almost totally derived from the account of sir paul rycaut, who was from secretary (and later consul) for the levant mercantile company in smyrna. rycaut was in fact responsible for what first-hand reporting there is in the _history_, and evelyn's book preceded by only eleven years rycaut's _history of the turkish empire - _, where the story first appeared under the author's own name. what gives evelyn's _pretended messiah_ its own interest is partly the immediacy of the news of sabatai sevi, and partly the context in which evelyn places the story, a context to some extent indicated in the title, _history of the three late famous impostors_. when the work was published in , sevi was neither the amusing curiosity he is likely to be for the modern reader, nor the impertinent confidence man suggested by evelyn's "impostor." evelyn was reviewing for an english audience one of the great crises in jewish history, the career of the man who has been called judaism's "most notorious messianic claimant."[ ] that career was not entirely past history in . sevi lived until , and even after his humiliation and final banishment in he could write to his father-in-law in salonica that men would see in his lifetime the day of redemption and the return of the jews to zion; "for god hath appointed me lord of all mizrayim."[ ] indeed, a remnant of judaeo-turkish shabbethaians called dönmehs apparently exists in salonica to the present day. whatever the appeal of sevi's story may be for modern readers--as a mode of fiction, perhaps, or an instance of mass hysteria--evelyn's discovery of an exemplum for religious and political enthusiasts may seem forced or reductive. in , however, the interest of englishmen in jewish affairs was by no means merely academic--or narrowly commercial. there were, it is true, english sportsmen in who were actually betting on the sevi career--ten to one that the "messiah of ismir" would be crowned king of jerusalem within two years. and what was most disturbing about sevi to the english nation as a whole was perhaps the disruption of trade, in which sevi's father was intimately involved, as the agent of an english mercantile house. at the height of the furor, jewish merchants were dissolving businesses as well as unroofing their houses in preparation for the return to jerusalem. but the prime significance for evelyn--perhaps more than for rycaut--is revealed in the instinctive mental connection between jewish and christian history, or ways of thinking about history, on the one hand, and political realities in england on the other. only nine years had passed since the return of charles ii and the displacement of the protectorate, with its remarkable jewish elements. as for the return of the christian messiah and an imminent reign of the saints, sevi might well have reminded evelyn of the english "impostor," the quaker jacob naylor, whose messianic claims were publicly examined at bristol in . far more important to englishmen of the period, however, was the episode involving the mission of the amsterdam rabbi menasseh ben israel to cromwell's england in , a year after naylor's first appearance. for two centuries after their expulsion from england by edward i--that is, until the seventeenth century--jews either avoided england entirely or lived there in deliberate obscurity. some spanish and portuguese jewish refugees from the inquisition did arrive in england; but particularly after the execution for treason of elizabeth's physician roderigo lopez in , they could remain only as "crypto-jews." it was during the puritan regime that the jewish position in england really improved, and the removal of the legal bar dates from the conference summoned by cromwell in response to the demands of menasseh.[ ] the interest in rabbinical literature displayed by learned men like joseph scaliger, johann buxtorf, hugo grotius, and john selden, together with a general old testament emphasis in protestant scriptural study, made judaism a more fashionable interest than it had been in previous years. cromwell's own encouragement of menasseh is usually viewed as an expression of his tolerationist principles and the hope that the return of jews to england would aid in extending trade with spain and portugal, and even with the levant. an additional facet of his general reception of menasseh is relevant to evelyn's _pretended messiah_. a chief argument in _the humble address of menasseh ben israel_ (november , ) was the amsterdam rabbi's belief that since england was the only country rejecting the jews, their readmittance would be the signal for the coming of the messiah. fifth-monarchy enthusiasts recalled the prophecies of _daniel_ and _revelations_ and linked them with the relatively immediate experience of the thirty years' war; motives of mercantile jealousy were to some extent offset by millenarian anxiety. indeed, the possibility of an imminent millennial reign of the saints could be the strongest kind of argument for showing favor to the jews. cromwell all but proselytized at the meetings of the conference; ultimately, because of the opposition of commercial interests, he was forced to dissolve it. we can perhaps best understand evelyn's account of sabatai sevi, "the messiah of ismir," against this background of english protestant millennial thinking, admirably summarized in michael fixler's recent study.[ ] as fixler suggests, it was possibly to discredit the fifth-monarchy men that rycaut first included the account in what was to become his _history of the turkish empire_. at any rate, sevi himself was hardly the mere con-man rycaut and evelyn portray; the mask, indeed, is _erepta_ only with the greatest of difficulty. because rycaut was interested in trade and cultural _mores_, his (and consequently, evelyn's) account neglects features of the story which are of primary interest to more psychologically inclined readers. we are told almost nothing, for example, of the details of sevi's solitary youth; his physical attractiveness; his clear voice as well suited to lascivious spanish love-songs (interpreted mystically) as to psalms; and his early rejection of the talmud for the practical cabala, with its strenuous, self-mortifying asceticism. one would gather from evelyn that only the deluded followers of the "impostor" and not sevi himself imposed such punishments as self-burial, and bathing in the sea, even in midwinter. more surprising, perhaps, is the almost total neglect of sarah, sevi's third wife, mentioned in the _pretended messiah_ only as the "ligornese lady" whom sevi acquired after freeing himself "from the incumbrances of a family." in fact, the beautiful and engaging sarah seems to have become an integral part of the movement, a movement which in its early stages was all-male. a prostitute notorious in her own right, primarily for her claims to be the destined bride of the messiah, sarah apparently escaped miraculously from a christian convent after being cared for as an orphan of the savage chmielnicki massacres in poland. as he was later to do with a more formidable rival to his exclusive claims (nehemiah ha-kohen, who ultimately exposed him as a fraud) sevi called sarah to cairo in , claiming to have dreamed of her as _his_ future bride. eventually, after his "conversion," she followed him even into the turkish seraglio where he bore the title mahmed effendi. other details are missing from evelyn's _pretended messiah_; the interested reader may pursue the strange tale in graetz's _history of the jews_ or the partly fictionalized biography by joseph kastein, _the messiah of ismir_.[ ] we may note in passing one additional incident. after his first banishment from smyrna (as a result of pronouncing the sacred tetragrammaton in hebrew), sevi met the mystic abraham ha-yakini, who subsequently forged in archaic characters and style a document entitled "the great wisdom of solomon"--a document accepted by sevi as an authentic "archeological" revelation. the event was shortly followed by a bizarre celebration of sevi's marriage as the son of god ("en sof") with the torah, and may have provided climactic metaphysical confirmation of sevi's hopes. in the manner of the old apocalypses, it pronounced sevi the "saviour of my people, israel," one who in time "shall overthrow the great dragon and kill the serpent."[ ] good as evelyn's _pretended messiah_ may have been for contemporaries as a review of recent "news," and we must not underestimate this function, to the modern reader it seems closer to fiction, of a peculiarly propagandistic and ironic kind. aside from omissions from the story--partly a matter of ignorance or failure in perception, and partly deliberate exclusion of inconvenient material--evelyn's enthusiastic acceptance of his source's frequent theatrical metaphors is one measure of the distance from history of the _pretended messiah_. when evelyn's sevi is grave, it is a "formal and pharisaical gravitie" which is "starcht on." his motives in general seem highly conscious, even deliberate; and despite a certain doubleness in the point of view of the _pretended messiah_, the reason for sevi's comic simplicity is not difficult to discover. sir paul rycaut, as i have suggested, seems primarily interested in the effects of the movement on trade. the most vehement thinking of the book, though ascribed to an unnamed opponent of sevi, could well be that of rycaut himself: [the opponent observed] in what a wilde manner the whole people of the jewes was transported, with the groundless beliefe of a _messiah_, leaving not onely their trade, and course of living, but publishing prophesies of a speedy kingdome, of rescue from the tyranny of the turk, and leading the grand signior himself captive in chaines; matters so dangerous and obnoxious to the state wherein they lived, as might justly convict them of treason and rebellion, and leave them to the mercy of that justice, which on the least jealousie and suspicion of matters of this nature uses to extirpate families, and subvert the mansion-houses of their own people, much rather of the jewes, on whom the turkes would gladly take occasion to dispoile them of their estates, and condemn the whole nation to perpetual slavery. (pp. - ) evelyn retains this and similar material, apparently never suspecting that the turks may well have been hesitant from real fear; but the burden of his emphasis is more overtly political and religious. evelyn is less than ingenuous, perhaps, in associating sevi with peter serini's fake brother, or even with mahomed bei--another of the "late famous impostors." but the connection does have the effect of putting sevi in an imaginary world where all masks will be discovered and the truth known. ultimately, evelyn's jews, like dryden's and milton's, are english--"_our_ modern enthusiasts and other prodigious sects amongst us, who dreame of the like carnal expectations, and a temporal monarchy" (sig. a ; italics mine). one hardly needs to fill out the reading. with a traditional reminder that "the time is not yet accomplished," evelyn warns english sectarians to beware of misleading fictions--"to weigh how nearly their characters approach the style and design of those deluded wretches." evelyn's words here suggest something of the wider interest of the _pretended messiah_. for in threatening the modern enthusiasts, as it were, with the status of comic fiction, he also hinted at the literal immediacy of such explicitly imaginative works as _absalom and achitophel_, _paradise regained_, and _samson agonistes_. what evelyn's _pretended messiah_ helps to reveal, then, is not only the potential metaphoric value of news itself, but also the peculiar proximity of poetry to "history" in a period when historical thought was inseparable from apocalyptic myth.[ ] university of california, los angeles notes to the introduction [ ] michael fixler, _milton and the kingdoms of god_ (london, ), p. . [ ] joseph kastein, _the messiah of ismir_, trans. huntley paterson (new york, ), p. . [ ] for an account of the events leading to the extra-judicial opinion of glyn and steele, see samuel r. gardiner, _history of the commonwealth and protectorate, - _, iii (london, ), - . [ ] _milton and the kingdoms of god_ (london, ), especially pp. - . [ ] heinrich graetz, _history of the jews_, v (philadelphia, ), - . see also henry malter, "shabetai zebi b. mordecai," _the jewish encyclopedia_, x ( ). [ ] kastein, p. . [ ] for a provocative study of apocalypse in fiction, see frank kermode, _the sense of an ending_ (oxford, ). bibliographical note the text of this edition is reproduced from a copy in the william andrews clark memorial library. the history of the three late famous impostors, {_padre ottomano_, viz. {_mahomed bei_, and {_sabatai sevi_. the _one_, pretended _son_ and _heir_ to the late _grand signior_; the _other_, a _prince_ of the _ottoman_ family, but in _truth_, a _valachian counterfeit_. and the last, the suppos'd _messiah_ of the _jews_, in the _year_ of the true _messiah_, . with a brief _account_ of the _ground_, and _occasion_ of the present _war_ between the _turk_ and the _venetian_. together with the _cause_ of the final _extirpation_, _destruction_ and _exile_ of the _jews_ out of the empire of persia. * * * * * in the _savoy_, printed for _henry herringman_ at the sign of the _anchor_ in the lower-walk of the _new-exchange_. . [illustration: title decoration] to the reader. _the great_ scaliger _was wont commonly to say_, omnis historia bona, _that all_ history _was_ good; _meaning, that it was_ worthy _of_ notice, _so it were_ true, _and_ matter _of_ fact, _though the_ subject _of it were never so_ trivial. this, _though but a_ pamphlet _in bulke, is very_ considerable _for the_ matters _it containes, and for that it endeavours to informe, and disabuse_ _the_ world _of a current_ error, _which has mingled, and spread it selfe into divers grave_ relations _that have been_ printed, _and confidently published many yeares without suspition._ _how i came to be enlightned for these_ pieces, _i have in part declar'd in my_ dedicatory _addresses; and if i forbear to publish the_ name _of that intelligent_ stranger, _and that other_ person, _from whom i received my_ informations; _you are to know, that it is not out of fear of being detected of_ imposture, _whil'st we declare against it, and which cannot serve any_ interest _of the_ relators; _but because, being_ strangers, _or_ itinerants, _and one of them upon his return into his_ _native_ country _(which may possibly engage them to passe by_ malta, _and other_ levantine _parts obnoxious to these_ discourses) _it would appear but ingrateful in us to expose them to an_ inconvenience. _let it suffice to assure you, that they are_ persons _of no mean_ parts, ingenuity _and_ candor; _well acquainted with the_ eastern countreys _and_ affaires, _and that have themselves been witnesses of most of these transactions._ _it were to be wish'd that our_ christian monarchs _had alwayes near them some dextrous_ person _of this_ gentlemans _abilites; were it but to_ discover _such_ cheates _as frequently appearing under the disguise of distressed_ princes, merchants, _&c. are, to truth, but_ spies, _and bold_ impostors, _and whom otherwise 'tis almost impossible to_ detect; _not to suggest the many other good_ offices, _as to the_ eastern commerce _and_ affaires, _they might be_ useful _in. but this is more than i have_ commission _to say from those who have no other design in what they_ relate, _than their_ affection _to_ truth. _it is not yet a full_ year _since there went a crafty_ varlet _about the_ countrey, _who pretended himself to be the_ brother _of the famous_ peter serini _(whose brave and_ heroick actions _had so celebrated him against the_ turkes) _and related a_ story _by his feign'd_ interpreter, _how he fortun'd to be cast on shore on the_ west _of_ england, _as he was conducting_ supplies _from abroad._ this _he perform'd with a confidence and success so happily, as caus'd him to be_ receiv'd, presented, _and_ assisted (_like another_ mahomed bei) _by divers_ persons _of_ quality, _and some of them my nearest_ acquaintance, _in his pretended journey to_ court; _but being at last discover'd in a_ tipling-house _on the_ rode, _where un-mindful of his_ part _and_ character, _he call'd for a_ pot _of_ ale _in too good_ english, _and a more natural_ tone _than became so great a_ stranger, _and the_ person _he put on, we heard no more of the_ gamester: _i wish our_ fin-land spirit, _who is of late dropt out of the_ clouds _amongst us, prove not one of his_ disciples; _for the_ age _is very fertile; and i am told, that our_ mahomed _having receiv'd his_ ajuda de costo _from the bounty and charity of a great_ person _of more easie_ beliefe, _is slipt aside for fear of the_ porters-lodge, _and yet 'tis_ possible _you may hear more of him before his_ ramble _be quite at a period._ _you have at the end of the last_ impostor _an_ account _of the_ jews _exile out of that vast_ empire _of_ persia, _happening but the other day; which, together with the miscarriage of their late_ messiah (_the_ twenty-fifth _pretender to it as i am credibly inform'd, it stands in their own_ records) _might, one would think, at last open the_ eyes, _and turne the_ hearts _of that_ obstinate _and miserable_ people: _but whil'st the_ time _not yet_ accomplish'd, _i could_ _wish our modern_ enthusiasts, _and other prodigious_ sects _amongst us, who dreame of the like carnal_ expectations, _and a_ temporal monarchy, _might seriously weigh how nearly their_ characters _approach the_ style _and_ design _of these deluded_ wretches, _least they fall into the same_ condemnation, _and the snare of the_ devil. * * * * * errata. _page , line , read_ deside. _l. r. dignità, . . r. spina longa, l. . r._ detected. _ l. , r. it'aser. . . dele and. . l. . essendo. l. . promessa per gli suoi profeti e padri nostri. . l. . r. digjuni. . . r._ should be wrought. _ . l. . r._ not onely. _ . . r._ one that (as it was said). _ . l. . r._ tenor. _ . . dele_ which, and read _it. . . r._ as that. _ . l. . r. cymeterie._ * * * * * the end [illustration: title decoration] the history of _sabatai sevi_, the pretended _messiah_ of the _jewes_, in the year of our _lord_, . the _third impostor_. according to the predictions of several _christian_ writers, especially of such who comment on the _apocalyps_, or revelations, this year of was to prove a year of wonders, of strange revolutions in the world, and particularly of blessing to the _jewes_, either in respect of their conversion to the _christian_ faith, or of their restoration to their temporal kingdome: this opinion was so dilated, and fixt in the countreys of the reformed religion, and in the heads of phanatical _enthusiasts_, who dreamed of a fift monarchy, the downfall of the _pope_, and _antichrist_, and the greatness of the _jewes_: in so much, that this subtile people judged this year the time to stir, and to fit their motion according to the season of the modern prophesies; whereupon strange reports flew from place to place, of the march of multitudes of people from unknown parts into the remote desarts of _arabia_, supposed to be the _ten tribes_ and _halfe_, lost for so many ages. that a ship was arrived in the northern parts of _scotland_ with her sailes and cordage of silke, navigated by mariners who spake nothing but _hebrew_; with this motto on their sailes, _the twelve tribes of israel_. these reportes agreeing thus near to former predictions, put the wild sort of the world into an expectation of strange accidents, this year should produce in reference to the _jewish_ monarchy. in this manner millions of people were possessed, when _sabatai sevi_ first appear'd at _smyrna_, and published himself to the _jewes_ for their _messiah_, relating the greatness of their approaching kingdome, the strong hand whereby god was about to deliver them from bondage, and gather them from all partes of the world. it was strange to see how the fancy took, and how fast the report of _sabatai_ and his doctrine flew through all partes where _turkes_ and _jews_ inhabited; the latter of which were so deeply possessed with a beliefe of their new kingdome, and riches, and many of them with promotion to offices of government, renown, and greatness, that in all parts from _constantinople_ to _buda_ (which it was my fortune that year to travel) i perceiv'd a strange transport in the _jewes_, none of them attending to any business unless to winde up former negotiations, and to prepare themselves and families for a journey to _jerusalem_: all their discourses, their dreames, and disposal of their affaires tended to no other design but a re-establishment in the land of promise, to greatness, glory, wisdome, and doctrine of the _messiah_, whose original, birth, and education are first to be recounted. _sabatai sevi_ was son of _mordechai sevi_, an inhabitant, and natural of _smyrna_, who gained his livelihood by being _broaker_ to an _english_ marchant in that place; a person, who before his death was very decrepit in his body, and full of the goute, and other infirmities, but his son _sabatai sevi_ addicting himself to study, became a notable proficient in the _hebrew_ and _metaphysicks_; and arrived to that point of _sophistry_ in _divinity_ and _metaphysicks_, that he vented a new doctrine in their law, drawing to the profession of it so many disciples, as raised one day a tumult in the _synagogue_; for which afterwards he was by a censure of the _chochams_ (who are expounders of the law) banished the city. during the time of his exile, he travelled to _thessalonica_, now called _salonica_, where he marryed a very handsome woman; but either not having that part of oeconomy as to govern a wife, or being impotent towards women, as was pretended, or that she found not favour in his eyes, she was divorced from him: again, he took a second wife, more beautiful then the former, but the same causes of discontent raising a difference between them, he obtained another divorce from this wife also. and being now free from the incumbrances of a family, his wandring head mov'd him to travel through the _morea_, thence to _tripoli_ in _syria_, _gaza_, and _jerusalem_; and by the way picked up a _ligornese_ lady, whom he made his third wife, the daughter of some _polonian_ or _german_, her original and parentage not being very well known. and being now at _jerusalem_ he began to reforme the _law_ of the _jewes_, and abolish the _fast_ of _tamuz_ (which they keep in the moneth of _june_) and there meeting with a certain _jew_ called _nathan_, a proper instrument to promote his design; he communicated to him his condition, his course of life, and intentions, to proclaime himself _messiah_ of the world, so long expected and desired by the _jewes_. this design took wonderfully with _nathan_; and because it was thought necessary according to _scripture_, and antient _prophesies_, that _elias_ was to precede the _messiah_, as st. _john baptist_ was the fore-runner of _christ_: _nathan_ thought no man so proper to act the part of the _prophet_ as himself; and so no sooner had _sabatai_ declared himself the _messiah_, but _nathan_ discovers himself to be his prophet, forbiding all the fasts of the _jewes_ in _jerusalem_; and declaring, that the bridegroom being come, nothing but joy, and triumph ought to dwell in their habitations; writing to all the assemblies of the _jewes_, to perswade them to the same beliefe. and now the schisme being begun, and many _jewes_ really believing what they so much desired, _nathan_ took the courage and boldness to prophesie, that one year from the th of _kislev_, (which is the moneth of _june_) the _messiah_ shall appear before the _grand signor_, & take from him his crown and lead him in chaines like a captive. _sabatai_ also at _gaza_ preached repentance to the _jewes_, and obedience to himself and doctrine, for that the coming of the _messiah_ was at hand: which novelties so affected the _jewish_ inhabitants of those partes, that they gave up themselves wholly to their prayers, almes, and devotions; and to confirme this beliefe the more, it hapned, that at the same time that newes hereof, with all perticulars were dispatched from _gaza_, to acquaint the brethren in forrain partes: the rumour of the _messiah_ hath flown so swift, and gained such reception, that intelligence came from all partes and countreys where the _jewes_ inhabit, by letters to _gaza_, and _jerusalem_, congratulating the happiness of their deliverance, and expiration of the time of their servitude, by the appearance of the _messiah_. to which they adjoyned other prophesies, relating to that dominion the _messiah_ was to have over all the world: that for nine moneths after he was to disappeare; during which time the _jewes_ were to suffer, and many of them to undergoe martyrdom: but then returning again mounted on a coelestial _lyon_, with his bridle made of _serpents_ with seven heads, accompanyed with his brethren the _jewes_, who inhabited on the other side of the river _sabation_, he should be acknowledged for the sole monarch of the universe; and then the _holy temple_ should descend from heaven already built, framed, and beautified, wherein they should offer sacrifice for ever. and here i leave you to consider, how strangely this deceived people was amused, when these confident, and vain reports, and dreams of power, and kingdomes, had wholly transported them from the ordinary course of their trade, and interest. this noise and rumour of the _messiah_, having begun to fill all places, _sabatai sevi_ resolved to travel towards _smyrna_, the country of his nativity; and thence to _constantinople_ the capital city, where the principal work of preaching was to have been performed: _nathan_ thought it not fit to be long after him, and therefore travels by the way of _damascus_, where resolving to continue some time for better propagation of this new doctrine; in the meane while writes this letter to _sabatai sevi_, as followeth. . _kesvan_ of this year. t_o the_ king, _our_ king, lord _of our_ lords, _who gathers the dispersed of_ israel, _who redeems our_ captivity, _the man elevated to the height of all sublimity, the_ messiah _of the_ god _of_ jacob, _the true_ messiah, _the_ coelestial lyon, sabatai sevi, _whose honour be exalted, and his dominion raised in a short time, and for ever_, amen. _after having kissed your hands, and swept the dust from your feet, as my duty is to the_ king _of_ kings, _whose majesty be exalted, and his empire enlarged. these are to make known to the supreme excellency of that place, which is adorned with the beauty of your sanctity, that the word of the_ king, _and of his law, hath enlightned our faces: that day hath been a solemn day unto_ israel, _and a day of light unto our rulers, for immediately we applyed our selves to performe your commands, as our duty is. and though we have heard of many strange things,_ _yet we are couragious, and our heart is as the heart of a lyon; nor ought we to enquire a reason of your doings, for your workes are marvellous, and past finding out: and we are confirmed in our fidelity without all exception, resigning up our very souls for the holiness of your name: and now we are come as far as_ damascus, _intending shortly to proceed in our journey to_ scanderone, _according as you have commanded us; that so we may ascend, and see the face of god in light, as the light of the face of the king of life: and we, servants of your servants shall cleanse the dust from your feet, beseeching the majesty of your excellency and glory to vouchsafe from your habitation to have a care of us, and help us with the force of your right hand of strength, and shorten our way which is before us: and we have our eyes towards_ jah, jah, _who will make hast to help us, and save us, that the children of iniquity shall not hurt us; and towards whom our hearts pant, and are consumed within us: who shall give us tallons of iron to be worthy to stand under the shadow of your_ asse. _these are the words of the servant of your servants, who prostrates himself to be trod on by the soles of your feet,_ nathan benjamine. and that he might publish this doctrine of himself, and the _messiah_ more plainly, he wrote from _damascus_ this following letter, to the _jewes_ at _aleppo_, and parts thereabouts. to the residue or remnant of the _israelites_, peace without end. [sidenote: sabatai _wrote a letter to elect one man out of every tribe_.] _these my words are, to give you notice, how that i am arrived in peace at_ damascus, _and behold i go to meet the face of our lord, whose majesty be exalted, for he is the soveraign of the king of kings, whose empire be enlarged. according as he hath commanded us and the_ tribes _to elect unto him_ _men, so have we done: and we now go to_ scanderone _by his command, to shew our faces together, with part of the principal of those particular friends to whom he hath given licence to assemble in that same place. and now i come to make known unto you, that though you have heard strange things of our lord, yet let not your hearts faint, or fear, but rather fortifie your selves in your faith, because all his actions are miraculous, and secret, which humane understanding cannot comprehend, and who can penetrate into the depth of them. in a short time all things shall be manifested to you clearly in their purity: and you shall know, and consider, and be instructed by the inventor himself; blessed is he who can expect, and arrive to the salvation of the true_ messiah, _who will speedily publish his authority and empire over us now, and for ever._ _nathan._ and now all the _cities_ of _turky_ where the _jewes_ inhabited were full of the expectation of the _messiah_; no trade, nor course of gaine was followed: every one imagin'd that dayly provisions, riches, honours, and government, were to descend upon them by some unknown and miraculous manner: an example of which is most observable in the _jewes_ at _thessalonica_, who now full of assurance that the restoration of their kingdome, and the accomplishment of the time for the coming of the _messiah_ was at hand, judged themselves obliged to double their devotions, and purifie their consciences from all sins and enormities which might be obvious to the scrutiny of him who was now come to penetrate into the very thoughts and imaginations of mankinde. in which work certain _chochams_ were appointed to direct the people how to regulate their prayers, fasts, and other acts of devotion. but so forward was every one now in his acts of penance, that they stay'd not for the sentence of the _chocham_, or prescription of any rules, but apply'd themselves immediately to fasting: and some in that manner beyond the abilities of nature, that having for the space of seven dayes taken no sustenance, were famished to death. others buryed themselves in their gardens, covering their naked bodies with earth, their heads onely excepted, remained in their beds of dirt until their bodies were stifned with the cold and moisture: others would indure to have melted wax dropt upon their shoulders, others to rowle themselves in snow, and throw their bodies in the coldest season of winter into the sea, or frozen waters. but the most common way of mortification was first to prick their backs and sides with thornes, and then to give themselves thirty nine lashes. all business was laid aside, none worked, or opened shop, unless to clear his warehouse of merchandize at any price: who had superfluity in houshold-stuffe, sold it for what he could; but yet not to _iewes_, for they were interdicted from bargaines or sales, on the pain of excommunication, pecuniary mulcts, or corporal punishments; for all business and imployment was esteemed the test, and touchstone of their faith. it being the general tenent, that in the dayes that the _messiah_ appeares, the _iewes_ shall become masters of the estates and inheritance of _infidels_; until when they are to content themselves with matters onely necessary to maintain and support life. but because every one was not master of so much fortune and provision, as to live without dayly labour, therefore to quiet the clamours of the poor, and prevent the enormous lives of some, who upon these occasions would become vagabonds, and desert their _cities_, due order was taken to make collections, which were so liberally bestow'd, that in _thessalonica_ onely poore were supported by the meer charity of the richer. and as they indeavour'd to purge their _consciences_ of sin, and to apply themselves to good workes, that the _messiah_ might find the city prepared for his reception; so, least he should accuse them of any omission in the law, and particularly in their neglect of that antient precept of increase and multiply; they marryed together children of ten yeares of age, and some under, without respect to riches, or poverty, condition or quality: but, being promiscuously joyned, to the number of or couple, upon better and cooler thoughts, after the deceipt of the false _messiah_ was discover'd, or the expectation of his coming grew cold, were divorced, or by consent separated from each other. in the heat of all this talk and rumor, comes _sabatai sevi_ to _smyrna_, the city of his nativity, infinitely desir'd there by the common _iewes_; but by the _chochams_, or _doctors_ of their _law_, who gave little or no credence to what he pretended, was ill receiv'd, not knowing what mischief or ruine this doctrine and prophesie of a new kingdome might produce. yet _sabatai_ bringing with him testimonials of his sanctity, holy life, wisdom, and gift of prophesie, so deeply fixed himself in the heart of the generality, both as being holy and wise, that thereupon he took courage and boldness to enter into dispute with the grand _chocham_ (who is the head, and chief expositer of the _law_ and superintendent of their will and government) between whom the arguments grew so high, and language so hot, that the _iewes_ who favoured the doctrine of _sabatai_, and feared the authority of the _chocham_, doubtful what might be the issue of the contest, appear'd in great numbers before the _cadi_ of _smyrna_, in justification of their new prophet, before so much as any accusation came against him: the _cadi_ (according to the custome of the _turkes_,) swallows mony on both sides, and afterwards remits them to the determination of their own justice. in this manner _sabatai_ gaines ground dayly; and the grand _chocham_ with his party, losing both the affection and obedience of his people, is displaced from his office, and another constituted, more affectionate, and agreeable to the new prophet, whose power daily increased by those confident reports. that his enemies were struck with phrensies and madness, until being restor'd to their former temper and wits by him, became his friends, admirers, and disciples. no invitation was now made in _smyrna_ by the _iewes_, nor marriage, or circumcision solemnized, where _sabatai_ was not present, accompanyed with a multitude of his followers, and the streets cover'd with carpits, or fine cloath for him to tread on; but the humility of this _pharisee_ appear'd such, that he would stoop and turne them aside, and so pass. and having thus fixed himself in the opinion and admiration of the people, he began to take on himself the title of _messiah_, and the _son_ of _god_; and to make this following declaration to all the nation of the _iewes_, which being wrote originally in _hebrew_, was translated for me faithfully into _italian_, in this manner. _l'unico figliolo, e primogenito d' dio_, sabatai sevi, _il_ messiah, _e_ salvatore _d'_ israel _eletti di_ dio _pace bessendo che sete fatti degni di veder quel grangiorno della deliberatione e salvatione d'_ israel, _e consummatione delle parole di_ dio, _promess per li sua profeti, e padri notri, per il suo diletto figlio d'_ israel, _ogni vestra amaritudine si converta in allegrezza, e li vestri diginguiti facino feste, per che non piangerete o miei figliole d'_israel _havendovi dati_ iddio _la consolatione inenarrabile, festegiate contimpani e musiche, ringratiando quello chi ha adempito il promesso dalli secoli, facendo ogni giorno quelle cose che solete fare nelle callende, e quel giorno dedicato ali' afflictione e mestitia, convertite lo in giorno giocondo per la mia comparsa, e non spaventate niente, per che haverete dominio sopra, le genti, non solamente di quelle, che si vedodono in terra, ma quelle che sono in fondi del mare, il tutto pro vestra consolatione & allegrezza._ which translated into _english_, runs thus; the onely, and first-borne son of _god_, _sabatai sevi_, the _messiah_ and _saviour_ of _israel_, to all the sons of _israel_, peace. since that you are made worthy to see that great day of deliverance, and salvation unto _israel_, and accomplishment of the word of god, promised by his prophets, and our forefathers, and by his beloved son of _israel_: let your bitter sorrowes be turned into joy, and your fasts into festivals, for you shall weep no more, o my sons of _israel_, for god having given you this unspeakable comfort, rejoyce with _drums_, _organs_, and _musick_, giving thanks to him for performing his promise from all ages; doing that every day, which is usual for you to do upon the _new-moons_; and, that day dedicated to affliction and sorrow convert you into a day of mirth for my appearance: and fear you nothing, for you shall have dominion over the nations, and not onely over those who are on earth, but over those creatures also which are in the depth of the sea. all which is for your consolation and rejoycing. _sabatai sevi._ notwithstanding the disciples of _sabatai sevi_ were not so numerous, but many opposed his doctrine, publiquely avouching that he was an _impostor_, and deceiver of the people, amongst which was one _samuel pennia_, a man of a good estate and reputation in _smyrna_, who arguing in the _synagogue_, that the present signs of the coming of the _messiah_ were not apparent, either according to scripture, or the doctrine of the _rabbins_, raised such a sedition and tumult amongst the _jews_, as not onely prevailed against arguments, but had also against his life, had he not timely conveyed himself out of the _synagogue_, and thereby escaped the hands of the multitude, who now could more easily endure blasphemy against the _law_ of _moses_, and the prophanation of the _sanctuary_, than contradiction, or misbelief of the doctrine of _sabatai_. but howsoever it fell out, _pennia_ in short time becomes a convert, and preaches up _sabatai_ for the _son_ of _god_, and _deliverer_ of the _jews_: and not onely he, but his whole family; his daughters prophesie, and fall into strange extasies; and not onely his house, but four hundred men and women prophesie of the growing kingdom of _sabatai_, and young infants who could yet scarce stammer out a syllable to their mothers, repeat, and pronounce plainly the name of _sabatai_ the _messiah_, and son of god. for thus farr had god permitted the devil to delude this people, that their very children were for a time possessed, and voices heard to sound from their stomacks, and intrails: those of riper years fell first into a trance, foamed at the mouth, and recounted the future prosperitie, and deliverance of the _israelites_, their visions of the _lion_ of _judah_, and the triumphs of _sabatai_, all which were certainly true, being effects of _diabolical_ delusions: as the _jews_ themselves since have confessed unto me. with these concomitant accidents, and successes, _sabatai sevi_ growing more presumptuous, that he might correspond with the prophesies of greatness, and dominion of the _messiah_, proceeds to an election of those princes which were to govern the _israelites_ in their march towards the _holy-land_, and to dispence judgement and justice after their restoration. the names of them were these which follow, men well known at _smyrna_, who never (god knows) had ambition to aspire to the title of princes, until a strange spirit of deceit and delusion had moved them, not onely to hope for it as possible, but to expect it as certain. _isaac silvera._ king _david._ _salomon lagnado._ was _salomon._ _salom lagnado_ jun. named _zovah._ _joseph cohen._ _uzziah._ _moses galente._ _josaphat._ _daniel pinto._ _hilkiah._ _abraham scandale._ _jotham._ _mokiah gaspar._ _zedekiah._ _abraham leon._ _achas._ _ephraim arditi._ _joram._ _salom carmona._ _achab._ _matassia aschenesi._ _asa._ _meir alcaira._ _rehoboam._ _jacob loxas._ _ammon._ _mordecai jesserun._ _jehoachim._ _chaim inegna._ _jeroboam._ _joseph scavillo._ _abia._ _conor nehemias._ was _zarobabel._ _joseph del caire._ named _joas._ _elcukin schavit._ _amasia._ _abraham rubio._ _josiah._ _elias sevi_ had the title of the _king_ of the _king_ of _kings_. _elias azar_ his _vice-king_, or _vizier._ _joseph sevi_, the _king_ of the _kings_ of _judah_. _joseph inernuch_ his _vice-king_. in this manner things ran to a strange height of madness amongst the _jews_ at _smyrna_, where appear'd such pageantry of greatness, that no comedy could equal the mock-shews they represented, and though none durst openly profess any scruple, or doubt of this common received belief, yet for confirmation of the _jews_ in their faith, and astonishment of the _gentiles_, it was judged no less than necessary that _sabatai_ should shew some miracles, whereby to evince to all the world that he was the true _messiah_: and as the present occasion seemed to require an evidence infallible of this truth, so it was daily expected by the vulgar, with an impatience sutable to humors disposed to noveltie; who out of every action and motion of their prophet began to fancy something extraordinary and supernatural. _sabatai_ was now horribly puzzled for a miracle, though the imagination of the people was so vitiated that any _legerdemaine_, or slight of hand would have passed more easily with them for a wonder than _moses_ striking the rock for water, or dividing the _red sea_. and occasion happening that _sabatai_ was, in behalf of his subjects, to appear before the _cadi_, or judge of the citie to demand ease, and relief of some oppressions which aggrieved them: it was thought necessary a miracle should now or never, when _sabatai_ appearing with a formal and _pharisaical_ gravitie, which he had starcht on: some on a sudden avouched to see a pillar of fire between him and the _cadi_, which report presently was heard through the whole room, filled with _jews_ that accompanied _sabatai_, some of whom, who strongly fancied it, vow'd, and swore they saw it; others in the outward yard, or that could not come near to hear, or see for the crowd, as speedily took the alarm, and the rumour ran, and belief receiv'd by the women and children at home in a moment, so that _sabatai sevi_ returned to his house triumphant, fixed in the hearts of his people, who now needed no further miracles to confirm them in their faith. and thus was _sabatai_ exalted, when no man was thought worthy of communication who did not believe him to be the _messiah_: others were called _kophrim_, infidels or hereticks, liable to the censure of excommunication, with whom it was not lawful so much as to eat: every man produc'd his treasure, his gold and jewels, offering them at the feet of _sabatai_; so that he could have commanded all the wealth of _smyrna_, but he was too subtil to accept their money, least he should render his design suspected by any act of covetousness. _sabatai sevi_ having thus fully fixed himself in _smyrna_, and filled other places with rumors of his fame; declared that he was called by god to visit _constantinople_, where the greatest part of his work was to be accomplisht; in order whereunto he privately ships himself, with some few attendants in a _turkish saick_, in the moneth of _january_ . least the crowd of his disciples, and such who would press to follow him, should endanger him in the eyes of the _turks_, who already began to be scandalized at the reports and prophesies concerning his person. but though _sabatai_ took few into the vessel to him, yet a multitude of _jews_ travell'd over land to meet him again at _constantinople_, on whom all their eyes and expectations were intent. the wind proving northernly, as commonly it is in the _helespont_ and _propontis_; _sabatai_ was thirtie nine days in his voyage, and yet the vessel not arriv'd, so little power had this _messiah_ over the sea and winds, in which time news being come to _constantinople_ that the _jews messiah_ was near, all that people prepared to receive him with the same joy and impatience as was exprest in other parts where he arrived; the great _vizier_ (then also at _constantinople_, being not yet departed on his expedition for _candia_) having heard some rumors of this man, and the disorder and madness he had raised amongst the _jews_; sent two boats, whil'st the _saick_ was detained by contrary winds, with commands to bring him up prisoner to the port, where accordingly _sabatai_ being come, was committed to the most loathsom and darkest dungeon in the town, there to remain in farther expectation of the _viziers_ sentence: the _jews_ were not at all discouraged at this ill treatment of their prophet, but rather confirmed in their belief of him, as being the accomplishment of the prophesie of those things which ought to precede his glory and dominion; which consideration induc'd the chiefest persons amongst the _jews_ to make their visits and addresses to him with the same ceremony and respect in the dungeon as they would have done had he then sat exalted on the throne of _israel_: several of them, with one _anacago_, by name, a man of great esteem amongst the _jews_, attended a whole day before him, with their eyes cast down, their bodies bending forward, and hands crost before them (which are postures of humility, and service in the eastern countreys) the undecency of the place, and present subjection, not having in the least abated their high thoughts, and reverence towards his person. the _jews_ in _constantinople_ were now become as mad and distracted as they were in other places, all trade and trafficque forbidden, and those who owed money, in no manner careful how to satisfie it: amongst which wild crew some were indebted to our merchants at _galata_, who not knowing the way to receive their money, partly for their interest, and partly for curiosity thought fit to visit this _sabatai_, complayning that such particular _jews_, upon his coming, took upon them the boldness to defraud them of their right, desired he would be pleased to signifie to these his subjects, his pleasure to have satisfaction given: whereupon _sabatai_ with much affectation took pen and paper, and wrote to this effect. to you of the nation of the _jews_, who expect the appearance of the _messiah_, and the salvation of _israel_, peace without end. whereas we are informed that you are indebted to several of the _english_ nation: it seemeth right unto us to enorder you to make satisfaction to these your just debts: which if you refuse to do, and not obey us herein: know you, that then you are not to enter with us into our joys and dominions. in this manner _sabatai sevi_ remained a prisoner at _constantinople_ for the space of two moneths; at the end of which, the _vizier_ having designed his expedition for _candia_; and considering the rumor and disturbance the presence of _sabatai_ had made already at _constantinople_, thought it not secure to suffer him to remain in the imperial citie, whil'st both the _grand signior_ and himself were absent: and therefore changes his prison to the _dardanelli_, otherwise called the _castle_ of _abydos_, being on the _europe_ side of the _helespont_, opposite to _sestos_, places famous in _greek_ poetrie. this removal of _sabatai_ from a worse prison to one of a better air; confirmed the _jews_ with greater confidence of his being the _messiah_, supposing that had it been in the power of the _vizier_, or other officers of the _turks_, to have destroyed his person, they would never have permitted him to have lived to that time, in regard their _maximes_ enforce them to quit all jealousies and suspitions of ruine to their state by the death of the party feared, which much rather they ought to execute on _sabatai_, who had not onely declared himself the _king_ of _israel_, but also published prophesies fatal to the _grand signior_ and his kingdoms. with this consideration, and others preceding, the _jews_ flock in great numbers to the _castle_, where he was imprisoned, not onely from the neighbouring parts, but also from _poland_, _germanie_, _legorne_, _venice_, _amsterdam_, and other places where the _jews_ reside: on all whom, as a reward of the expence, and labours of their pilgrimage, _sabatai_ bestowed plenty of his benedictions, promising encrease of their store, and enlargement of their possessions in the _holy-land_. and so great was the confluence of the _jews_ to this place, that the _turks_ thought it requisite to make their advantage thereof, and so not onely raised the price of their provision, lodgings, and other necessaries, but also denied to admit any to the presence of _sabatai_, unless for money, setting the price, sometimes at five, sometimes at ten _dollers_, or more or less, according as they guessed at their abilities, or zeal of the person, by which gain and advantage to the _turks_ no complaints or advices were carried to _adrianople_, either of the concourse of people, or arguments amongst the _jews_ in that place; but rather all civilities, and libertie indulged unto them, which served as a farther argument to ensnare this poor people in the belief of their _messiah_. during this time of confinement, _sabatai_ had leisure to compose and institute a new method of worship for the _jews_, and principally the manner of the celebration of the day of his _nativity_, which he prescribed in this manner. brethren, and my people, men of _religion_ inhabiting the _city_ of _smyrna_ the renowned, where live men, and women, and families; peace be unto you from the lord of peace, and from me his beloved son, king _salomon_. i command you that the ninth day of the moneth of _ab_ (which according to our account answered that year to the moneth of _june_) next to come, you make a day of invitation, and of great joy, celebrating it with choice meats and pleasing drinks, with many candles and lamps, with musick and songs, because it is the day of the birth of _sabatai sevi_, the high king above all kings of the earth. and as to matters of labour, and other things of like nature, do, as becomes you, upon a day of festival, adorned with your finest garments. as to your prayers, let the same order be used as upon festivals. to converse with _christians_ on that day is unlawful, though your discourse be of matters indifferent, all labour is forbidden, but to sound instruments is lawful. this shall be the method and substance of your prayers on this day of festival: after you have said, blessed be thou, o holy god! then proceed and say, thou hast chosen us before all people, and hast loved us, and hast been delighted with us, and hast humbled us more than all other nations, and hast sanctified us with thy precepts, and hast brought us near to thy service, and the service of our king. thy holy, great, and terrible name thou hast published amongst us: and hast given us, o lord god, according to thy love, time of joy, of festivals, and times of mirth, and this day of consolation for a solemn convocation of holiness, for the birth of our king the _messiah, sabatai sevi_ thy servant, and first-born son in love, through whom we commemorate our coming out of _egypt_. and then you shall read for your lesson the , , and chapters of _deut._ to the verse, appointing for the reading thereof five men, in a perfect and uncorrupted bible, adding thereunto the blessings of the morning, as are prescribed for days of festival: and for the lesson out of the prophets usually read in the _synagogue_ every _sabbath_: you shall read the chapt. of _jeremiah_. to your prayer called _mussaf_ (used in the _synagogue_ every _sabbath_ and solemn festival) you shall adjoyn that of the present festival; in stead of the sacrifice of addition, of the returning of the _bible_ to its place, you shall read with an audible voice, clear sound, the _psalm_ . and at the first praises in the morning, after you have sang _psalm_ , and just before you sing _psalm_ , you shall repeate _psalm_ but in the last verse, where it is said, _as for his enemies i shall cloath them with shame, but upon himself shall his crown flourish_; in the place of (_upon himself_) you shall read _upon the most high_: after which shall follow the _psalm_, and then the to the . at the consecration of the wine upon the vigil, or even, you shall make mention of the feast of consolation, which is the day of the birth of our king the messiah _sabatai sevi_ thy servant, and first-born son, giving the blessing as followeth: blessed be thou our god, king of the world, who hast made us to live, and hast maintain'd us, and hast kept us alive unto this time. upon the eve of this day you shall read also the _psalm_, as also the and _psalmes_, which are appointed for the morning praises. and this day shall be unto you for a remembrance of a solemn day unto eternal ages, and a perpetual testimony between me, and the sons of _israel_. _audite audiendo & manducate bonam._ besides which order, and method of prayers for solemnization of his birth, he prescribed other rules for divine service, and particularly published the same indulgence and priviledge to every one who should pray at the tomb of his mother; as if he had taken on him a pilgrimage to pray, and sacrifice at _jerusalem_. the devotion of the _jewes_ toward this pretended _messiah_ increased still more and more, so that onely the chief of the city went to attend, and proffer their service toward him in the time of his imprisonment, but likewise decked their _synagogue_ with _s. s._ in letters of gold, making for him on the wall a crown, in the circle of which was wrote the _psalm_ at length, in faire and legible characters; attributing the same titles to _sabatai_, and expounding the _scriptures_ in the same manner in favour of his appearance, as we do of our _saviour_. however some of the _jewes_ remain'd in their wits all this time, amongst which was a certain _chocham_ at _smyrna_, one zealous of his law, and of the good and safety of his nation: and observing in what a wilde manner the whole people of the _jewes_ was transported, with the groundless beliefe of a _messiah_, leaving not onely their trade, and course of living, but publishing prophesies of a speedy kingdome, of rescue from the tyranny of the _turk_, and leading the grand _signior_ himself captive in chaines; matters so dangerous and obnoxious to the state wherein they lived, as might justly convict them of treason and rebellion, and leave them to the mercy of that justice, which on the least jealousie and suspicion of matters of this nature, uses to extirpate families, and subvert the mansion-houses of their own people, much rather of the _jewes_, on whom the _turkes_ would gladly take occasion to dispoile them of their estates, and condemn the whole nation to perpetual slavery. and indeed it would have been a greater wonder then ever _sabatai_ shewed, that the _turkes_ took no advantage from all these extravagances, to dreine the _jewes_ of a considerable sum of money, and set their whole race in _turky_ at a ransome, had not these passages yielded them matter of pastime, and been the subject of the _turkes_ laughter and scorne; supposing it a disparagement to the greatness of the _ottoman_ empire, to be concerned for the rumors and combustions of this dispersed people. with these considerations this _chocham_, that he might clear himself of the blood and guilt of his countrey-men, and concern'd in the common destruction, goes before the _cadi_, and there protests against the present doctrine; declaring, that he had no hand in setting up of _sabatai_, but was an enemy both to him and to his whole sect. this freedome of the _chocham_ so enraged and scandalized the _jewes_, that they judged no condemnation or punishment too severe against such an offender and blasphemer of their law, and holiness of the _messiah_; and therefore with money and presents to the _cadi_, accusing him as disobedient in a capital nature to their government, obtain'd sentence against him, to have his beard shaved, and to be condemn'd to the _gallies_. there wanted nothing now to the appearance of the _messiah_, and the solemnity of his coming, but the presence of _elias_, whom the _jewes_ began to expect hourely, and with that attention and earnestness, that every dreame, or phantasme to a weak head was judged to be _elias_; it being taught, and averred, that he was seen in divers formes and shapes, not to be certainly discovered or known, before the coming of the _messiah_; for this superstition is so far fixed amongst them, that generally in their families they spread a table for _elias_ the prophet, to which they make an invitation of poor people, leaving the chief place for the lord _elias_, whom they believe to be invisibly present at the entertainment, and there to eate, and drink, without dimunition, either of the dishes, or of the cup. one person amongst the _jewes_ commanded his wife after a supper of this kind, to leave the cup filled with wine, and the meat standing all night, for _elias_ to feast, and rejoyce alone; and in the morning arising early, affirmed, that _elias_ took this banquet so kindly, that in token of gratitude, and acceptance, he had replenish'd the cup with oyle, in stead of wine. it is a certain custome amongst the _jewes_ on the evening of the _sabbath_, to repeate certain praises of god (called _havdila_) which signifies a distinction, or separation of the sabbath from the prophane dayes (as they call them) which praises they observe to performe in this manner. one takes a cup filled with wine, and drops it through the whole house, saying, _elias_ the prophet, _elias_ the prophet, _elias_ the prophet, come quickly to us with the _messiah_, the _son_ of _god_, and _david_; and this they affirme to be so acceptable to _elias_, that he never failes to preserve that family, so devoted to him, and augment it with the blessings of increase. many other things the _jewes_ avouch of _elias_, so ridiculous, as are not fit to be declar'd, amongst which this one is not far from our purpose, that at the circumcision there is alwayes a chair set for _elias_: and _sabatai sevi_ being once invited at _smyrna_ to the circumcision of the first-borne son of one _abraham gutiere_, a kinsman of _sabatai_, and all things ready for the ceremony, _sabatai sevi_ exhorted the parents of the child to expect a while until his farther order: after a good halfe hour, _sabatai_ order'd them to proceed and cut the _prepuce_ of the child, which was instantly perform'd with all joy and satisfaction to the parents: and being afterwards demanded the reason why he retarded the performance of that function, his answer was, that _elias_ had not as yet taken his seat, whom, as soon as he saw placed, he ordered them to proceed; and that now shortly _elias_ would discover himself openly, and proclaime the newes of the general redemption. this being the common opinion amongst the _jewes_, and that _sabatai sevi_ was the _messiah_, being become an article of faith, it was not hard to perswade them, that _elias_ was come already, that they met him in their dishes, in the darke, in their bed chambers, or any where else invisible, in the same manner as our common people in _england_ believe of _hobgoblins_, and _fairies_. for so it was, when _solomon cremona_, an inhabitant of _smyrna_, making a great feast, to which the principal _jewes_ of the _city_ were invited, after they had eaten and drank freely, one starts from his seat, and avouches, that he saw _elias_ upon the wall, and with that bowes to him, and complements him with all reverence and humility: some others having in like manner their fancies prepossessed, and their eyes with the fume of wine ill prepared to distinguish shadowes, immediately agreed upon the object, and then there was not one in the company who would say he did not see him: at which surprize every one was struck with reverence and awe; and the most eloquent amongst them, having their tongues loosed with joy, and wine, directed _orations_, _encomiums_, and acts of thankfulness to _elias_, courting and complementing him, as distracted lovers doe the supposed presence of their mistresses. another _jew_ at _constantinople_ reported, that he met _elias_ in the streets, habited like a _turke_, with whom he had a long communication; and that he enjoyn'd the observation of many neglected ceremonies, and particularly the _zezit_, _numb._ . _v._ . _speak unto the children of_ israel, _and bid them that they make_ fringes _in the borders of their garments, throughout their generations, and that they put upon the fringe of the border a_ ribbon _of blue_. also the _peos_, levit. . v. . _ye shall not round the corners of your head, nor marr the corners of your beard_: this apparition of _elias_ being believed as soon as published, every one began to obey the vision, by fringing their garments; and for their heads, though alwayes shaved, according to the _turkish_ and eastern fashion, and that the suffering hair to grow, to men not accustomed, was heavy, and incommodious to their healths and heads; yet to begin again to renew, as far as was possible, the antient ceremonies, every one nourished a lock of hair on each side, which might be visible beneath their caps; which soon after began to be a sign of distinction between the _believers_ and _kophrims_, a name of dishonour, signifying as much as _unbelievers_; or _hereticks_, given to those who confessed not _sabatai_ to be the _messiah_; which particulars, if not observed, it was declared, as a menace of _elias_, that the people of the _jewes_, who come from the river _sabation_ as is specifyed in the second _esdras_, chap. . shall take vengeance of those who are guilty of these omissions. but to return again to _sabatai sevi_ himself, we find him still remaining a prisoner in the _castle_ of _abydos_ upon the _hellespont_, admir'd and ador'd by his brethren, with more honor then before, and visited by pilgrimes from all parts where the fame of the coming of the _messiah_ had arriv'd; amongst which one from _poland_, named _nehemiah cohen_, was of special note, and renown, learned in the _hebrew_, _syriack_, and _chaldee_, and versed in the doctrine and _kabala_ of the _rabines_, as well as _sabatai_ himself, one (of whom it was said) had not this _sevi_ anticipated the design, esteemed himself as able a fellow to act the part of a _messiah_ as the other: howsoever, it being now too late to publish any such pretence, _sabatai_ having now eleven points of the law by possession of the office, and with that the hearts and belief of the _jewes_: _nehemiah_ was contented with some small appendage, or relation to a _messiah_; and therefore to lay his design the better, desired a private conference with _sabatai_: these two great rabbines being together, a hot dispute arose between them; for _cohen_ alleadged that according to scripture, and exposition of the learned thereupon, there were to be two _messiahs_, one called _ben ephraim_, and the other _ben david_: the first was to be a preacher of the _law_, poor, and despised, and a servant of the second, and his fore-runner; the other was to be great and rich, to restore the _jewes_ to _jerusalem_, to sit upon the throne of _david_, and to performe and act all those triumphs and conquests which were expected from _sabatai_. _nehemiah_ was contented to be _ben ephraim_, the afflicted and poor _messiah_; and _sabatai_ (for any thing i hear) was well enough contented he should be so: but that _nehemiah_ accused him for being too forward in publishing himself the latter _messiah_, before _ben ephraim_ had first been known unto the world. _sabatai_ took this reprehension so ill, either out of pride, and thoughts of his own infallibility, or that he suspected _nehemiah_, being once admitted for _ben ephraim_, would quickly (being a subtile and learned person) perswade the world that he was _ben david_, would by no means understand, or admit of this doctrine, or of _ben ephraim_ for a necessary officer: and thereupon the dispute grew so hot, and the controversie so irreconcileable, as was taken notice of by the _jewes_, and controverted amongst them, as every one fancy'd: but _sabatai_ being of greater authority, his sentence prevail'd, and _nehemiah_ was rejected, as _schismatical_, and an enemy to the _messiah_, which afterward proved the ruine and downfal of this _impostor_. for _nehemiah_ being thus baffled, and being a person of authority, and a haughty spirit, meditated nothing but revenge; to execute which to the full, he takes a journey to _adrianople_, and there informes the chief ministers of state, and officers of the court, who (by reason of the gain the _turks_ made of their prisoner at the _castle_ on the _hellespont_) heard nothing of all this concourse of people, and prophesies of the revolt of the _jews_ from their obedience to the _grand signior_; and taking likewise to his _counsel_ some certain discontented and unbelieving _chochams_, who being zealous for their nation, and jealous of the ill-consequences of this long-continued, and increasing madness, took liberty to informe the _chimacham_ (who was deputy of the great _vizier_ then at _candia_) that the _jew_, prisoner at the _castle_, called _sabatai sevi_, was a lewd person, and one who indeavoured to debauch the mindes of the _jewes_, and divert them from their honest course of livelihood, and obedience to the _grand signior_; and that therefore it was necessary to clear the world of so factious and dangerous a spirit: the _chimacham_ being thus informed, could do no less then acquaint the _grand signior_ with all the particulars of this mans condition, course of life, and doctrine; which were no sooner understood, but a _chiaux_, or _messenger_, was immediately dispatched, to bring up _sabatai sevi_ to _adrianople_. the _chiaux_ executed his commission after the _turkish_ fashion in hast, and brought _sabatai_ in a few days to _adrianople_, without further excuse or ceremony; not affording him an hours space to take a solemn farewel of his friends, his followers and adorers; who now were come to the vertical point of all their hopes and expectations. the _grand signior_ having by this time received divers informations of the madness of the _jews_, and the pretences of _sabatai_; grew big with desire and expectation to see him: so that he no sooner arrived at _adrianople_, but the same hour he was brought before the _grand signior_: _sabatai_ appeared much dejected, and failing of that courage which he shewed in the _synagogue_; and being demanded several questions in _turkish_ by the _grand signior_, he would not trust so farr to the vertue of his _messiahship_, as to deliver himself in the _turkish language_; but desired a _doctor_ of _physick_, (who had from a _jew_ turned _turk_,) to be his interpreter, which was granted to him; but not without reflection of the standers by; that had he been the _messiah_, and _son of god_, as he formerly pretended, his tongue would have flown with varietie, as well as with the perfection of languages. but the _grand signior_ would not be put off without a _miracle_, and it must be one of his own choice: which was, that _sabatai_ should be stript naked, and set as a mark to his dexterous archers: if the arrows passed not his body, but that his flesh and skin was proof like armour, then he would believe him to be the _messiah_, and the person whom god had design'd to those dominions, and greatnesses, he pretended. but now _sabatai_ not having faith enough to stand to so sharp a trial, renounced all his title to kingdoms and governments, alledging that he was an ordinary _chocham_, and a poor _jew_, as others were, and had nothing of priviledge, or vertue above the rest. the _grand signior_ notwithstanding, not wholly satisfied with this plain confession, declared, that having given publique scandal to the professors of the _mahometan_ religion, and done dishonour to his soveraign authoritie, by pretending to draw such a considerable portion from him, as the land of _palestine_; his treason and crime was not to be expiated by any other means then by a conversion to the _mahometan_ faith, which if he refus'd to do, the stake was ready at the gate of the _seraglio_ to empale him. _sabatai_ being now reduced to extremitie of his latter game; not being the least doubtful what to do; for to die for what he was assured was false, was against nature, and the death of a mad man: replyed with much chearfulness, that he was contented to turn _turk_, and that it was not of force, but of choice, having been a long time desirous of so glorious a profession, he esteemed himself much honored, that he had opportunity to own it; first in the presence of the _grand signior_. and here was the _non plus ultra_ of all the bluster and noise of this vain impostor. and now the _reader_ may be pleased to pause a while and contemplate the strange point of consternation, shame, and silence, to which the _jews_ were reduc't, when they understood how speedily their hopes were vanished, and how poorly and ignominiously all their fancies and promises of a new kingdom, their _pageantry_, and offices of devotion, were past like a tale, or a midnights dream: and as this was concluded, and the _jews_ sunk on a sudden, and fallen flat in their hopes, without so much as a line of comfort, or excuse from _sabatai_; more than in general, to all the brethren. that now they should apply themselves to their callings and services of god, as formerly, for that matters relating unto him were finished and the sentence past. the news that _sabatai_ was turned _turk_, and the _messiah_ to a _mahumetan_, quickly filled all parts of _turky_. the _jews_ were strangely surprized at it, and ashamed of their easie belief, of the arguments with which they had perswaded one the other, and of the proselytes they had made in their own families. abroad they became the common derision of the towns where they inhabited: the boys shouted after them, coyning a new word at _smyrna_ (_ponftai_) which every one seeing a _jew_, with a finger pointed out, would pronounce with scorn and contempt: so that this deceived people for a long time after remained with confusion, silence, and dejection of spirit. and yet most of them affirm that _sabatai_ is not turned _turk_, but his shadow onely remains on earth, and walks with a white head, and in the habit of a _mahumetan_: but that his natural body and soul are taken into heaven, there to reside until the time appointed for accomplishment of these wonders: and this opinion began so commonly to take place, as if this people resolved never to be undeceived, using the forms and rules for devotion prescribed them by their _mahumetan messiah_: insomuch that the _chochams_ of _constantinople_, fearing the danger of this error might creep up, and equal the former, condemned the belief of _sabatai_ being _messiah_, as damnable, and enjoyned them to return to the antient method and service of god upon pain of _excommunication_. the style and tenure of them was as followeth. _to you who have the power of priesthood, and are the knowing, learned, and magnanimous governours and princes, residing in the citie of_ smyrna, _may the almighty god protect you_, amen: _for so is his will_. these our letters, which we send in the midst of your habitations, are upon occasion of certain rumors and tumults come to our ears from that citie of your holiness. for there is a sort of men amongst you, who fortifie themselves in their error, and say, let such a one our king, live, and bless him in their publique _synagogues_ every _sabbath day_: [sidenote: the _jews_ scruple to say, the _head_ of _israel_.] and also adjoyn psalms and hymns, invented by that man, for certain days, with rules and methods for prayer, which ought not to be done, and yet they will still remain obstinate therein; and now behold it is known unto you, how many swelling waters have passed over our souls, for his sake, for had it not been for the mercies of god, which are without end, and the merit of our forefathers, which hath assisted us; the _foot_ of _israel_ had been razed out by their enemies. and yet you continue obstinate in things which do not help, but rather do mischief, which god avert. turn you therefore, for this is not the true way, but restore the crown to the antient custom and use of your forefathers, and the law, and from thence do not move; we command you that with your authoritie, under pain of _excommunication_, and other penalties, that all those ordinances and prayers, as well those delivered by the mouth of that man, as those which he enjoyned by the mouth of others, be all abolished and made void, and to be found no more, and that they never enter more into your hearts, but judge according to the antient commandment of your forefathers, repeating the same lessons and prayers every _sabbath_, as hath been accustomary, as also _collects_ for kings, potentates, and anointed, &c. and bless the king, _sultan mahomet_, for in his days hath great salvation been wrought for _israel_, and become not rebels to his kingdom, which god forbid. for after all this, which is past, the least motion will be a cause of jealousie, and you will bring ruine upon your own persons, and upon all which is near and dear to you, wherefore abstain from the thoughts of this man, and let not so much as his name proceed out of your mouths. for know, if you will not obey us herein, which will be known, who, and what those men are, who refuse to conform unto us, we are resolved to prosecute them, as our duty is. he that doth hear, and obey us, may the blessing of god rest upon him. these are the words of those who seek your peace and good, having in _constantinople_, on _sunday_ the fifth of the moneth _sevat_, underwrot their names. _joam tob_ son of _chananiah ben-jacar_. _isaac alnacagna._ _joseph kazabi._ _manasseh barndo._ _kalib_ son of _samuel_. _eliezer castie._ _eliezer gherson._ _joseph accohen._ _eliezer aluff._ during the time of all these transactions and passages at _constantinople_, _smyrna_, _abydos_, upon the _helespont_, and _adrianople_, the _jews_ leaving their merchantile course, and advices, what prizes commodities bear and matters of traffique, stuffed their letters for _italy_ and other parts, with nothing but wonders and miracles wrought by their false _messiah_. as then when the _grand signior_ sent to take him, he caused all the messengers immediately to die, upon which other _janizaries_ being again sent, they all fell dead with a word only from his mouth; and being desired to revive them again, he immediately recall'd them to life; but of them onely such who were true _turks_, and not those who had denied that faith in which they were born, and had profest. after this they added, that he went voluntarily to prison, and though the gates were barr'd and shut with strong locks of iron, yet that _sabatai_ was seen to walk through the streets with a numerous attendance, and when they laid shackles on his neck and feet, they not onely fell from him, but were converted into gold, with which he gratified his true and faithful believers and disciples. some miracles also were reported of _nathan_, that onely at reading the name of any particular man, or woman, he would immediately recount the story of his, or her life, their sins or defaults, and accordingly impose just correction and penance for them. these strong reports coming thus confidently into _italy_ and all parts, the _jews_ of _casel di monferrato_ resolved to send three persons in behalf of their society, in the nature of extraordinary _legates_, to _smyrna_, to make inquiry after the truth of all these rumors, who accordingly arriving in _smyrna_, full of expectation and hopes, intending to present themselves with great humility and submission before their _messiah_ and his prophet _nathan_, were entertain'd with the sad news, that _sabatai_ was turned _turk_, by which information the character of their _embassy_ in a manner ceasing, every one of them laying aside the formalitie of his function, endeavoured to lodge himself best to his own convenience. but that they might return to their brethren at home, with the certain particulars of the success of the affairs, they made a visit to the brother of _sabatai_; who still continued to perswade them, that _sabatai_ was notwithstanding the true _messiah_, that it was not he who had taken on him the habit and form of a _turk_, but his _angel_ or _spirit_, his body being ascended into heaven, until god shall again see the season, and time to restore it, adding further, that an effect hereof they should see by the prophet _nathan_, certified, now every day expected, who having wrought _miracles_ in many places, would also for their consolation, reveal hidden secrets unto them, with which they should not onely remain satisfied, but astonished. with this onely hope of _nathan_, these _legates_ were a little comforted, resolving to attend his arrival, in regard they had a letter to consign into his hands, and according to their instructions, were to demand of him the grounds he had for his prophesies, and what assurance he had, that he was divinely inspir'd, and how these things were reveal'd unto him, which he had committed to paper, and dispersed to all parts of the world. at length _nathan_ arrives near _smyrna_, on friday the third of _march_, towards the evening, and on _sunday_ these _legates_ made their visit to him: but _nathan_, upon news of the success of his beloved _messiah_, began to grow sullen and reserved; so that the _legates_ could scarce procure admittance to him; all that they could do was to inform him, that they had a letter to him from the brother-hood of _italy_, and commission to conferr with him concerning the foundation and authority he had for his prophesies; but _nathan_ refused to take the letter, ordering _kain abolafio_ a _chocham_ of the city of _smyrna_ to receive it; so that the _legates_ returned ill contented, but yet with hopes at _nathan_'s arrival at _smyrna_ to receive better satisfaction. but whilst _nathan_ intended to enter into _smyrna_, the _chochams_ of _constantinople_, being before advised of his resolution to take a journey into their parts, not knowing by which way he might come, sent their letters and orders to _smyrna_, _prussia_, and every way round, to hinder his passage, and interrupt his journey; fearing that things beginning now to compose, the _turks_ appeas'd for the former disorders, and the minds of the _jews_ in some manner setled, might be moved, and combustions burst out afresh, by the appearance of this new _impostor_; and therefore dispatched this letter as followeth. _to you who are the shepherds of israel, and rulers, who reside for the great god of the whole world, in the_ citie _of_ smyrna, _which is_ mother _in_ israel, _to her princes, her priests, her judges, and especially to the perfect wise men, and of great experience, may the lord god cause you to live before him, and delight in the multitude of peace_, amen, _so be the will of the lord_. these our letters are dispatched unto you, to let you understand, that in the place of your holiness, we have heard that the learned man, which was in _gaza_, called _nathan_, _benjamin_, hath published vaine doctrines, and made the world tremble at his words and inventions; and that at this time we have receiv'd advice, that this man some dayes since, departed from _gaza_, and took his journey by the way of _scanderone_, intending there to imbarke for _smyrna_, and thence to go to _constantinople_, or _adrianople_: and though it seem a strange thing unto us, that any man should have a desire to throw himself into a place of flames, and fire, and into the sparkes of _hell_; notwithstanding we ought to fear, and suspect it; _for the feet of man alwayes guide him to the worst_: wherefore we under-written do advertise you, that this man coming within the compass of your jurisdiction, you give a stop to his journey, and not suffer him to proceed farther, but presently to return back. for we would have you know, that at his coming, he will again begin to move those tumults, which have been caused through the imaginations of a new kingdome; _and that miracles are not to be wrought every day_. god forbid that by his coming the people of god should be destroy'd in all places where they are, of which he will be the first, whose blood be upon his own head: for in this conjuncture, every little error or fault is made capital. you may remember the danger of the first combustion: and it is very probable that he will be an occasion of greater, which the tongue is not able to express with words. and therefore by vertue of ours, and your own authority, you are to hinder him from proceeding farther in his journey, upon paine of all those excommunications which our _law_ can impose, and to force him to return back again, both he, and his company. but if he shall in any manner oppose you, and rebel against your word, your indeavours and law are sufficient to hinder him, for it will be well for him and all _israel_. for the love of god, let these words enter into your eares, since they are not vain things; for the lives of all the _jewes_, and his also, consist therein. and the lord god behold from heaven, and have pitty upon his people _israel_, amen. so be his holy will: written by those who seek your peace. _joam tob_, son of _chanania jacar_. _moise benveniste._ _caleb_ son of _chocham, samuel_ deceased. _isaac aloenacagne._ _joseph kazabi._ _samuel acazsine._ _moise barndo._ _elihezer aluff._ _jehoshuah raphael benveniste._ by these meanes _nathan_ being disappointed of his wandring progress, and partly ashamed of the event of things contrary to his prophesie, was resolved, without entring _smyrna_, to returne again: howsoever he obtained leave to visit the _sepulcher_ of his _mother_, and there to receive pardon of his sins (according to the institution of _sabatai_ before mentioned) but first washed himself in the sea, in manner of purification, and said his _tephilla_, or _prayers_, at the fountain, called by us the fountain _sancta veneranda_, which is near to the _cymetry_ of the _jewes_, and then departed for _zion_ with two companions, a servant, and three _turks_, to conduct him, without admitting the _legates_ to audience, or answering the letter which was sent him, from all the communities of the _jewes_ in _italy_. and thus the embassy of these legates was concluded, and they returned from the place from whence they came, and the _iewes_ again to their wits, following their trade of merchandize and brokage as formerly, with more quiet, and advantage, then the meanes of regaining their possessions in the land of promise. and thus ended this mad _phrensie_ amongst the _iewes_, which might have cost them dear, had not _sabatai_ renounce't his _messiaship_ at the feet of _mahomet_. the end the augustan reprint society william andrews clark memorial library university of california. los angeles publications in print [illustration: decoration] - . henry nevil payne, _the fatal jealousie_ ( ). . anonymous, "of genius," in _the occasional paper_, vol. iii, no. ( ), and aaron hill, preface to _the creation_ ( ). - . susanna centlivre, _the busie body_ ( ). . lewis theobald, _preface to the works of shakespeare_ ( ). . samuel johnson, _the vanity of human wishes_ ( ), and two _rambler_ papers ( ). . john dryden, _his majesties declaration defended_ ( ). - . charles macklin, _the man of the world_ ( ). - . thomas gray, _an elegy wrote in a country churchyard_ ( ), and _the eton college manuscript_. - . bernard mandeville, _a letter to dion_ ( ). - . _select hymns taken out of mr. herbert's temple_ ( ). - . thomas d'urfey, _wonders in the sun_; or, _the kingdom of the birds_ ( ). - . john tutchin, _selected poems_ ( - ). . anonymous, _political justice_ ( ). . robert dodsley, _an essay on fable_ ( ). . t. r., _an essay concerning critical and curious learning_ ( ). . _two poems against pope_: leonard welsted, _one epistle to mr. a. pope_ ( ), and anonymous, _the blatant beast_ ( ). - . daniel defoe and others, _accounts of the apparition of mrs. veal_. . charles macklin, _the covent garden theatre_ ( ). . sir george l'estrange, _citt and bumpkin_ ( ). . henry more, _enthusiasmus triumphatus_ ( ). . thomas traherne, _meditations on the six days of the creation_ ( ). . bernard mandeville, _aesop dress'd or a collection of fables_ ( ). - . james macpherson, _fragments of ancient poetry_ ( ). . edmond malone, _cursory observations on the poems attributed to mr. thomas rowley_ ( ). . anonymous, _the female wits_ ( ). . anonymous, _the scribleriad_ ( ). lord hervey, _the difference between verbal and practical virtue_ ( ). . _le lutrin: an heroick poem, written originally in french by monsieur boileau: made english by n. o._ ( ). * * * * * subsequent publications may be checked in the annual prospectus. publications # through , of the first fifteen years of augustan reprint society, are available in bound units at $ . per unit of six from: kraus reprint corporation east th street new york, n.y. publications in print are available at the regular membership rate of $ . yearly. prices of single issues may be obtained upon request. william andrews clark memorial library: university of california, los angeles the augustan reprint society _general editors_: george robert guffey, university of california, los angeles; maximillian e. novak, university of california, los angeles; robert vosper, william andrews clark memorial library. _corresponding secretary_: mrs. edna c. davis, william andrews clark memorial library. the society's purpose is to publish reprints (usually facsimile reproductions) of rare seventeenth and eighteenth century works. all income of the society is devoted to defraying costs of publication and mailing. correspondence concerning memberships in the united states and canada should be addressed to the william andrews clark memorial library, cimarron st., los angeles, california. correspondence concerning editorial matters may be addressed to any of the general editors at the same address. manuscripts of introductions should conform to the recommendations of the mla _style sheet_. the membership fee is $ . a year in the united states and canada and /- in great britain and europe. british and european prospective members should address b. h. blackwell, broad street, oxford, england. copies of back issues in print may be obtained from the corresponding secretary. publications for - - . charles macklin, _a will and no will, or a bone for the lawyers_ ( ). _the new play criticiz'd, or the plague of envy_ ( ). introduction by jean b. kern. . lawrence echard, prefaces to _terence's comedies_ ( ) and _plautus's comedies_ ( ). introduction by john barnard. . henry more, _democritus platonissans_ ( ). introduction by p. g. stanwood. . john evelyn, _the history of ... sabatai sevi ... the suppos'd messiah of the jews_ ( ). introduction by christopher w. grose. . walter harte, _an essay on satire, particularly on the dunciad_ ( ). introduction by thomas b. gilmore. announcements: next in the series of special publications by the society will be a volume including elkanah settle's _the empress of morocco_ ( ) with six plates; _notes and observations on the empress of morocco_ ( ) by john dryden, john crowne and thomas shadwell; _notes and observations on the empress of morocco revised_ ( ) by elkanah settle; and _the empress of morocco. a farce_ ( ) by thomas duffet, with an introduction by maximillian e. novak. already published in this series are reprints of john ogilby's _the fables of aesop paraphras'd in verse_ ( ), with an introduction by earl miner and john gay's _fables_ ( , ), with an introduction by vinton a. dearing. publication is assisted by funds from the chancellor of the university of california, los angeles. price to members of the society, $ . for the first copy and $ . for additional copies. price to non-members, $ . . the augustan reprint society william andrews clark memorial library cimarron street at west adams boulevard, los angeles, california make check or money order payable to the regents of the university of california. * * * * * transcriber's notes obvious punctuation errors repaired. illegible and missing letters repaired from the context. third page of "to the reader": "transastions" changed to "transactions" (most of these transactions). hyphen removed: "fore[-]fathers" (p. ). page : "tamnz" changed to "tamuz". page : "kislen" changed to "kislev". page : "cælestial" changed to "coelestial". page : duplicate "with" deleted (passed more easily with them). page : "jewt" changed to "jews" (where the jews reside). page : "chochan" changed to "chocham". page : "cocham" changed to "chocham". page : "assoon" changed to "as soon" (as soon as he saw placed). page : "merchantlie" changed to "merchantile" (leaving their merchantile course). page : "xio" changed to "zion", although this is far from certain. page : "rerurned" changed to "returned" (they returned from the place). available by the google books library project (http://books.google.com) note: images of the original pages are available through the the google books library project. see http://books.google.com/books?vid=cwsraaaaiaaj&id +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's note: | | | | inconsistent hyphenation in the original document has | | been preserved. | | | | obvious typographical errors have been corrected. for | | a complete list, please see the end of this document. | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ a synopsis of jewish history from the return of the jews from the babylonish captivity, to the days of herod the great; giving an account of the different sects of those days; the introduction and use of synagogues and schools; the origin and introduction of prayer among the jews; the ureem and thumeem; the mishna or oral law; the gemara-completion, usually styled the talmud. by rev. h. a. henry, rabbi preacher of congregation sherith israel, san francisco; author of class book for jewish youth; of discourses on the principles of the belief of israel, &c., &c. san francisco: towne & bacon, publishers and printers, no. clay street, corner sansome. . entered according to act of congress in the year of the world ,-- , by towne & bacon, for the author, in the clerk's office of the district court of the united states, for the northern district of california. preface. the design and purpose of this little production will, at a cursory glance, be self-evident, so that a formal preface seems scarcely necessary. we have endeavored to furnish a synopsis of useful information, selected from the history and teachings of the chosen people of god, in such a manner as to suit the capacity of all readers, since it is free from all sectarian bias, and therefore may prove useful to all denominations. this work consists of two parts. the first part contains a synopsis of jewish history, commencing with the return of the jews from the babylonish captivity, down to the days of herod the great. the second division of the work contains an account of the several sects which sprang up among the jews before and after the days of the maccabees. we have also given a succinct description of the origin and introduction of prayer, of the synagogues and schools, of the ureem and thumeem, of the mishna or oral law, of the gemara or completion, usually styled the talmud, together with some additional remarks in the last two chapters under the head of appendix. should this unassuming little composition lead the reader to seek a more extended information on the subjects treated, we shall feel ourselves happy in having been the means of thus exciting the curiosity of those who desire to peep a little further into the vast field of sacred literature, and deem our compensation to be fully realized. we have compiled in some instances from the writings of others. in many cases we have also thought for ourselves; but at the same time, we have embraced the advantages afforded by the writings of others, so far as we thought them suitable for the undertaking. in conclusion, we send this work out to the world, such as it is, aware of its many deficiencies; trusting, at the same time, that whatever errors may have crept therein will be pointed out by kind friends, in order to a rectification of the same. san francisco, february, -- . contents. chapter i. page. of the return of the jews from the captivity of babylon, and the rebuilding of the city of jerusalem and the holy temple chapter ii. of the state of the jews in the days of ezra the scribe chapter iii. of the affairs of the jewish nation during the days of nehemiah chapter iv. of the state of the jewish nation under the persian and the grecian monarchies chapter v. of the affairs of the jewish nation under ptolemy soter, ptolemy philadelphus and ptolemy philopater, kings of egypt chapter vi. of the jewish affairs under antiochus the greek, seleucus, and antiochus epiphanes, kings of syria chapter vii. of the state of the jewish nation in the days of mattathias the priest, the father of the valiant maccabees chapter viii. the government of the jewish nation under the maccabees, or as they were otherwise called, the asmoneans, this being the family name chapter ix. of the jewish affairs under the conduct of the posterity and successors of simon the maccabee chapter x. of the government of herod the great and his posterity over israel part second. chapter i. the assideans chapter ii. the pharisees chapter iii. the sadducees chapter iv. the samaritans chapter v. the essenes chapter vi. the herodians chapter vii. the galileans or gaulonites chapter viii. the karayeem or karaites chapter ix. of the synagogues among the jews chapter x. of the origin and introduction of prayer among the jews chapter xi. of the ureem and thumeem chapter xii. of the mishna or oral law chapter xiii. of the gemara-completion, usually styled the talmud chapter xiv. appendix chapter i. of the return of the jews from the captivity of babylon, and the rebuilding of the city of jerusalem and the holy temple. in fulfilment of the prophecies of jeremiah and the other prophets, israel and judah were carried into captivity by nebuchadnezzar, king of babylon, in the days of zedekiah, the last king of judah; and as predicted by the prophets of the lord, the bondage continued during seventy years. this banishment was inflicted as a just punishment on the people for their repeated misconduct and impiety towards the gracious god, and for their direct opposition to the constant exhortations and unceasing warnings of the almighty, through the medium of his inspired and holy prophets. the seventy years of captivity being ended, god put it into the mind of cyrus, king of persia, again to restore israel to their own land and possessions, thus fulfilling the prophecy of isaiah, which was pronounced by him above one hundred years previously. accordingly cyrus permitted the jews to return to jerusalem and to rebuild the temple. he also restored to them the golden and silver vessels which were used for divine service in the former temple built by king solomon. many of the people of the several tribes availed themselves of this opportunity to return to the land of their fathers--but so far as history informs us, it appears that the majority of those who returned to jerusalem, consisted chiefly of the tribes of judah and benjamin, together with a number of priests and levites. and now it was for the first time, that they were all united under the title or name of jews. the people were led forth under the direction of zerubbabel, the grandson of jehoiachin, king of judah, who became the governor of the land by a commission granted at the hands of king cyrus; and jeshua, the grandson of seraiah, who was slain by nebuchadnezzar, was installed high priest. the people having returned to their own land, the first thing which occupied their attention was the rebuilding of the temple, for which purpose they set about making collections, both of money and materials, and gathering themselves together at jerusalem, they set up the altar, and offered sacrifices thereon in gratitude to god for his goodness in thus restoring them to their own country and possessions. when the foundation of the new temple was laid, great rejoicings took place among the people. yet, many of those who had grown old in the captivity, and who still had the recollection of the glory and magnificence of the first temple, mourned and grieved for its loss, and very much despaired of the second temple ever approaching the first, in beauty, splendor, or holiness. the building of the second temple was very much interrupted by the neighboring people, who manifested great enmity toward the jews, and evinced much jealous feeling, when they saw them restored to their own country, and thus likely to recover their long lost national position in the world. yet, notwithstanding all the difficulties which presented themselves, and in spite of all the representations made by their enemies, the jews were favored with great assistance from the court of persia, in order to complete their noble undertaking. and then it was, that after a period of twenty years interrupted labor, the second temple rose on the very same spot on which the first noble fabric had adorned the happy days of the royal solomon, the son of king david. in the days of darius hystaspes, complaints were made by the enemies of the jews, in order to prevent them from continuing the building of the temple. this prince, considering the interruption to be the result of the malicious insinuations of the samaritans and their followers, instituted an inquiry, and it being found on record at babylon that permission had been granted to the jews by cyrus to rebuild the temple at jerusalem, darius immediately gave orders that the work should be continued undisturbed. and in the sixth year of the reign of darius, the second temple was completed, and dedicated for divine worship. sacrifices were resumed, and offered upon the altar of the lord as in former days. great rejoicings prevailed, and the festival of passover was in that year solemnized in great splendor, and with grateful feelings toward the god of their fathers. happy, however, as the people appeared to be in again beholding the house of god reared and dedicated to his holy worship, they still felt and saw the deficiency in the one, when compared with the other; for it must be observed, that in the second temple but few of the glories remained which had adorned the first temple, so renowned in history for its beauty, magnificence, and architectural delicacy and elegance. the temple erected by king solomon at jerusalem, was built after the model of the tabernacle erected in the wilderness. this superb edifice was completed in about seven years. its grandeur and magnificence excited the envy and the curiosity of all the surrounding nations. the glory of this temple, however, did not consist in the magnitude of its dimensions alone. the main grandeur and excellency were in its ornaments, the workmanship being everywhere curiously and exquisitely wrought by the most expert workmen of the day. but still more admirable in this majestic building, were those extraordinary works of divine favor with which it was honored. these, indeed, were excellencies and beauties derived from a divine source only, distinguishing and exalting this sacred structure above all others of mortal invention. the deficiencies thus complained of and regretted, were five in number, which formed the principal and most essential ornaments of the sacred edifice. first.--the ark of the covenant, and the mercy seat upon it; the cherubim of gold, and the two tables of stone, on which the decalogue was inscribed by the finger of god. these were all in their proper places in the first temple built by king solomon. it is the generally received opinion among the learned men of the jewish nation, that there was such an ark made, and that the copy of the five books of moses, called the pentateuch--as corrected and revised by the scribe ezra--was deposited therein. hence, it is in imitation of this, that in the present day, the jews have in their synagogues throughout all the habitable globe wherever dispersed, the holy ark in which the scroll of the law called in hebrew "sepher torah," book of the law, is deposited. second.--the shechinah, divine presence manifested by a visible cloud of glory hovering over the mercy seat. third.--the ureem and thumeem. these were two sacred signs placed in the breast-plate of judgment worn by the high priest, who made use of these signs to consult the will of god, and to ask counsel of him on such momentous occasions touching the public interest of the nation at large. the first of these words signifies in the hebrew, light; the second, perfection. of these we shall have to speak more fully in the course of the work. fourth.--the sacred fire which descended from on high upon the altar, to consume the daily sacrifices and burnt offerings brought in honor of the lord god of hosts. fifth.--the spirit of prophecy; for though the three last prophets, haggai, zachariah, and malachi, lived during the time of the second temple, yet, after their death, the prophetic spirit ceased to exist any longer among the jewish nation. chapter ii. of the state of the jews in the days of ezra the scribe. henceforward we are not to look on the jews, free, rich and glorious, under the direction of prophets and warlike monarchs; they had been sold as slaves by their conquerors, and dispersed throughout all their vast and mighty empires. some few of the favored, eminent and worthy characters obtained posts of honor, who distinguished themselves in the discharge of those duties imposed on them in their several appointments. of the great number of the people who had been carried into captivity, scarcely more than fifty thousand returned to jerusalem, and those were principally of the poorer classes, who, it must be noticed, are in all ages the most religious. the richer portion of the nation remained behind--and, as proverbial with the jews for their charity and fellow feeling, they raised among themselves a subscription sufficient to enable their brethren to proceed on their holy pilgrimage. the proposal made to the jews was, that they should be governed by their own laws; but as they became subject to persia, and subsequently to syria and rome, their privileges, and even the exercise of their religion, greatly depended on the caprice of their several conquerors. immediately on the publication of the edict, the chief of the tribes of judah and benjamin assembled at babylon, with the priests and levites; and as many who retained a love for their country and a zeal for the honor of their god, were disposed to return to that once happy land, and now came and signified their intention of returning. the wealthy portion, and many who formed connections with them, and were engaged in traffic, or had acquired places and employments, chose rather to stay and content themselves with raising a large contribution to supply their brethren with what they could spare of gold, silver, and other valuables for the temple. the book of ezra informs us of the three great and pious men whom god raised up to assist the poor jews, and gives us some particulars of their return to jerusalem. zerubbabel, who built the temple and the altar; ezra, who reformed and re-established the sacred religion to its former standard, which, during the captivity had undergone many changes and innovations; as the people were not in a position at that time fully to observe it, as it was practised in the palmy days of their fathers; and nehemiah, who built the walls of the city, and ably assisted ezra in his good work in introducing and ultimately effecting a great and solid improvement among the people. this book embraces a period of about one hundred and forty-six years, and the acts thereof were accomplished during the reigns of six successive persian monarchs, viz: cyrus, darius, ahasuerus, artaxerxes, darius the second, and a second artaxerxes. about eighty years after their establishment, ezra obtained a full commission from artaxerxes to succeed zerubbabel, the present viceroy, and return to jerusalem, with as many of the nation as were willing to go with him; and there to regulate and reform all matters of state, and restore the worship of the true god among his people in the city of jerusalem. the high reputation of ezra in the court of persia, may be imagined by the nature of the commission granted to him by the king, who addressed him as the priest of the law of the god of heaven; and declared to him as his decree, that whosoever felt desirous to go up to jerusalem were permitted to do so freely and safely; and furthermore, that they should take with them presents direct from the king himself, as a proof of his sanction and approbation. in the middle of march, about the year of the world , ezra set out on his journey, and pitched his tents on the banks of the river ahavah, where he waited till his companions had assembled together, from whom he selected a number of priests and levites to assist him on the journey. as soon as ezra had collected about him a large body of people, he issued a proclamation for a general fast and days of thanksgiving, to implore the blessing and protection of god. he then proceeded on his journey, and arrived safely with all his company at jerusalem in the middle of the month of july, being about four months after he had set out for jerusalem. having arrived at jerusalem, ezra convened all the elders of the people, before whom he laid open his commission and had it publicly read to all the people. he then delivered up to the treasury and the priests, all the presents which had been made by the persian monarch and his nobility; also the presents of those jews who preferred to remain at babylon. ezra then appointed judges and magistrates, and gave each of them their commission, empowering them to enforce the laws as laid down for the general government of the people. ezra maintained the supreme authority under his commission from the persian court, during thirteen years, occupying himself with the faithful discharge of every part of his sacred duty, with unfeigned and pious zeal and assiduity. and still it seems that ezra had not power or influence enough fully to accomplish by himself, his noble and praiseworthy enterprise. about this time it was that nehemiah, of whom we shall speak in the following chapter, succeeded ezra as governor or viceroy, and he brought with him a new commission, with fresh power and authority from the persian court. ezra, now with a graceful and pious condescension, assumed a subordinate station. he acted as president to the sanhedrin, the grand council of the elders, and employed the whole of his time in reforming the temple service, which had been sadly abused during the long captivity, and succeeded in restoring all its former rites and discipline. he carefully examined all the sacred books, revised and corrected them. he then divided and fixed the number of books to twenty-four, such as are now in use among the hebrew nation, called the old testament. ezra was learned and well versed in them all; his high station and authority enabled him to collect the best copies from which to take the standard. in addition to all this, ezra being himself inspired, and zealous in the sacred cause, and favored as he was with the valuable assistance of the three later prophets, haggai, zachariah and malachi, no doubt exists in the hearts of the jewish nation that the bible now in their possession, is the same which existed in the days of the great patriot for his god and his religion, the inspired ezra. one of the strongest proofs that the jews are correct in this respect is, that recent travelers have stated in all their journals, that wherever they met with jews and their synagogues they found a uniformity in the scroll of the law as read in the jewish church; besides, if we take into our consideration that moses either wrote himself, or had written, thirteen copies of the pentateuch, one of which he gave to each of the twelve tribes, and the other he deposited in the ark to remain there, in obedience to god's command in deuteronomy, chap, xxxi: , it is not at all surprising that the jews have the original law in their possession, as handed down from moses, the divine legislator. when nehemiah was established in his new government, ezra being relieved from the public duties and affairs of the state, now employed himself in expounding the scriptures to the people, from morn till noon; and that he might be properly heard and understood, he had a platform fixed in one of the widest streets in the city. ezra, himself, was raised upon the middle of the platform, and on each side of him stood the priests, who were assistants and interpreters; and as ezra read the law in the hebrew, the priests explained it to the people in the chaldee language, which had become familiar to them in consequence of their long sojourn in the great city of babylon. in this way it was, that all the people of the holy city, as well as those who came from very distant parts, especially on the festivals and holy days, could thus have the bible and the law explained to them, and their duty fully recommended to them every day, or at least regularly every sabbath. it must here be noticed, that all those jews who had settled themselves in alexandria and all the grecian provinces, had the bible interpreted to them in the greek language, after that the bible had been translated into that language. from this circumstance it arose that those of the people who used the greek language in the synagogues, were called hellenists, to distinguish them from those who continued the use of the chaldee language. the last work which ezra performed, was, the restoring to the people the sacred service of the temple, according to the original and usual form before the captivity. he revised and amended the jewish liturgy, adding many new prayers and forms of thanksgiving composed since the return from babylon, on the blessings of liberty and freedom from bondage. this pious and truly religious man composed also the service used at the dedication of the new temple; and he carefully arranged all the psalms and hymns chanted on that occasion by the priests and the levites, in the house of god. many of the prayers above noticed, are still extant among the jewish nation, of which we shall have to speak in a future chapter. ezra as a priest, a preacher of righteousness, and a skilful scribe of the law of god, unweariedly continued the reformation he had begun. he spent almost the whole of his time in preparing correct editions of the holy scripture--as during the captivity at babylon, many copies had been lost, and many of them had been destroyed by the enemy--those which remained were chiefly in the hands of private individuals. ezra, therefore, carefully examined these copies, and corrected those errors which may have been made, probably through the carelessness of the various transcribers. it is stated, that in the church of saint dominic, in bononia, or bologna, in italy, there is a copy of the law, kept with great care, said to be written by ezra himself, upon leather made up into a roll according to the ancient manner, and in the same form as used now among the israelites of the present day. this very eminent, pious and good man, may truly be said to be a second founder of the jewish church and state--a character highly esteemed, honored and beloved--zealous for his god, and anxious only for the happiness and welfare of his people. ezra had now been some years succeeded by his friend and coadjutor nehemiah, whom ezra had originally introduced at the court of persia; and to whom he had rendered every assistance in his power to enable him to discharge his mission with credit to himself, and satisfaction to the government by whom he was engaged. ezra continued to employ the remainder of his life in the religious affairs of his nation. there is some doubt entertained as to the place where he died--some suppose that he died and was buried in jerusalem--others again assert that in his old age ezra returned to the court of persia, and died there at the advanced age of one hundred and twenty years. ezra brings down the history of his nation to the twentieth year of ahasuerus, the then reigning king of persia. chapter iii. of the affairs of the jewish nation during the days of nehemiah. this great and good man stands a noble example and instance of a zealous and disinterested patriot in the cause of religion and its divine author. nehemiah was the son of hechaliah, who was one of the captive jews carried in early life to shushan, the metropolis of persia. he had been fortunate in obtaining an appointment in the persian court, and he chose rather to continue in his office at court, than to return with his countrymen to jerusalem. nehemiah was born at shushan. he was a man of public spirit, learning and piety. he was appointed cup-bearer to the king of persia. in this office he obtained the royal favor, which made him much beloved at court; and he thus became a man of great influence, and in the possession of considerable wealth. nehemiah had never seen jerusalem, although his ancestors had lived and died there; he, however, had at all times expressed himself kindly disposed towards his brethren, though strangers to him, and he anxiously wished for an opportunity to exercise the influence of his high position for their benefit. nehemiah was taking a walk one evening near shushan, and seeing some travelers who appeared to be strangers going toward the city gates, curiosity led him to listen to their conversation, which was held in hebrew. he saluted the strangers, and enquired of them from what country they came? jerusalem, was the reply. anxious to know something of his people, he entered deeply into conversation with the strangers, and earnestly sought all the information respecting his brethren in jerusalem. he learned from the travelers that the walls of the city were broken down, and that the people were constantly being annoyed and plundered by the riotous banditti who infested the neighborhood; that there was no possibility of preventing these outrages, and that every morning the roads were strewed with the dying and the dead. nehemiah was so affected at the account of this deplorable situation of his brethren, that he burst forth into tears, and prayed fervently to god in their behalf. while thus engaged and agitated in mind, orders came from the palace informing nehemiah that the king demanded his presence. the king observing sorrow depicted in the countenance of his favorite nehemiah, enquired the cause, in which enquiry, the queen who was present, also joined, and seemed solicitous to know the reason of his apparent grief. the king kindly asked nehemiah what was the cause for sorrow and tears? nehemiah, encouraged by this favorable opportunity, explained to the king the cause of his grief, and related to him that which he had previously heard from the passing travelers. he then stated to the king that jerusalem was the city of his ancestry; that the walls and gates were broken down by its enemies, and that all its inhabitants were being murdered by the robbers who infested the place. nehemiah closed his sorrowful tale by presenting a petition to the king, praying that he might be commissioned to go to jerusalem, and be empowered to repair the walls of the city. the king in reply, said to nehemiah, "dry up your tears and be cheerful; your petition shall be granted, and an order shall be given to assist you in your noble and praiseworthy undertaking." the king then issued out immediate orders to sanballat, and other officers of his court, to furnish nehemiah with money from the royal treasury, and every necessary material to carry out the proposed object. nehemiah overflowing with joy and gratitude, fell down on his face and poured out his soul in thanks and praises to his monarch for his inimitable goodness towards himself and his people. the king then granted to nehemiah leave of absence from the court, to fulfil the mission he had thus undertaken. nehemiah set out immediately for babylon, and took with him a sufficient number of men to accompany him on his journey, together with a troop of guards which the king had given him as an escort. thus equipped, nehemiah and all his company arrived safely at the holy city, jerusalem. he here shut himself up three whole days in religious devotion and pious meditation. the three days being ended, nehemiah went forth towards evening to examine the city and its walls. the report he had received from the travelers whom he saw at shushan, proved to be quite true. the next day nehemiah assembled all the elders and heads of the people, and made known to them his commission, and likewise his object in coming to jerusalem. he then requested their co-operation, in order to fulfil the task he had imposed upon himself. the people readily assented to all which the good man proposed to them, and thus enabled him to complete the work in repairing and fortifying the walls. he engaged a numerous body of mechanics and their families, and diligently presided daily over the work himself, until the whole was completed. the work being ended, and all in good order, nehemiah with true piety and religious zeal, caused a dedication to be solemnized by the priests and the levites, in gratitude to almighty god, by whose mighty power and parental care alone, the people had thus far gained a victory over their unrelenting persecutors. in the execution of this work, nehemiah exhibited great courage, and exposed himself to many dangers and insults. he kept a body guard about him to protect him from the attacks of the enemy, and personally superintended the building of the walls. he made the laborers work in armour; both the mason and his man carried swords, with shields lying at their side, while trumpeters were placed at certain distances, to sound the alarm at the approach of the enemy. nehemiah was once told of a conspiracy formed against him, by assassins who had determined to kill him, and his friends advised him to take refuge in the temple, but nehemiah nobly replied: "should such a man as i flee? who is there, being as i am, would go into the temple to save his life? i will not go in!" the walls of the city having been finished, which was the extent of the commission granted to nehemiah, he went back to shushan to obtain further orders; and during his temporary absence, he entrusted the care of his government and the city, to two of his brothers. on the return of nehemiah to jerusalem, he set about fortifying the city, and beautifying the temple. it was at this time that ezra the scribe delivered his public lectures, as related in the history of that great man. nehemiah zealously and diligently corrected all the abuses and disorders in the state, as far as his influence and authority enabled him. he now called upon all the people for contributions to beautify and adorn the temple, and for the support of its service; and in order to set a good example, he very liberally gave from his own purse a thousand drachms of gold, fifty dishes, and two hundred and fifty-two dresses for the priests. he further arranged that the priests and the levites should be near the temple, so that they should at all times be regular in their attendance at divine worship; for which purpose, nehemiah had houses built in the immediate neighborhood of the temple. nehemiah kept a princely table, a splendid equipage, and a train of servants, altogether at his own expense--exacting no tribute whatever from any one, but giving himself liberally, wherever it was required. thus with the highest honor, credit and generosity, he completed the period of his commission. nehemiah had now presided as governor during twelve years; and therefore, according to his promise, he returned to the court of persia. after five years residence at shushan, nehemiah obtained permission to return to jerusalem, and resume his office as governor. on his return he found great depravity and corruption among the people, both in the church and the state. the people had sadly neglected the service in the temple--they had profaned the sabbath by making it a day of traffic, and following their usual avocations as on the other days of the week. nehemiah immediately assembled all the magistrates and other officers of the state, and severely rebuked them for suffering the people to commit such outrages against their holy religion. he then ordered that the gates should be closed on every friday, from sun set, until saturday evening after dark--by which means all traffic was suspended--was, that the people were again brought into the practice of keeping the sabbath holy, and abstaining from all worldly matters during that sacred day. nehemiah strenuously persisted in his good work, by enforcing the observance of the mosaic law throughout the length and breadth of the land; he had lectures delivered daily in jerusalem, in the hearing of all the people, and the pentateuch expounded in a language familiar to all the people. this practice was first carried out in the open streets, (as already noticed in the former chapter,) or in the public market places, as found most convenient, until such time when arrangements could be made for the establishment of schools and synagogues suitable for such purposes. these schools were, however, not built nor in full action until some time after the death of this venerable and pious man. nehemiah is supposed to be the last governor of the jews sent from the court of persia. the government of judea was afterwards conducted by the high priests, till the days when alexander the great had totally ruined the persian empire. nehemiah lived till he became very far advanced in years, happy in the love of his people, and in the success of his honest and disinterested labors. he recorded his own history, in which his name is transmitted to posterity with delight to all who read of his zeal, and his religious devotion to the welfare and improvement of his poor suffering brethren in jerusalem. this truly pious and zealous patriot had his recompense in this world, by the satisfaction he had, in seeing his good work carried out according to his ardent wishes and anxious desires. he, together with his cotemporary, the good ezra, of whom we have already spoken, were devoted to the cause of true religion; they were not actuated by any worldly selfishness, or literary fame, for they only endeavored to restore the people to the original pure worship of the temple, such as was commanded and practised by moses and the elders, and the subsequent generations, without any attempt on their part to introduce new laws for the government of the synagogue or temple worship; and hence they succeeded in their noble and pious undertaking. a bright example to all those whom god almighty in his wisdom may be disposed to select as priests or chiefs over the people, to see that naught but the true spirit of religion be preached and practised among the people, to the honor and glory of him who so graciously condescended to give his people a code of laws for their guidance and instruction, in every stage of existence. nehemiah has transmitted a name and reputation to all generations, more honorable and durable than the grecian pillar, or the roman statue. his liberality, disinterestedness, courage and industry--his affectionate feelings and love for his country--will live in the hearts of his people forever and ever. before we close this chapter, we must briefly notice some events of deep interest and importance to the jews, which took place in persia, during the days of nehemiah. in the third year of the reign of ahasuerus, king of persia, the whole nation of the jews were in great danger of being destroyed through the wicked misrepresentations of a haughty and imperious minister of the persian court; this was haman, a descendant of amalek, who was at all times a dire enemy of the jewish race. the malicious designs of this crafty amalekite, were frustrated by the inscrutable ways of an all-wise providence, who never forsakes the good and the just, in the hour of distress. the king of persia made a great feast for his captains and nobles, after which, he made another feast for all the people who were found in the metropolis of shushan. on the seventh day of this banquet, the king commanded his queen vashti to appear in the grand chamber before all the company who were then assembled. it being contrary to the laws of persia for ladies to be seen in public assemblies, the queen refused to do the king's bidding. this refusal of the queen greatly incensed the king; and having consulted his council as to the mode necessary to be adopted on this occasion, the king at their advice, removed vashti from the court, and deprived her of all her regal glory. when the king began to reflect on his hasty decree, he became disconsolate, and sorely regretted the loss of his favored vashti. his friends and counsellors seeing this change in the king's manners, divined the cause, and endeavored to divert him therefrom, by advising and recommending him to select for himself another queen, in the place of vashti. the king, on reflection, approved the advice, and accordingly issued a commission, throughout all his dominions, to select the most celebrated beauties that could be found, and present them at court, from whom the king might select one as his future queen. among the many ladies thus presented to the persian monarch, was a beautiful jewess, named esther, an orphan of both parents. she was brought up and educated under the kind care of her cousin mordecai, a man of rank among the jews, who was at that time living in the capital of persia. the king, on seeing esther, was so charmed with her personal appearance, the elegance of her deportment, and her exquisite beauty, that he immediately resolved to crown her as the future queen of persia; and accordingly in the seventh year of his reign, the nuptials were celebrated in great pomp and magnificence. esther now being at the palace of the persian monarch, mordecai considered it his duty to be near her, in order to watch over her as he did in the days of her youth--and for this purpose he took up his station in one of the king's gates. this enabled him to know all that was passing, without being particularly observed by those who frequented the court. about this time a conspiracy was formed against the life of the king, by two of his attendants. mordecai, having discovered the plot, made known the same to the king; an investigation took place, and the charge being fully sustained, the criminals were both executed, and the facts registered in the persian records; but no other reward was given to mordecai for his services. the king's prime minister, haman, had contracted a strong antipathy against mordecai, who refused to pay homage to him in the manner he had exacted from all the king's household. not content to punish mordecai alone, for his supposed want of respect to haman's dignity, he resolved to extirpate the whole race from off the face of the earth; and in order to accomplish this atrocious design, haman represents to the king that the jews were a people different from the rest of the king's subjects, and very disobedient to his laws. the king relying on the truth of the statement made by his favorite minister, and he offering to pay into the king's treasury , talents of silver to pay necessary expenses, the king gave him the power to do as he thought proper; and haman accordingly appointed a day for the total extermination of the whole jewish nation. this affair took place in the twelfth year of the king's reign, and about five years after ezra had received his commission to go to jerusalem. up to this period, none knew, not even the king himself, that queen esther was a jewess, for her cousin mordecai had particularly enjoined her not to divulge her kindred, nor her nation. strictly did esther obey her cousin in everything that he conjured her; and the result was that her obedience to him, who was her second father and her natural guardian, proved to be the great contributing cause of her becoming the sole instrument in preventing her nation from being totally exterminated. mordecai having learned all that had passed in reference to this decree, sent a message to queen esther informing her of all that had occurred, and imploring her to go to the king and petition him to save her people. the queen, on hearing this sad news felt sorely grieved, and was at a loss how to act, knowing as she did, that the laws of the medes and persians were unalterable; and that the ordinance had been passed, prohibiting any person, on pain of death, from approaching the king without being called to attend him, unless he should condescend to hold forth his golden sceptre as a signal of his pleasure. the queen sent a message to her cousin mordecai, pointing out to him the danger of such an undertaking; to which he replied, that it was not her own personal safety that was in question, but the security of a whole race, who were unjustly condemned to perish by the vile artifices of an arrogant and ambitious man. esther, feeling the force of the appeal made to her by mordecai, repaired to the palace, at the risk of her own life, to save her people; and to her great joy and astonishment, the moment the king beheld her in the court, he kindly extended the sign of mercy, and gave her a favorable reception. esther, encouraged by this pleasing invitation, related to her husband the intentions and plot of the wicked haman, who was instantly condemned to death, and mordecai was favorably admitted into the king's household as the relative of the queen. the king, by another royal edict, published throughout all his dominions, that the jews should be empowered on the day named by haman for their destruction, to stand on their own defense; and as this decree became known all over the land to be the real wishes of the sovereign, and haman being no more, it proved serviceable to the poor jews, and fully answered all that could have been expected; but yet, not without great slaughter among the people during the various conflicts and battles which took place on the day appointed. in these conflicts, the jews standing only on their own defense, slew upwards of seventy-five thousand of their enemies, who rose up against them. it is in commemoration of this signal deliverance from their enemies, that the feast of purim is celebrated annually among the jews throughout the world. without referring to any particular cause, there is no doubt that the influence of esther, and that of mordecai, who became high in honor, and a favorite at the court of persia, must have proved very beneficial to the jews in general, and especially those who were in jerusalem. mordecai being now in power, promoted all his kindred to posts of honor, dignity and emolument; and through his influence, many of his countrymen became wealthy and prosperous. here we may observe how the overruling providence of god is signally displayed. mordecai retained his influence with the king, being the next in the administration; he was beloved and revered by all his brethren, whose happiness and welfare were his constant study. it is stated, that in a place called amdam, in persia, the tombs of both mordecai and esther are still to be seen, and are highly prized by all the jews living in persia and the adjacent countries. chapter iv. of the state of the jewish nation under the persian and the grecian monarchies. after the death of nehemiah, judea became subjected to those whom the kings of persia made governors of syria. these governors placed the regulation of affairs under the control of the high priest, who had all the sacred authority, as well as civil power, vested in him, but still he was under the direction of the governor of syria. this arrangement, however, was frequently interrupted by the different governors and princes, from time to time, who occasionally appointed other persons, not of the family of the priests, to officiate in such sacred office. it is recorded in the book of nehemiah, that when johannan, the son of jehoiada, had been in possession of the royal priesthood during many years, bagoses, the governor of syria, appointed jeshua the younger brother of johannan to depose him, and take the priesthood to himself. this caused considerable disturbance and dissatisfaction; a tumult arose in the inner court of the temple, and jeshua was slain there by his brother. bagoses, the governor of syria, incensed at such opposition to his views, immediately entered the inner court of the temple, in defiance of the remonstrance of the jews, who explained to him that he was unclean, and therefore unfit to enter the holy edifice. in reply, bagoses proudly remarked "that he was purer than the dead carcass of him whom they had slain there;" and as a punishment for this outrage, he imposed a heavy fine for every lamb that was offered throughout the year. about this period the jews were most miraculously saved from the threatened oppression and resentment of alexander the great, king of macedonia, in greece, who had marched toward the city of jerusalem with a powerful army, determined to punish the people for refusing to assist him in the siege of tyre. at the time when alexander declared war against the people of tyre, they were so wholly occupied as merchants that they had entirely neglected all agricultural pursuits, and consequently had to be supplied with provisions by their immediate neighbors. judea was at this time the place from which they were mostly furnished with all that they required. alexander was necessarily compelled to seek provisions from the same source, and accordingly sent his orders to that effect. the jews had previously declared their allegiance to darius, and considered that they were bound in faith not to acknowledge any new power during his lifetime, and therefore refused to obey the command of the proud macedonian. alexander, being then in the zenith of his glory, having been so eminently successful in his late wars, considered that every nation was bound to submit to him, and that he durst not be contradicted. the refusal of the jews in this respect, greatly incensed alexander; he marched towards jerusalem determined to punish the jews, as he had the syrians, for not obeying his commands. the jews, fearing the consequences of the emperor's power, which was certainly great at that time, felt severely the dilemma into which they were thus innocently involved; and as usual with the chosen people of god when in distress, they had no other course to adopt but to rely on the protection of him who had at all times responded to their call, in the hour of trouble. for this purpose all jerusalem were assembled together in prayer and supplication, and offering additional sacrifices in the temple--imploring the mercy of god in their great distress. the high priest then gave instructions that the gates of the city should be thrown open, and that all the priests should be clad in their official robes, (he himself being attired in his pontifical habiliments,) and that all the elders and heads of the nation should go forth to meet the conqueror in grand procession. on the approach of alexander to the city, and beholding this imposing scene, he was smitten with profound awe and religious veneration. he saluted the high priest and tenderly embraced him--entered the city in the most friendly manner, declaring himself the friend and protector of israel. the syrians and phoenicians, who being the enemies of the jews, were in expectation that the emperor would wreak his vengeance on them and destroy them as he had those of tyre, surprised and disappointed at this sudden change of the emperor's conduct, naturally enquired into the cause; to which alexander replied, that while at macedonia he had a dream, in which he saw the figure of the same high priest, dressed in his sacerdotal robes, encouraging him to pursue his expedition against the persians, and promising him success; which was fully realized beyond his most sanguine expectations. in the person of the present high priest, he saw the same figure which had appeared to him at dio, and therefore he concluded that his success was mainly attributable to the will of god; and that, in the person of the high priest, he paid adoration to god in gratitude for the favor thus conferred upon him. alexander, thus pacified, enquired of the jews what favor they had to ask of him, which was in his power to grant; to which they replied, the privilege of being governed by their own laws, and to have no obstruction in following the religion of their forefathers, which was more dear to them than all worldly distinctions. this request was accordingly granted; and further, as a mark of alexander's favor, they were to be exempt from paying tribute or taxes during the seventh year, because in that year they neither sowed nor reaped their land. alexander then requested the high priest to have a golden image of his likeness placed between the porch and the altar, as a memorial of his visit. the high priest in reply to the emperor, explained to him that according to the jewish law, it was forbidden to have any image or likeness set up in the house of god, which was exclusively devoted to the worship of him who is the sole ruler of the universe. but, said the high priest, we will make a greater memorial for you, which shall descend to ages yet to come; that all the male children which shall be born unto the priests during the coming year, shall be named after your imperial majesty, in honor of your illustrious condescension and clemency on this momentous occasion. the king expressed himself highly pleased with this promise of the high priest, and in token of his approbation presented a considerable amount of gold for the use of the temple service. alexander then retired, well satisfied with all that had transpired; and on leaving the temple, he declared in a very fervent tone, "blessed be the lord god of israel, the god of this house." alexander, on leaving palestine, marched into egypt, over which he made an easy conquest, as the people having heard of his success, immediately surrendered; and thus he became master of that country. he built the city of alexandria, and peopled it with different nations, among whom were many israelites, who enjoyed the same privileges with the rest of his subjects. in the following spring, alexander became perfect master of the whole of the persian empire; he then made war with india and conquered it. elated with success in all his enterprises, he indulged in all the excesses of life, and within five years from this time he died from the effects produced by such an extravagant mode of life. a short time after his death, the empire was divided among four of alexander's generals, and then the jewish nation fell into the power of ptolemy soter, who became master of egypt, arabia, cael syria, and palestine of judea, these countries being his share of the division of the empire of alexander. the kings of egypt and syria being constantly at war with each other, and desirous of enlarging their dominions, the jews were at a loss whose cause to support, as they were called upon by all parties. this placed them in extreme difficulties, being in danger on both sides, and consequently badly treated by both parties in power. chapter v. of the affairs of the jewish nation under ptolemy soter, ptolemy philadelphus, and ptolemy philopater, kings of egypt. ptolemy soter signified his intention to make alexandria, in egypt, his capital city. he persuaded many of the israelites to settle there, with the promise that the same privileges granted them by alexander, should be continued to them. this boon induced numbers of jews to settle in alexandria. a remarkable story is told of one mossolam, a jew, who was one of those who followed ptolemy at this time. this mossolam was one of a jewish troop of horse, who were advised by some soothsayer to stand still at the sight of a bird which appeared in the air, and that the people should follow the direction of this bird, either to go one way or the other, as that bird took its flight; to test the truth of which, this mossolam shot the bird with his arrow, and the bird fell dead at his feet. he then declared aloud to the people, "how could that poor bird foretell our fortune, which knew nothing of its own?" his object was, in this expression, to expose the superstition of the heathens, so prevalent in those days. ptolemy soter established a college of learned men, at alexandria, in egypt, and commenced a library there, which ptolemy philadelphus, his youngest son and successor, improved to one hundred thousand volumes. it is stated that this prince ordered the pentateuch to be translated into the greek language, that the gentiles might be enabled to read it; this was accordingly done, and placed in the great library, as we shall read hereafter. this college of learned men was encouraged, and the library increased under the several ptolemys till it contained seven hundred thousand books. this circumstance made alexandria the place of residence and resort for learned men during several ages. it happened, unfortunately for posterity, that one half of this famous library was burnt by julius cæsar in his alexandrian war, and the balance was finally destroyed by the saracens, in the year of the christian era. ptolemy gained the favor of the jews, by paying a ransom of one hundred thousand of their countrymen, who had been taken captive and made slaves in egypt. having thus ingratiated himself into their good opinions, he proposed the translation of the pentateuch above mentioned, in the following manner: he selected six elders out of each tribe, making the number of seventy-two; these he invited to his court, and engaged them to perform the task, which was accordingly done and approved by him; and in token of his approbation, he very liberally rewarded them for their labors. this translation is known by the name of the septuagint--so called from the circumstance of there having been seventy-two learned men employed for that purpose. the septuagint is, however, by no means considered a correct translation, there being many incongruities contained therein; the rendering of many passages being at variance with the original hebrew. the translation of the prophets, etc., into greek, was made many years later, in the days of antiochus epiphanes; this completed the translation of the whole of the old testament. when ptolemy philopater reigned over egypt and syria, he persisted in offering up sacrifices in gratitude to the god of israel, for his success against antiochus the great, the successor of seleucus, king of syria. the jews naturally opposed this measure, and were consequently persecuted because of their strict adherence to their religion. the kings of syria and egypt, in order to annoy the jews, would force themselves into the holy temple, and burn sacrifices upon the altar. it is related of ptolemy philopater that he insisted on entering even the holy of holies. the priests and the levites, and all the people, assembled together in prayer and supplication to the almighty, to assist them in preventing the sanctuary from being polluted by the heathen. it happened that, when the king was about to enter the holy temple, he was smitten with such terror and confusion of mind, that he was removed from the holy place almost lifeless. the king, on his recovery from this attack, which he believed was caused by the prayers of the people, was determined to be revenged on the whole jewish nation; for which purpose, he went to alexandria, and commanded that all the people should sacrifice to his idols. the people in general refused to do so, on which account he deprived them of all the privileges which had been granted to them by alexander the great. he then directed that every jew should be marked with an ivy leaf, (the same being the badge of his idol bacchus,) burned in their flesh with a hot iron; and further, that all those who resisted this infliction, should either be made slaves or put to death. some few of the poor jews reluctantly obeyed the king's mandate, in order to prevent the threatened punishment; but many thousands of them stood firm in the religion of their fathers, and suffered all the persecutions of the tyrant, rather than forsake the god who had wrought so many miracles in their behalf. ptolemy, vexed to find that the people would not sacrifice to his idols, and that they submitted to every degradation rather than forsake their god, resolved to be revenged, and threatened to destroy and annihilate the whole of the nation; and this he attempted to do, by issuing an order that all the jews who lived _in_ and _about_ egypt, should be brought to alexandria in chains, and there to be devoured by his elephants. the jews were brought to the place of execution, where the elephants were made drunk with wine and frankincense, and then let loose among the people; but instead of falling upon the jews, they turned their rage upon the spectators who came to witness the scene, and destroyed great numbers of them, leaving the jews unhurt. the king on seeing his plans frustrated, began to reflect, and to be convinced that the god of israel would protect his people from their enemies; and fearing that he would become the victim of the vengeance of a justly offended god, he immediately revoked his cruel decree, and restored to the people all their former privileges. those, however, who had forsaken their god and abandoned their religion by sacrificing to his idols, were delivered into the hands of their enemies, and many of them were put to death. how just are the dispensations of providence! and how secure is man under the most perilous circumstances, while he puts his trust in his god and remains firm to the true worship of him who is ever watchful of the safety of his faithful and trustworthy followers. chapter vi. of the jewish affairs under antiochus the greek, seleucus, and antiochus epiphanes, kings of syria. after the death of ptolemy philopater, ptolemy epiphanes came to the throne. the jews, having experienced severe persecutions at the hands of the ptolemys, surrendered to the power of antiochus the great, king of syria; and when he came to jerusalem, the people went out to meet him in great procession, and very graciously welcomed him to their city. antiochus, flattered by this mark of their attention granted them the same privileges as he had done to their brethren who had settled themselves in babylon and mesopotamia. he had at all times expressed himself satisfied with the conduct of the people, having found them on all occasions true and loyal subjects. antiochus, wishing to show his confidence in the jews, and with a view of encouraging them, sent many of them from babylon to lower asia, to guard and protect his forts and garrisons, and allowed them good settlements; hence many of the jewish nation peopled that part of the country. at the death of antiochus, his son, seleucus philopater, succeeded him. in his day, simon, a benjamite, was made governor of the temple. he had some difference with onias, the high priest, who was a very good man. simon, however, not succeeding in his expectations with the high priest, reported to appolonius, the governor of the province under seleucus, that great treasures were deposited in the temple; upon which information heliodorus, the treasurer, was sent to seize them. heliodorus accordingly repaired to the temple to make this seizure. when he entered the temple he found the priests and all the people engaged in solemn prayer to almighty god, imploring his divine assistance in their present distress. the scene which thus presented itself to him at that moment so powerfully affected him, that he fell prostrate before the lord of hosts, whose power he publicly acknowledged, and resolved not to interfere with the people of god, as he called them, and immediately left the city. antiochus epiphanes succeeded his brother seleucus in the kingdom of syria. when seated on the throne, jason, the brother of onias the high priest, bribed antiochus with a large sum of money to deprive onias of the priesthood and to banish him to antioch; at the same time jason wished to have the priesthood conferred on him; not, as it is supposed, that he wished to have it as a religious office, but because it would invest him likewise with the power of the civil government. antiochus received the bribe; banished onias to antioch, and then appointed jason to the office of high priest. when jason became high priest, he erected a place of exercise at jerusalem for training up youth according to the fashion of the greeks, and induced many of them to forsake the religious customs and usages of their forefathers, and to conform in many things to the customs and ceremonies of the heathens. some few years after jason had been in office, he commissioned his brother menelaus to go to the court of syria to pay the annual tribute money. menelaus took advantage of this opportunity, and offered the king a larger bribe than his brother had given for the priesthood. antiochus made no scruple in the matter, and accepted the money thus offered by menelaus; and gave instructions to his secretary to make out a fresh commission in favor of menelaus, who returned triumphantly to jerusalem, deposed his brother jason, and placed himself in the office of the priesthood. menelaus being in office, abused the power and authority vested in him, and conducted himself in a manner much worse than his brother whom he had deposed. he stole some of the golden vessels from the temple, impoverished the country, and by degrees he managed to enslave the whole of judea, and overturned all that was left of her religion and her freedom. he then visited antioch, where he met his brother onias, who rebuked him for his misconduct both towards him and the people in general. menelaus, chagrined at his brother's rebuke, adopted means by which onias was put to death. during this time, lysimachus, who had been appointed by menelaus to officiate as his deputy during his absence, stripped the temple of many of its most costly vessels. he also committed many other sacrilegious acts; this occasioned a great tumult and confusion among the people, which ended in considerable bloodshed, and in which conflict the deputy himself fell a victim. this circumstance led to a false report being industriously circulated, that antiochus had fallen in the affray. jason, availing himself of this confusion, headed an army of resolute and desperate men; repaired to jerusalem which he assaulted; succeeded in putting to flight his brother menelaus with his party, and committed great havoc among those who opposed him. jason, however, was in the end defeated; his party routed; he himself perished in some strange land, and it is supposed even without the usual rites of burial. antiochus hearing of this affair, and imagining that judea had revolted, gave immediate orders to his soldiers to repair to jerusalem and to kill young and old without any reserve. the soldiers obeyed their cruel master in so unmerciful a manner, that in less than three days upwards of forty thousand souls were slain; thousands taken into captivity, and sold as slaves to the several neighboring nations. antiochus then entered the holy temple, stripped it of all the sacred vessels still remaining--the altar of incense--the golden table and the golden candle-stick. he then destroyed all the beautiful decorations of the house of god, robbed the noble edifice of all its treasures, and impiously polluted the holy of holies. and to further satiate his cruel revenge, he sacrificed a sow on the altar of burnt offerings, and scattered its fragments over every part of the temple. the tyrant then departed, leaving the city of jerusalem overwhelmed in sorrow and in mourning. the streets were strewed with the dying and the dead. the cries and lamentations of the orphan and the widow deplored the loss of their natural protectors and their property, which the tyrant carried away with him to enrich his unholy possessions. some time after, antiochus sent his general appollonius to collect the annual tribute to which the jews were subject, and at the same time commanded him at the head of a thousand men, to attack the city of jerusalem on the sabbath day, while the people were all engaged in their religious worship in the temple. appollonius fully executed the mandate of his cruel master. he slew the priests and the levites while at their sacred duties, together with numbers of the private citizens; led the women and children into captivity; destroyed all their houses; built a castle near the temple, and placed a troop of men as guards to watch and annoy those few jews who still remained in the city. not yet satisfied, the cruel tyrant issued a decree throughout all his dominions to suppress every religion excepting the worship of the idols, he himself had set up, and to which alone he paid his adoration. he forbade the jews to perform the initiatory rite on their male children, and prevented them from offering any more sacrifices in the temple to the god of israel. he then set up an image upon the altar, and sacrificed to it, and called it the temple of jupiter olympus. he compelled the people to offer up the flesh of swine, and other unclean beasts, and even to eat of them. he forced the jews to profane the sabbath, and cruelly persecuted all such who did not strictly conform to his wishes; rendering the position of the poor jews pitiable in the extreme, and probably unequalled by any other nation in the annals of the world. antiochus then ordered all the books of the law, and other books used for worship, to be destroyed; and to effectually carry out his cruel edict, officers were appointed to search every house, and every person was examined on oath as to the possession of any hebrew books or tablets. by this means not a copy of the law was to be seen among the poor jews. notwithstanding all these persecutions, there were found numbers of the people who defied the power of the merciless king; and putting their trust in the god of israel, would not defile themselves with the idolatrous worship then imposed on them, and break the law of god. sad to relate, that daily and hourly these people who adhered to their religion, were put to the sword and other torments, to compel them to act in obedience to the king's orders. their love for their religion was greater than the pleasures of this world, and in support of that religion they sacrificed their own lives and those of their wives and children. in the next and following chapters we shall inform our readers of the manner in which the lord raised up champions in israel, who valiantly and bravely resented the injuries inflicted on their countrymen, and zealously fought the battles of the lord; the success which ensued, together with the total defeat of their enemies, and the punishment which awaited the tyrant antiochus and his army. chapter vii. of the state of the jewish nation in the days of mattathias the priest, the father of the valiant maccabees. in the days of the tyrant antiochus, who so frightfully and cruelly persecuted the jews, there lived at modin a very learned, pious, and noble priest; he was of the family of the asmoneans, named mattathias. this zealous and brave man was one of the first who was determined to oppose the future progress of antiochus. mattathias, who was known to be a man of considerable influence among his brethren, was highly complimented by the king's officers, and tempted by them to comply with the request of the king to renounce the jewish religion and embrace that of the heathen. the priest boldly and fearlessly rejected their entreaties; and in the hearing of all the people he declared that no consideration whatever should induce him, or any of his family, to forsake his god and his holy religion; they would continue to walk in the sacred path of their fathers, and that no king on earth could be found to compel them to adopt any heathen worship. this bold declaration of the valiant priest, created great sensation among the people--and some of them fearing the torments threatened to be inflicted on all such who refused to obey the king's orders, consented to offer sacrifices on the altar set up for heathen worship; this altar was placed at modin. the priest, zealous in the cause of his religion, was determined to be avenged of this outrage committed by some of his brethren; he exhorted the people in general, not to be led away by the acts of these apostates, but to remain true to their holy faith, and that he and his family would pour out their life's blood for their sacred cause. at this time a jew presented himself at the altar, and sacrificed to the idol there erected. mattathias, fired by religious zeal, fell upon the apostate and slew him on the spot. his sons, actuated by the same religious spirit, slew the king's chief officer and his men who enforced his wicked commands. they then destroyed both the altar and the images, declaring aloud to all their brethren, "ye who are zealous for the cause of the lord and his religion, follow us! follow, follow!" the priest then collected together all the members of his family, and took up his abode in the neighboring mountains. many of the jews followed this example, and fled--some to the deserts, some to the mountains, and there assembling together, formed themselves into a little army--bold, resolute, zealous and brave in their just and noble cause. the king's troops pursued them, and attacked them on the sabbath day. the people unwilling to profane the sabbath, made no resistance, unanimously declaring, "let us rather die in innocence than triumph in guilt." the enemy taking advantage of this, slew them in great numbers. the venerable mattathias grieved at seeing his brethren so cruelly and innocently murdered, made a decree, (having previously consulted his brother priests,) and published it throughout the land, that it should be lawful, should it be found requisite, for the people to defend themselves against their enemies, in the event of their being attacked, on the sabbath day. this resolution was adopted and followed in all the subsequent wars, under the direction of their able and pious champions. when antiochus heard of this bold and daring resolution, so much beyond his expectations, he perpetrated the most frightful cruelties on every jew who would not forsake his religion. on this occasion happened the martyrdom of the venerable and pious eleazer, a priest of great learning, probity and zeal in the cause of religion. at the advanced age of ninety years, this poor man was led forth to the scaffold, and was desired to make a public declaration that he would renounce his religion--that he should eat swine's flesh in the presence of all the people, as a proof of his conversion. with resolute firmness, and becoming resentment, the venerable priest refused to comply with the wishes of the tyrant, and preferred death rather than forsake the religion of the one true god. at this period it occurred, that a mother and her seven sons were scourged in order to compel them to eat swine's flesh. both the mother and her sons publicly declared their resolution to die under the hands of the executioner, rather than transgress the laws of god. the tyrant then ordered their limbs to be cut off, their tongues to be cut out, and the skin of their heads to be stripped off with the hair; all which was executed in the presence of the mother, who encouraged her children to suffer their tortures bravely in the cause of their religion. she soothed their afflictions by the tenderest affections, beseeching them to fear god, and not the tyrant--and patiently to endure the torment, in the hope and expectation of a happy and glorious resurrection, where she would meet them again in mercy, and under the protection of an all gracious father, who never forsakes the truly righteous. the mother having witnessed the sufferings of all her sons, martyrs to the cause of their religion, shared the same sad fate, and under similar torments was ushered into eternity. what a noble example to parents of the present day to watch over the conduct of their children, and exert all the means in their power to induce them to walk in the path of virtue; to inculcate in them true religion, and not suffer them to think so lightly of the precepts of the lord--for it must be admitted that the apathy evinced in the present day by all classes of society, is the sole contributing cause of the infidelity so prevalent amongst us. if we are asked what is the cause of this infidelity, the answer is, the holy bible is not studied sufficiently, either privately or publicly; and not being understood, is consequently rejected by thousands of those who grow up in ignorance; hence, in the hour of distress, they have nothing to console them, as in olden times, as exhibited in the history before us. during this time, mattathias who still remained concealed in the mountains, encouraged his brethren to remain firm in their cause. he spoke so emphatically to them that he gained their confidence, in consequence of which, great numbers declared themselves true to the noble enterprise before them. those who more particularly were devoted to the cause, were such as were called _chasideem_, or pious; of this sect we shall have to speak in a future chapter, and therefore we shall proceed with our narrative, in which we shall see the result of true piety and honest zeal in the defence of upright principles. mattathias and his party then marched, well armed, through all the towns and villages, destroyed all the altars and places of worship belonging to the heathens. they then circumcised all the male children, who had been neglected in this matter in consequence of the edict passed by the tyrant antiochus. in this affair they met with very strong opposition, and in their defence they committed great slaughter among their enemies. they succeeded on this occasion in recovering many copies of the law, which had been hid at the time the mandate was issued to destroy all the copies of the law, or any other hebrew manuscripts which might be found among the people. the venerable and pious priest had now grown grey in the service, and appeared to be fast approaching the verge of the grave. sensible of his position, mattathias assembled together all his children, together with his friends, and on his death bed he thus addressed them: "my sons, be ye valiant and zealous in the cause i have so long advocated--expose your lives in its defence, and hereafter you will share the glorious reward of your perseverance. let me, says the dying man, bring to your memory the spirit, the noble spirit and pious zeal of your ancestors, to animate your hope, and to encourage your steady reliance on the power and protection of your all-gracious god. thus inspired, my dear children, and thus determined to defend your laws, your liberties, and your religion, you _will_ not, you _cannot_ fail of success. my son simon has proved himself a man of wisdom, follow his advice as a father, and as a counselor. judas, your brother, is well known for his courage and valorous conduct, let him be your general, let him head your army and lead you to the battle-field. my sons, may god almighty ever protect you and prosper you in all your righteous undertakings, and crown all your laudable efforts with success." after this tender and affectionate interview, this, his last and farewell advice to his sons, mattathias in a good old age expired, and was honorably buried at modin, in the sepulchre of his ancestors--beloved and esteemed by all who knew him in life, and revered and lamented by all who attended his mortal remains to the grave. chapter viii. the government of the jewish nation under the maccabees, or as they were otherwise called, the asmoneans, this being the family name. judas, at the dying request of his father, and with the full consent of his brothers, took upon himself the command of the forces, and at once erected his standard. judas is henceforth called judas maccabees, because he chose for the motto of his banner in the field of battle, the sentence from the song of moses, exodus, chap, xv: "who is like unto thee, amongst the powers, oh lord!" in hebrew the initials of the words in the sentence form the word "_mochbee_." hence it is, that all those who fought under the banner of judas, were called "_maccabees_," and all of that race were known by that name. judas and his brethren achieved many very valiant deeds, in defending the cause of the holy law, and the holy religion of the god of israel, of which they were the bold champions. judas was successful in gaining the many battles he fought with antiochus; and to encourage his army to fight bravely, he exhorted them to put their trust in god and that they would conquer. this inducement held out to the army, appears to have produced the desired effect. the tyrant antiochus, seeing their repeated success, became resolute and determined to be avenged of his powerful opponents, the maccabees. to effectuate this, he adopted the following stratagem: when he went into persia to gather the tribute of the countries round about, he left lysias with half his army, with express orders to destroy and root out all the jews from their land. lysias proved as cruel as his master; he collected numerous forces and encamped near jerusalem; his army consisted of forty thousand foot, and seven thousand horse. encouraged by the hope of success on the part of lysias, a body of merchants, about a thousand in number, repaired to the place of action, provided with large quantities of gold and silver, with the full expectation of buying the captive jews for slaves. whilst the enemy contemplated a complete victory, judas and his brethren gathered themselves together unto mizpah; here they fasted, put on sackcloth, and prayed to god to help them in their great distress. they opened the book of the law before god, where the heathens had polluted it by painting their images which they worshiped. they then sounded the trumpets and prepared for battle, resolved to a man to die in defence of their country and their religion. the result of this zeal and courage on the part of judas, proved successful; judas and his army put to flight and destroyed several large forces which lysias had sent against them. they drove the enemy out of jerusalem, and almost out of the land of judea, and succeeded in possessing themselves of a large booty, both from the army and the merchants, who expected to become their masters. judas and his party, grateful to heaven for this great and glorious success over such powerful enemies, immediately repaired to mount sion, where they saw the sanctuary of god made desolate, deserted and neglected; even the altar was polluted, the gates and walls thrown down, the courts of the temple, the beautiful edifice itself bedecked, not with sweet or odoriferous herbs, but with wild shrubs and grass which the hand of time had allowed to grow on that sacred spot. what a heart-rending scene for the pious judas and his followers! grieved at beholding such a devastation of god's holy place, they fell on their faces, rent their clothes, and made great lamentations; at the same time imploring the aid of heaven to repair the loss thus sustained. judas and his party diligently applied themselves to repair the temple, and to restore the worship of god. they selected some of the good priests to purify the sanctuary; they removed the altar, which had been profaned by the heathens, and built a new one as the law directs. they then made some new vessels for the use of the temple, from the gold which they had taken from the enemy in the late battle. the regular order of divine worship was again introduced, and sacrifices offered up according to the law of moses. it is somewhat remarkable, and worthy of our attention, that that very day three years, on which the heathen had profaned the altar by offering up unclean beasts, the temple was dedicated with great rejoicings and grateful acknowledgments to god, which continued during eight days. it was on this occasion that judas and his brethren ordained that this feast of dedication should be celebrated annually on the return of this period, with mirth and gladness, together with praises and thanksgiving to god. this feast of dedication is known among israelites by the name "_honucha_," hebrew word for dedication. the fact related is, that when judas and his men had purified the temple, a very small lamp of consecrated oil was miraculously found, capable of furnishing sufficient to supply all the established holy lights in the temple during eight days, until a fresh portion could be procured. this circumstance occurred about two years after judas had the chief command, and upwards of three years after the city and the temple had been laid desolate by appollonius. history informs us, that the holy worship in the temple continued with little interruption from the heathen, until the destruction of the temple by the romans, though jerusalem itself was often in the power of its enemies. notwithstanding the success achieved by judas and his party, they were much annoyed by their enemies, from the fact that the fortress built by appolonius still remained in the hands of the heathens. it stood on mount acra, a rising ground facing the temple. the heathens placed themselves here to annoy the jews, on their going to, and returning from the temple. judas finding that he could not drive out the enemy at once, endeavored to prevent these annoyances by building up mount sion with high walls and strong towers. he also placed guards there to protect the priests and the people when they went to the temple, with the view of preventing the gentiles from invading the sanctuary. though judas and his men continued the temple worship, they were still in constant warfare. the neighboring nations were all jealous of the success gained by the jews, and dissatisfied that they had restored the sacred worship in the temple of the lord. to show their displeasure they attacked the jews on all sides; war ensued, and fierce battles were fought, in most of which judas proved victorious, sustaining but little loss in his army. judas, encouraged by such success, which he always acknowledged to be from the hand of god, and not from his own power, led forth his army against georgius, a general of antiochus, as also against the idumeans, who had in their turn proved vexatious to the jews. in these attacks judas lost many of his men, but nevertheless proved victorious. judas was a noble and valiant general; his policy was at all times to encourage his men by inducing them to put their trust in god, who had done so much for their ancestors, and instilling in their minds the belief that he would continue his protection to them as long as they were inclined to act righteously to each other. during this time, antiochus was visiting persia in order to receive his tribute from the people of that country--and plunder the temple of _diana_, erected at _elymos_, which was said to contain great riches in gold and silver, and a very valuable armory. the people of persia having gained intelligence of the king's intention, boldly defended the temple of their idol, and succeeded in totally defeating the enemy. antiochus enraged at this discomfiture, and at the reports he had received of the defeat of his generals in judea, resolved to march toward jerusalem, and threatened to make the whole city as one grave, in which to bury all the jews then in the holy land. how far this wicked man succeeded in his cruel resolve, the following facts will show; they need no comment on our part, to prove that it was the finger of god that was directing all that befel antiochus, and other persecutors of mankind. it is generally supposed by historians, that the same disaster which befel the tyrant antiochus, was visited on many persecutors of god's people, both in former and latter times--hence supporting our views on the subject, that heaven ordained all that had happened. whilst on his journey, antiochus was smitten with an incurable plague; his chariot was upset, and he was seriously hurt. he was then carried to a small town on the road side, put to bed, in which he lingered for some time, suffering the most excruciating agonies of body, and torments of mind, until he died. on his death-bed, antiochus showed great contrition of mind for the crimes which he had perpetrated against god and man. the heathens declared that it was a punishment inflicted for his intended sacrilege of the temple of diana; but the jewish historians acquaint us, that the tyrant himself imputed his sufferings as a punishment for the cruelties towards israel, and the impieties he practised against the lord and his holy temple. thus ended the life of this great and relentless tyrant. the pleasing tidings of the death of the tyrant having reached the ears of judas, he was encouraged to besiege the garrison of the syrians, in the town of acra, in which enterprise he succeeded by a stratagem which will be hereafter related. at the death of antiochus epiphanes, his son antiochus eupator became his successor. he proved to be no better than his father, whose footsteps he followed by persecuting the jews wherever found throughout his empire. antiochus eupator commenced his career by bringing a vast army against judas, consisting of one hundred thousand foot, twenty thousand horse, thirty-two elephants, and three hundred armed chariots of war. judas's army being so small, compared with that of the enemy, encouraged his men by the watchword which he issued among them: "victory is of the lord." animated by the hope of success, they managed to surprise the enemy at night, and slew upwards of four thousand of them, and then made a safe retreat to jerusalem. in this encounter, eleazer, one of the brothers of judas, evinced great courage; he saw one of the elephants raised much higher than the rest. supposing that the king himself must be mounted thereon, he ran through the camp, made his way to the beast, and thrust him through with his spear. the wound proving mortal, the beast with his heavy burthen fell down and crushed eleazer to death. antiochus eupator's army then marched to jerusalem under the command of lysias, and besieged the sanctuary. during this siege, the jews suffered much from the want of provisions. they were on the point of surrendering to the enemy, when, by the providence of the almighty, they were strangely released from the impending danger. it happened that lysias, the general, heard that the city of antioch was seized by one philip, a favorite of the late king, who had taken upon himself the government of syria; lysias, on this account, persuaded the present king to declare peace with the jews, to which proposal he readily consented. about this time demetrius, the cousin of antiochus, became king in his place, under the following circumstances: demetrius was the son of seleucus philopater, the eldest brother of antiochus epiphanes; at his death, seleucus endeavored to persuade the romans to assist him in obtaining the kingdom of syria, but without success. being disappointed in his expectations, demetrius went to syria and there induced the people to believe that the romans had sent him. on the strength of this report, antiochus eupator, and his general, lysias, were seized by their own soldiers, and put to death by order of demetrius. demetrius being seated on the throne, one alcimus, a descendant of the tribe of aaron, applied to him to be assisted in procuring the appointment of high priest, to which office he had been raised by the late king, antiochus eupator. alcimus had been refused by the jews, he having complied with the heathen superstition in the time of the persecution, in order to gain favor with the king and his generals. judas and his party, now, as before, strenuously opposed the appointment of alcimus, though strongly recommended by demetrius. this opposition to his wishes, induced demetrius to send one bacchides to enforce the command of the king, but to no purpose. demetrius then selected nicanor, who was master of his elephants, as the future governor of judea, with instructions to kill judas, and bring the people under still greater subjection. nicanor was at first unwilling to make war against judas, but being urged on by the king, he pursued it with fresh fury; he boldly declared his intention to demolish the temple at jerusalem, and build one on the same spot in honor of the idol bacchus. nicanor was slain in the battle, and his army entirely routed by judas and his party. judas, desirous of making an example of this wicked man, for his blasphemous words which he uttered against the temple of the lord, cut off the head and right hand of nicanor, and placed them in a conspicuous situation on one of the towers in jerusalem. judas then gave orders that a day should be annually appointed as a day of thanksgiving, in memory of this victory, which was called nicanor's day. this day is not however celebrated as a holiday among the jews in the present generation; it has been discontinued for many ages past. at this period the romans were growing great and powerful; judas, aware of the danger likely to result from such power, deemed it advisable for the good of his country to propose a league with the romans, to which they readily consented, and acknowledged the jews as their friends and allies. demetrius then received orders not to interfere with the jews any more. unhappily for judas and his people, before the orders had reached demetrius, he had already despatched bacchides a second time to avenge the course of nicanor, who had been slain, and to insist on establishing alcimus in the priesthood. this circumstance proved very unfortunate for both judas and his countrymen. judas having but three thousand men with him, was overpowered by the strong forces of bacchides; so little chance was there of success on the part of judas, that many of his men deserted him through fear and fright. judas, brave and valiant to the last in defence of his country's cause, and scorning to flee even for his life, fell a victim to the fury of the enemy. the death of judas created great excitement among the people, and sorely depressed their spirits. they became absorbed in sorrow and in grief for the loss of their noble chieftain. the people had fallen into such a state of lethargy, that they became an easy prey to the tyrant bacchides, who, taking advantage of this state of things, committed great havoc among the people, and put to the sword all of judas's friends and companions on whom he could lay hand. alcimus also availed himself of this opportunity, and exercised his authority in the office of the priesthood. he introduced into the worship of the temple, imitations of heathen idolatry, and gave orders that the sanctuary should be thrown open, with equal freedom and liberty, both to gentiles and to jews. alcimus, however, did not long prosper in his wicked career; in a very short time he was struck with palsy, deprived of his speech, and ultimately died in great anguish of mind and torment of body. after the death of judas maccabees, his brother jonathan was unanimously appointed by the people as their leader. jonathan was ably assisted by his brother simon; they both bravely resisted the many inroads made upon them by their enemies. bacchides finding himself so powerfully opposed, sued for peace, which was granted on condition that he should restore all the captive jews, depart from judea forever, and in no way molest the people of that country. these conditions were cheerfully accepted by bacchides, who left judea in peace and in tranquility. jonathan, happy in having restored peace, commenced to govern his people under the old jewish polity; he resumed all the rites and ceremonies of the jewish religion, and succeeded in obtaining the confidence of his people by the zeal which he evinced in the performance of the duties of his office. after the death of alcimus, the office of high priest remained vacant seven years, when a man calling himself alexander, appeared, and declared that he was a son of antiochus epiphanes. he seized the kingdom of africa, and solicited jonathan to join him against demetrius, who had proved himself a formidable enemy of the jews. as an inducement to jonathan, alexander made the following proposals to him: that jonathan should be constituted both the governor and the high priest of the jews, and be called the king's friend and counselor. jonathan considering these proposals likely to prove beneficial to his people, and there not being any one else for the priesthood, consulted them on the subject, and with their unanimous consent he accepted the offer made by alexander. at the following feast of tabernacles, jonathan was duly installed in his new office, and vested with the sacerdotal robes usually worn by the high priests. being thus dignified, he joined alexander, and proceeded to battle against demetrius, whose army was totally routed, and he himself, slain on the battle field. it is said that from this time forward the high priesthood continued in the family of the asmoneans or maccabees, till the days of herod, who changed it from an office of inheritance to an arbitrary appointment. herod appointed those whom he pleased, without reference to merit or ability. this practice was continued until the total extinction of the priesthood at the final destruction of the temple by the romans. jonathan succeeded by his judicious conduct, in securing for his people their possessions, with free scope to exercise all their religious rites, without any interruption from their neighbors. he occasionally extended his assistance to those of the nations who proved kind to him, by which means the bond of friendship became strongly cemented between both parties. like most great men, jonathan had his enemies: among them was one tryphon, who sought to possess the kingdom of syria, and by whose treachery, jonathan was made prisoner in ptolemais, and was afterwards cruelly murdered, together with his two sons. the death of jonathan and his two sons caused great lamentations among the people. being in constant fear of their enemies, and now without a leader, they were at a loss what to do. in this dilemma they applied to simon, the only surviving brother of judas, to become their chief. simon consenting to become their general, a council of war was called, at which meeting he was unanimously appointed and vested with power equal to his predecessors. simon having been regularly installed into his new office, commenced his career by addressing his brethren in the following manner: "you, my countrymen, are not ignorant how bravely my father, brothers, and myself, have fought in defence of our laws and our religion, our temple and our people. they have sacrificed their lives in that glorious cause; i, only i, survive to maintain it. god forbid i should value my life at a higher price than they did theirs. behold me then as they were, to glory in this undertaking, to die in defence of our nation, our temple, our wives and our children." "take courage my friends; the lord is with us, and success will crown our righteous intentions." simon at the request of the people, then assumed the sacred office of the priesthood. having now entered into his new office, he procured the dead bodies of his brother jonathan and his two sons, and buried them with great honors in the sepulchre of his fathers at modin, and erected a stately monument to their memory. simon then repaired the fortresses and the walls of the city, which had been destroyed by their enemies, built for himself a very splendid mansion, and made jerusalem his place of residence, where he held his court. the jews were still annoyed by the garrison on the tower of acra, when they went to and returned from the temple. simon succeeded in shutting up the enemy so closely in the tower that many perished from famine, which made the survivors surrender the tower. simon being in possession of the tower, he, with the sanction of the people, pulled it down, and lowered the mount in such a way so that it could no more be made available for the purpose of annoying the people when assembled at their worship in the temple. simon now turned his attention to the repairs of the sanctuary. he enforced a rigid observance of the laws of god, and successfully introduced peace and unanimity of feeling among the people. the nation at large, sensible of the good conduct of their leader, convened a general meeting of all the elders, priests and magistrates at jerusalem. at this meeting it was unanimously resolved, that the office of governor of the nation, and that of the high-priesthood, should be henceforth vested permanently in simon and his posterity after him, so that the said office should be hereditary in his family for ever. it was further decreed that an account of the noble deeds of simon and his family should be engraven on a tablet, and placed in the temple as an everlasting memorial, and that a copy of the same should be placed on the records in judea. this excellent priest was held in such high estimation by all the surrounding nations, that the romans sought his friendship, entered into a covenant with him, and conferred on him many honors. the king of syria followed the example of the romans, and entered into a similar covenant with simon. the king of syria, however, was not true to his covenant, he having after a time invaded judea. simon assisted by his two eldest sons, bravely defended themselves, and drove the enemy away with great discomfiture. simon continued to maintain a high reputation in his office for about eight years. he was at all times employed in providing for the comfort and welfare of his people. simon now set out to examine into the affairs of his country, accompanied by his two sons, judas and mattathias. having arrived at jericho, they were invited by ptolemeus, the son-in-law of simon, to a banquet which he had prepared for them. simon readily accepted this polite invitation of his relative, not suspecting in the least any treachery on the part of ptolemeus, who had already concerted his plans with the court of syria to destroy his father-in-law and his two sons who were then with him. while the guests were indulging at the banquet, simon and his two sons were inhumanly murdered by order of ptolemeus. he then dispatched a party to the residence of john, another son of simon, who was captain of the forces at judea, with orders to murder him also. john fortunately gained intelligence of all that had occurred at jericho to his father and brothers, as also the plot laid for him. he courageously and bravely defended himself, and cut to pieces the enemy. john then fled to jerusalem for safety. ptolemeus followed him, and arriving at the same time, they both presented themselves at different gates. from the respect the people had for simon and his ancestors, john was received by the people with open arms, whilst the murderer of simon and his two sons, was repulsed with all his followers. john was then unanimously appointed to succeed his father, both in the government and the priesthood. he was then surnamed hyrcanus, and henceforward known by the name of john hyrcanus. chapter ix. of the jewish affairs under the conduct of the posterity and successors of simon the maccabee. antiochus sidetes, being informed of the death of simon, and being invited by ptolemeus, invaded judea again, besieged jerusalem, and reduced hyrcanus and the jews to the last extremity of famine. hyrcanus then sued for peace, which was granted on the condition of paying certain tributes to the king, and removing the fortifications of jerusalem. a few years after, antiochus died, which occasioned great confusion among the surrounding nations; hyrcanus took advantage of this to enlarge his territories, by seizing some neighboring towns round about judea, and renounced all further dependence on the kings of syria. hyrcanus then renewed the friendship originally made by his father with the romans, who assisted him in being released from the tribute paid to the syrians; at the same time he received a compensation from them for former injuries done by them to the jews. it was at this time that the edomites, or idumeans, lived on the south side of judea. hyrcanus proposed to them either to embrace judaism or leave the country. the edomites readily acquiesced, and became jews. they ultimately became so incorporated among the jews, that in less than two centuries scarcely any trace or character was left to signalize the edomite nation. hyrcanus's power being thus increased by the addition of these edomites, he turned his attention to the samaritans. he marched with his army and took shechem, which was then the chief seat of the samaritan sect; he destroyed their temple which sanballat had built for them on mount gerizim. the samaritans, however, continued to keep the altar there, and to offer sacrifices thereon. hyrcanus became master of samaria, ruled in judea, in galilee, and in some of the adjacent towns; he proved himself one of the noble princes of his age; he, with great perseverance, preserved both the jewish church and the state from the power of their enemies, throughout a long and tedious government. he was so highly esteemed among the people, that they believed him to be a prophet, from the fact that he had predicted one or two things which eventually came to pass. he built the castle _baris_ on a rock about fifty cubits high, outside the square of the temple; this was used as the palace of the asmonean princes in jerusalem, and here the sacred robes of the high priest were deposited when they were not in use. toward the close of his life, hyrcanus experienced severe troubles; his claim to the priesthood was questioned by a bold and daring man, one of the pharisees, of whom we shall speak hereafter in the course of the work, as also of the different other sects which sprang up in those days. hyrcanus, supposing that this bold man represented the whole body of the pharisees, without even inquiring into the matter, immediately renounced the pharisees, and rashly joined the sect called sadducees. this hasty conclusion of hyrcanus, considerably lessened that love and esteem in which the people had previously held him. the pharisees felt indignant at the conduct of hyrcanus in this instance; and forgetting all former favors received at his hands, proved very ungrateful toward him. they became arrogant and mutinous, which caused hyrcanus entirely to desert their party, and even refused to meet them any more. many civil broils and troubles ensued, which sorely embittered the declining life of hyrcanus, and he died during the following year. hyrcanus had been in office nearly thirty years, during which time his wisdom and counsel at home, and his bravery and conquests abroad, marked his reign one of glory and happiness. the commonwealth recovered more of its glory during his government, than at any other period since the return from babylon. it is generally supposed that his death was hastened by the troubles which began to surround him. hyrcanus had five sons; the eldest, named aristobulus, succeeded his father as high priest and governor in judea. he then took upon himself the title of king, which had fallen into disuse since the babylonish captivity. aristobulus did not follow the good example of his noble father. we are informed how he became the murderer of his mother; it having been reported that she laid claim to the government. three of his brothers he put into close confinement, and the fourth, who was even his favorite, he had put to death owing to a false report being raised that he would oppose him in the government. aristobulus now fixed his household and other affairs, according to his own wishes. he then put himself at the head of his army, attacked and subdued the itureans who lived on the north-east of the land of galilee. having the people thus in his power, he compelled them to embrace the jewish religion, which they did out of fear, and thus became mixed among the people of israel. in the midst of all these victories, aristobulus was taken sick and brought to jerusalem. antigonus, one of his brothers, acted in his stead. aristobulus continued dangerously sick, and there appeared but little hope of his recovery. this being apparent to the king's courtiers, who were jealous of antigonus, they endeavored to persuade the king that his brother was not faithful to him. in this intrigue they were supported by the queen. on the return of antigonus to jerusalem, he repaired to the temple, there to return thanks to god for his success, and to pray for the recovery of his sick brother. whilst thus piously engaged, it was represented to the king that his brother was attempting to usurp the government, which the king too readily received as truth, from the statements previously made to him, and gave orders for his brother to appear in the sick chamber. antigonus obeyed, and attended in full uniform. the king then desired him to unrobe. this command was given in such a tone, as to assure him that a refusal would be considered as treason, and punished accordingly. antigonus retired, much degraded and sorely perplexed as to the cause. the queen, who, we have already noticed was in the conspiracy, then wrote to him that the king had changed his mind and that he wished to see him in his uniform, having been told of the beauty of his armour. antigonus accordingly repaired in full dress to the palace, and on his way to the king's chamber, he was slain by the guard. this assassination of antigonus, caused the king to reflect with keen remorse, both on account of this murder, as well as that of his mother. his mind became sorely agitated, which brought on a vomiting of blood, so that he died in great agony of both body and mind. thus ended the life of him, who is handed down to posterity as one of the most wretched beings recorded in the annals of jewish history; and it is worthy of notice how god punishes the wicked. he who had shed so much innocent blood, that his own blood was made to flow from him until he breathed his last; an example as well as a warning to those who were in the service of this wicked man, and who were following the same sinful career as their cruel master. aristobulus was succeeded by his brother alexander; he began his reign by putting his brother to death, because of some attempt to supplant him in the government. alexander immediately set about arranging all matters relating to the home department, and then commenced to attack his neighbors around him without any reserve. at this time ptolemy lathyrus was heir to the crown of egypt; alexander behaved very deceitfully toward him, which caused much enmity and ill feeling to exist on both sides; and the result was, a very severe battle between them, near the river jordan. alexander and his army were completely routed, with the loss of about thirty thousand men. there is a very cruel and barbarous action charged to lathyrus on this occasion. on the evening after the victory, he marched his men from the field of battle to take up quarters in the adjacent villages, which were all crowded with the wives and children of the vanquished army. he gave orders to kill all of them, without any distinction; their bodies to be cut in pieces and boiled in cauldrons. it is supposed that he did this with a view of creating terror among all the surrounding nations, and to cause a belief that his men fed on human flesh. after this, lathyrus ranged at liberty all over the country, plundering and destroying it in a very lamentable manner; for alexander after this battle, was not in a condition to resist him. in this dilemma, alexander fortunately met with assistance from cleopatra, the queen of egypt. cleopatra, fearing lest lathyrus, her eldest son, should become possessed of judea, and might be induced to take egypt out of her hands, agreed with her youngest son to support alexander. alexander, encouraged by such offers of support, resumed his courage, besieged many places, and gained the fortress of gadara and anathus, toward galilee, together with much treasure; but he was surprised by theodorus, prince of philadelphia, who had laid up that treasure there, with the loss of ten thousand men. yet being a man of courage and diligence, alexander assembled his men and succeeded in taking the city of gaza from the philistines, who were entirely defeated by his army. he took possession of the chief cities, and made them part of his own dominions. the philistines being thus subdued, were glad to embrace judaism as a protection from further inroads. it appears to have now become a custom with the asmonean princes to impose their religion on all the conquered, leaving them no other choice but to become proselytes or to be banished. alexander was not, however, well supported by his own people, many of them being opposed to him. these were chiefly of the pharisees, who were very numerous and influential, and were supported by a large body of their class, who were excited to such a degree, that they insulted alexander, while at the altar performing the duties devolving upon him as high priest. alexander, enraged at such conduct by his own people, sought to be revenged, and appointed his own body guard from the heathen nations, fearing to trust himself in the hands of his own people. this act brought on a civil war which lasted six years; it was the cause of much grief and calamity throughout the land, and occasioned the death of about fifty thousand people. though alexander gained many victories over his enemies, yet he became much weakened from their continual attacks: he at length sued for peace, offering the people to grant them whatever they would reasonably desire. but so embittered were the people against him, that they declared nothing would satisfy them but his life. this reply on their part, aggravated the cause, and the war was continued still more rigorously on both sides. as all mundane affairs must have an end, alexander after having encountered many severe conflicts, at last gained one great battle, which concluded this protracted war. numbers of his enemies fell victims to his fury, while others were driven to the city of bethome, and there were besieged. alexander having taken the place, he had eight hundred of the people carried to jerusalem, and there had them all slain in one day, together with their wives and children. this act of alexander's terrified the jews to such an extent that they never again attempted any insurrection. we cannot however refrain from observing here, that however provoked alexander might have been, he justly merited by this cruel conduct the reproach of after ages; such conduct being incompatible with his dignified station as high priest, in whose heart nought but peace and humanity should ever find place. alexander, like most cruel monarchs after having satiated their lust for blood, gave himself up to very inordinate luxuries, which in the end produced an attack of ague, very severe in its character. this disease ultimately proved fatal to alexander, who died in the camp while he was besieging a castle of the gerasenes beyond jordan. alexander reigned twenty-seven years; he left two sons, hyrcanus and aristobulus; he bequeathed the government to his wife alexandra, during her life time, and to be disposed of at her death to which of her sons she pleased. alexandra in a flood of tears, expressed to her dying husband her justly apprehended dread of the pharisees, who had grown into a powerful party at that time in jerusalem. alexander listened to his wife with considerable emotion, while he employed his last moments in contriving an expedient for the removal of her fears. the dying man then addressed his wife in the following words: "alexandra, you are not unacquainted with the cause of our mutual enmity. i am well convinced that your security and happiness, when i am dead, must rise or fall, as you make them your friends or your foes. i advise you, therefore, to keep my death a secret from the army, till they have taken the fort, then lead them in triumph to jerusalem; carry my body with you, and as soon as you arrive assemble the heads and the leaders of that party, and lay it before them; tell them you submit it wholly to them, after the injuries it had done them, to give it burial, or cast it ignominiously on the highway; as for your part, you are devoted to them, they shall always be your first advisers, at the head of your council; you will do nothing without their consent and approbation; begin instantly to show them some marks of your favor and friendship, upon which they will order my body a royal burial, and they will support you and your sons in the peaceful enjoyment of the kingdom." alexandra followed the advice of her husband, and kept his death a secret from the world, till the castle was taken. she then led the army back to jerusalem, and gave the body of her deceased husband to the pharisees, to act with it as they pleased, at the same time declared herself ready to be guided by them in the management of all the affairs of the government. this declaration on the part of alexandra, gained for her the confidence of the pharisees, who granted to her late husband an honorable funeral. alexandra thus enjoying the good opinion of the pharisees, assumed the government, enlisted herself under their banner, and became firmly and peaceably settled on the throne; she then invested hyrcanus, her eldest son, with the office of high priest. alexandra, at the request of a party of the pharisees, gave her consent to punish all the persons who had counselled her late husband to behave so cruelly to the mass of the people; these men were in their turn put to death by the pharisees. the queen was induced to adopt this medium in order to prevent any further civil wars; the evil consequences of which she had so sadly experienced, and which, therefore, she was so desirous to avoid. alexandra having reigned nine years, died in the seventy-third year of her age; leaving by her will, the whole of the government to her eldest son, hyrcanus, who was then the high priest. he is known in history by hyrcanus the second. he was bred and trained in the schools of the pharisees, and consequently influenced by their tutorage. hyrcanus did not long enjoy his new office. aristobulus, his younger brother, perceiving that the people and the army were weary of the administration of the pharisees, raised an army against his brother hyrcanus, and marched them on to the plains of jericho. a desperate battle was fought, hyrcanus was put to flight, and the remainder of his forces joined those of aristobulus. hyrcanus in this dilemma, went to jerusalem, shut himself up with a small party in the citadel, and appeared happy to accept any terms in order to procure peace. aristobulus then deprived his brother of both the regal and pontifical dignities, commanding the same to be resigned to him, which having been done, hyrcanus was expelled the capital, and compelled to retire into private life. hyrcanus, being of a peaceful disposition, made no resistance, although he had enjoyed his regal honors but three months. aristobulus then ascended the throne of his father, but he did not prove so happy on it as he had anticipated, as we shall learn from the following circumstance. an idumean named antipater, who was brought up in the court of alexander with hyrcanus, advised him to seek assistance at the hands of aretas, the king of arabia, and not quietly suffer himself to be so easily vanquished. hyrcanus, acting on the advice of antipater, applied to aretas, who immediately headed an army to espouse the cause of hyrcanus. an obstinate battle took place in which aristobulus was totally defeated, driven into the mountains, and there sorely besieged. at this time there lived at jerusalem, a very pious man named onias. he was so much esteemed and beloved by the people for his true piety and virtue, that it was generally believed, that at the instance of this good man's prayers, the almighty had sent rain from heaven in a season of great drought. the people imagining that he possessed a similar power in cursing as well as blessing, prayed to him to curse aristobulus and all his party. this good man weary of their importunities, and anxious if possible to satisfy their wishes, raised his hands towards heaven in prayer, of which the following is said to be a copy: "o god of the universe, since those that are with us are thy people, and they that are besieged in the temple are thy priests, i pray that thou wouldst hear the prayers of neither of them against each other." the multitude, disappointed at the good man's prayer, cruelly murdered him on the spot. this circumstance tended to increase the enmity between both parties, and provoked a warfare between the two brothers and their parties. the two brothers ultimately agreed with each other to lay the matter before pompey, the roman general, for his decision. the mass of the people, however, were not satisfied with this plan of appealing to the roman general, and declared that they would not be ruled by princes, but by god's priests. the appeal was made to pompey, who did not feel disposed to give an immediate decision. aristobulus availed himself of this opportunity, and prepared himself for a fresh war. pompey hearing this, immediately seized aristobulus in one of his castles, and confined him in prison. he then marched his army in front of jerusalem; a division within weakened its power, the two opposite parties contending. at length hyrcanus's party prevailed and threw open the gates of the city. the adherents to aristobulus retreated and fortified themselves in the temple, and on mount moriah. pompey and his army marched through the city, and laid close siege to the temple. the jews held out for three months; at length a huge tower was thrown down, and a breach was made large enough for an assault; the place was taken sword in hand, and so fierce was the battle, that more than twelve thousand persons were slain. it has been remarked by historians, "how is it possible that so strong a place could have been taken in so short a time?" the cause of this easy victory on the part of the romans was, in consequence of the jews having suffered the enemy to prepare their war machines on the sabbath day undisturbed, notwithstanding the agreement made in the days of judas maccabees, that they should defend themselves if attacked on the sabbath day. pompey then entered the holy edifice, and being overawed by some religious prepossession, refrained from defiling any of the sacred vessels, nor did he attempt to touch about two thousand talents of gold, which were laid up for the service of god's holy temple. on the contrary, pompey ordered the temple to be purified, and on the very next day, its usual services were resumed. thus an end was put to the very serious quarrel and contention between the two brothers. it may be worthy of notice, that though this roman general was not disposed to plunder the sacred property of the temple on this occasion, yet it escaped not the avarice and covetousness of another roman general. crassus, when he became governor of judea instead of gabinius, plundered the temple, and carried off the solid beams of gold, magnificent vessels, utensils and golden tables, and all the beautiful hangings, which adorned the holy of holies. this wicked man's sacrilege did not pass unpunished, for when he was in an engagement with the parthians, he was defeated, and met with his death, and as a mark of infamy, his head was cut off, and molten gold was poured down his throat, to show to the people how much benefit the gold was to him which he took from the holy temple. pompey now demolished the walls of jerusalem, slew many of the chief supporters of aristobulus, and restored hyrcanus to the office of high priest, and made him also the governor, but under tribute to the romans. aristobulus and his sons were carried prisoners to rome, whence they escaped after a time, and made several attempts to regain their former position, but without success. it may fairly be concluded that in consequence of the civil broils between aristobulus and his brother hyrcanus, the jewish nationality became very much shaken, and ultimately produced the total ruin of both jerusalem and the whole of judea. at this time the regal power was arrested, and enjoyed by the romans. the sovereign authority had hitherto descended with the priesthood; although at different periods already mentioned, the jews were subject to the several strange powers who had become their masters. the enemies of the jews did not seem to be satisfied with their already degraded state; but every exertion must be made to crush them still more, by even preventing them from attending and praying to the god of their fathers. this infliction appears to have been far more grievous to the nation at large, than all the worldly persecutions which could possibly have been invented against them. after a short time, gabinius, a roman general, passed through judea on an expedition. he took upon himself to reduce the power of hyrcanus, and made new arrangements relating to the sanhedrim or jewish senate. all these differences were however, very happily settled in a short time by julius cæsar, who, when emperor of rome, listened to the petition of hyrcanus, and granted him permission to rebuild the walls of jerusalem. this enabled hyrcanus to resume the former friendship between the jews and the romans, who passed a unanimous decree in their favor. during this time, antipater, who had encouraged hyrcanus in the recovery of the government of judea, was in the employ of julius cæsar. antipater was appointed lieutenant of judea, by julius cæsar, under hyrcanus, who was now in full power both in the government and the priesthood. the eldest son of antipater was made governor of jerusalem, while his second son herod, was made governor of judea. this herod became after a time, great in power, as we shall hereafter read of him. he was called herod the great, and became king of judea. antipater did not long enjoy his office. malichus, who envied him his position, had antipater poisoned. herod having discovered this, obtained permission of the roman general to have malichus captured and put to death as a murderer. pacorus, the parthian general, was at this time at war with the romans. by some treachery or other, hyrcanus, and his eldest son phasael, came into the custody of pacorus; jerusalem was taken, and antigonus appointed ruler in judea. hyrcanus and his son were delivered over to him in chains and made prisoners. herod, however, had made his escape. phasael, weary of his existence in prison, put an end to his own life. hyrcanus had both his ears lopped off, in order to disqualify him for the priesthood; he was then banished the country to prevent him appearing against antigonus. herod, in the mean time, repaired to rome, to lodge his complaint, and fully to report all that had happened. herod was well received by mark antony and octavius, who governed rome at that time, owing to the death of julius cæsar, who was slain in the senate house at rome. herod's report having been properly accredited, he was immediately appointed king of judea, by full consent of the roman senate. chapter x. of the government of herod the great and his posterity over israel. herod, having received his appointment, returned to judea. the first thing which engaged his attention, was the releasing of his mother, who had been imprisoned by antigonus. herod now declared war against antigonus, and with the assistance of the roman legions, he besieged antigonus in jerusalem. while preparations were being made to carry on the siege, herod went to samaria, and there married mariamne, the grand-daughter of hyrcanus the second, a descendant of the valiant and noble race of the asmoneans. mariamne was a lady of exquisite beauty and great virtue, and thus highly calculated to dignify the lofty position she was about to fill as a queen in israel. she inherited all the piety and goodness of her ancestors, who were justly esteemed ornaments to the jewish nation. herod, sensible of this, was the more anxious for the alliance, in the hope of endearing himself to the great body of the people. herod, successful in his suit, returned to the siege at jerusalem, and took it by storm after six months' hard struggle. antigonus was taken prisoner by the romans, who sent him to antioch; he was afterwards put to death by mark antony, at the instance of herod the great. the death of antigonus concluded the race of the maccabees, who had held the government about one hundred and twenty years. the possession of jerusalem, together with the death of antigonus, established herod upon the jewish throne. herod commenced his reign in bloodshed, as the only way open to establish himself. the partizans of antigonus fell easy victims to herod's cruelty. these were all the counselors of the great sanhedrim, excepting the two celebrated and learned divines and disputants, hillel and shamai. these two influential men induced the people to receive herod as their king, not for the love they entertained for him, but, because they foresaw the mischief which would have resulted from any opposition on their part. herod now appointed one ananelus, a descendant of the house of aaron as the high priest. he was not of very high rank, but rather of obscure origin, trained far off in babylon; he was therefore suited for herod, as not likely to oppose any of his designs which he might form in judea. mariamne, the wife of herod, considering that the priesthood belonged to her family, prevailed on her husband to remove ananelus, and place her brother in his stead. the queen's brother was at this time only seventeen years of age; still, he was appointed high priest by herod, because of his wife's importunities, though much against his own will. hyrcanus, who was in banishment among the parthians during many years, hearing of the advancement of herod, and his marriage with his grand-daughter, felt a desire to return to jerusalem, anticipating a kind welcome at the hands of herod, on account of the family alliance which now so closely united them. hyrcanus, arriving at jerusalem, was received by herod with all the appearance of pleasure and satisfaction. but a short time after, herod fancied that hyrcanus, being of the asmonean family, might one day or other, take the kingdom from him, although hyrcanus was now upwards of eighty years old! herod therefore invented some pretext, and had the old hyrcanus put to death. about this season, a very alarming earthquake shook the whole country of judea, and destroyed about thirty thousand of the inhabitants, together with their houses and their property. shortly after, a very destructive pestilence infested judea, and swept away many of the people. a few years later a grievous famine pervaded the land, on which occasion herod behaved very liberally to the people, in order to gain their affections; but in this he was disappointed. it was just at this period that mark antony and octavius, the two brave romans, fell into a disagreement with each other. the result proved in favor of octavius, by whom mark antony was vanquished and entirely ruined. mark antony was the true and tried friend of herod, who being now fearful of the power of octavius, sought to appease him by making a servile submission to him. herod accordingly waited on octavius in humble attire, having laid aside his royal diadem, and with a free and open countenance, confessed his sincere regard and friendship for mark antony in former days; but now he wished to declare his perfect obedience to the will and wishes of octavius, if such trust would be reposed in him at his hands. octavius, allured by the flattery and cringing tone of herod, received his declaration of obedience in the most polite manner, and requested him immediately to return, resume the crown, and ascend the throne. he then fully established herod in his kingdom, and remained his friend during his life-time. the history of herod's life will be found overshadowed by crimes of the blackest dye. avarice, envy, jealousy and pride; these had so great an effect upon his wicked mind and cruel heart, that no redeeming quality existed in the breast of this hateful tyrant. herod was now visited by severe domestic troubles, which disturbed his peace of mind, and produced in him great irritability of temper, violent grief and rage throughout the remainder of his life. it will be recollected that mariamne was one of the most beautiful women in judea. herod, fearful lest at his death any other man should possess so great a beauty as his queen, and lest any branch of the asmonean family should become master of judea, and thus deprive his own lawful heirs of their right to the crown, gave secret instructions, that if his death should be before that of mariamne, that both she and her mother should be immediately put to death. this cruel and inhuman decree of herod reached the ears of the queen, who from that very day rejected him for ever, and upbraided him with the murder of her relations, and that by such means alone he had obtained the crown. she further resented his wicked designs, by heaping bitter reproaches on his mother and sister, in reference to the obscurity of their birth and parentage. herod's conscience becoming tormented, he implored his queen by all kind and affectionate importunities, but without effect. mariamne seemed resolved to punish herod for his wicked intentions. she would not yield to his entreaties, and positively determined to discard him for ever. this conduct of the queen so enraged herod, that acting on the advice of his mother and sister salome, he slew his beautiful and innocent mariamne, and to palliate this outrageous cruelty, alleged that she had attempted to poison him, and that he only acted in self defense. it was not long before the mother shared the same fate as her daughter at the hands of her relentless son-in-law. the death of mariamne was not easily forgotten by herod. it preyed on his mind so violently, that he became one of the most miserable wretches in existence. his love for his queen whom he had so atrociously put to death, produced extreme grief and vexation of spirit which rendered him truly wretched. he became more arbitrary and despotic in his government; he appointed those whom he wished to favor, as high priests, and deposed them as frequently, to satisfy his unruly passions and caprice of temper. he introduced innovations into the religious observances of the temple, in direct opposition to the will of the people, who remonstrated with him on the mischief which would result therefrom. notwithstanding all the arguments advanced to dissuade him from such wicked and impious conduct, herod obstinately adopted the practices and customs of the heathen nations, under the false pretext of pleasing and gratifying the wishes of cæsar. herod's conduct in this respect, brought upon him the hatred of the people; who being jealous at all times lest their ancient and holy religion should in any way be infringed upon, regarded him with suspicious distrust. herod becoming sensible at last of the disrepute into which he had fallen, and fearful of the consequences thereof, sought to protect himself by building several strong towers in and about jerusalem. he then built temples in the different places and dedicated them to cæsar, who was at that time his great friend. herod finding that the hatred of the people toward him did not abate, then sought to appease them, by proposing to pull down the old temple and build up a new one in its stead, far superior in every degree to the one then in existence. in order to induce the people to second his views, he pointed out the necessity of a new temple, since the old one had undergone many repairs, owing to the frequent outrages which had been committed against it. the people were, however, not disposed to listen to herod's proposal to remove the old temple until he had assured them that it should remain untouched till all the requisites for the new building should be ready and prepared to be set up. herod, being on this occasion, earnest in his intentions, executed all that the people requested of him, at an enormous outlay of both labor and material. to carry out his plans he employed nearly ten thousand of the best mechanics under the direction of about one thousand priests. at the expiration of two years, the new temple rose in all its glory and splendor, at an immense labor and cost, as fully described by the faithful historian josephus, who says it was one of the most magnificent and beautiful structures that ever adorned the country of judea. when completed, the temple was dedicated for divine worship on the anniversary day of herod's ascension to the throne. the occasion was celebrated with a large number of sacrifices after the ancient custom, and amidst great rejoicings and public festivities. it has been asked why this new temple, built by herod, was not called the third temple? the reply is, that though it was built anew from the foundation, yet it was only by way of reparation, it not having been destroyed by the enemy as in the days of nebuchadnezzar; nor did it lay in ashes, and remain desolate, as the first temple. it is therefore still designated by the name of the second temple. herod having completed this work to the satisfaction of the people, was anxious to further secure their good opinion; he therefore procured for such of his people who were scattered in greece and asia minor, a renewal of their privileges, and permission to live in other countries, according to their own laws and religion, which had been granted them before by the kings of syria, and by the romans. herod was not permitted to enjoy that peace of mind which he anticipated; he was visited with domestic troubles which he little expected, but which he richly deserved. aristobulus and alexander, the two eldest sons of mariamne, who were educated at rome, now returned to jerusalem. these youths deeply lamented the loss of their mother, and often reflected with sorrow on her untimely death, and they gave vent to their feelings by public demonstrations of their resentment for the death of their injured parent. these expressions being repeatedly and loudly declared, were very disagreeable to the ears of salome, the sister of herod, who was instrumental in the death of mariamne. salome being wickedly disposed, and probably fearing the vengeance of the two youths, endeavored to rouse the jealousy and anger of herod against his sons, by persuading him that they were plotting against his life. this intelligence created disputes and quarrels between the father and the two sons, which lasted many years, and caused herod much annoyance and fear during the remainder of his old age. salome, by her crafty design, ultimately succeeded in effecting the execution of the two sons by an edict from herod, and the sanction to the same at the hands of augustus cæsar. it must be observed that herod had been already married to one doris, previous to his alliance with mariamne. by this wife he had a son named antipater, who had been actively engaged with salome in procuring the death of the two sons of this said herod. when herod was displeased with his two sons, he placed antipater in some post of honor; and now that they were dead, he intended that antipater should succeed in the kingdom. antipater eager to obtain the crown, conspired to poison his father. this being detected, he was sentenced and condemned to be executed, by and under the directions of augustus cæsar, and with herod's approbation. this was the third son whom herod put to death. in the seventieth year of his age, and five days after the death of antipater, herod himself died by a dreadful complication of diseases. he was attacked by fever and ulcerated bowels, in which excruciating pain he lingered for some time, till he died. no doubt the extreme pains which he suffered, were inflicted as a punishment for his enormous cruelties, and the multiplied iniquities of his whole life. on his death-bed, herod, considering that the extreme hatred the people had for him would prevent them from lamenting his loss, and that his death would no doubt cause much rejoicing in the land, was determined even in his last moments to be wicked and cruel. to effect this, he convened a meeting of all the principal jews, from all parts of the kingdom, on pain of death, to appear at jericho where he then lay. he ordered them all to be shut up prisoners, and then commanded his sister salome and her husband, his chief confidants, that they should have them all put to the sword by the soldiery, for this, said he, "will provide mourners for my funeral all over the land." herod died, but his orders were not attended to, for salome, although wicked, hesitated to commit so horrid a deed as the murder of so many innocent persons, and therefore as soon as herod was dead, she released all the prisoners. at herod's death, his son archelaus succeeded him in the government of judea, nearly ten years, during which time he was guilty of many acts of cruelty and tyranny, for which he was ultimately deposed by the roman emperor, and banished to an obscure place in france. the romans being so displeased with the evil practices and bad government of archelaus, they reduced judea to a roman province, to be ruled by a roman procurator or governor, who was sent thither and removed therefrom at pleasure. it was now that the power of life and death was taken out of the hands of the jews, and placed in that of the roman governor; and from that time all taxes were gathered by the publicans, and paid directly to the roman emperor. this new regulation very much annoyed the people; for the pharisees, and all those under their influence, considering it unlawful to acknowledge a heathen for their king or governor, looked upon their tax-gatherers with greater detestation than any of those kings or governors of former days, appointed to rule over them, and who were of their own nation or religion. true, herod was an idumean by birth, yet all the idumeans having embraced the jewish religion, he was so far counted a lawful governor, that the people did not scruple to pay him their taxes. the romans followed the plan adopted by herod in the appointment of the high priests, and the removing of them as often as they pleased, to answer their own purposes. in this way the affairs of the jews were carried on for some years, when about this period christianity was ushered into the world; which caused much rage and persecution to take place among the jews, until at last they were driven to such extremities, and thus exposed to the furious and formidable army of the romans, who were then great in power; and the jews were thus so weakened by the continued inroads made upon them, that they fell an easy prey to the enemy. the city of jerusalem was utterly demolished, the beautiful temple desecrated and finally destroyed, and about eleven hundred of the people perished in the conflict. the country all round became desolate; the streets overflowing with human blood, terrified the few of the poor jews who still survived, so that they fled for their lives, and were scattered all over the face of the globe. thus ended the jewish polity; from that time up to the present, the jewish nation has been dispersed throughout the known world; seeking protection under those governments where they may chance to fix their residence. in concluding this portion of the work, we venture the following few remarks: from the time when the jews returned from the babylonish captivity, both the temple service and the general affairs of the nation at large, appear to have been in an unsettled state. oppressed and persecuted by the various powers near and about judea; the continued civil broils among themselves; the tyranny and cruelty of their own kings and priests, all tended to keep them in a state of confusion and disorder: yet worse still, was the neglect of god's holy laws, and the introduction of heathen rites and customs, by which the pure religion of their ancestors became polluted. add to this the innovations which were permitted to creep in upon the sacred worship of god, and the party feeling which strengthened such on the one hand, and the furious opposition on the other--this had the effect of preventing the nation from possessing that peace of mind and happiness which they would have otherwise enjoyed, owing to those glorious prophetic predictions which made such an impression on them, and which promised nought but real comfort and divine peace on their release from babylonish captivity. it is therefore to be concluded that there is a period yet to come, which shall bring together again all the scattered flock of israel, to the holy land of their fathers. then will they be convinced of their past errors, and the sins committed by their fathers of old, whose wickedness brought down upon them the just vengeance of an offended god. then will all the blessings reserved for the righteous, be conferred upon them in that day, as foretold by the prophet zephaniah: "at that time will i bring you _again_, even in the time that i gather you; for i will make you a name and a praise among all the people of the earth, when i turn back your captivity before your eyes, saith the lord." end of part i. part second. an account of the several sects which sprang up among the jews before and after the days of the maccabees. chapter i. the assideans. after the spirit of prophecy had ceased among the jews, and there being no inspired persons to whom they could apply as formerly, they fell into religious doubts and disputes. this caused different opinions to exist among them, and divided them into sects and parties; such as the pharisees, the sadducees, and the essenes, who were the principal, and supposed to have arisen out of the assideans. the assideans are called by some "chasidim," or _pious_. they were a religious society among the jews, whose chief and distinguishing character appears to have been to support the honor of the temple, and observe punctually the traditions of the elders. in the apocryphal books of the maccabees, we meet with the word "asidaioi," which no doubt is derived from the hebrew word _chasidim_. this sect is supposed to date their origin either during the captivity, or shortly after the restoration of the nation. being of a pious and religious character, they were the first who adhered to mattathias, and afterwards to his son judas maccabees, in defense of their religion and the law of god. they proved themselves zealous in their cause, as stated in the following passage: "there came to mattathias, a company of assideans, who were mighty men of israel, even all such as were voluntarily devoted unto the law." they were not however, considered a distinct religious sect from the rest of their brethren; but they were devoted to their ancient religion and the service of the temple, the supporting of the sacrifices, the relief of the poor, and the general benefit of all their co-religionists. our views on the subject may be considered correct, as josephus, who wrote in those times, and concerning those affairs, does not mention any such sect being distinctly marked from the general body of the people. we may therefore safely adopt the opinions of those who consider the appellation given them in the book of the maccabees, to be no more than used in our days to pious and religious men, who are designated saints or holy men. chapter ii. the pharisees. this sect derived their name from the hebrew word "perusheem," which signifies separation, and so called because of their being separated from the body of the people in point of their religious conduct. they considered themselves more than ordinarily holy, and more strict in the observance of their religious precepts and ceremonies. it is not quite certain at what time the pharisees first made their appearance; yet there is no doubt, that like all the other sects among the jews, they were not known in any way, until some time after the death of malachi, the last of the prophets, when the spirit of prophecy ceased to exist among israel. josephus, who was himself of this sect, speaks of it as flourishing in the days of johnathan the high priest. in the days of john hyrcanus, a high priest of the asmonean race, they became very numerous and influential. it is generally admitted that the pharisees were more devout than their brethren, and appear to have excelled in the knowledge of the law, and to have been more skillful in their interpretation of the same. the principal doctrines of this sect were as follows: they held sacred all the traditions of the elders in those days, and considered the laws of the rabbins, as contained in the said traditions, equally binding upon them as the written law. they were of the belief that the written law could not be properly understood without the explanation of the oral law, which removed the apparent difficult passages in the written law. they were guided by the conviction that both were derived from the same fountain, as handed down by the tradition from father to son. they further believed, that when moses was with god on the mount during forty days, he received from him both laws--the one in writing, the other traditionary, which contained the sense and explanation of the former. that moses having returned to his tent, taught the same to aaron, then to his sons, afterwards to the seventy elders, and lastly to all the people. that the same was further continued throughout every generation until their day, and that consequently they considered their system the only true one, in order to the understanding of the law and the performance of its precepts. this sect became the most numerous of all the others, since their doctrines were supported by the scribes and expounders of the law, who were the most competent judges in those days, and hence the best calculated to guide the people in all their religious duties. the pharisees were, therefore, much respected and highly esteemed by the general class of the people, who followed their example in the performance of all their religious observances, and because they would not encourage any innovations to be made in their religion or temple worship. they were very particular in the performance of all the ceremonial part of their religion, considering form and custom to be the great contributing cause to the cementing more firmly the principles upon which the jewish religion is based, and that frequent changes in religious affairs tend materially to weaken, but not to strengthen, the cause. they maintained the belief in the resurrection of the body--at least of the good--and the future rewards and punishments to all men in an eternal state of retribution, believing that every soul is immortal. they ascribed some things to fate, but held that other things were left in man's own power; that all things were decreed by divine power, yet not so as to take away the freedom of man in the discharge of those duties which he is expected to perform in this life, in order to obtain the promised happiness of an hereafter. the religion of the jew in the present day, is that which was practised by the sect called pharisees, and is in general use among all the descendants of israel, wherever they may be dispersed throughout the earth. there are some few exceptions, in those who have seceded, and have set up a standard for themselves; but they are few in number, and not very significant in the scale of judaism. the principle which they so strenuously advocate is a mere change in the formulæ of prayer, and the mode of synagogue worship, under the idea of conciliating the gentiles, by whom they are surrounded. the belief in the coming of the messiah, and the resurrection of the dead, as also the restoration of israel to the promised land, is not in the least invalidated. the jews in general look forward with anxious hope for the forthcoming of that period in which all this shall come to pass, as so frequently foretold by the prophets in the various ages in which they flourished. chapter iii. the sadducees. the sadducees derive their name from the hebrew word "tzaddukeem," so called from zadok, who was a pupil of antigonus, the son of socho, president of the sanhedrim, upwards of two thousand years ago. this sect arose from the following circumstance. antigonus taught in his school the doctrine that "man ought to serve god from pure love, and not in a servile manner, either out of fear of punishment or the hope of reward." zadok, not comprehending the spiritual idea of this doctrine, concluded that there would not be any future state of reward or punishment; and, accordingly, taught and propagated this false doctrine after the death of his preceptor, antigonus. this sect believed in the written law as handed down from the time of moses; but not in the oral or traditional law. they rejected all the traditions maintained among the pharisees. they not only denied the resurrection of the body, but even the existence of the soul after its departure from the body here on earth. they ignored the idea entertained of divine decrees, and held the belief that man is absolute master of his own actions, with the full privilege of acting as he pleases, either for good or evil. that god does not in anywise influence his creatures in the doing the one or the other; that man's prosperity or adversity in life depends entirely on his own acts, and that both are respectively the result of either his wisdom or his folly. the sadducees received the pentateuch as divine; but not the other books of the old testament. in the days of josephus, the celebrated jewish historian, the sadducees were not very numerous, but supposed to have been the most wealthy among the people; and the more opulent joined them. we can easily reconcile this to our minds, as we observe in our times that the rich and the great are apt to prefer the pleasures and enjoyments of this life to any expectancy in a future state of existence. hence they are found ready and willing to embrace such a system of religion as enables them to follow their own inclinations. these men do not wish to tax their minds with any uneasy reflections on the subject of retribution, or of the world to come, when they shall be called to account for their past conduct in this life. the sadduccees were, however, not tolerated among the mass of the people, in consequence of their assertions, precepts, and doctrines, which were held by the community at large as impious, and, therefore, injurious to the happiness of society. at the destruction of jerusalem, this sect became very insignificant--their name became nearly forgotten for many years--and subsequently the name was applied to the sect called karaites, whom we shall notice hereafter, in reproach and disgrace. chapter iv. the samaritans. the samaritans were originally heathens, consisting of persons from the several nations, to whom the king of assyria gave the lands and cities of the israelites when they were made captives by the said monarch. this sect was called samaritans from the fact of their having been settled in the city of samaria, the metropolis of the kingdom of israel. when these people were first carried to samaria, they adopted the idolatrous worship and customs of the surrounding nations from among whom they came. history informs us that samaria was infested with lions, which the people supposed to be a judgment from heaven for their idolatrous and superstitious practices. the king of assyria being of the same opinion with the rest of the people, sent a jewish priest to instruct them in the jewish religion, and to put away their idolatry. notwithstanding the instruction they received from the jewish priest, these people could not easily be weaned from their old practices; and, therefore, to conciliate all parties, as they supposed, they made up among themselves a system embracing the principles of both the jewish and the heathen religion. at the return of the jewish nation from the babylonish captivity--and after the rebuilding of the temple at jerusalem--the religion of the samaritans underwent a revision, and an alteration in many points, under the following extraordinary circumstances. one of the sons of jehoiada, the high priest, married the daughter of sanballat, the horonite, contrary to the mosaical law, which prohibits the inter-marriage of the israelite with any of the other nations. nehemiah in his day zealously endeavored to reform the people among whom this innovation had spread itself to an alarming extent. he compelled all those men who had married strange women to repudiate them. manasseh, unwilling to obey the order of nehemiah, together with many others who acted in concert with him, left jerusalem with their wives, and settled themselves under the protection of sanballat, the governor of samaria. from that time onward, the worship of the samaritans came much nearer to that of the jews. at a later date, they obtained permission from alexander the great, to build a temple on mount gerizim, near the city of samaria, in imitation of the temple at jerusalem, where they followed the same system of worship, with some few exceptions. this sect bears some affinity to the sadducees--it being the prevailing opinion among the learned, that they rejected all other sacred writings excepting the five books of moses. this circumstance created a strong hatred between the samaritans and the original jews. it was considered in those days a great reproach among the jews to be designated a samaritan. so violent was the animosity on both sides, that the one would not in any way associate with the other, nor even perform any acts of civility to each other, and thus all friendly intercourse ceased among them. the samaritans, as well as the sadducees, are sometimes called by the jewish rabbins, "cutheem." chapter v. the essenes. this sect is supposed to have first appeared a short time before the days of the maccabees, when the faithful among the jews, at least those who were the most scrupulously religious, had to flee from the power of their cruel enemies, and take up their abode in the deserts and in caves. living in such retreats, many of them became so habituated to retirement, that they preferred to remain so even in later days, when they might have again appeared in public. in this way it was, that they formed themselves into recluses. although this sect has not been noticed in the scripture history of the jews, still they formed a considerable party among them, as mentioned by josephus. the essenes appear to have been rather peculiar in their mode of living. they loved to be in solitude and retirement, and were devoted to a contemplative life. they were singular in their piety, humility, and devotion. it is supposed by some of the ancient writers, that among this sect it was that the hebrew philosophy and metaphysics chiefly flourished, because they showed but little regard for worldly pleasures--as wealth, honors, or vain-glories. they were remarkable for their patience, moral conduct, and for their strict observance of the sabbath according to the law of moses. they were exemplary in their manner of worship, for they would not speak of any worldly affairs after the sun had risen, until they had performed their religious duties as customary in those days. in the present day, nothing is known of this sect; the probability is, that in the lapse of time, they became mixed up among the rest of their brethren in their various dispersions throughout the world. from the account given of the doctrines of this sect by philo and josephus, that they believed in the immortality of the soul; that they held the scripture in great reverence; they offered no sacrifices, but sent presents for the support of the temple at jerusalem. their quiet, pious habits, rendered them remarkable. they remained neutral amidst all the political changes, and were thus respected by all parties of their own nation, as well as those of the heathens. they lived chiefly in palestine and in egypt. chapter vi. the herodians. the herodians were considered by some to be a political party, and by others, a religious sect. josephus appears to have passed over this sect in silence, which leads us to suppose that he did not consider them very formidable. the opinion, however, of most ecclesiastics, is, that they derived their name from herod the great, and that they were distinguished from the pharisees, and other jews, by their agreeing with herod's scheme in putting himself and his dominions under the power of the romans, and complying with many of the heathen usages and customs. in their zeal for the roman authority, they were directly opposite to the pharisees, who considered it unlawful to submit to, or to pay taxes to, the roman emperor. the pharisees encouraged this opinion, because they were forbidden by the law of moses to set over them a stranger to be their king. the herodians were also distinguished, having adopted some of the idolatrous worship of the heathens, which had been introduced among them by herod the great, when he built a temple in honor of cæsar, near the head of the river jordan; and erected a magnificent theatre at jerusalem, in which he introduced the pagan games, and placed the figure of a golden eagle over the gate of the holy temple. herod also furnished the temples, which he reared in the several places out of judea, with images for idolatrous worship, in order to gain favor with the emperor of rome; though, at the same time, to the jews he pretended to do it in opposition to his own will, but in obedience to the imperial ordinance. in all these schemes the herodians acquiesced, and encouraged their master in his work of iniquity. it is also probable, from some account in ancient history, that the herodians were chiefly of the sect of the sadducees, who were very lax in the performance of their religious duties. this sect was, however, after a very few years, lost in oblivion, and up to the present day, nothing more is known of them. chapter vii. the galileans, or gaulonites. a sect among the ancient jews, so called from their founder or leader, judas of galilee. it is supposed that this party seceded from the pharisees, and formed themselves into a new sect. this judas, considering it to be improper for his countrymen to pay tribute to strangers, excited them to oppose the edict of the emperor, augustus, who had decreed that a census should be taken of all his subjects. he declared his reason for this opposition to be, that god alone should be honored as the supreme master, and not any earthly monarch. this judas was in company with one zadoc, a sadducee, and they publicly taught that such taxation was forbidden by the law of moses. the tumults which they excited were, however, for a time suppressed; but their disciples were active in propagating this doctrine. this caused a secession from the body of the pharisees, declaring it to be unlawful to pay for infidel princes. in all other respects, they held the same doctrine as the original pharisees; but apart from them, they performed the duties of sacrifices, and all other forms of worship peculiar among them in those days. it is generally supposed that this sect of galileans ultimately embodied among themselves most of the other sects which appeared at that time; and it is even credited, that the zealots, particularly mentioned at the siege of jerusalem, were of this faction. chapter viii. the karayeem, or karaites. the karaites trace their pedigree from the ten tribes who were carried away captive by salmanassar, and settled themselves in tartary. they derive their name from the word kara, which signifies scripture, they having adhered to the scripture only as the rule of their faith and religion. hence they were called karayeem. they reject the talmud and the mishna, as also all other traditions, and confine themselves strictly to the written law--the word of god, as they term it--and content themselves with the literal sense of the text, which admits of no comment, according to their opinions. the translation of the bible in use among them, is in the turkish language, which in all probability proceeds from their constant intercourse with the mahomedans. during the time of the celebrated hillel, and his cotemporary, shammai, who were the president and vice president of the sanhedrin of those days, the disciples of these two eminent divines became divided, and formed two parties. they were in constant disputes, owing to the different opinions entertained by each party on the several religious subjects. those who were of the same opinion as the karaites, agreed with the school of shammai; whilst those who were zealous advocates for tradition, joined the school of hillel. though the name karaites be thus modern, this sect boasts of their high antiquity; for they say they are the true followers of moses and the prophets, as they undoubtedly are, on account of their adhering so closely to the scripture. this sect differs from the rest of the jews in this respect--they expound the scripture, after its having been read in the synagogue in hebrew, in the language of the country in which they dwell; and they read most of their prayers after the same manner, both in private and in public. at constantinople, where many of them are living, their translation is in modern greek; whereas, in caffa, it is in the turkish language. they are found chiefly in the crimea, lithuania, and persia, at damascus, constantinople, and egypt. they are proverbial for honesty and integrity, and said to be men of great learning, piety, and true religious principles. their doctrines chiefly are as follow: they believe in the immortality of the soul, and in rewards and punishments hereafter. they believe, also, with the rest of israel, that the messiah is yet to come, with the same hope and fervency of spirit as all jews of the present day. they are exemplary in their observance of the sabbath, and the festivals, according to the strict letter of the law, as contained in the bible. the celebrated traveler, benjamin of tudela, who made himself famous in the twelfth century, visited all the synagogues in the east, where he became acquainted with all the customs, manners, and ceremonies of the different parties. he relates that he met some karaites at damascus, in syria, and in egypt; that they all appear to have adopted one uniform mode of worship and religious practices; that they met with great encouragement in the ottoman empire, owing to their unanimity of feeling in synagogue worship, and their general conduct in religious affairs. in constantinople, where they are pretty numerous, they hold an equal position. it was here that elijah ben moses composed his astronomical tables for the capital of the ottoman empire. it was here, also, that the learned rabbi, judah alpoka, the noted karaite, published his work, the "gate of judah," in which he deplores the unfortunate state of his sect, which, he says, had lost, by plunder and other persecution, about three hundred volumes of books, composed in arabic by their doctors, and translated into hebrew. this historian further informs us, that this sect is to be found in syria, and as far to the east as nineveh, from which place, some years ago, one of the karaites came to frankfort, in germany. he brought with him some books, which he valued at a very high price. he then visited poland, muscovy, and lithuania, where many of them are residing at this day. this proves to us the folly of the vulgar notion, that this sect are extinct in the west. doubtless, there are still many karaites in these countries who trace their origin from the tartars. our historian further informs us that, in the course of his travels, he met in damascus two hundred karaites, four hundred samaritans, and about three thousand pharisees, and that none of these sects would intermarry; and consequently, they remain to this day distinct and separate, so far as regards their religious intercourse and forms of worship. in all other respects, however, they are friendly with each other, and mix together in society as citizens of the world. chapter ix. of the synagogues among the jews. the term synagogue signifies simply an assemblage of persons, which name was applied to places or houses in which the people met for religious worship. among the israelites of old, the word synagogue was used in its primary sense; as when they speak of the great synagogue, or the court of the seventy elders, which was instituted in the days of moses, the legislator, to superintend the political affairs of the nation. the number of seventy became, in later days, increased to one hundred and twenty. synagogues were originally instituted as chapels of ease, for the convenience of those persons who lived far distant from the temple, and could not, therefore, attend regularly to divine service. in the later ages of the jewish state, synagogues became very numerous, even in jerusalem, where the temple stood. the silence of the old testament respecting synagogues, and the absence of any other authentic account, have induced most historians to conclude that synagogues were not generally in use before the babylonish captivity. it appears to be the current opinion of many who have written on the subject, that synagogues were first built during the days of ezra and nehemiah. they directed that in every town and city throughout the land, where ten men could be assembled, synagogues should be erected for divine worship, which consisted of prayers and praises, reading the scripture, and expounding the same, in the language of the country in which the people lived. the israelites having, during their long captivity in babylon, neglected the study of the hebrew language, which was their vernacular, the result proved that the bible became less understood by them. it was on this account that ezra read the law to the people in hebrew, and the meaning of the text was given in chaldee by the levites; and thus it was, that the people were enabled to comprehend the true and proper meaning of that portion of the law when read publicly every sabbath in the synagogue. hence the origin of preaching in the synagogue, which was considered one of the objects for which the synagogue was instituted. after the babylonish captivity, the erection of synagogues among the israelites proved of great utility to the people in general, as the frequent public reading of the law was the only means of preserving the true religion of the jew, and of diffusing the knowledge of the holy law of god. it cannot be denied, that it had been partially forgotten during the long and severe captivity; that many of the rites and ceremonies had fallen into disuse, in consequence of the many cruel persecutions which were inflicted upon the people, which unfitted them for the performance of god's holy law. the regulations for divine service were as follow. two days in each week, besides the sabbath and other festivals, were appointed for this service in the synagogue, viz: mondays and thursdays. the hours for the daily prayers were at the time of the morning and evening sacrifices. these hours were devoted to prayer in the temple as well as in the synagogues, as also to private devotion in the respective homes of the people. in addition to these two seasons of prayer, the ancient hebrews prayed at the beginning of the first night watch, while the evening sacrifice was still burning on the altar; as we find recorded of king david in the book of psalms, who prayed morning, noon, and evening. it is also mentioned of daniel, that he prayed three times a day. the priests and the levites were devoted to the service of the temple; but in the service of the various synagogues, persons of any tribe were appointed, if found competent, by the elders who were the rulers of the synagogue. the synagogues were also used in olden times as courts of justice, more especially in ecclesiastical affairs. the great council of the nation, called the sanhedrin, whose department was in the temple at jerusalem, was vested with the power of deciding between life and death. its authority extended over all the synagogues in judea, as also over all other places, where the people resided near jerusalem. the great synagogue consisted of one hundred and twenty elders, among whom were the three later prophets, hagai, zacharia, and malachi. this conclave continued in succession till the days of simon, the just, the high priest in jerusalem, who was the last of this school. he was designated the just, because of his devotion and unfeigned piety to his god, and his upright conduct towards his fellow creatures. this conclave were zealously engaged in restoring the holy religion of israel to its former excellence, which had undergone many corruptions during the captivity and other persecutions which the people endured subsequent to that period. they published correct copies of the bible, and taught the same to the people, in order that they should understand the religion which they professed to follow. then it was that the worship of the synagogue consisted of three parts--the reading of the scripture, prayer, and preaching. by the scripture, is understood the pentateuch, portions from the prophets, and hagiographa. the pentateuch is divided into fifty-two portions, for the fifty-two weeks in the year; one of these portions is read every sabbath till the whole pentateuch is finished; in addition to the reading of the law, a chapter from the prophets is read, which dates its origin to the following fact. in those days, when antiochus epiphanes destroyed all the books in the possession of the jews, he prohibited also the reading of the weekly portions of the law on the sabbath. the elders then, as a substitute, selected chapters from the prophets, corresponding, in some measure, with the context of the weekly portions of the law. this practice was continued until judas maccabees had conquered antiochus, when the reading of the law was resumed. to commemorate this event, the practice of reading the said portions of the prophets, on sabbaths and festivals, has been continued among the jews, and is now in use in all jewish orthodox synagogues. under the head of synagogues, we must notice that the jews had schools wherein the children were taught to read the law; as, also, academies, in which the rabbins and doctors made comments on the law, and taught the traditions to their pupils. these academies were furnished with many tutors, of whom one was appointed as president, and under whose name the academy was denominated. of this character, were the two famous schools of hillel and shammai, as also the school of the celebrated rabbi, gamliel, whom we shall have to introduce to the notice of the reader hereafter, when we speak of the compilers of the mishna and the talmud. the subject of prayer will form the contents of the next chapter. chapter x. of the origin and introduction of prayer among the jews. the bible informs us that, even in the earliest ages of the world, there existed in the human breast a spontaneous bursting forth of grateful feeling towards god, the benefactor of mankind. the first specimen we meet with is in the days of seth, the third son of adam. "then began men to call upon the name of the lord." the same expression is used in the history of the patriarch abraham, who built altars and prayed to god. his example was followed by isaac and jacob, and their immediate descendants. this "calling on the name of the lord," is what we now understand by the term prayer. from the several verses in genesis, which speak of the prayers offered up by the patriarchs, the talmud infers that the morning prayer was first introduced by abraham, afternoon prayer by isaac, and that of the evening by jacob; and, therefore, it is concluded that prayer was, from the earliest period, held as a regular and stated duty. after the release of the israelites from egyptian bondage, they were initiated into a holy communion by divine revelation on mount sinai. the mode of worship then, consisted of regular daily sacrifices, as described in the bible; additional offerings for festivals, or propitiatory, as those offered for sins and transgressions. these last were always accompanied with suitable prayers and confessions. in this manner, the sinner had to make confession when he brought an offering in expiation of his sins. on the day of atonement, when the high priest presented the offering to the lord, he had to make confession on behalf of himself and the congregation. in deuteronomy, chapter the twenty-sixth, fifth verse, we find a particular form of thanksgiving and confession to be used by the people, when they offered up the first ripe fruits to the lord in the temple at jerusalem. all other addresses to the almighty appear to have arisen as occasions required. of this class, we find several instances, such as moses, joshua, hannah, hezekiah, and others. nothing, however, more clearly points out the fact where prayer become an established custom, than the devout and emphatic prayer to the almighty by king solomon, at the dedication of the temple at jerusalem, which he had raised to the honor and glory of the god of israel. the language used by the royal sage on that occasion, so strongly proves the assertion that prayer became an established custom, that we cannot refrain from introducing to the reader the following extract. "that thine eyes may be open toward this house, night and day, even toward the place of which thou hast said, my name shall be there; that thou mayest hearken unto the prayer which thy servant shall make toward this place. and hearken thou to the supplication of this servant, and of thy people israel, when they shall pray toward this place; and hear thou in heaven, thy dwelling place, and when thou hearest, forgive." the royal sage then proceeds to particularize the nature of prayers most likely to be used; as private injuries, national subjugation, want of rain, famine, or pestilence, even the prayer of a stranger not of the people of israel, &c. surely, a specimen such as this, must prove an established custom among them to consider it a duty to pray to god for favors conferred, and solicit his protection in the hour of trouble and distress. the temple at jerusalem was certainly the consecrated place of regular prayer and sacrifices, for all israelites who were within its reach; yet, as many lived at too great a distance from this sacred spot, private devotion was no doubt regularly practiced among them. we can trace, in history, many accounts of the existence of places purposely devoted to daily prayer and regular worship. the prophets, of whom we read, at damascus, shiloh, bethel, and jericho, had, no doubt, a regular form of prayer; for, at jericho, there was an assemblage called the sons of the prophets. after the destruction of the first temple, the jewish nation was driven to babylon, and from there they became scattered about the neighboring heathen countries. the occasions for prayer and supplication must have increased in such a state of slavery and persecution. hence their addresses to the almighty must have become more sincere and more constant. the reflection on their former state in society, compared with that in which they were now placed, must have caused in the people a strong feeling of devotion, leading on to the use of regular and earnest prayer. then it was, that prayer was the sole solace of the people, while under such persecution. the prophet daniel suffered himself to be cast into the lions' den, because he persisted in praying three times a day towards jerusalem, in defiance of the king's edict, which prohibited any person from worshipping any other god but the idol set up by the king. in the days of daniel, it is found that the pure hebrew used by the israelites had become much corrupted by the intermixture of the chaldee and other languages, with which they became conversant by their being so closely united with the strange nations. this caused the holy tongue to be in a great measure forgotten. nehemiah complains of this, and says: "their children spake half in the speech of ashdod, and could not speak in the language of the jew, but according to the language of the several people." ezra, the scribe, who lived in those days, looked on this matter with considerable grief. he was fearful that the people would entirely neglect their holy worship on account of the want of a proper knowledge of the sacred language. and he further saw the consequences would be, that when the people did pray, they would fail to select proper expressions to convey their feelings and sentiments. ezra, therefore, in conjunction with his conclave, collected, composed, and compiled the prayers in the pure and original hebrew. they were so arranged as to be suitable for any occasion of private and public devotion, both for the morning and the afternoon, in reference to the regular daily sacrifices offered up in the temple. also, an additional form of prayer, called "moosoph" in hebrew, for those days on which the additional sacrifices had been offered; such as sabbaths, festivals, and the new moon; also, for the evening sacrifice which burned all night on the altar; likewise, the nengelah, or concluding prayer of the day of atonement. these are the prayers which have been handed down to the posterity of the jews throughout the known world. ezra and his conclave, who performed this great work, were called "the men of the great assembly or synagogue." the talmud, maimonides, and other eminent jewish authorities, inform us that this synod was composed of one hundred and twenty persons of great piety and learning, among whom were the prophets, hagai, zacharia, malachi, ezra, nehemiah, hananiah, mishael, and azaria, together with many other great men, whom we shall notice hereafter. these prayers were in daily use among the people during the second temple; for in the mishna, when speaking of the order observed in the daily sacrifices in the temple, it is stated that the prefect who gave the instructions, regularly said to the officiating priests, "repeat ye one blessing," which they did; then the ten commandments, and the shemang. he again said, "repeat ye with the people these blessings," which they did, many of which are in daily use among all orthodox jews. besides, as we have before noticed, many israelites lived at great distances from the temple, and, therefore, it is not reasonable to suppose that god's chosen people should be altogether without some regular formulæ of prayer. any person who examines the prayers in daily use among the israelites, must become sensible of their excellence, and the grateful expressions and high wrought admiration in which they are composed. they are adapted to every situation in life, whether in sorrow or in joy, in grief or in mirth. no one who views the wondrous creation; no one possessed of the slightest spark of gratitude for favors bestowed; nor he who looks forward with hope for relief in the hour of distress, or sickness, can possibly have any language better suited to his feelings, under any circumstances, and on every occasion. nothing, perhaps, has tended so much to keep israel distinct from every other nation in the world, as their religious customs and observances; but more especially so, their language, the sacred original, in which the lord of hosts manifested himself to his favorite creature; the language in which they pray, and which, in truth, is the only relic of their former glory and paternal heritage. it is the continuance of praying in the hebrew, which forms, as it were, a communion for their dispersed brethren, from whatever country or clime they may migrate, and constitute themselves into a congregation; a language peculiarly their own--venerable for its antiquity, and sacred from its first promulgation, as being the true channel of divine revelation. the reader will please understand that our observations, as well as the historical accounts, can only have reference to those prayers and supplications which were composed for the jew by the men of the great synagogue, as already explained. alas! that any innovation should have been suffered to mar the beauty of those holy compositions! there are many more of a sacred character, such as known by the name of "peyutem," or poetical compositions, which are read in the synagogue on the festivals and other special days. these are of much later date, and have been introduced, from time to time, into the jewish liturgy, by men eminent for their learning, piety, and devotion. they were written under peculiar circumstances of distress and persecution, during the varied dispersion of the nation, more especially in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. it was then that the jews found consolation in the dark storm of persecution, in pouring out their souls in prayer and religious devotion, which they did spontaneously on the different occasions which presented themselves. their extempore effusions were so characteristic of their pitiful situation, that they made an indelible impression upon the minds, not only of their composers, but also upon those to whom they were recited. to commemorate such events, these compositions were committed to writing. in honor to the authors, the several congregations among whom these pious men lived, introduced them into the festival prayers, and other marked days. these have become embodied in the regular festival and sabbath prayer book, and have been in constant use among the german and polish jews up to the present day. the portuguese jews, however, have an entire different formula. theirs is more ancient than either the german or polish. it is worth notice, though strange, indeed, that the german jews, who, in a great measure, omit the recital of these peyutem, were the very people among whom they were principally composed. it is, however, not our province to discuss here the expediency of such proceedings: we have only to treat of facts; the reader can judge for himself. some few exceptions, however, exist. many of the peyutem, above mentioned, claim a much earlier date, and are from the pen of some of the most holy men of the ancient race of israel. these compositions will be found in the additional service of new year and day of atonement; also, those prayers called propitiatory--as the _selechous_, recited previously to and during the penitential days. they have in all ages been admired for their beauty of diction, and sublimity of language, and are highly calculated to inspire the reader with profound awe and veneration, when addressing them to his creator. it remains now only for the hebrew language to become a primary object of study among all classes, so that they may learn to appreciate the beauty of god's own language, and thus to be prepared with devotion whenever engaged in prayer, either in private or in public. if such were the case, those who labor in the good cause would be fully repaid, when, by their exertions, they should succeed in awakening the dormant feelings of the negligent to such a duty of prayer as may be acceptable to the creator of mankind. then will the intelligent mind become sensible of the excellence of the ancient and holy liturgy of the chosen people of god. chapter xi. of the ureem and thumeem. "and thou shalt put in the breast-plate of judgment the ureem and thumeem." exodus, , . what the ureem and thumeem were is not distinctly explained in the bible. that they were not the twelve precious stones contained in the breast-plate, as some have erroneously imagined, is quite clear; for we do not find that god directed moses to make the ureem and thumeem, as he did when he said, "and thou shalt make the breast-plate," &c., &c. it is plain from the text itself, that they were something in addition to the breast-plate, and put therein, after it was finished, by moses himself; and therefore god says, "and thou shalt put into the breast-plate of judgment the ureem and thumeem." from this fact, it is evident that there was something additional placed in the breast-plate by moses; and for this reason, it is supposed that it was made double, that it might the more conveniently hold them. it now remains to inquire what the ureem and thumeem in reality were, and what the particular use of them. as to the former, there are various opinions among the learned. many celebrated christian divines have ventured many erroneous definitions on the subject. according to the opinions of the most erudite and pious hebrew doctors and rabbins, the following appears to be the most reasonable view of the case. it was, say the rabbins, the tetragrammaton, or ineffable name of the deity, which moses was commanded to place in the breast-plate, and was consecrated to holy purposes. it was vested with divine power to give an oracular reply from god to any counsel being asked of him by the high priest, during the time in which he wore it. now, as the answer came immediately from god, it was therefore properly designated "asking counsel of god." as to the ureem and thumeem, it was especially to ask counsel of god on such momentous occasions only, in relation to the jewish nation. in the mishna of _yoomah_ are explained three express conditions necessary to be observed in the asking of counsel by the ureem and thumeem. first.--concerning the person inquiring. he must not be a private person. he must be either the king, the president of the sanhedrin, who presided over the whole nation, the general of the army, or some other noble prince, or governor in israel. second.--concerning the nature of the question. it must not be respecting the affairs of private persons; but such only as relate to the public interest of the whole nation, either of church or state. third.--concerning the person who presents the question. he must be the high priest, clothed in his pontifical robes, and his breast-plate with the ureem and thumeem. the learned maimonides observes in his celebrated work, "moreh nevoocheem," or a "_guide to the perplexed_," part second, chapter forty-five, that the ureem and thumeem was a degree of the divine inspiration. speaking of the different degrees or orders of prophecy, he says: "and thus every high priest who inquired by the ureem and thumeem was of this order, as already mentioned." the divine presence rested on him, and he spoke by the holy spirit, that is, he delivered his answers with the assistance of the holy inspiration. according to this opinion, it was but one degree below the spirit of prophecy. all the learned and eminent men among the jews say, that the manner of asking counsel, and receiving the answer thereto, was as follows. the person who inquired did not make the request in an audible tone; but in such a way as one who is at his devotion pronounces the words, sufficiently loud to be heard by none but himself. the question being made, the priest looked into the breast-plate, and on perceiving some letters on the stone of the same glistening, he, by combining them together, obtained the answer. we shall best exemplify the foregoing by the following passage from the book of judges. "now, after the death of joshua, it came to pass that the children of israel asked the lord, saying, who shall go up for us against the canaanites first, to fight against them." the reply was: "_yehuda yangaleh_" or "judah shall go up;" for as soon as the question was propounded, the priest looked into the breast-plate, and seeing the name of judah appear prominent, he was assured that judah was the tribe. the priest looked again, and beheld the _yod_ shine, the _ngain_ from the name of _simeon_; then the lamed from another name, and the _heh_ from another; these four letters being put together made the word "_yangaleh_" which signifies, "_he shall go up_." when the priest found that no more letters glistened, he knew immediately that the answer was completed. hence the reason why they are called _ureem_, which signifies _light_, from the shining of the letters; and _thumeem_, or perfection, as the answer was thus complete and perfected. this fact distinguished the jewish oracles from the pretended heathen oracles, which were always delivered in an enigmatical and ambiguous manner. the jewish oracles were always clear and explicit, never falling short of perfection, either in the manifestation or the certainty of the truth thereof. during the existence of the second temple, the ureem and thumeem were not consulted; for when the ark and coverlid, the cherubim and the two tables of stone, disappeared at the destruction of the first temple, the breast-plate with the _ureem_ and _thumeem_ shared the same fate. notwithstanding that on the return of the jews to jerusalem, they had the pontifical robes, with the breast-plate with four rows of stones, engraved with the names of the tribes of israel; yet no question was ever asked, and consequently no communication ever received from the _ureem_ and _thumeem_. two reasons are assigned for this. first.--because the said _ureem_ and _thumeem_ were instituted to ask counsel of the lord of such things which concerned _all_ the tribes of israel, and the common interest of the whole nation. now, there being at that time the tribes of judah and benjamin only, these oracles could not _be_ consulted, the common interest of the nation having then ceased. secondly--and possibly the principal reason, was, that the _tetragrammaton_, or ineffable name of the deity, which moses put between the folds of the breast-plate, was wanting. this being the most important part, and the very essence of the whole--when the cause ceased, the effect also ceased. chapter xii. of the mishna, or oral law. the pentateuch, or written law, was communicated by god to moses, and by him to the people of israel at different times, and adapted to the various seasons, places and circumstances during the forty years' sojournment in the wilderness. the mode adopted in instructing the israelites in the wilderness in the divine law was as follows: every passage or chapter of the written law, whether historical or preceptive, was written by moses, as received from god himself, which he placed before his council or senate, called, afterwards, sanhedrin, as well as before the whole body of the people. this council consisted of seventy elders, or senators, the most learned and pious among the nation, of whom moses was the president. every chapter of the law was explained by moses according to the oral tradition, which he received coeval with the written law. the agreement of these two was proved in such a way as to show that the oral law is the true and genuine spirit and sense of the pentateuch; that they are so intimately and inseparably connected with each other as to be considered as one and indivisible. aaron, the high priest, was honored with the appointment of repeating, for the instruction of the people, all the learning taught by his brother moses. aaron was succeeded by his sons. then came the elders who gathered together all the israelites and placed them in their several academies for the study of the law. every individual of israel was permitted to make memoranda of the oral law, in order to assist the memory, for personal and private convenience, but the public instruction was taught orally. this oral tradition was transmitted from moses down to the days of the celebrated rabbi, judah the prince, son of the learned simon the just, about a hundred and fifty years after the destruction of the second temple. after the death of moses, joshua the son of nun, his successor, taught the said law in his sanhedrin, and delivered it to the elders who succeeded him; and in like manner the tradition of the mishna was successively transferred from generation to generation, and was concluded by rabbi judah, above named, who flourished in the reign of the emperor antoninus, by whom he was honored with the title of prince, and invested with a supremacy of power for his office. it was generally believed in those days that there never rose up in israel any man like unto him, in whom so much piety, wealth and glory were united. it was in consequence of his extreme piety and devotion to spiritual purposes only, and divesting himself of all worldly cares and pleasures, that he was designated rabbinu hakodesh, or the holy rabbi. this pious man, acting as president of the sanhedrin, consulted his colleagues, who, perceiving the decline of literature, such as contained in the oral law at that period, and fearful of the consequences thereof to the nation at large, took into their serious consideration the necessity of adopting some plan by which such tradition should not be entirely forgotten. they saw and felt that the many sufferings and persecutions inflicted upon their co-religionists would ultimately be the cause of the loss of that knowledge which was so dear to them as god's own people. that it would be impossible for future generations to understand the practical part of the divine precepts as embodied in the pentateuch. it was therefore with holy zeal that they judged it proper to collect and compile all the oral tradition explanatory of the written law and commit the same to writing, in order that it should be handed down to posterity. this is the same mishna now in existence among the jews at this day. it is written in short sentences and aphorisms, and generally considered to be in pure hebrew, with some few exceptions. it contains full elucidations of the pentateuch, as admitted by the most eminent jewish doctors of all ages, who testify that without such elucidations the written law would have remained a sealed book to the world at large. in the following chapter we shall treat of the gemara, or completion, usually called the talmud, the same being a commentary on the mishna. for the present, we shall content ourselves by laying before our readers a succinct account of the contents of the mishna. the mishna is divided into six general heads, called in hebrew, sedoreem, orders or classes. the first is styled zeroeëm, which signifies _seeds_, and is subdivided into eleven sections. first--berochout, or blessings.--this section treats of the laws directing the order of prayers and thanksgivings for the produce of the earth, and for all other benefits conferred on man by the beneficent creator; with the consideration as to time and place when they are to be said or repeated. second--pyoh, or corner.--this section treats of those laws which direct the leaving of the corner of the field, as the portion for the benefit of the poor, as commanded in the book of leviticus. third--demai, or doubtful.--this treats of such things of which there exists some doubt, as to tithes having been paid for them, the israelites not being allowed to eat of anything until it had been tithed. fourth--terumous, or oblations.--this section points out such things of which a portion was to be set apart as devoted to the use of the priests. fifth--shevingis, or seventh.--this section explains the laws of the seventh year, called the sabbatical year, during which period the land was to remain at rest, and lie fallow; and during which time all debts were remitted and obligations canceled. sixth--killayim, or mixtures.--this portion lays down the laws which prohibit the mixing or joining of things together of an opposite or different nature or species; as, the sowing of various kinds of seeds in one and the same spot of ground; or suffering cattle of different kinds to engender; or the grafting a scion of one species of plant on the stock of another of a different character. seventh--mangsire reeshoun, or first tithe. this section signifies the first tithes, and treats of the laws of the said tithes which shall be apportioned to the levites. eighth--mangsire shynee, or second tithes. this treats of the laws of the second tithes, which were to be taken up to jerusalem, and there to be eaten, or to be redeemed, and the produce expended at jerusalem in peace offerings. fifth--chalah, loaf, or cake.--this section speaks of the laws relative to setting apart a cake of dough for the priests; of the description of dough the cake should be, and what kind of dough was prohibited from being used for the purpose. tenth--orlah, or uncircumcised.--this section explains the law touching the illegality of eating the fruit of any tree until the fifth year of its growth. as follows: during the first three years of its bearing fruit, it must not be eaten; the fourth year it was holy to the lord; and on the fifth year, it was permitted to be eaten by the owner thereof. eleventh--bickureem, or first ripe fruits. this section treats of the manner in which the first ripe fruits were to be offered up in the holy temple at jerusalem. the second general head or class is called _seder moed_, or order of festivals. it is so denominated because it treats of all those laws which were made concerning festivals and days of solemn observance. this second class is divided into twelve sections. first--sabbath, or rest.--this is so called because it treats of all the laws respecting the sabbath. this division contains twenty-four chapters. second--eyruveen, or mixtures, or associations.--this section shows in what manner food might be conveyed from house to house on the sabbath day. all the inhabitants of the court or place in which the association was formed, were allowed so to do. it also explains the rules laid down for any journey to be made on the sabbath. third--pesochim, or passover.--this portion treats of all the laws, customs, and ceremonies, to be observed at the offering up of the paschal lamb on the eve of the festival of passover. fourth--shekoleem, or shekels.--this treats of the half shekels, which every israelite, whether rich or poor, was bound to pay every year towards defraying the expenses of the daily sacrifices offered up on the altar in jerusalem. fifth--youmoh, or day.--this section treats of the great and solemn day of atonement; pointing out the ceremonies of the day, and the duties of the high priest on that holy occasion. it also speaks of the sacrifices which were to be offered up as expiations for the sins of the people. sixth--succoh, or tabernacle.--this portion treats of the feast of tabernacles. it points out in what manner the tabernacle should be built; the use of the palm tree, the citron, the myrtle, and the willow of the brook, which were ordered to be taken and used on the said festival. seventh--youm touv, or festival.--it is called, also, bytsoh, or egg, being the word with which it commences. this section contains the laws and regulations for the due observance of the festivals of the lord. it points out what work may, or may not, be lawfully done on any of the festivals which are called holy days of convocation, on which all manual labor or traffic is prohibited. eighth--roush hashono, or new year.--this treats of the laws and solemnities of the sacred day of the new year; such as the sounding of the _shouphar_ or _cornet_; of the prayers and regular service of that holy occasion. it describes, also, the ceremony for the observance at the appearance of the new moon, by which all the holy days were regulated by the sanhedrin during the existence of the second temple. ninth--tanganees, or fast.--this division treats of the different fasts held throughout the year, and the manner in which they are to be observed by every israelite. these fasts are held on different occasions for various reasons, and purposes; such as days of repentance, humiliation, and of calamity and misfortune which befel the nation in the several ages of persecution. tenth--megilloh, or roll of the book of esther.--this section treats of the feast of purim, and directs how the roll shall be written and read on this festival. it speaks of many other rules and regulations to be observed on this feast, which commemorates the miraculous deliverance of the jewish people from the hands of the wicked haman, who contemplated the destruction of the whole nation. it also treats of the laws concerning the synagogue, and the reading of the holy law on the several days of solemn and religious observance throughout the year. eleventh--moed koton, or lesser festivals. this treats of such work as may or may not be done during the middle days of the passover and tabernacle holidays. it is, therefore, called moed koton, as the middle days of the said festivals are considered less holy than the first and last two days. it contains, also, the laws regulating the conduct of mourners. twelfth--hagigah, or festival offerings. this section specifies the laws relating to the offerings made on the different festivals; the description of the persons; how they are to be qualified, and in what manner they are to appear before the lord on the three great festivals in every year, when all the israelites that possibly could, were expected to be in attendance at the holy city of jerusalem. the third general head, or class, is called nosheem, or women. this is subdivided into seven sections. first--yevomous, or marriage.--this section is so called, as it treats of the laws by which one brother is expected to marry the relict of his deceased brother. it shows how, and when, the obligation shall take place; the duties and the ceremonies to be observed at the performance of the same. second--kesuvous, or documents.--this speaks of the laws relating to marriage contracts, and dowries, and of estates, whether real or personal, which may fall to some married women; how the same shall be disposed of, by, or allotted to, the said party or parties. third--nedoreem, or vows.--this treats of such vows which, when made, become binding, and by what persons such vows shall be made; how vows are considered null and void, since the husband has the power of confirming or annulling the vows of his wife. this law is very particularly specified, as to how such may be done; and the class of vows which fall under the control of the husband, and those which do not. fourth--nozeer, or nazarite.--this section treats of those laws which guide the different classes of nazarites who take upon themselves the vows of abstinence. fifth--sotah, or to turn aside.--this treats of the enactments relating to trials occasioned through jealousy between man and wife; the nature of the punishment inflicted on the woman, if it be proved that she had been guilty of the crime of adultery. sixth--gitten, or letter of divorce.--this treats of the laws of divorce. it explains when, and under what circumstances, a divorce may be granted. it directs also all the formulæ to be used and observed in all cases of divorce. seventh--kedusheen, or betrothing.--this treats of the laws, customs, and ceremony of betrothing; the forms, rites, and regulations to be observed at the solemnization of the marriage according to the laws of moses and israel. the fourth general head, or class, is called nezeekeen, or damages. this class is divided into eight sections; the first of which is again subdivided into three separate sections, as follow. first--bovoh kamma, or first gate.--this first section treats of all such damages, which may be recovered for injuries done, either by man or beast. second--bovoh meziah, or middle gate.--this treats of the laws of usury. it explains what is, and what is not, considered an act of usury. it speaks also on matters of special trust; of letting or hire, and such like transactions between man and man. third--bovoh bosroh, or last gate.--this treats of the laws relating to commerce, copartnership, buying and selling; also, the laws of inheritance, and the right of succession. the above three sections are called by the talmud and mishna, gates, because, in the east, the courts of law were held within the gates of the city. second--sanhedreen, or senate.--this speaks of the great senate, as also of the minor courts of judicature; of the causes for trial, and the nature of the punishment inflicted for the several crimes; the four kinds of death, as the penalty for capital offenses. it describes, also, very minutely, the mode to be adopted by the judges in the examination of witnesses. third--maccous, or punishment.--this portion treats more especially of that which may constitute false testimony, or inadmissible evidence; the laws relative to the forty stripes inflicted on the delinquent; the reason why the rabbins directed that only thirty-nine stripes should be inflicted instead of forty, as stated in the bible; also, the manner in which the said punishment should be administered. it relates, likewise, the regulations to be observed by such persons who were compelled to seek shelter in the cities of refuge. fourth--shevungous, or oaths.--this section explains the laws to be observed in the administration of an oath; in what cases an oath shall or shall not be submitted to the contending parties; who shall or who shall not be considered qualified to take the oath. fifth--adoyous, testimonies or evidences. this treats of the decisions of the many important cases, collected from the evidence and testimony of the most eminent and learned rabbins and doctors of the great sanhedrin of olden times. sixth--avoudoh zoroh, or idolatry.--this section is so called, as it treats of all manner of idolatry. it is also entitled the "_the worship of the planets_." it explains the manner and form of the different modes of worship, as practised by the idolatrous nations, with the view of preventing the israelite from becoming contaminated by them. seventh--ovous, or fathers.--this section contains the history of those holy fathers who, in their respective ages, successively received by tradition the oral law; from the days of moses, the great lawgiver, down to the period when it was compiled and committed to writing by the celebrated rabbinu hakodesh. it contains, also, many of the wise sayings, aphorisms, and moral maxims of the learned men, and is therefore called the "ethics of the fathers." eighth--houroyous, or precepts.--this section is so called, because it treats of the punishment and penalty to be inflicted on those who should presumptuously act against, or teach anything in opposition to, the decrees and decisions of the great sanhedrin at jerusalem. the fifth general head, or class, is called kodosheem, or holy things. it is subdivided into eleven sections. first--zevocheem, or sacrifices.--this section treats of the order to be observed in offering up the cattle for sacrifices, and points out their nature and quality. it also relates the time and the place; and specifies by whom they were to be killed and brought up as an offering upon the altar of the lord. second--minochous, or meat offerings.--this portion treats of the oblations of oil, flour, and wine, proper for each offering; and of the two waive loaves, which were to be made of fine flour, such as were offered up, on the festival of pentecost. third--choolin, or profane.--this section points out that which is clean, and that which is unclean; what may and what may not be lawfully eaten; and the law which prohibits the killing of the dam and its young, both in one day. it also shows the law prohibiting the eating of the "sinew which shrank;" and the law forbidding the taking of the dam with its young. it, moreover, embraces the laws appertaining to the killing of cattle and fowl for domestic use; and who may, and who may not, be permitted to kill the animals for food to be eaten by israelites. fourth--bechourous, or first born.--this section treats of the laws relating to the first born of both man and cattle; pointing out in what manner, and at which period, they were to be redeemed, either with money, or brought up as an offering to the lord. it speaks also of the tithes of all manner of cattle. fifth--eyrachin, or valuation, or estimation.--this section treats of the manner in which things devoted to the almighty are valued, so that they may be redeemed and applied to ordinary purposes; as also how the priest shall value a field, devoted or sacrificed to the lord by its owner. sixth--temuroh, or exchange.--this portion explains how far it may be lawful to exchange one sacred thing for another; as, whether an animal which had been consecrated as an offering to be sacrificed to the lord might be exchanged. in most cases, where an animal had been consecrated to the lord, and then exchanged, both the animal and its substitute became sacred. seventh--kerisus, or excisions.--this section relates to offenses which, if wantonly committed, were punished by the offender being cut off from among the people, called _kohrice_. it points out, at the same time, what offenders were liable to this punishment. it likewise explains how those who had offended through accident, had to bring a sin or trespass offering. eighth--mengeloh, or trespass.--this portion treats of the nature of the trespass made by converting such things which have been consecrated and devoted to holy purposes, to profane or unholy matters. ninth--tomeed, or continual offerings.--herein are specified the daily sacrifices, and the description as to how, and in what manner, they were to be offered upon the altar of the lord. tenth--middous, or dimensions.--this book is so called, because it speaks of the dimensions and proportions of the temple. it describes the mount on which the temple stood, and the full extent of the outer court. this was considered requisite to be known; for whoever had become unclean, from any circumstance whatever, was prohibited from entering the temple on pain of excision. eleventh--koneem, or nests.--this section speaks of the birds, such as pigeons or turtle-doves, which were brought as offerings by the poor, instead of the more expensive, which they were unable to bring. the smaller value was equally acceptable to the god of mercy and kindness. the sixth general head, or class, is entitled taharous, or purifications. it is divided into twelve sections. first--kyleem, or vessels, utensils.--this book is so called, because it treats of the pollutions incident to vessels, and how they are to be purified from such uncleanness. it treats also of the manner in which garments of every description may be purified, in the event of their becoming polluted or defiled by uncleanness of any kind. second--oholous, or tents.--this section treats of the manner in which houses become polluted; the nature of such pollutions; and how far those who enter such dwellings may thereby become contaminated, and how they may be purified. third--negoim, or plagues, or diseases.--this book explains all the laws relative to the plague of leprosy; whether on man or beast, dwellings or garments. it shows how and in what manner infection took place; and how the things or persons so afflicted may become purified. fourth--poroh, or heifer.--this section speaks of the laws relating to the red heifer; how the said heifer should be burned to ashes, in order to make the water for purification; and in what manner all defilements, contracted by the touch or contact of a dead body, could be purified by means of the ashes of the red heifer. fifth--taharous, or purifications.--this portion treats of all those laws pertaining to such defilements which may be contracted otherwise than by the touch of a dead body; and of the manner purification may, and can take place. sixth--mikvoous, or baths.--this section treats of the laws and regulations for baths to be used for purification by ablutions; of all persons who may have from any cause whatever become unclean. herein is also specified the manner in which the bath should be constructed, and the quantity of water required for every ablution. seventh--niddoh, or separation.--this portion explains all the laws relating to the pollutions and purifications of women after child-birth, and on every occasion of uncleanness. eighth--machshereen.--this section explains in what manner seed or fruit became susceptible of defilement or pollution through the admixture of liquids. ninth--zobeem, or issues.--this portion treats of the laws relating to the impurities arising from the issues of the body; and points out how and when they are deemed unclean; and how and in what manner either persons or things may become affected by their pollution. tenth--tibbul youm, or purification of a day.--this portion speaks of persons who may become unclean, and require ablution to purify them; which purification cannot be considered complete until the setting of the sun on the same day when the purification shall take place. eleventh--yodoyeem, or hands.--this section treats of the laws and regulations for cleansing the hands from any uncleanness; and the custom and ceremony to be observed in washing the hands on the different occasions. twelfth--uktseem, or stalks.--this last section is so called, because it explains how the touching of the stalks of any sort of fruit may convey pollution to the fruit itself. synopsis of the foregoing mishna. no. .--seder zeroeem contains sections. no. .--seder moed contains sections. no. .--seder nosheem contains sections. no. .--seder nezekeen contains sections. no. .--seder kodosheem contains sections. no. .--seder taharous contains sections. -- total sections. chapter xiii. of the gemara, or completion, which is usually styled talmud. in the foregoing chapter we described the manner in which the mishna was compiled, together with its contents, from its first delivery by moses till the time of its being committed to writing by rabbi judah the prince. we shall now proceed in regular order to explain what the talmud is, and how it was composed by the several learned men among the jews both in jerusalem and in babylon. the compilation of the talmud ranks among the most ancient hebrew writings. it consists of two distinct heads--the mishna and the gemara, and both together form the talmud. the mishna, as already explained, chiefly contains the oral or traditional laws transmitted down to posterity from the time of moses the lawgiver, to that of rabbi judah the prince or nassi. the gemara consists of expositions and comments on the mishna, as also various other subjects connected with jewish literature, and more especially jewish theology. it contains also treatises on moral philosophy, ethics, mathematics, astronomy and chronology, and many other branches of the different sciences known in those days. the gemara or expositions on the mishna was commenced in the days of the rabbins, gamaliel and simeon, the two sons of rabbi judah the holy, about the year of the creation, and was completed and compiled into one body by rav ashi, president, and raviny, vice president, who are considered the actual compilers of the babylonian talmud. this took place about the year . the authors of the talmud in general are styled amooroim, dictators, as they dictated the several explications of the mishna, as discussed in the different schools, and which are all found in the talmud. the comments and expositions are known by the name of gemara, which signifies completion, because therein is fully explained all the traditional doctrines of the jewish law and its religion. the mishna is the text, the gemara the comment, or glossary, and both together form the talmud. there are two talmudim. the first is styled talmud yerushalmi, or jerusalem talmud. this was compiled by rabbi jochanan in five sedorim or divisions. this talmud does not contain the whole of the mishna. it was completed about the year . the second talmud is called talmud bably, or babylonian talmud, which was completed about two hundred years after the other talmud. the talmud yerushalmi is the least esteemed of the two, and consequently less studied and quoted by the learned among israel. it is the babylonian talmud which is usually studied and consulted in all points of jurisprudence, as connected with all religious affairs, both in, and out, of the synagogue. it is therefore to be understood, that whenever the talmud is simply notified, it means the babylonian talmud; as the other talmud is never quoted, unless particularly and expressly mentioned. the talmud bably is arranged in the following order. the mishna forms the text, and the gemara is annexed as the comment or glossary. the same order is observed as with the mishna, although it must be observed that the gemara appears only on thirty-six sections, whereas the whole of the mishna contains sixty-three sections, as explained in the foregoing chapter. the order of the talmud is as follows: no. .--seder zeroeem contains section. no. .--seder moed contains sections. no. .--seder nosheem contains sections. no. .--seder nezekeen contains sections. no. .--seder kodosheem contains sections. no. .--seder taharous contains section. -- total sections. chapter xi. appendix. having given a brief description of the mishna and the talmud, and their contents, we now direct the attention of the reader to the following observations, as a summary to the preceding two chapters. the pentateuch, or five books of moses, is generally understood by the term "written law," and the talmud as the oral or traditional law. the oral law was handed down from moses to joshua, from the elders to the prophets, and from them to the great synod, which consisted of one hundred and twenty of the most learned men of the age, and in like manner from time to time, until the days of rabbi judah, already mentioned. this great man, seriously contemplating the state of his nation as regarded their religious affairs, and perceiving that those who were learned in the law were gradually diminishing in number, feared that the knowledge of the oral law might ultimately be forgotten, and with it the essential portion of the law of moses. in the true spirit of devotion and piety, this rabbi collected all the doctrines and precepts which had been taught orally, down to that period, and with the assistance of his pious colleagues, committed them to writing, and arranged them in the order of the mishna, as already described. after the mishna had been written, and presented to the nation at large, it was received by them with a general and unanimous consent. it was universally approved, and was held by them as an authentic document, delivered to moses by the almighty, while on the mount, as an explanation of the written law. the prevailing opinion among the people then was, that the mishna had been handed down by tradition, and they were confirmed in such opinion by the conviction that the same had been taught to them in their youth in the various schools and academies which were established for such purposes. it was then considered expedient by the learned in those days, that some further explanation should be given, in order to render the mishna more intelligible to the general class of readers. with this view, some of the most eminent among the jewish doctors, taught in the schools the oral law together with the signification thereof, and in this way they illustrated all the most abstruse and difficult passages by useful and instructive commentaries. these illustrations and glossaries increased from time to time, which formed the talmud, such as it is at present in the possession of the israelites. it abounds with aphorisms and ethics, which were introduced by the rabbins and doctors who composed the talmud, in the course of their discussions. it was in this manner, that they supported the opinions advanced by them on the various subjects upon which they treated. these subjects were frequently illustrated by moral tales and allegories, such being the tutelar system prevalent among most of the oriental nations in those days. in the said talmud the rabbins taught also the various arts and sciences, such as known in those times, although it may be conceded that they may not have reached to such perfection as in the present enlightened age; nevertheless the principle was known by the israelites of old, and practically applied by them as far as necessity demanded. it is well known that astronomy, geometry, architecture, physics, natural philosophy, as well as many of the other sciences, were in high cultivation both before and after the babylonian captivity. the building of the tabernacle in the wilderness--the beautiful temple of solomon,--the superb edifice erected by herod the great, may certainly be advanced as specimens of the science of architecture, in which must naturally be included that of geometry. it cannot be denied that the jews were also famous in hydraulics, aqueducts, etc., military tactics and war implements, engineering, agriculture, etc. that astronomy was successfully cultivated by the israelites of old, is proved by the perpetual chronological calendar which was formed and brought to perfection in the days of the talmudical doctors. this calendar is composed both of the lunar and solar revolutions. though it may not be strictly the province of this chapter to treat upon this subject, the reader will excuse the digression, in order to introduce a short extract of this calculation to show the basis upon which the same is founded, and prove that a knowledge of astronomy existed in those days, by the teachers of the talmud. according to the mosaic law, the israelites are directed to calculate the year and compute their holy days according to the lunar year. twelve lunar, _synodical revolutions_, _i.e._ days, hours, minutes and seconds, compose one simple year. thus we make sometimes , , days, allowing for fractions. yet the _epactem_ of days, hours, minutes and seconds, in which the solar year exceeds the lunar, might be the cause, that the holy days would be removed from their respective seasons,--which would be the case, when calculating by the lunar only. so that in a period of seventeen years the feast of passover would be in the autumn instead of the spring, and the feast of tabernacle in spring instead of the autumn. on this account it was that the jewish chronologists took care to remedy this defect, by forming alternately, sometimes to compose the year of thirteen lunar months, as , , days, for which reason they adopted a period of years, in which they formed seven complete years,--as the , , , , , , , complete of thirteen lunar months, and the interval twelve years, _simple_, of twelve lunar months only; and in this periodical calculation of years, according to the above rotation of twelve _simple_ and seven _complete_ years, the _lunar_ and _solar_ years then agree, without any variation whatever.[a] hence it is that the jewish calculation is very exactly and astronomically contrived, for it has never failed since its first introduction, now nearly fifteen centuries. this is a sufficient proof that the science of astronomy was known to the ancient israelites. we have already stated, that the talmud contains many allegories, aphorisms, ethics, etc., which, it must be observed, are not to be interpreted in their literal sense, but as being intended to convey some moral and instructive lesson,--such being the system peculiar to oriental nations. this system not having been clearly understood by many of the jews and gentiles in both ancient and modern times, has led to the belief that the whole of the talmud, as it now exists, is of divine origin. now in justice to the authors of the talmud, it must be stated, that they never intended to convey any such idea; their object was simply to render their discussions and dissertations intelligible to their coreligionists of those days, and that it should be carefully handed down to posterity. with this view it was, that the compilers of the talmud left the work in its original and genuine state, with all the arguments and disputations as given by the authors in the various ages, so that they might not be charged with having interpolated it with ideas of their own, foreign to the views and intentions of the original authors of the work. this is sufficient to show that the _whole_ of the talmud never was considered by the learned, as having a divine origin; but _those_ portions of the mishna, illustrative of the written law, as already explained, were received as divine, having been successively transmitted by oral tradition, from moses to rabbi judah, the prince, and by him placed before the world and handed down unalloyed to succeeding generations. in coming ages, the learned among israel, desirous that the study of the talmud should not be entirely lost, have added comments and glossaries, in order to render the work as easy as possible to the comprehension of the student. the talmud contains, not, as has been said, the narrow-minded sentiments of bigots, but the devout and conscientious discussions of men deeply impressed with the love of divine providence, and anxious to inculcate that love in others by precept and observation. it was wisely remarked by the celebrated luzzato, "that the ancient rabbies were the incorrupt reporters of the ceremonials and rites of the jews, and _no innovators!_ that they did not attempt to grasp a subject they could not comprehend, nor seek to hide by sophistical arguments, eloquently clothed, a truth that was apparent." _no!_ for, says the venetian sage, they spoke of things to the study of which their whole lives had been devoted, and their piety gave weight to their opinions. we are aware, however, that we are open to severe criticisms; but we trust that our remarks may neither shock the ear of the more enlightened portion of the jewish nation, nor incur the displeasure of those, who still believe it to be a crime to urge a word respecting this time honored production. much has been said on this subject. whilst some have labored incessantly to enforce the divinity of the talmud--others again, either from prejudice or other unholy motives, have set at nought the entire composition, and condemned it as useless in the present age. how far the latter may be justified in the promulgation of such sentiments, may be easily ascertained by a glance at judaism at the present, in view of the strife and contention between the orthodox and the reform, with but little benefit to judaism in general. the reader will look "on this picture and on that" and decide for himself. we might quote many authorities of high standing among the jewish literati, such as existed formerly in the schools of jamnia, tiberias, surah, pombeditha, etc.; and in subsequent ages, those unrivalled luminaries that appeared in spain and france, germany and poland, who have recommended the study of the talmud as a guide to the perfect understanding of the holy writings. on the present occasion we prefer citing that which has been said of its merits by other divines, differing from the jew in faith. a celebrated christian divine of the catholic church who flourished in the fourth century, aurelio augustino, in a work called "the city of god," makes the following remarks: "for, indeed, that nation, that people, that state, that republic, the israelites, to whom was given the eloquence of god, in no way confounded the pseudo-prophets with their true prophets. but by a unanimous consent, and differing in nothing among themselves, they recognized the latter as the depositaries of the sacred writings, and considered them the authors. these true prophets were philosophers, that is, lovers of wisdom: being themselves wise men, they were theologians, prophets, and teachers of probity and piety. whoever therefore lives and grows wise according to their doctrines, lives and grows wise not according to the doctrines of men, but according to the _doctrines of god_, who spoke through them." "he further states, that as the love of virtue, with which these philosophers were deeply imbued, is the foundation of true belief, and the basis of all religion, so their works, coming from so pure, so enlightened, and so pious a source, are entitled to be received, not only by jews, but by men of all creeds, as guides to the true knowledge of god and to that state of spiritual bliss, which it should be our sole aim in this life to attain," for which reason, in his first book, "_de arcanis catholicæ veritatis_," he strongly urged the propriety of having the talmud translated into latin, that it might be studied in the schools of italy. peter galatino, a learned franciscan monk, who flourished in the early part of the sixteenth century, was known to be a great persecutor of the jews. yet in speaking of the sacred writings and jewish literature in general, he expressed himself nearly in the following terms: that he regarded the talmud as a divine work, and that he considered every part of it as perfect, and adorned with excellent moral instruction, adapted both for the guidance of our active and contemplative life, and entitled on account of its inspired authors, to be regarded as a work of extreme piety and goodness. the above quotations are worthy of consideration. let those jews then, who would attempt to cast a slur upon the talmud, look for one moment at these remarks, and pause while reflecting, that they were made by catholics, ere they proceed in their attacks upon a work which could command such expressions from those whose religion was so widely different, but whose reason could not refuse to yield to the cogent proofs the divine book in itself contained. footnotes: [a] see the end of the book for an explanation of the jewish months and years. of the jewish months and years. time is the duration of things; it is divided into years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and seconds. a year is the space of twelve months, which is the time the sun takes in passing through the twelve signs of the zodiac. the zodiac is a circle showing the earth's yearly path through the heavens. on this circle are marked the twelve signs, which are numbers of stars, reduced by the fancy of men into the form of animals, and from these forms they take their name. a month is the time the moon occupies in going round the earth. there are two kinds of months, lunar and solar. lunar months are calculated by the moon; solar months are reckoned by the sun. the hebrews make use of lunar months which consist alternately of twenty-nine and thirty days. the sacred volume directs them to make their computations by lunar months. the plan adopted by them at this day is that which was so admirably arranged by the celebrated and learned rabbi hillel, the prince. the difference between the solar and the lunar months would occasion, in a period of seventeen years, the passover to occur in the autumn month called tishree, instead of neson, the spring month; and thus the feast of tabernacles would be in neson instead of tishree. to avoid such imperfections in their calculations, the rabbins have arranged that every third year shall consist of thirteen lunar months instead of twelve. this additional month is called an intercalary month, and the year in which it occurs is called leap year. by this arrangement it will be found that, in the course of nineteen years, there are seven leap years, as follow: the third, sixth, eighth, eleventh, fourteenth, seventeenth, and nineteenth. the moon was more regarded by the jews than the sun, because by the new moon all their festivals and fasts were regulated. the new moon was always the beginning of the month. persons were appointed to watch its first appearance and represent the same to the sanhedrin, who immediately made it known to the whole of the nation. the new moon was celebrated by the sound of trumpets, and an extra sacrifice was offered in the holy temple. the ancient jews had originally no particular names for their months. it is found occasionally in the bible that names were given to some of the months. these names were made use of as descriptive of the season in which such month occurred; as we find by moses the legislator, who called the name of the first month abib, it being the spring time of the year. the present names of the hebrew months are chaldaic, and are said to have first been made use of by the nation during the captivity of babylon. history informs us that these names were used both by the chaldeans and the persians. the jews always reckon their day from evening to evening, because, in the account of the creation of the world the evening is mentioned before the morning; and thus it is that the sabbaths, festivals and fasts commence from the previous evening. they have no particular names in hebrew for the days of the week; they are called first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and the seventh is called _sabbath_. the term week owes its derivation to the hebrew word _shovuang_, which signifies seventh, on which day god rested from his labors. in former times the jews had three sorts of weeks: first--weeks of days, which were reckoned from sabbath to sabbath. second--weeks of years, which were reckoned from one sabbatical year to another. the sabbatical year happened every seventh year. this year was called _shemittah_, or year of release. third--weeks of seven times seven years, or forty-nine years, and the fiftieth year was called the year of _youvile_, or jubilee. the jubilee was celebrated on the day of atonement, and was proclaimed by the sounding of rams' horns and seven trumpets. the jubilee allowed the same privileges as the sabbatical year. on both these occasions the ground was not cultivated, but suffered to lie at rest, in order to recruit its fruitful powers. all hebrew slaves were set at liberty, and all lands or houses, that may have been sold or pledged, returned to the original owners. it is thus plainly shown that the sabbatical year was evidently appointed to inculcate humanity, fellow-feeling, and brotherly love. at these periods the sovereignty of the almighty was publicly acknowledged by the restoration of all property to its original and proper owner! brotherly love was exercised by setting at liberty all bondsmen: thus showing that all men are equal in the eyes of the the lord; and humanity was promoted by the care which was taken of the poor and the stranger. prayer in behalf of the united states of america. the following prayer is read in the synagogue in lodge street, cincinnati, on sabbaths and festivals, the same having been composed by the rev. h. a. henry, minister of the said synagogue, at the request of the board of trustees of the congregation, as a substitute for the hebrew prayer formerly used by them, in accordance with the custom and practice of the various european congregations. prayer. almighty god and supreme governor of the universe. thou who art enthroned on high, and condescendest to look down, on earth, o! bless and prosper in thine abundant goodness, this _happy_ country--this land of _freedom_--which thou hast destined to be our resting-place--_the united states of america_. grant, o lord, that virtue, truth, charity and mercy may flourish in these states. o! bless the inhabitants of this land! grant that nought but peace and happiness may surround them both at home and abroad. deliver them from all dangers and misfortunes! endue them with the spirit of love and affection for each other, that they may live as brethren, as the children of the universal father of all mankind for ever and ever. pour forth, o lord, thy blessings toward their excellencies the president and the vice-president of the united states. may they be favored with health and vigor, and may all their efforts for the well-doing of the people prove prosperous. may righteousness and justice flourish in their days. o! banish all errors from their minds, and fashion their hearts according to thy infinite and gracious providence. o! shed thy grace, o god, upon the governor of this state, and the mayor and common council of this city. teach them to judge the people truly. instruct them in the path they should tread, that their administration may prove wise, steady and prosperous. send forth thy salvation, o lord, into this city, and unto all its inhabitants. o! spread over them thy pavillion of peace, and remove from them all sorrows--all troubles--protect them and shield them from all harm. incline their hearts unto wisdom and piety, that they may serve thee in holiness of life and purity of soul. and we, thy chosen people, israel! o! satisfy us with thy goodness! let us also rejoice in thy salvation! guide us, o lord, by thy unerring providence, that we may find grace in thy sight, and favor in the eyes of the world. o may our daily supplications ascend thy throne of grace, that we may live in peace with all mankind, and seek the welfare of the land where thou in thy mercy hast directed our course. in their days, and in our days, may judah be saved, israel dwell in comfort, and the redeemer come unto zion! o! may such be thy divine will, and let us say--amen. * * * * * +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | typographical errors corrected in text: | | | | page : seige replaced with siege | | page : recived replaced with received | | page : seige replaced with siege | | page : chaper replaced with chapter | | page : learing replaced with learning | | page : ceromony replaced with ceremony | | page : succeding replaced with succeeding | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ hebrew heroes: a tale founded on jewish history. by a. l. o. e., _author of "the triumph over midian," "rescued from egypt," "exiles in babylon," &c. &c._ [transcriber's note: "a. l. o. e." is the pseudonym of charlotte maria tucker, and is the abbreviation of "a lady of england".] london: t. nelson and sons, paternoster row; edinburgh; and new york. . preface there are few portions of the world's history which, to my own mind, afford subjects of such thrilling interest as that which i have selected for the groundwork of the following story. i have tried, in the main, to adhere closely to facts, though i have ventured somewhat to compress the length of time which actually elapsed between the rising against syrian tyranny at modin, and the restoration of the temple. i may also have been inaccurate in representing antiochus epiphanes as being still in jerusalem at the period when the battle of emmaus took place. such trifling deviations from history seem to me, however, by no means to interfere with that fidelity to its grand outlines which an author should conscientiously observe. no historical character has been wilfully misrepresented in these pages. if i have ventured to paint one of the noblest of judah's heroes with the feelings and weaknesses common to man, i trust that even his most enthusiastic hebrew admirer will not deem that they lower his dignity as commander, or patriot prince. the exploits of judas maccabeus might seem to be a theme more befitting the pen of one of his own race than mine; yet would i fain hope that a work which it has been a labour of love to a christian to write, may not be altogether despised even by the descendants of hebrew heroes who shared the asmonean's toils and triumphs in the land for which he conquered and died. a. l. o. e. contents i. faithful to the death. ii. the midnight burial. iii. life or death. iv. following behind. v. the dream. vi. the journey home. vii. the first struggle. viii. hadassah's quest. ix. death of mattathias. x. concealment. xi. deep things. xii. trials of the heart. xiii. silent conflict. xiv. a crisis. xv. the two camps. xvi. battle of emmaus. xvii. departed. xviii. the passover feast. xix. a prison. xx. the court of antiochus. xxi. the maiden's trial. xxii. a breathing space. xxiii. found at last. xxiv. decision. xxv. a retrospect. xxvi. weary wanderings. xxvii. flight. xxviii. united in the grave. xxix. the mourner's home. xxx. changes. xxxi. night travelling. xxxii. friends or foes? xxxiii. the leader and the man. xxxiv. fanaticism. xxxv. the battle-prayer. xxxvi. bethsura. xxxvii. after the battle. xxxviii. the victor's return. xxxix. the feast of dedication. hebrew heroes. chapter i. faithful to the death. the sun was setting gloriously over the hills which encompass jerusalem, pouring its streams of golden light on the valleys clothed with the vine, pomegranate, and olive, sparkling on the brook kedron, casting a rich glow on flat-roofed dwellings, parapets, and walls, and throwing into bold relief from the crimson sky the pinnacles of the temple, which, at the period of which i write, crowned the height of mount zion. not the gorgeous temple which solomon had raised, that had long ago been given to the flames, nor yet the temple as adorned by king herod: the building before us stands in its simple majesty as erected by the hebrews after their return from babylon under the leadership of zerubbabel and jeshua. not the might of the powerful, nor the gold of the wealthy, but the earnest zeal of a people down-trodden and oppressed had built that temple; and its highest adornment was the promise which haggai's inspired lips had uttered: _the desire of all nations shall come, and i will fill this house with glory, saith the lord of hosts_ (hag. ii. ). _the glory of this latter house shall be greater than that of the former_ (hag. ii. ). the fulfilment of that promise was still a subject for faith; and seldom had faith had to breast a fiercer storm of persecution than that which was sweeping over god's ancient people at the time when my story opens, about years before the christian era. the roman had not yet trodden the soil of palestine as a conqueror; but a yoke yet more intolerable than his lay on the necks of the sons of abraham. antiochus epiphanes, king of syria, one of the most merciless tyrants that ever existed, bore rule in the city of david. he had deluged the streets of jerusalem with blood, he had plundered and polluted the temple, offered the unclean beast upon god's holy altar, and set up the image of jupiter olympus in the place dedicated to the worship of the lord of sabaoth. it was a time of rebuke and blasphemy, of fiery persecution against the one pure faith; and if some shrank back from the trial, other hebrews showed that the spirit of shadrach and his brethren still lived amongst the people of judaea. on the evening which i am describing, a young man was wandering among the clumps of hoary olive-trees which shaded a valley on the eastern side of jerusalem. the red sunbeams pierced here and there between the grey branching stems and through the foliage, and shone full on the figure of lycidas the athenian. no one could have mistaken him for a hebrew, even had the young man worn the garb of a jew instead of that of a grecian. the exquisitely-formed features of the stranger were those which have been made familiar to us by the masterpieces of antiquity treasured in our museums. lycidas might well have served as model to phidias for a statue of endymion. his form was of faultless proportions, remarkable rather for symmetry and grace than for strength; and his face might have been deemed too feminine in its beauty, but for the stamp of intellect on it. that young brow had already worn the leafy crown in the olympic contest for poetic honours; lycidas had read his verses aloud in the arena to the critical ears of the athenians, his fellow-citizens, and thousands from other parts of greece, and had heard their plaudits ringing through the air at the close. that had been a proud moment for the youthful athenian, but his ambition had not been satisfied by this his first great success. lycidas was his own severest critic, and regarded himself as being rather at the starting-point than as at the goal. he had resolved on writing a poem, the fame of which should emulate that of the iliad, and had chosen as the theme of his verse the heroism of virtue. lycidas would draw his pictures from history, choose his models from men, and not from the so-called deities with which superstition or fancy had peopled olympus. the athenian had an innate love of the pure and true, which made him intuitively reject fables, and which, amongst his countrymen, exposed him to the charge of scepticism. lycidas could laugh with aristophanes at legends of gods and demigods, whom their very priests represented as having more than the common infirmities and vices of mortal men. had lycidas reared an altar, it would have been like that which was seen two centuries later in his native city, with the inscription, to the unknown god. the greek knew of no being above earth whom he could intelligently worship; and his religion consisted rather in an intense admiration for virtue in the abstract, than in anything to which his more superstitious countrymen would have given the name of piety. to collect materials for his poem on the heroism of virtue, lycidas had travelled far and wide. he had visited rome, then a powerful republic, and listened with keen interest to her annals, so rich in stories of patriotism and self-devotion. the athenian had then turned his course eastward, had visited alexandria, ascended the nile, gazed on the pyramids, even then--more than two thousand years ago--venerable from their antiquity. after seeing the marvels of the land of the pharaohs, lycidas had travelled by the way of gaza to jerusalem, where he was now residing. he was an occasional guest at the court of the syrian monarch, to whom he had brought a letter of introduction from perseus, king of macedonia. it was not to indulge in pleasant poetic reveries that lycidas had on that evening sought the seclusion of the olive-grove, if the direction of the current of his thoughts might be known by the index of his face, which wore an expression of indignation, which at times almost flashed into fierceness, while the silent lips moved, as if uttering words of stern reproof and earnest expostulation. no one was near to watch the countenance of the young greek, until he suddenly met a person richly attired in the costume worn at the syrian court, who came upon him in a spot where the narrowness of the path precluded the two men from avoiding each other without turning back, and so brought about a meeting which, to the last comer at least, was unwelcome. "ha! my lord pollux, is it you!" exclaimed lycidas, with courteous salutation. "i missed you suddenly from my side to-day at that--shall i call it tragedy?--for never was a more thrilling scene acted before the eyes of man." "i was taken with a giddiness--a touch of fever," replied the courtier addressed by the name of pollux. he looked haggard and pale as he spoke. "i marvel not--i marvel not if your blood boiled to fever-heat, as did mine!" cried lycidas. "no generous spirit could have beheld unmoved those seven hebrew brethren, one after another, before the eyes of their mother, tortured to death in the presence of antiochus, because they refused to break a law which they regarded as divine!" "nay," replied pollux, forcing a smile; "their fate was nothing to me. what cared i if they chose to throw away their lives like fools for an idle superstition!" "fools! say rather like heroes!" exclaimed lycidas, stopping short (for he had turned and joined pollux in his walk). "i marvel that you have so little sympathy for those gallant youths--you who, from your cast of features, i should have deemed to be one of their race." pollux winced, and knitted his dark brows, as if the remark were unwelcome. "i have looked on the olympic arena," continued lycidas, resuming his walk, and quickening his steps as he warmed with his subject; "i have seen the athletes with every muscle strained, their limbs intertwined, wrestling like milo; or pressing forward in the race for the crown and the palm, as if life were less dear than victory. but never before had i beheld such a struggle as that on which my eyes looked to-day, where the triumph was over the fear of man, the fear of death, where mortals wrestled with agony, and overcame it, silent, or but speaking such brave words as burnt themselves into the memory, deathless utterances from the dying! there were no plaudits to encourage these athletes, at least none that man could hear; there was no shouting as each victor reached the goal. but if the fortitude of suffering virtue be indeed a spectacle on which the gods admiringly look, then be assured that the invisible ones were gazing down to-day on that glorious arena, ay, and preparing the crown and the palm! for i can as soon believe," continued the athenian, raising his arm and pointing towards the setting sun, "that that orb is lost, extinguished, blotted out from the universe, because he is sinking from our view, as that the noble spirits which animated those tortured forms could perish with them for ever!" pollux turned his head aside; he cared not that his companion should see the gesture of pain with which he gnawed his nether lip. "it is certain that the sufferers looked forward to existence beyond death," continued the young athenian. "one of the brothers, as he came forward to suffer, fixed his calm, stern gaze on antiochus (i doubt not but that gaze will haunt the memory of syria's king when his own dying hour shall arrive), and said--i well remember his words--'wicked prince, you bereave us of earthly life; but the king of heaven and earth, if we die in defence of his laws, will one day raise us up to life eternal.' the next sufferer, stretching forth his hands as if to receive the palm rather than the executioner's stroke, said, with the same calm assurance, 'i received these limbs from heaven, but i now despise them, since i am to defend the laws of god; from the sure and steadfast hope that he will one day restore them to me.' is it possible that these men believed that not only souls but bodies would rise again--that some mysterious power could and would restore them to life eternal? is this the faith of the hebrews?" the last question was impatiently repeated by lycidas before it received an answer. "some of them hold such a wild faith," said pollux. "a sublime, mysterious faith!" observed lycidas; "one which makes the souls of those who hold it invulnerable as was the body of achilles, and without the one weak point. it inspires even women and children with the courage of heroes, as i witnessed this day. the seventh of the hebrew brethren was of tender years, and goodly. even the king pitied his youth, and offered him mercy and honours if he would forsake the law of his god. antiochus swore that he would raise the youth to riches and power, and rank him amongst his favoured courtiers, if he would bend to the will of the king. i watched the countenance of the boy as the offer was made. he saw on the one side the mangled forms of his brethren--the grim faces of the executioners; on the other, all the pomps and glories of earth: and yet he wavered not in his choice!" pollux could hardly suppress a groan, and listened with ill-concealed impatience as the athenian went on with his narrative. "then the king bade the mother plead with her son, obey the promptings of nature, and bid him live for her sake. she had stood through all the fearful scene, not like a niobe in tears, but with hands clasped and eyes upraised, as one who sees the invisible, and drinks in courage from words inaudible to other ears than her own. she heard the king, approached her young son, laid her hand on his shoulder, and gazed on him with unutterable tenderness. faith with her might conquer fear, but could only deepen love. she conjured her child, by all that she had done and suffered for him, firmly to believe, and to fear not. 'show yourself worthy of your brethren,' she said, 'that, by the mercy of god, i may receive you, together with your brothers, in the glory which awaits us!' and the fair boy smiled in her face, and followed in the glorious track of those who had suffered before him, praying for his country as he died for his faith. then, in cruelty which acted the part of mercy, the mother--last of that heroic band--was re-united to them by death. but i could not stay to look upon _that_ sacrifice," said lycidas, with emotion; "i had seen enough, and more than enough!" "and i have heard enough, and more than enough," muttered pollux, on whom the description of the scene given by lycidas had inflicted keen anguish, the anguish of shame and remorse. "you pity the sufferers?" observed the athenian. "pity--i envy!" was the thought to which the blanched lips of a renegade dared not give utterance; pollux but shook his head in reply. "i would fain know more of the religion of the hebrews," said lycidas; "i have heard marvellous stories--more sublime than any that our poets have sung--of a deity bringing this people out of egypt, making a path for them through the depths of the sea, reining back its foaming waves as a rider his white-maned steed; giving to the thirsty--water from the rock, to the hungry--bread from the skies, and scattering the foes of israel before them, as chaff is driven by the wind. i have heard of the sun's fiery chariot arrested in its course by the voice of a man, speaking with authority given to him by an inspiring deity. tell me what is the name of the hebrew's powerful god?" pollux pressed his lips closely together; he dared not utter the awful name of him whom he had denied. the courtier laid his hand on the jewelled clasp which fastened his girdle; perhaps the movement was accidental, perhaps he wished to direct the attention of his companion to the figures of hercules and the nemean lion which were embossed on the gold. "you forget," observed pollux, "that i am a worshipper of the deities of olympus, that i sacrifice to the mighty jove." "i asked not what was your religion," said lycidas; "my question regarded that held by the hebrews, of which you can scarcely be ignorant. what is the name of that god whom they would not deny, even to save themselves from torture and death?" "i cannot tarry here longer, noble stranger," was the hurried reply of pollux. "the sun has sunk; i must return to the city; antiochus the king expects my attendance at his banquet to-night." "i am bidden to it, but i go not," said the young athenian; "slaughter in the daytime, feasting at night--blood on the hands--wine at the lips--i hate, i loathe this union of massacre and mirth! go you and enjoy the revel in the palace of your king; were i present, i should see at the banquet the shadowy forms of that glorious matron and her sons; i should hear above the laughter, the shout, and the song, the thrilling tones of voices confessing unshaken confidence in the power and mercy of their god, and the glorious hope of immortality where the oppressor can torture no more." and with a somewhat constrained interchange of parting courtesies, the free greek and the sycophant of a tyrant went on their several ways. chapter ii. the midnight burial. the scene which he had witnessed had left the mind of lycidas in an excited and feverish state. the cooling breeze which whispered amongst the leaves of the olives, and the solitude of the secluded place where pollux had left him, were refreshing to the young greek's spirit. he threw himself on the grass beneath one of the trees, leant against its trunk, and gazed upwards at the stars as, one by one, they appeared, like gems studding the deep azure sky. "are these brave spirits now reigning in one of these orbs of beauty?" thought the poet; "or are the stars themselves living souls, spirits freed from the chains of matter, shining for ever in the firmament above? i must know more of that hebrew religion, and seek out those who can initiate me into its mysteries, if it be lawful for a stranger to learn them." and then the thoughts of lycidas turned to his poem, and he tried to throw into verse some of the ideas suggested to his mind by the martyrdoms which he had witnessed, but he speedily gave up the attempt in despair. "poetic ornament would but mar the grand outlines of such a history," he murmured to himself; "who would carve flowers upon the pyramids, or crown with daisies an obelisk pointing to the skies!" gradually sleep stole over the young greek, his head drooped upon his arm, his eyelids closed, and he slumbered long and deeply. lycidas was awakened by sounds near him, low and subdued, the cautious tread of many feet, the smothered whisper, and the faint rustle of garments. the athenian opened his eyes, and gazed from his place of concealment behind the thick branching stem of the olive on a strange and striking scene. the moon, full and round, had just risen, but the foliage of the trees as yet obscured most of her light, as her silver lamp hung near the horizon, casting long black shadows over the earth. several forms were moving about in the faint gleam, apparently engaged in some work which needed concealment, for none of them carried a torch. lycidas, himself silent as the grave, watched the movements of those before him with a curiosity which for a time so engrossed his mind as to take away all sense of personal danger, though he soon became aware that the intrusion of a stranger on these mysterious midnight proceedings would not only be unwelcome, but might to himself be perilous. the group of men assembled in that retired spot were evidently hebrews, and as the eyes of lycidas became accustomed to the gloom, and the ascending moon had more power to disperse it, he intuitively singled out one from amongst them as the leader and chief of the rest. not that his tunic and mantle were of richer materials than those of his comrades; plain and dusty with travel were the sandals upon his feet, and he wore the simple white turban which a field-labourer might have worn. but never had turban been folded around a more majestic brow, and the form wrapped in the mantle had the unconscious dignity which marks those born to command. the very tread of his sandalled feet reminded the athenian of that of the desert lion, and from the dark deep-set eye glanced the calm soul of a hero. "here be the place," said the chief, if such he were, pointing to the earth under the branches of the very tree against the trunk of which, on the further side, the temple of lycidas was pressed, as he bent eagerly forward to watch and to listen. not a word was uttered in reply; but the men around, after laying aside their upper garments, set to work to dig what appeared to be a wide trench. the leader himself threw off his mantle, took a spade, and laboured with energy, bringing the whole force of his powerful muscles to bear on his humble toil. all worked in profound silence, nor paused in their labour except now and then to listen, like men to whom danger had taught some caution. whilst the men went on with their digging, lycidas strained his eyes to distinguish the outlines of a group at some paces' distance, which doubtless, though separated from them, belonged to the same party as those so actively employed before him. two forms appeared to be seated on the ground in a spot evidently chosen for its seclusion; one of them was clothed in dark garments, the other was shrouded in a large white linen veil. other figures in white seemed to be stretched upon the ground in repose. lycidas watched this silent group for hours, and all remained motionless as marble, save that ever and anon the dark female figure slightly swayed backwards and forwards with a rocking motion, and that several times the veiled head was turned with a quick movement, as of alarm, when the breeze rustled in the olives a little more loudly than usual, or bore sounds from the city to the woman's sensitive ear. meanwhile the work of digging proceeded steadily, and the mound of earth thrown out grew large, for the arms of those who laboured were strong and willing, and no man paused either to rest or to speak save once. it was almost a relief to lycidas to hear at last the sound of a human voice from one of those phantom-like toilers by night. he who spoke was the fiercest-looking of the band, with something of the wildness of ishmael's race on features whose high strongly-marked outlines showed the hebrew cast of countenance in its most exaggerated type. "there's more thunder in the air," he observed, resting for a minute on his spade, and addressing himself to him whom lycidas had mentally named "the hebrew prince," on account of his commanding height and noble demeanour, and the deference with which his order had been received. no answer was returned to the remark, and the wild-looking jew spoke again,-- "have you heard that apelles starts to-morrow for modin, charged with a mission from the tyrant to compel its inhabitants to do sacrifice to one of his accursed idol-gods?" "is it so? then ere daybreak i set out for modin," was the reply. "it may be that the venerable mattathias would rather have you absent," observed the first speaker. "abishai, when the storm bursts, a son's place is by the side of his father," said the princely hebrew; and as he spoke he threw up a spadeful of earth from the pit which lycidas doubted not was meant for a grave. again the work proceeded in silence. the moon had risen above the trees before that silence was once more broken, this time by the leader of the band,-- "it is deep enough now, and broad enough; go ye and bring the honoured dead." the command was at once obeyed. all the men present, excepting the chief himself, who remained standing in the grave, went towards the group which has been previously mentioned. interest chained lycidas to the spot, though it occurred to his mind that prudence required him to seize this favourable opportunity of quietly making his escape. the greek remained, watching in the shadow, as on the rudest of biers, formed by two javelins fastened by cross-bars together, the swathed forms of the dead, one after another, were borne to the edge of the pit. they were followed by the two female mourners that had kept guard over the remains while the grave was being prepared. the first of these was a tall, stately woman, with hair which glistened in the moonbeams like silver, braided back from a face of which age had not destroyed the majestic beauty. sternly sad stood the hebrew matron by the grave of the martyred dead; no tear in her eyes, which were bright with something of prophetic fire. so might a deborah have stood, had sisera won the victory, and she had had to raise the death-wall over israel's slain, instead of the song of triumph to hail the conquerors' return. the other female form, which was smaller, and exquisitely graceful in its movements, remained slightly retired, and still closely veiled. lycidas remarked that the eyes of the leader watched that veiled form, as it approached, with a softened and somewhat anxious expression. this was, however, but for some moments, and the hebrew then gave his undivided attention to the pious work on which he was engaged. still standing in the grave, the chief received the bodies, one by one, from the men who had borne them to the place of interment. he took each corpse in his powerful arms, and unaided laid it down in its last resting-place, as gently as if he were laying down on a soft couch a sleeper whom he feared to awaken. lycidas caught a glimpse of the pale placid face of one of the shrouded forms, but needed not that glimpse to feel certain that those whose remains were thus secretly interred by kinsmen or friends at the peril of their lives, were the same as those whose martyrdom he had so indignantly witnessed. the athenian knew enough of the syrian tyrant to estimate how daring and how difficult must have been the feat of rescuing so many of the bodies of his victims from the dishonour of being left to the dog or the vulture. the devotion of the living, as well as the martyrdom of the dead, gave an interest to that midnight burial which no earthly pomp could have lent. the spirit of the young athenian glowed with generous sympathy; and of high descent and proud antecedents as he was, lycidas would have deemed it an honour to have helped to dig that wide grave for the eight slaughtered jews. the burial was conducted in solemn silence, save as regarded the hebrew matron, and her deep thrilling accents were meeter requiem for the martyrs than the loudest lamentations of hired mourners would have been. as the chief received each lifeless form into his arms, the matron uttered a short sentence over it, in which words of the ancient hebrew spoken by her fathers blended with the chaldee, then the language commonly used by the jews. her thoughts, as she gave them utterance, clothed themselves in unpremeditated poetry; the athenian could neither understand all her words, nor her allusions to the past, but the majesty of gesture the music of sound, made him listen as he might have done to the inspired priestess of some oracle's shrine. "we may not wail aloud for thee, my son, nor rend our garments, nor put on sackcloth, nor pour dust upon our heads. he who hath bereaved thee of life, would bereave thee even of our tears; but thou art resting on abraham's bosom, where the tyrant can reach thee no more. "thou art taken away from the evil. thou seest no longer jerusalem trodden by the heathen, nor the abomination of desolation set up in the sanctuary of the lord. "even as isaac was laid on the altar, so didst thou yield thy body to death, and thy sacrifice is accepted. "as the dead wood of aaron's rod, cut off from the tree on which it had grown, yet blossomed and bare fruit; cut off as thou art in thy prime, thy memory shall blossom for ever. "the three holy children trod unharmed the fiery furnace seven time heated. he who was with them was surely with thee; and the angel of death hath bidden thee come forth, naught harmed by the fire, save the bonds of flesh which thy free spirit hath left behind. "to touch a dead body is counted pollution; to touch thine is rather consecration; for it is a holy thing which thou hast freely offered to god." with peculiar tenderness the matron breathed her requiem over the seventh body as it was laid by the rest. "youngest and best-beloved of thy mother; thou flower of the spring, thou shalt slumber in peace on her bosom. ye were lovely and pleasant in your lives, in your deaths ye are not divided." it was with calm chastened sorrow that the last farewell had been spoken as the bodies of the martyred brethren had been placed in their quiet grave; but there was a bitterness of grief in the wail of the hebrew woman over their mother, which made every word seem to lycidas like a drop of blood wrung from the heart of the speaker. "blessed, oh, thrice blessed art thou, solomona, my sister, richest of mothers in israel! thou hast borne seven, and amongst them not one has been false to his god. thy diadem lacks no gem--thy circle of love is unbroken. blessed she who, dying by her martyred sons, could say to her lord: _lo, i and the children whom thou hast given me;_" and as the matron ended her lament, she tore her silver hair, rent her garments, and bowed her head with a gesture of uncontrollable grief. all the bodies having been now reverentially placed in the grave, the chief rose from it, and joined his companions. abishai then thus addressed him:-- "hadassah hath made her lament. son of phineas, descendant of aaron the high-priest of god, have you no word to speak over the grave of those who died for the faith?" the chief lifted up his right hand towards heaven, and slowly repeated that sublime verse from isaiah, which to those who lived in that remote period must have seemed as full of mystery as of consolation,--_"thy dead shall live! my dead body shall they arise! awake and sing, ye that dwell in dust: for thy dew the dew of herbs, and the earth, shall cast out the dead._"[ ] the sound of that glorious promise of scripture seemed to rouse hadassah from her agonizing grief; she lifted up her bowed head, calm and serene as before. turning to the veiled woman near her, she said, "we may not burn perfumes over these our honoured dead, but you, zarah, my child, have brought living flowers for the burial, and their fragrance shall rise as incense. cast them into the grave ere we close it." obedient to the command of her aged relative, the maiden whom hadassah had addressed glided forward to the brink of the grave, and threw down into it a fragrant shower of blossoms. the movement threw back her veil, and there flashed upon lycidas a vision of loveliness more exquisite than the poet had ever beheld even in his dreams, as the full stream of moonlight fell on the countenance of the fairest of all the daughters of zion. her long dark lashes drooped, moist with tears, as she performed her simple act of reverence towards her dead kinsmen; then zarah raised her eyes with a mournful sweet expression, which was suddenly exchanged for a look of alarm--she started, and a faint cry escaped from her lips. the maiden had caught sight of the stranger crouching in the deep shadow, her eyes had met his--concealment was over--lycidas was discovered! [ ] isaiah xxvi. . it will be observed that interpolated italics are omitted. chapter iii. life or death. "a spy! a traitor! cut him down--hew him to pieces!" such were the cries, not loud but terrible, that, as thunder on flash, followed that exclamation from zarah. cold steel gleamed in the moonlight; lycidas, who had scarcely before thought of his own personal danger, found himself in a moment surrounded by a furious band with weapons upraised to take his life. with the instinct of self-preservation the young athenian sprang forwards, clasped the knees of the leader, and exclaimed, "no spy--no syrian--no foe! as ye would find mercy in the hour of death, only hear me!" then, ashamed at having been betrayed into showing what might look like cowardly fear, the greek stood erect, but gasping, expecting that ere he could draw another breath he should feel the dagger in his side, or the sword at his throat. "hold--let him speak ere he die!" cried the leader; and, at his gesture of command, uplifted blades were arrested in air, and like leopards crouching in act to spring, the hebrews surrounded their prisoner, to prevent the possibility of his making his escape. "what would you say in your defence, young man?" asked the leader, in tones calm and stern. "can you deny that you have been present as a spy at a scene to have witnessed which places the lives of all here assembled in your hands?" "i am a greek, an athenian," said lycidas, who had recovered his self-possession, and who intuitively felt that he was at the mercy of one who might be sternly just, but who would not be wantonly cruel. "i am here, but not as a spy--not to look with prying eyes upon your solemn and sacred rites. led by chance to this spot, sleep overtook me under this tree. i would forfeit my right hand, nay, my life, rather than betray one engaged in the noble act which i have accidentally witnessed tonight." "will you hear him, the heathen dog, the son of belial, the lying gentile!" yelled out abishai, his gleaming white teeth and flashing eyes giving to him an almost wolf-like ferocity of aspect, that well accorded with his cry for blood. "he was present--i know it--when our martyred brethren were slain; ay, he looked on their dying pangs!--tear him to pieces--set your heel on his neck--he has rejoiced at the slaughter of the just." "no!" cried lycidas with vehemence; "i call to witness the--" "stop his blaspheming tongue with the steel!" exclaimed abishai furiously; "let him not profane our ears with the names of the demons whom he worships. cut him off from the face of the earth--that grave will hold one body more--the blood of our brethren cries out for vengeance!" several voices echoed the fierce appeal, but amongst the wild cries for revenge, the ear of lycidas, and the ear of the leader also, caught the maiden's faint exclamation, "oh, judas, have mercy! spare him!" still the extended hand of the chief alone kept back the fierce band who would have cut down their defenceless victim. but there was painful doubt on the brow of the leader; not that he was influenced by the demand for blood from abishai and his fierce companions, but that he was aware of the extreme risk of setting the captive free. lycidas felt that his fate hung on the lips of that calm princely man, and was almost satisfied that so it should be; a thought rose in the mind of the greek, "if i must die, let it be by his hand." "stranger," began the son of mattathias, and at the sound of his voice the tumult was hushed, and all stood silent to listen; "i doubt not your word, i thirst not for your blood--were my own life only at stake, not a hair of your head should be harmed. but on your silence as to what you have seen this night depends the safety of all here assembled, even of these daughters of zion, for the tyrant spares not our women. we have no power to detain in captivity--we have but one way of ensuring silence; would you yourself--with the grave of those martyrs before you--be able to reproach us with cruelty should we decide on taking that way?" lycidas met without blenching the calm sad eyes of the speaker, but he could not answer the question. he knew that under like circumstances neither syrian nor greek would feel hesitation before, or remorse after, what would be deemed a stern deed of necessity. the eloquent lips of the poet had no power to plead now for life. "why waste words!" exclaimed fierce abishai; "why do you hesitate, judas? one would scarce deem you to be the descendant of that phineas who won deathless fame by smiting zimri and cosbi through with a dart. 'thine eye shall not pity, nor thine hand spare.' guilt lies on your head if you let agag go. was not the canaanite to be rooted out of the land? who dare bid us draw back when the lord hath delivered the prey to our swords?" "i dare--i do," cried hadassah, advancing with dignity to the edge of the grove which separated her and her grand-daughter zarah from the hebrew men and their captive. "shame on you, abishai, man of blood. yea, though you be the husband of my dead daughter, i repeat, shame on you to bring the name of the lord to sanction your own thirst for vengeance! hear me, son of mattathias; ye men of judah, hear me. the merciful bids me speak, and i cannot refrain from speaking the words which he puts into my mouth." the matron was evidently regarded with reverence by those who were present. judas was related to her by blood, abishai by marriage; two of the other five hebrews had been her servants in her more prosperous days. but it was chiefly the dignity of hadassah's character that gave weight to her speech; the widowed lady was regarded in jerusalem almost as a prophetess, as one endued with wisdom from on high. her pleading might not be effectual, but would at least be listened to with respect. "the canaanite was swept from the land," said hadassah; "zeba and zalmunna were slain; cosbi and zimri were smitten through with a dart; but these were sinners whose cup of iniquity was full, and the swords of israel executed god's righteous vengeance upon them, even as the waves of the sea overwhelmed pharaoh, or the flood a world of transgressors. but the god of justice is the god also of mercy, slow to anger and plenteous in goodness. he calleth vengeance--though his work--his _strange work_ (isa. xxviii. ). he hath given command, by his servant the preacher, _if thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat; and if he be thirsty, give him water to drink_ (prov. xxv. ). _rejoice not when thine enemy falleth; and let not thine heart be glad when he stumbleth_" (prov. xxiv. ). "an enemy born of the house of israel, not a vile gentile," muttered one of the men who were present. "is the lord the maker only of the jew; made he not the gentile also?" cried hadassah. "_thou shalt not oppress a stranger_, saith the lord, _seeing ye were strangers in the land of egypt_ (ex. xxiii. ). did not hobab the midianite dwell among the people of israel; was not achior the ammonite welcomed by the elders of bethura; was not the blood of the hittite required at the hand of david, and ittai the gittite found faithful when israelites fell away from their king? god said of cyrus the persian, _he is my shepherd_ (isa. xliv. ), and alexander of macedon was suffered to offer sacrifices to the lord god of jacob. yea, hath not isaiah the prophet declared that he, the holy one, the messiah, for whose coming we look, _shall bring forth judgment to the gentiles_ (isa. xlii. ), shall be _a light of the gentiles_ (isa. xlii. ), that he will lift up his hand to the gentiles (isa. xlix. ), so that their kings shall be nursing-fathers, and their queens nursing-mothers to his people (isa. xlix. )? ay, a time is coming--may it speedily come!--when the _idols he shall utterly abolish_ (isa. ii. ), when the lord's house shall be established, and all nations shall flow unto it (isa. ii. ), when _the earth shall be filled with the knowledge of the glory of the lord, as the waters cover the sea_" (hab. ii. ). the noble features of the aged matron kindled as with inspiration, and as she raised her hand towards heaven, she seemed to call the deity to confirm his glorious promises of mercy to the people yet walking in darkness. a confused murmur rose amongst the listeners; if hadassah's appeal had impressed some, it had stirred up in others the fierce jealousy which made so many jews unwilling that the gentiles should ever share the privileges of abraham's race. the captive's life hung upon a slender thread, and he knew it. "hadassah," said the chief, addressing the widow with respect, "do you then require that we should trust this stranger, when--if he prove false--so many hebrew lives will be the forfeit of confidence misplaced?" "i require that you should trust him who hath said, _thou shalt do no murder_; who hath ordained that _whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed_. we show little faith when we think to find safety in transgressing the law of our god." again rose a fierce, angry murmur. lycidas heard the words, "folly, madness, tempting providence," mingled with imprecations on "dogs of heathen," "idolaters," "the polluted, the worshippers of graven images." judas laid hold on his javelin, which he had placed against the trunk of the olive when he had exchanged the weapon for the spade. the heart of lycidas throbbed faster, he read his own death-warrant in the movement, but he braced his spirit to fall bravely, as became a fellow-citizen of miltiades. again there was profound silence, all awaiting what should follow that simple action of the leader. "time passes, every minute that we linger here is fraught with peril, our decision must be prompt," said judas, and he motioned to hadassah and zarah to join the company of men on the side of the grave nearest to the stem of the tree. when they had done so, the son of mattathias cast his javelin down on the ground. "let those who would let the captive go free, those who would trust his gratitude and honour, pass over my javelin," cried judas. "if the greater number cross it, we spare; if they remain here, we slay. are you content?" he inquired. there was a murmured "content" from most of those present. the chief then turned his glance on lycidas, and with stern courtesy repeated his question to the greek. the young captive bowed his head, folded his arms, and answered "content." "the women shall not vote!" exclaimed abishai. "they shall vote," said the chief, with decision; "their peril is equal to ours, and so shall their privilege be." it was with strangely mingled emotions that lycidas beheld, as it were, the balance raised, one of the scales of which was weighted with his freedom and life! fear was scarcely the predominating feeling. a cloud for a few moments darkened the face of the moon, but through the shadow he could see the stately dark figure of hadassah as she crossed over the javelin, and the flutter of zarah's white veil. as the silver orb emerged from the cloud, the women were followed by the two hebrews who had once been servants to hadassah. "four on that side--five on this--he dies!" cried abishai eagerly; but even as the exclamation was on his lips, judas with a bound sprang over the javelin, and stood at the side of zarah. "he lives--the merciful be praised!" cried hadassah. abishai, with a muttered curse, thrust back his thirsty blade into its sheath. "captive, depart in peace," said the son of mattathias; "but ere you quit this spot, solemnly vow silence as to what you have witnessed here." lycidas instantly obeyed. "may i share the torments of those whose grave--but for your mercy--i should have shared, if i ever prove false to my oath," cried the greek. the chief waved his hand to bid him depart, and leave the hebrews to complete the solemn work which his appearance had interrupted. lycidas, however, showed no haste to escape. he glanced towards hadassah and zarah. "may i not speak my gratitude," he began, advancing one step towards them; but the widow by a gesture forbade his nearer approach. "live your gratitude, speak it not, stranger," said she. "if ever you see son or daughter of abraham in peril, remember this night; if ever your enemy stand defenceless before you, remember this night. and when next you would bow down before an idol, and pray--as your people pray--to the deaf wood and the senseless stone, pause and reflect first upon what you have learned on this sacred spot of the faith of the hebrews," hadassah pointed to the open grave as she spoke, "how it can nerve the weak to suffer, and induce the strong to spare!" chapter iv. following behind. as he quitted that place of burial, which he had little expected to leave alive, lycidas felt like one under an enchanter's spell. joy at almost unhoped-for escape from a violent death was not the emotion uppermost in his mind, and it became the less so with every step which the athenian took from the olive-grove. strange as the feeling appeared even to himself, the young poet could almost have wished the whole scene acted over again, notwithstanding the painfully prominent part which he had had to play in it. lycidas would not have been unwilling to have heard again the fierce cries and execrations, and to have seen once more the flashing weapons around him, for the sake of also hearing the soft appeal, "have mercy, spare him!" and to have had another glimpse of zarah's form and face, as, with a halo of moonlight and loveliness around her, she dropped her tribute of living flowers into the grave of the dead. "these hebrew women are not as the women of earth, but beings that belong to a higher sphere," thought lycidas, as he pursued his way towards the city. "that aged matron has all the majesty of a juno, and the maiden is fair as--nay, to which of the deities of olympus could i compare one so tender and so pure! venus! the idea were profanation--chaste dian with her merciless arrows--pallas, terrible to her enemies? no! strange that it should seem an insult to the women to compare her to the goddess!" lycidas gazed upwards at the exquisite blue of that eastern sky, and around him at the fair landscape of hills and valleys calmly sleeping in moonlight. a thrilling sense of beauty pervaded his soul. "oh, holy and beneficent nature," he murmured, "hast thou no voice to explain to men through thy visible glories the mysteries of the invisible! dost thou not even now whisper to my soul, 'purity and goodness are the attributes of divinity, for they are stamped upon the works of creation; and so must purity and goodness be the badge of the divinity's true worshippers on earth!' there is a spirit stirring within the breast that echoes this voice of nature, that repeats, 'purity and goodness, not power and might, give the highest dignity to mortal or immortal!' but if it be so, if my hand have touched the mighty veil which shrouds the truth from man's profane gaze, if i have a glimpse of the sacred mystery beyond, how far from that truth, in what a mist of error must all the nations of earth be wandering now!" lycidas unconsciously slackened his steps, and raised his hand to his brow. "perhaps not all," he reflected; "from what i hear it appears that this hebrew nation, this handful of conquered people groaning in bondage, hold themselves to be the sole guardians of a faith which is lofty, soul-ennobling, and pure. they deem themselves to be as a beacon on a hill set on high, throughout ages past, to show a dark world that there is still light, and a light which shall yet overspread the earth as the waters cover the sea; those were the words of hadassah. and she spake also of one who should come, one looked for by the jews, who shall bring judgment unto the gentiles. do the hebrews hope for the advent of a deity upon earth, or only that of a prophet? i would that i could see hadassah again; and i will see her--i will never give up the search for one who can guide unto knowledge; come what may, i will look upon her and on that beauteous maiden again!" absorbed as he was by such thoughts, there is little wonder that the young athenian missed his way, and that he unconsciously wandered in a direction different from that which he had intended to take. the moonlight also failed him, clouds had arisen, and only now and then a fitful gleam fell on his path. lycidas became at last uncertain even as to the direction in which jerusalem lay. the young athenian was weary, less from physical fatigue than from the effects of strong excitement upon a sensitive frame. sometimes he fancied now that he heard a stealthy step behind him, and stopped to listen, then felt assured that his senses must have deceived him, and went on his way, groping through the darkness. what a strange episode in his existence that night appeared to the greek--scarcely a mere episode, for it seemed to him that it absorbed into itself all the true poetry of his life as regarded the past, and gave him new aspirations and hopes as regarded the future. to lycidas the remembrance of his poetical triumph in the olympic arena, the plaudits which had then filled his soul with ecstatic delight, was little more than to a man is the recollection of the toys which amused his childhood. the greek had been brought face to face with life's grand realities, and what had strongly excited his ambition once, appeared to him now as shadows that pass away. "and yet," mused the young poet, "i would fain once more win the leafy crown, that i might lay it at zarah's feet. but what would such a trophy of earthly distinction be to her? not worth one of the flowers, hallowed by her touch, which she cast into the martyrs' grave! ha! again! i fancied that i heard a rustle of garments behind me! how powerful is the imagination, that mirage of the mind, that makes us fancy the existence of things that are not!" lycidas had now reached a part of the road which bordered an abrupt descent to the left, the hill along whose side the path wound appearing to have been scarped in this place, probably to leave wider space for some vine-clad terrace below. lights were gleaming in the far distance, marking the position of the city in which the guests of antiochus, preceded by torch-bearers, were wending their way back to their several homes. sounds of wild mirth, from those reeling back from the revels, were faintly borne on the night breeze from the distant streets. lycidas, however, when he reached the point whence the lights were visible, was not left a moment either to gaze or to listen. "dog of a gentile--i have you!" hissed a voice from behind; and lycidas was instantly engaged in a life or death hand-to-hand struggle with abishai the jew, who, as soon as he could steal away from his companions at the grave, had followed and dogged the steps of the greek. it was almost a hopeless struggle for the young athenian; his enemy surpassed him in strength of muscle and weight of body, wore a dagger, and was determined to use it, though some wild sense of honour had prevented abishai from stabbing the unconscious youth without warning, when he stole upon him from behind. but the love of life is strong, and desperation gives almost supernatural power. lycidas felt the keen blade strike him once and again, he felt his blood gushing warm from the wounds, he caught the arm uplifted to smite, with despair's fierce energy he endeavoured to wrench the murderous weapon away. the two men went wrestling, struggling, straining each sinew to the utmost, drawing nearer, inch by inch, to the brink of the steep descent. abishai dropped his dagger in the struggle, and could not stoop to attempt to recover it in the darkness, but he grasped with his sinewy hand the gasping youth by the locks, and, with a gigantic effort, hurled him over the edge. with dilating eyeballs and a look of fierce triumph abishai leant over the brink, trying to distinguish through the deepening gloom the lifeless form of his victim. "i have silenced the gentile once and for ever!" cried the fierce hebrew through his clenched teeth. "i said not 'content' when the question was put, but i say it now!" he drew back from the edge, wiped the moisture from his heated brow, and left a red stain upon it. "ere i go to rest," said the stern jew, "i will let hadassah know that my arm has achieved that safety for her and our brave companions which her wild folly would have sacrificed. i marvel that judas, son of mattathias, a bold man, and deemed a wise one, should have let himself be swayed from his purpose by the idle words of a woman. but i trow," added abishai with a grim smile, "that a glance from zarah went further with him than all the pleadings of hadassah. it is said amongst us, their kinsmen, that these twain shall be made one; but this is no time for marrying and giving in marriage, when the unclean swine is sacrificed on god's altar, and the shadow of the idol darkens the temple, and the sons of abraham are given but the alternative to defile themselves or to die. the day of vengeance is at hand! may all the enemies of judah perish as that poor wretch has perished this night!" abishai sought for his dagger, and found it; he then left the scene of his act of ruthless cruelty, with a conscience less troubled by so dark a deed than it would have been had he rubbed corn between his hands on the sabbath, or neglected one of the washings prescribed by the traditions of the elders. chapter v. the dream. at sunrise on the following morning two women were seated on the ground, in the back part of a small flat-roofed house, situated in a very secluded spot amongst the hills, not a mile from jerusalem. they sat opposite to each other, engaged--after the manner of the east--in grinding corn, by moving round, by means of handles, the upper millstone upon the nether one. the room in which they were, if room it could be termed, was a narrow place on the ground-floor, partitioned off from a larger apartment, and devoted to holding stores, and other such domestic uses. here corn was ground, rice sifted from the husk, and occasionally weaving carried on. large bunches of raisins hung on the walls, jars of olive-oil and honey were neatly ranged on the floor; nor lacked there stores of millet, lentiles, and dried figs, such being the food on which chiefly subsisted the dwellers in that lonely home. a curtain, now drawn aside divided this store-place from the larger front room, which opened to the road in front. it had a door communicating with a small patch of cultivated ground behind, in which were a few flowers tended by women's hands, the fairest clustering round a bright little spring which gushed from the hill on whose steepest side the small habitation seemed to nestle. one of the women, busy with the laborious task of grinding, was a hebrew servant, past the prime of her days, but still strong to work; the other was fair and young, her delicate frame, her slender fingers, looking little suited for manual labour. with a very sad countenance and a heavy heart sat zarah that morning at the millstone, engaged in her monotonous task. it was not that she was unwilling to spend her strength in humble toil, or that she murmured because her grandmother hadassah had no longer men-servants and but one maid-servant to do her bidding. zarah had too much of the spirit of a ruth to shrink from work, or to complain of poverty, if shared with one who was to her as a mother; nay, her cheerfulness at labour was wont to gush forth in song. it was not a personal trial that now made the tears flow from zarah's lustrous eyes, as she slowly turned round the millstone; no selfish sorrow drew heavy sighs from her bosom, as she murmured to herself, "oh, cruel--cruel!" "peace be unto you, my child. you are early, and it was late ere you could retire to rest," said the voice of hadassah, as, pale and sad in aspect, the widow lady entered the apartment. zarah arose from her humble posture, approached her grandmother, first meekly kissed the hem of her garment, and then received her tender embrace. "i could not sleep," faltered the maiden; "i dared not close my eyes lest i should dream some dream of horror. oh, ruthless abishai, most cruel of men! will not the all-merciful, who cares for the stranger, require that young greek's blood at his hand?"--zarah covered her face and wept. "his was an unrighteous and wicked deed," said hadassah. "and it was i who betrayed the stranger," sobbed zarah. "it was my start and exclamation which directed the murderer's eyes to his place of concealment! i shall never be happy again!" "nay, you did no wrong, my white dove," said hadassah, tenderly drawing the maiden closer to her bosom; "the guilt lies on the head of abishai, and on his head alone. had he not been the beloved of my dead miriam, my only daughter, never more should that man of blood cross the threshold of hadassah." "i never wish to look on abishai again!" cried zarah, with as much of anger as her gentle nature was capable of feeling, flashing from under her long dark lashes. "he might have trusted one whom judas could trust; the face of that greek was a face which could not deceive;" and the maiden added, but not aloud, "the stranger--when he stood with folded arms, so calm, so beauteous, so noble, and bowed his head, and said 'content' when his life was trembling in the balance--looked to me as one of the goodly angels that came to sodom at eve! better, if he must needs die, that the greek should have fallen by the javelin of my brave kinsman judas, than by the dagger of abishai. mother," cried zarah, suddenly raising her head, and looking into the face of hadassah with an earnest, pleading gaze, "may we not hope that the stranger's soul has found mercy with god? how could the young gentile worship one whom he knew not?--his blindness was inherited from his parents--he did not wilfully turn away from the light! oh, say that you think that the all-merciful has had compassion on the murdered greek! did not the lord spare nineveh--pitied he not even the little ones and the cattle?" "i do think it--i do firmly believe it," said hadassah, raising her eyes towards heaven; "verily the dream that visited me last night must have been sent to assure me of this." "tell me your dream, mother," cried zarah, who always addressed by this title the parent of her father. "come with me into the front room, my child; leave anna to prepare our pottage of lentiles, and i will tell you my dream," said hadassah, leading the way into what might, in a european dwelling, have been called the sitting-room. this, with the place which they had just quitted, and two sleeping apartments above, which were reached by a rough stair on the exterior of the dwelling, constituted all the accommodation of hadassah's small house, if we except the flat roof, surrounded by a parapet, often used by the ladies as a cool and airy retreat. hadassah and her grand-daughter seated themselves in a half-reclining posture upon skins that were spread on the tiled floor; and while zarah listened with glistening eyes, the hebrew widow told her dream to the maiden. "methought, in the visions of the night--for i snatched a brief hour of repose after our return from the burial--i beheld two women before me. they were both goodly to look upon, with a strange spiritual beauty not seen on this side of the tomb. the feet of the women rested not on the earth, but they gently floated above it; the air seemed purpled around them, and fragrant with the odour of myrrh. the first woman bore in her hand a scarlet cord, the other a bundle of golden corn. "'hadassah,' said the first, 'i am rahab, of the doomed race of canaan, yet received as a daughter of abraham. for the sake of david, born of my line, and for the sake of him who was the root of jesse (isa. xi. ) and shall be the branch (isa. xi. ), have pity upon the stranger.' "and the second woman, who was exceeding fair, spoke to me in like manner: 'hadassah, i am ruth, of the guilty race of moab, yet received as a daughter of abraham. for the sake of david, born of my line, and for the sake of him who was the root of jesse and shall be the branch, have pity upon the stranger.' and so the two bright visitants vanished--and i awoke." "would that your dream had been sent to abishai!" exclaimed zarah; "then might he not through life have borne the brand-mark of cain!" "hark!" cried hadassah, suddenly; "was that a groan that i heard?" zarah had heard the sound also, and was on her feet and at the door before hadassah had ended the sentence. "oh, mother--it is he--the stranger--he is dying!" exclaimed zarah, trembling as she bent over the form of lycidas, which lay stretched on the ground, close to the threshold. the injuries which the young greek had received from the dagger and the fall, though severe and dangerous, had not proved fatal. the fresh morning air had restored him to consciousness; unable to rise, lycidas had yet managed to drag himself feebly along for some distance, till, as he reached the nearest dwelling, the strength of the athenian had utterly failed him, and he had swooned at the door of hadassah. "bear him in--he bleeds!" said hadassah; and after calling the strong-armed anna to aid them, the hebrew ladies themselves carried the senseless form of the stranger into the house, and beyond the curtain-partition into that back portion of the dwelling described in the beginning of this chapter. for some time undivided attention was given to efforts to restore consciousness to the wounded man. hadassah, like many of her countrywomen, had knowledge of the healing art. zarah brought of the balm of gilead and reviving wine; anna dragged into the inner room mats and skins, that the sufferer might have something softer to rest upon than the hard floor. zarah and the servant then retired, by the order of hadassah, leaving her to examine and bind up the wounds of lycidas, which she did with tenderness and skill when all had been done which could be done, hadassah drew aside the curtain-screen, and rejoined zarah and anna in the front apartment, where the latter was engaged in removing the crimson stains left by the wounded greek on the floor and threshold. "go on the road, anna," said the widow; "carefully efface any marks by which a wounded man could be tracked to my dwelling. no one must know that the stranger is here." "if abishai heard of it, even your roof would not protect the youth," said zarah, turning pale at the thought of a repetition, in the sacred precincts of home, of the horrible scene of the previous night. "oh, mother, think you that the stranger will live?" "he may; youth can swim through stormy waters," replied hadassah; "but--may i be forgiven the inhospitable thought!--i would that the greek had come to any other house rather than to mine." "so few visitors ever seek this spot--so few strangers ever pass it--we lead lives so retired--we can, better than most, conceal a guest," observed zarah. the brow of hadassah was clouded still. in that small dwelling, with a fair girl under her care, the widow lady was unwilling to harbour for weeks, or more probably months, a man, and that man a gentile. anxiously she revolved the matter in her mind, but no other course seemed to open before her. she could not be guilty of the cruelty of turning the helpless sufferer out to die. "on abishai's account," said hadassah, "i dare not seek out the friends of the greek, if friends he have in jerusalem, and ask them to bear him thence. to do that, after abishai's murderous attempt on his life, would be to deliver over miriam's husband to the executioner's sword. this young man is bound alike by honour and gratitude to preserve silence as to what passed by the grave; but there is nothing to prevent him from seeking, and much to induce him to seek, retribution on a would-be assassin, who violated the pledge of safety given to the greek. would, i repeat, that this stranger had come to any house rather than mine!" "mother, remember your dream!" exclaimed zarah, who, in the secret depths of her heart, did not share hadassah's regret. compassion for the suffering--admiration for the beautiful and brave,--combined to awaken in the maiden strong interest in the fate of the stranger. zarah was well pleased that her grandmother's hospitality should be to him some reparation for a deep wrong sustained from one of her family. "yes," said hadassah, thoughtfully; "that dream must have been sent to prepare me for this. the lord hath given me a work to perform, and he will not let his servant suffer for striving to do his bidding. the wounded stranger, gentile though he be, needs hospitality, and i dare not refuse it. if the lord hath guided him to the home of hadassah, the lord will send a blessing with him." and trying to stifle her misgivings, the widow lady returned to her guest. chapter vi. the journey home. before the sun had risen above the horizon on that day, judas, son of mattathias, of the noble family of the asmoneans, started on his long homeward journey. he had not re-entered jerusalem during the night; almost as soon as he, with the assistance of joab and isaac, two of his companions, had filled up with earth the grave of the martyrs, he had skirted the city from the east to the west, and turned his face towards modin. it would scarcely have been deemed by any one who might have seen the princely hebrew ascending the western hill with his quick, firm tread, that the greater part of the preceding night had been spent by him in severe toil, and none in sleep. his soul, filled with a lofty purpose, so mastered the infirmities of the flesh, that the asmonean seemed to himself scarcely capable of feeling fatigue, and set out, without hesitation, on a journey which would have severely taxed the powers of a strong pedestrian after long uninterrupted repose. as he reached the highest point of one of these hills which stand round jerusalem, like guardians of the holy and beautiful city, judas paused and turned round to take what he felt might be a last look of zion, over which the sun was about to rise. he gazed on the fair towers, the girdling walls, the sepulchres in the valleys, the temple crowning the height, with that intense love which glows in the bosom of every hebrew deserving the name, a love in which piety mingles with patriotism, glorious memories with still more glorious hopes. from the asmonean's lips burst the words in which the psalmist has embalmed that love for all generations,--_beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth, is mount zion, the city of the great king. mark ye well her bulwarks, consider her palaces; that ye may tell it to the generation following. pray for the peace of jerusalem: they shall prosper that love thee. peace be within thy walls, and prosperity within thy palaces. if i forget thee, o jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning; if i do not remember thee, let my tongue cleave to the roof of my mouth_. faith was to the asmonean as the rosy glow preceding the sunrise, which then flushed the eastern sky. his eye rested on the temple; now desecrated, defiled, abandoned to the gentile, and he remembered the promise regarding it: _the lord whom ye seek, shall suddenly come, to his temple, even the messenger of the covenant whom ye delight in_ (mal. iii. ). then the hebrew's gaze wandered beyond to a fair hill, clothed with verdure, and his faith grasped the promise of god: _then shall the lord go forth ... and his feet shall stand in that day upon the mount of olives_ (zech. xiv. , ). hope and joy were kindled at the thought. as surely as the hill itself should remain, so surely should a temple stand on mount zion, till the messiah should appear within it. _god is not a man, that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent: hath he said, and shall he not do it?_ (num. xxiii. ). "oh, that the messiah might come in my day!" exclaimed the asmonean; "that my eyes might behold the king in his beauty; that my voice might join the united acclamations of israel, when the son of david shall be seated on the throne of his fathers, and his enemies shall be made his footstool! that i might see the whole world worshipping in the presence of the seed of the woman who shall bruise the serpent's head!" (gen. iii. ). the hebrew grasped his javelin more firmly, and his dark eye dilated with joy and triumph. "but the night is not yet past for israel," he added, more sadly; "the voice is not yet _heard in the wilderness, prepare ye the way of the lord_ (isa. xl. ); we may have yet much to do and to suffer ere the sun of righteousness arise." then a softened expression stole over the features of the asmonean, as he gazed in another direction, but still with his face turned towards the east. he could not see a white dwelling nestling under the shadow of a hill, but he knew well where it lay, and where she abode to whom he had bidden on that night a long, perhaps a last, farewell. the asmonean stretched out his hand, and exclaimed, "oh! father of the fatherless, guard and bless her! to thy care i commit the treasure of my soul!" and without trusting himself to linger longer, judas turned and went on his way. it was the month of shebet, answering to the latter part of our january, and palestine was already bright with the beauty of early spring. the purple mandrake was in flower, the crocus, tulip, and hyacinth enamelled the fields, with the blue lily contrasting with thousands of scarlet anemones. the almond-tree and the peach were in flower, and fragrant sighed the breeze over blossoms of lemon and citron. the winter had this year been mild, and some figs left from the last season still clung to the boughs yet bare of foliage. the vine on the terraced hills was bursting into leaf, and already in the fields the rising corn showed its young blades above the ground. but judas was too much absorbed with his own thoughts to pay much attention to the landscape around him; with israel the spiritual winter was not over, her time for the singing of birds had not come. onwards pressed the traveller without resting, till at about noonday he reached the valley of ajalon. there was a fountain by the side of the road, and here the weary man slaked his thirst, and sat down for awhile to rest beneath the shade of some date-palms. the asmonean took from the scrip which he carried his simple repast of dried figs, laved his brow and hands in the cooling water, blessed god for his food, and began to eat. ere many minutes had elapsed, a woman in the widow's garb of mourning, bearing a child of about six years old on her back, dragged her weary steps to the fountain by which the traveller was seated. she placed her boy on the ground, drank of the water herself, and gave to her son to drink. her appearance denoted extreme poverty, and the child was evidently suffering from sickness. judas divided this slender supply of provisions into three portions, and with the courteous salutation of "peace be with you," offered one to the widow, and one to the boy. "the blessing of the god of abraham be with you!" exclaimed the poor woman; "your servant hath not tasted food since sunset." and, seated on the turf not far from judas, the widow and her son partook of the dried figs with the eagerness of those who are well-nigh famished. "your child looks ill," observed the asmonean, regarding with compassion the wasted shrunken frame of the boy. "he will not suffer long," replied the widow, with the calm apathy of despair. "i laid his father's head in the grave last month, and i shall lay terah's head beside him this month. the seal of death is upon him; i shall soon be alone in the world." "nay, despair not, god is good; the child may yet live," said judas. "why should i wish him to live," murmured the widow. "his father was taken from the evil to come, the boy will be taken from the evil to come. jerusalem is defiled, the land is in bondage, israel is given a prey to the heathen! the faithful are few in the land, and persecution will sweep these few away. there is no resting-place but under the sod, no freedom but in the grave. the name of judah will soon be blotted out from amongst the nations!" "never!" exclaimed judas, with energy; "never, while the god of truth lives and reigns! judah can never perish. the vine that was brought out of egypt may be broken, her branches torn away, her fruit scattered, the boar out of the wood may waste it, and the wild beast of the field devour, but yet _israel shall blossom and bud, and fill the face of the world with fruit_ (isa. xxvii. ). were but one man left of god's chosen people, yet from that one man should spring the deliverer who shall yet speak peace to the nations, and reign for ever and ever!" "could i but hope--" faltered the widow. "can you not _believe_?" exclaimed the asmonean. "see yonder--look to the east--there is gibeon, over which the sun stayed at the voice of joshua; over this valley of ajalon hung the moon arrested in her course in the day when the amorites fled before israel. he who raised up moses, joshua, and gideon, can by human instruments, or without them, repeat the miracles wrought of old, and again deliver his people." as he concluded the last sentence, the asmonean rose to continue his journey; he could give his weary limbs but little time for rest, for long was the distance which he yet had to traverse. "my home is but a furlong further on," said the widow, also rising, "and i have again strength to go forward." she was about to lift up her boy, but judas prevented her. "i can relieve you of that burden," he said, and raised the child on his shoulders. they had proceeded for some way in silence, the widow pondering over the speech of the wayfaring man, when from behind was heard the clatter of hoofs and the jingle of steel. the child, whom the asmonean was carrying, turned to gaze, and exclaimed in fear as he grasped the locks of his protector, "see--horsemen in bright armour, with banners and spears! fly, fly!--the syrians are coming!" judas did not turn nor alter his pace, he merely went closer to the side of the cactus-bordered road, to give more space to the horsemen to pass him. on rode the syrians in goodly array, their steel glittering in the sunlight, the dust rising like a cloud around the hoofs of their horses. in the centre of the line was a gorgeous arabah, or covered cart with curtains, to which the troop of soldiers appeared to form an escort. there was an opening in the roof of this arabah, evidently for the convenience of accommodating within it a figure too high to be otherwise carried in the conveyance, for out of the opening appeared a white marble head of grecian statuary. judas and his companion regarded it with the aversion and horror with which the sight of an idol always inspired pious jews. when the syrians had passed the travellers, and the clatter of their arms had died away in the distance, the widow wrung her hands and exclaimed, "yonder ride apelles and his men of war to modin, to do the bidding of the tyrant; and they bear the accursed thing with them, to be set up on high and worshipped. alas! they will compel all the hebrews at modin to bow down to their idol of stone." "perhaps not," said judas, calmly. "all men will be forced to offer sacrifice," cried the woman; "there will be no way of escaping the pollution." "solomona and her sons found one way," observed the asmonean, "and god may provide yet another." the traveller had now reached the door of the widow's humble dwelling. judas set down his living burden, and the mother thanked the kind stranger, and asked him to come in and rest. "i cannot abide here," replied judas; "a long journey is yet before me; i must be at modin this night." "at modin!" exclaimed the astonished woman, glancing up at the worn weary countenance of the speaker. "why, the horsemen will scarcely reach modin this night, unless, indeed, the king's business be urgent." "my king's business is urgent," said the asmonean, as he tightened his girdle around him, and with a grave, courteous salutation to the woman, he went on his way. the widow watched his princely form for some time in silence, then exclaimed, "that can be none other than judas, the son of mattathias; there is not a second hebrew such as he. ah, my terah," she added, addressing herself to her son, "there is a man whom the syrians will not frighten." "he will rather frighten the syrians," said the boy. many a time was that childish saying repeated in after-days, as if it had been prophetic, when judah had long had rest from her foes, and terah himself was an old man. when he sat beneath his own vine and fig-tree, no man making him afraid, he never wearied describing to his grand-children that form which had made the earliest impression which his memory had retained. he would speak with kindling enthusiasm of the princely man who had taken him in his arms and carried him on his shoulders--who had been as tender to a sick child, as he had afterwards been terrible to israel's foes. the sun had just sunk when the foot of the asmonean trod the green valley of sharon. it was well that from thence every step of the way was familiar to judas, for he had soon no light but that of the stars to guide him. the wind was rising; it rustled amidst the tamarisks, and shook the leafy crests of the evergreen palms; it bore to the ear of the almost exhausted traveller the wild howl of the jackals, rising higher and higher in pitch, like the wail of a human being in distress. weary indeed and footsore was the asmonean, but still he bravely pressed forward, till at length he heard the welcome sound of the waves of the mediterranean lashing the coast near which stood modin, about an english mile from the town of joppa. thankful was judas to reach his father's home, where, the heavy strain upon his powers being for awhile relaxed, he slept the deep sweet sleep of the weary, after a journey which could have been accomplished on foot in a single day only by a man possessing great powers of endurance, as well as physical strength. chapter vii. the first struggle. the arrival of apelles, the emissary of antiochus epiphanes, had thrown the town of modin into a state of great excitement. a proclamation was made in the morning of the following day, that all the inhabitants, men, women, and children, should assemble in the market-place at noon, to obey the mandate of the king, by worshipping at an altar of bacchus, which was erected at that spot. "curses, not loud but deep," were muttered in many a hebrew home. some of the syrian soldiers had been quartered for the night with the inhabitants of modin. the fatted calf had to be killed, the best wine poured out, for idolatrous guests whose very presence polluted a banquet. the syrians repaid the reluctant hospitality of their hosts by recital of all the horrors of the persecution in jerusalem. they told of the barbarities perpetrated on solomona and her sons; shuddering women clasped their children closer to their bosoms as they heard how two mothers had been flung from the battlements at the south side of the temple, with their infants hung round their necks, because they had dedicated those martyr babes to god in the way commanded by moses. such examples of cruelty struck terror into the hearts of all whose faith and courage were not strong. it was evident that antiochus was terribly in earnest, and that if his wrath were aroused by opposition, the horrors which had been witnessed at jerusalem might be repeated at modin. the plea of terrible necessity half silenced the consciences of many hebrews who secretly abhorred the rites of the heathen. a quantity of ivy was gathered, and twined by unwilling hands, to be worn in honour of the false deity whose worship was to be forced upon a reluctant people. a lofty shrine on which was raised a marble image of the god of wine, with his temples crowned with ivy, a bunch of grapes in his hand, and sensuality stamped on every feature, was erected in the centre of the market-place. before it was the altar of sacrifice, and around this, as the hour of noon approached, collected a motley crowd. there were the white-robed priests of bacchus, with the victims chosen for sacrifice. men of war, both on foot and on horseback, formed a semicircle about the shrine, to enforce, if necessary, compliance with the decree of the syrian monarch. apelles himself, magnificently attired, with tunic of tyrian purple, jewelled sandals, and fringes of gold, sat on a lofty seat on the right side of the altar, awaiting the appointed time when the sun should reach his meridian height. numbers of people filled the market-place, of both sexes, and of every age, for the soldiery had swept through modin, forcing all the inhabitants to quit their dwellings and assemble to offer sacrifice upon the altar of bacchus. directly opposite to the altar there was one group of hebrews conspicuous above all the rest, and towards this group the eyes of the assembled people were frequently turned. there stood mattathias, with snowy beard descending to his girdle--a venerable patriarch, surrounded by his five stalwart sons. there appeared johannan, the first-born; simon, with his calm intellectual brow; eleazar, with his quick glance of fire; jonathan; and judas, third in order of birth, but amongst those illustrious brethren already first in fame. in stern silence the asmonean family watched the preparations made by the syrian priests to celebrate their unhallowed rites. not a word escaped the lips of the hebrews; they stood almost as motionless as statues, only their glances betraying the secret indignation of their souls. mattathias, as a direct descendant of aaron through phineas, and a man of great wisdom and spotless integrity, possessed great influence within his native city of modin. disputes were referred to his decision, his judgment was appealed to in cases of difficulty, and his example was likely to carry with it greater weight than that of any other man in judaea. apelles was perfectly aware of this. "mattathias once gained, all is gained," the syrian courtier had said to the king before departing on his mission to modin; "the old man's sons have no law but his will, and if the asmoneans bow their heads in worship, all judaea will join in offering sacrifice to your gods." anxious to win over by soft persuasions the only hebrews whose opposition could cause any difficulty in the execution of the king's commands, when the hour for offering sacrifice had almost arrived, apelles descended from his seat of state, and approached the asmonean group. this unexpected movement of the syrian awakened eager attention amongst the assembled crowds. "venerable mattathias," said apelles, saluting the old man with stately courtesy, "your high position, your wide-spread fame, entitle you to the place of leader in performing the solemn act by which modin at once declares her fealty to our mighty monarch, antiochus epiphanes, and her devotion to the worship of bacchus. now, therefore, come you first and fulfil the king's commandment, like as all the heathen have done, yea, and the men of judah also, and such as remain at jerusalem; so shall you and your house be in the number of the king's friends, and you and your children shall be honoured with silver and gold and many rewards." when the syrian had ceased speaking, the silence amongst the expectant people was so profound that the roll of the billows on the beach, and the scream of a white-winged sea-bird, could be distinctly heard. sternly the old man had heard apelles to the end; then fixing upon him the keen eyes which flashed under the white overhanging brows, like volcano fire bursting from beneath a mountain crest of snow, he replied, in tones so loud that they rang all over the market-place, "though all the nations that are under the king's dominion obey him, and fall away every one from the religion of their fathers, and give consent to his commandments, yet will i and my sons and my brethren walk in the covenant of our fathers. god forbid that we should forsake the law and the ordinances! we will not hearken to the king's words to go from our religion, either on the right hand or the left." hardly had the brave words died on the ears of those who heard them, when, in strange contrast, there sounded a hymn in honour of bacchus, and, gaily dressed and crowned with ivy, a wretched apostate jew, eager to win the king's favour by being the first to obey his will, came forward singing towards the altar. all the blood of phineas boiled in the veins of his descendant; was the lord of hosts to be thus openly insulted, his judgments thus impiously defied! forward sprang the old asmonean, as if once more endowed with youth, one moment his dagger glittered in the sunlight, the next moment the apostate groaned out his soul upon the altar of bacchus! to execute justice in this summary manner, and before all the people, was indeed to draw the sword and throw the scabbard away. a fierce shout for vengeance arose from the syrian soldiers, and their ranks closed around mattathias, but not around him alone. not for a minute had his sons deserted his side, and now, like lions at bay, they united in the defence of their father. nor were they to maintain the struggle unaided. there were hebrews amongst the assembled crowds to whom the voice of mattathias had been as the trumpet-call to the war-horse; there were men who counted their holy faith as dearer than life. these, with shouts, rushed to the rescue, and the market-place of modin became the scene of a hand-to-hand desperate struggle, where discipline and numbers on the one side, devotion, heroism, and a good cause on the other, maintained a fearful strife. though sharp, it was but a brief one. the fight was thickest near the altar--around it flowed the blood of human victims; there the powerful arm of judas laid apelles lifeless in the dust. this was the crisis of the struggle, for at the fall of their leader the syrians were seized with sudden panic. the horses, whose trappings had glittered so gaily, were either urged by their riders to frantic speed, or dashed with emptied saddles through the throng, to carry afar the news of defeat. flight was all that was left to the troops of antiochus or the priests of bacchus, and few succeeded in making their escape, for many jews who had stood aloof from the struggle joined in the pursuit. the very women caught up stones from the path to fling at the flying foe; children's voices swelled the loud shout of triumph. the altar of bacchus was thrown down with wild exultation; the idol was broken to pieces, and its fragments were rolled in the blood-stained dust. those jews who had shown most fear an hour before, now by more furious zeal tried to efface from other minds and their own the memory of their former submission. one spirit seemed to animate all--the spirit of freedom! modin had arisen like samson, when he snapped the green withes and went forth to the fight with the strength of a giant. but this was an ebullition of zeal likely to be more fiery than lasting. mattathias little trusted that courage which only follows in the train of success. the old man knew that the struggle with the power of syria was only commencing; that it would probably be long protracted, and that it would be impracticable to defend modin against the hosts which would soon be sent to assail it. the patriarch stood in the centre of the market-place, with his foot on the fragments of the broken altar, and once more his loud clear voice rang far and wide. "whosoever is zealous of the law, and maintaineth the covenant, let him follow me! let us away to the mountains, ye men of judah!" how many of the inhabitants of modin obeyed the call? how many resolved to leave city and home, to dwell with the beasts in the caves of the mountains? history relates that but a little band of ten, inclusive of the asmoneans, by retiring to the fastnesses of the mountains, formed the nucleus of that brotherhood of heroes who were to wrest victory after victory from the hosts of syria, and win that unsullied fame which belongs only to those who display firm endurance and devoted courage in a righteous and holy cause. chapter viii. hadassah's guest. in no place were the tidings of the rising at modin received with greater exultation than in the lonely dwelling of hadassah. the hebrew widow could hardly refrain from taking down the timbrel from the wall, and bursting, like miriam, into song. "_sing unto the lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously! he hath dashed to pieces the enemy!_" constant information of what was occurring, every rumour, true or false, whether of victory or of failure, was brought to hadassah by her son-in-law, abishai, who little dreamed that every word which he uttered was overheard by the wounded athenian, from whom he was divided but by the partitioning curtain! in one of his visits to hadassah, abishai told how judas had in the mountains raised a standard, which bore the inscription, "who is like unto thee among the gods, o jehovah!" "it is said," observed abishai, "that from the initial letters of this inscription the word maccabeus is formed, and that by this new title judas is commonly called; it is a name which the syrians will soon have cause to dread." "it is a well-chosen name!" cried hadassah. "let the asmonean be called _makke-baiah_ (a conqueror in the lord), for doubtless the god whom he serves will give to him the victory!" the triumphant joy of the patriotic hadassah received a painful check when she heard some time afterwards from abishai of the grievous sacrifice of the lives of a thousand faithful hebrews, who had taken refuge in a cave at no great distance from jerusalem. being attacked there on the sabbath-day by the syrians, these hebrews had actually let themselves be slaughtered without resistance, rather than incur sin (as they thought) by breaking the fourth commandment! grieved at this waste of precious life, it was a relief to hadassah to learn that such a sacrifice to a mistaken sense of duty would not be repeated; for when the tidings had reached mattathias and his sons, they had bitterly mourned for their slaughtered countrymen, and had said one to another, "if we all do as our brethren have done, and fight not for our lives and laws, against the heathen, they will quickly root us out of the earth." a decree, therefore, was sent forth from the camp in the mountains, that to hebrews attacked on the sabbath-day, self-defence was lawful and right. in the meantime, under the care of hadassah, the wounds of lycidas were gradually healing. never to any man had confinement and suffering been more sweetened, for was he not near to zarah; did he not hear the soft music of her voice, breathe the same air, even see her light form gliding past the entrance of his hiding-place, though the maiden never entered it? the necessity of concealing the presence of lycidas, above all from the blood-thirsty abishai, compelled the closing during the daytime of the door at the back of the dwelling which opened on the small piece of ground behind. peasants or travellers would occasionally, though rarely, come to fill their pitchers or slake their thirst at the little fountain gushing from the hill, and had the door of what lycidas playfully called his "den" been open, there would have been nothing to prevent strangers from seeing or entering within. the whole ventilation of the confined space occupied by the invalid depended therefore during the day-time on its communication with the front room, which might be called the only public apartment, and in which not only food was now prepared and taken, and the occasional guest received, but in which the hebrew ladies pursued their daily avocations. here zarah would pursue her homely occupation of spinning, and hadassah copy out on rolls of vellum portions from the law and the prophets. this latter occupation was fraught with peril; and had hadassah been discovered in the act of transcribing from the sacred pages, it might have cost her her life. antiochus had eagerly sought to destroy all copies of the scriptures, or to profane them by having vile pictures painted on the margins. to possess--far more to copy out--god's holy word was now a capital offence. but the faith of hadassah seemed to raise her above all personal fear; the peril connected with her pious labours made her but more earnestly pursue them. the presence of the young gentile in her dwelling was a source of far greater uneasiness to the widow, than any danger which threatened herself. had hadassah been able to seclude her patient entirely, she would willingly have discharged the duties of hospitality towards him; but such seclusion the scanty accommodation of her dwelling would have rendered impossible, even had lycidas been willing to submit to perfect isolation. but this was by no means the case. not only did he require the curtain frequently to be drawn back to enable him freely to breathe; but the greek, as his strength increased, was eager to be seen as well as to see, and to speak as well as to listen. no anxious warnings of danger to be apprehended from the sudden entrance of abishai could prevent lycidas from dragging his languid limbs beyond the limits which the curtain defined, and joining in social converse. lycidas resolutely shut his eyes to the fact that, to his hostess at least, his presence was unwelcome. he deceived himself into the belief that he was rather repaying the kindness which he had received, by lightening the dulness of the secluded lives led by the hebrew ladies. the young athenian drew forth for their amusement all the rich stores of his cultivated mind. now he recited wondrous tales of other lands; now gave vivid descriptions of adventures of his own; poetry flowed spontaneously from his lips like a stream--now sparkling with fancy, now deepening into pathos; lycidas had in athens been compared to apollo, as much for his mental gifts as his singular personal beauty. to the brilliant conversation of the stranger, so unlike what she ever had heard before, zarah listened with innocent pleasure. she was ever obedient to her aged relative, and often did hadassah's bidding in the upper rooms of the dwelling, even when it seemed to the maiden that she was sent on needless errands; but the light form, in its simple blue garment, with the long linen veil thrown back from the graceful head, was always returning to the apartment, to which it was drawn by a new and powerful attraction. if hadassah sometimes appeared irritable and imperious towards the fair young being whom she loved, it was because her mind was disturbed, her rest broken by anxieties which she could impart to no one. the aged lady scarcely knew which evil she most dreaded: the discovery of lycidas by abishai--a discovery which would inevitably stain her threshold with blood--or the long sojourn under her roof of the dangerous stranger, whom she had unwillingly admitted, and now more unwillingly retained in her home. chapter ix. death of mattathias. wild was the life led by mattathias and his followers in the mountains--a life of danger and hardship; danger met manfully, hardship endured cheerfully. amongst wild rocks, heaped together like the fragments of an elder world torn asunder by some fearful convulsion of nature, the band of heroes found their home. where the hyaena has its den, and the leopard its lair; where the timid wabber or coney hides in the stony clefts, there the hebrews lurked in caves, and manned the gigantic fastnesses which no human hands had reared, and from which it would be no easy task for any enemy to dislodge them. the small band that had rallied round mattathias when he withdrew from modin, had been soon joined by other bold and zealous sons of abraham, and the mountains became a place of refuge to many who fled from persecution. as numbers increased, so did the difficulty of procuring means of subsistence. the asmoneans and their followers chiefly lived upon roots. the less hardy of the band suffered severely from the chill of the frosts, the keenness of the sharp mountain air, the sharp winds that blew over snow-clad heights. but no voice of complaint was heard. frequent forays were made into the plains; idol-altars were thrown down, forts were burnt, detachments of syrians cut off. none of the enemy within many miles of the rocky haunts of the asmoneans lay down to rest at night feeling secure from sudden attack during the hours of darkness; and oft-times the early morning light showed a heap of smouldering ruins where, on the evening before, the banners of syria had waved on the walls of some well-manned fortress. to the bold spirit of maccabeus there was something congenial in the adventurous kind of existence which he led, and yet he was not one who would have adopted a guerrilla life from choice. as even in a hard and rocky waste there are spots where rich vegetation betrays some source of hidden nourishment below, and they who dig deep enough under the surface find a spring of bright pure living waters,--so deep within the asmonean's heart lay a hidden source of tenderness which prevented his nature from becoming hardened by the stern necessities of warfare. this secret affection made the warrior more chivalrous to women, more indulgent to the weak, more compassionate to all who suffered. in the moment of triumph, "will not zarah rejoice?" was the thought which made victory more sweet; in preservation from imminent danger, the thought, "zarah has been praying for me," made deliverance doubly welcome. when the evening star gleamed in the sky, its pure soft guiding orb seemed to judas an emblem of zarah; as he gazed on it, the warrior would indulge in delicious musings. this desperate warfare might not last for ever. if the lord of sabaoth should bless the arms of his servants; might not the time come when swords should be beaten into ploughshares, when children should play fearlessly in pastures which no oppressor's foot should tread, and the sound of bridal rejoicings be heard in the land of the free? hopes so intensely delightful would then steal over the asmonean's soul, that he would suddenly start like a sentinel who finds himself dropping asleep on his post. how dared the leader of israel's forlorn hope indulge in reveries which made him feel how precious a thing life might be to himself, when he had freely devoted that life to the service of god and his country? when david was engaged in rescuing his flock from the lion and the bear, did he stop to gather the lilies of the field? "it is well," thought judas maccabeus, "that i have never told zarah what is in my heart; if i fall, as i shall probably fall, on the field of conflict, i would not leave her to the grief of a widow." an event was at hand which was felt as a heavy blow by all to whom the cause of israel was dear, but more especially so by the asmonean brethren, who from their childhood had regarded their father with reverence and affection. mattathias was an aged man, and though his spirit never sank under toil and hardship, his constitution soon gave way under their effects. the patriarch felt that his days, nay, that his hours, were numbered, and summoned his sons around him to hear his last wishes, and to receive his parting blessing. in a cave near the foot of a mountain, stretched upon a soft couch of skins of animals slain in the chase, lay the venerable man. the pallor of death was already on his face, but its expression was tranquil and calm. the aged pilgrim looked like one who feels indeed that he has god's rod and staff to lean on while he is passing through the valley of the shadow of death. the full glare of noonday was glowing on the world without, but softened and subdued was the light which struggled into the cave, and fell on the form of the dying man, and the stalwart figures of the asmonean brothers bending in mute sorrow around their honoured parent. mattathias bade his sons raise him a little, that he might speak to them with more ease. jonathan and eleazar, kneeling, supported him in their arms; while their three brothers, in the same attitude of respect, listened silently at his side to the patriarch's farewell address. i shall not dare to add words of my own to those which the historian has preserved as the dying utterances of this noble old man--a hero, and the father of heroes. i give them as they fell upon the ears of judas maccabeus and his brothers, who received them as joseph received the parting blessing of israel. "now hath pride and rebuke gotten strength, and the time of destruction, and the wrath of indignation. now, therefore, my sons, be ye zealous for the law, and give your lives for the covenant of your fathers. call to remembrance what acts our fathers did in their time, so shall ye receive great honour and an everlasting name. "was not abraham found faithful in temptation, and it was imputed unto him for righteousness. elias, for being zealous and fervent for the law, was taken up into heaven. ananias, azarias, and misael, by believing, were saved out of the flame. daniel, for his innocence, was delivered from the mouth of the lion. and thus, consider ye, throughout all ages, that none that put their trust in him shall be overcome. wherefore, ye my sons, be valiant, and show yourselves men in behalf of the law; for by it ye shall obtain glory." the old man paused, as if to gather strength, and then stretching forth his wasted hand towards simon, his second son, he went on: "behold, i know that your brother simon is a man of counsel; give ear unto him alway; he shall be a father unto you." then the hand was again extended, and this time laid on the bowed head of maccabeus: "as for judas maccabeus," said the dying man, in firmer accents, as if the very name inspired him with vigour, "he hath been mighty and strong, even from his youth up; let him be your captain, and fight the battle of the people." there was no murmur of dissent, not even a glance of jealousy from the eye of the generous johannan, when his younger brothers were thus preferred before him, as superior in those qualities with which leaders should be endowed. johannan knew, and was content to acknowledge, that the wisdom of simon and the military talents of judas far exceeded his own; he would serve with them, and serve under them, cheerfully submissive to the will of god and the counsels of his father. we find not the slightest trace of jealous rivalry amongst that glorious band of brethren, who all shared the privilege of suffering--three of dying--for their country. then, after solemnly blessing his five sons, mattathias departed in peace, as one who has fought a good fight, and kept the faith to the end. great lamentation was made throughout judaea for him in whom the nation had lost a parent. the sons of mattathias carried his body to modin, and buried it in the sepulchre of his fathers. in after-times of prosperity and peace simon raised a fair monument of marble, in the form of seven lofty pillars, which could be seen from afar by those sailing over the blue waters of the mediterranean. the asmonean prince placed this memorial there in honour of his parents and their five sons, after jonathan, eleazar, and judas maccabeus had sealed with their brave blood the testimony of their devotion to the cause of faith and of freedom. chapter x. concealment. we will now return to the quiet dwelling-place of hadassah, where lycidas day by day was becoming more hopelessly entangled in the silken meshes which kept him a willing captive in the hebrew home. the very danger of his position served to add to its charms; it was with keen gratification that the greek marked the anxiety which zarah felt on his account. whenever lycidas emerged from his "den," zarah kept careful watch as she sat at her wheel near the front entrance of the dwelling, ready to give timely notice of the approach of any intruder. the wave of the maiden's hand gave sufficient warning to the greek. the view from the doorway commanded a long enough tract of road to render it impossible for any visitor to enter the house so suddenly as to prevent lycidas, thus warned, from having time to retreat behind his curtain. an occasion, however, arose when the gentle sentinel was at last found off her guard. resting on his arm, with his form half reclining on the floor, lycidas was giving to hadassah an account of the defence of thermopylae, while his eyes were fixed on zarah, who sat listening with her whole attention absorbed by the thrilling tale, when abishai, breathless with excitement, rushed so suddenly into the house that zarah was not aware of his coming in time to give her accustomed signal. it was hadassah who heard the sound of rapid footsteps, though not till they had almost crossed the threshold. with great presence of mind the widow flung over lycidas a large striped mantle of goat-hair, which she was preparing for judas maccabeus, should any opportunity arise of conveying it to the asmonean leader. hadassah then shifted her position, so as to interpose her own form between her guest and the door. these movements were so rapid as to take less time in the action than the narration. "why, child, you look as much startled and terrified as if the syrians were upon you!" exclaimed abishai to zarah, catching sight of her look of terror; his own eyes were flashing with triumph, and his gestures betrayed his excitement as he continued, "i bring you tidings of victory--glorious victory--achieved by our hero, judas maccabeus! apollonius--may the graves of his fathers be polluted!--apollonius, who tore down the dwellings near mount zion to make fortifications of the stones--he himself is laid low! the murderer, the oppressor, the instrument of a tyrant, and almost more hateful than the tyrant himself, now lies in his gore, and his mighty army has fled before the warriors of judah!" "the lord of hosts be praised!" exclaimed hadassah; "tell us, my son, of the fight," and she motioned to abishai to take his seat beside her, so that his back should be turned towards lycidas. the jew seated himself so near to the greek that the folds of his upper garment touched the mantle under which lycidas lay crouched. if abishai but moved his hand a few inches, he must feel that a warm and living form was concealed under the goats' hair stripes. "how your cheek changes colour, child!" exclaimed abishai, surveying with surprise his young niece, who could not disguise her terror, nor prevent her knees from trembling beneath her as she stood in the doorway. "you have no cause to fear; maccabeus is not even wounded. apollonius met him in fight, and fell by his hand. henceforth judas, it is said, declares that he will always use as his own the sword which he took from the vanquished syrian. as david said when he grasped that of goliath, "there is no weapon like that." zarah scarcely heard the words addressed to her. one thought possessed her mind to the exclusion of every other--the peril of the wounded athenian. should any sound or movement betray his presence to her fanatic uncle, she knew that the doom of lycidas would be sealed, for he was yet by far too weak to defend himself with the faintest chance of success, and his recumbent position rendered him utterly helpless. hadassah anxiously watched the countenance of zarah, and read the thoughts passing within. fearing that the maiden would faint where she stood, hadassah motioned to her to come closer to her and take her seat at her feet. zarah obeyed, taking care to be near enough to abishai to catch him by the knees, and with what little strength she possessed at least to impede his movements should he discover the presence of the greek. "judas has brought great honour to our race," exclaimed abishai, who attributed the emotion of his niece to a cause very different from the real one; "in his acts he is like a lion, and like a lion's whelp roaring for his prey. he has pursued the wicked, and sought them out; he has destroyed the ungodly, thrown down their altars, and turned away wrath from israel." "he is a mighty instrument in the hands of the lord," said hadassah. "is he not something more?" exclaimed abishai, his manner becoming yet more excited; "may not the time for the great deliverance be come, and the great deliverer be amongst us, of whom it is written, _mine own arm brought salvation unto me; and my fury, it upheld me. and i will tread down the people in mine anger, and make them drunk in my fury, and i will bring down their strength to the earth_" (isa. lxiii. , ). wild hope gleamed in the hebrew's fierce eyes as he spoke, and he started upright on his feet. "shame to you, son of nathan," said hadassah with dignity, "you speak like one who knows not the writings of the prophets. he that shall come, the messiah, is to be of the tribe of judah, not that of levi (isa. xi. ), shall be born at bethlehem, not at modin (mic. v. ). nor have the prophetical weeks of daniel yet run out. _know therefore and understand, that from the going forth of the commandment to restore and to build jerusalem unto the messiah the prince shall be seven weeks, and threescore and two weeks_ (dan. ix. ). the set time is not come." the wild animation of abishai sank under the calm rebuke of one who as much excelled him in knowledge and intellectual power, as he surpassed her in physical strength. he looked abashed at being convicted of ignorance of prophetic writings. "you know, o hadassah," said the hebrew, "that i have been from my youth a man of the sword rather than of the book. nor can i now study if i would. you are aware how antiochus has sought out our holy writings to destroy or pollute them. save the copy of the scriptures which i occasionally see at the house of the elder, salathiel, when we meet there by stealth to worship god on the sabbath, my eyes never so much as look on the roll of the holy word." "i have a complete copy of the psalms and prophets, and am making from it another," said hadassah, intuitively lowering her tone, and glancing at the door. "a noble but dangerous work!" cried abishai. "go and look yonder, my son, glance up the path to the right and the left, see whether any of the heathen be near," said hadassah, pointing to the door as she spoke. "if none of the enemy be in sight, i will show you the sacred treasure which i hold at risk of my life." abishai instantly left the dwelling, half closing the door behind him. "now lycidas--oh, haste!" exclaimed zarah in an eager whisper; she was terrified lest the opportunity of retreat which hadassah had given, should be lost by one moment's delay. there was no need to repeat the word; lycidas instantly drew back into his retreat behind the curtain, and the hebrew ladies could breathe more freely again. zarah gave a bright joyous glance at hadassah, but it met no answering smile, the widow's features wore a sad, almost indignant expression, the sight of which shot a keen pang through the gentle heart of zarah. what had she done, what had she said, that her venerated relative should look on her thus? had there been aught in her conduct unseemly? she had called the gentile by his name, could it be that which had drawn upon her the unwonted displeasure of hadassah? as she asked herself such questions, the cheek of zarah became suffused with crimson; she scarcely knew what caused the painful embarrassment which she felt; she seemed to herself like one detected in doing evil, and yet her conscience had nothing wherewith to reproach her as concerned her conduct towards her grandmother's guest. so uneasy was the maiden, however, that on abishai's return she did not stay to hear the conversation which ensued between him and hadassah, but glided up the outer stair to the roof of the house, where, seated alone on the flat roof, with only heaven's blue canopy above her, she could commune with her own heart, and question it regarding the nature of the dangerous interest which she felt in the gentile stranger. chapter xi. deep things. when abishai re-entered the dwelling of hadassah, he found her drawing forth, from a secret receptacle in the wall, a long roll of parchment, covered with writing in hebrew characters within and without. the lady pressed it reverentially to her lips, and then resumed her seat, with the sacred roll laid across her knees. abishai regarded with respect, almost amounting to awe, a woman to whom had been given the talent, wisdom, and courage to transcribe so large a portion of the oracles of god. he felt as barak may have done towards deborah, and stood leaning against the wall, listening with respectful attention to the words of this "mother in israel." "these scriptures, my son," said hadassah, "have been my study by day, and my meditation by night; and most earnestly have i sought, with fasting and prayer, to penetrate some of their deep meaning in regard to him that shall come. i am yet as a child in knowledge, but the all-wise may be pleased to reveal something even to a child. it has seemed to me of late that i have been permitted to trace one word, written as in gigantic shadows--now fainter--now deeper--on nature, in history, on the law, in the prophets. that single word is sacrifice. wherever i turn i see it; it seems to me as a law of being; yea, as the very essence of religion itself." "i do not understand you," said abishai; "how is the word sacrifice written on nature?" "see we it not on all things around us?" replied hadassah. "does not the seed die that the corn may spring up; doth not the decaying leaf nourish the living plant; doth not one creature maintain its existence by the destruction of others? there is a mystery of suffering in this fair world, some stern necessity for what we call evil, though from it a merciful god is ever evolving good. these things distressed and perplexed me, till i could dimly trace that word sacrifice as written by god's finger upon his works; death the parent of life, pain and sorrow--of joy!" "the primeval curse is on nature," observed the hebrew. "linked with the primeval blessing," said hadassah. "and now when i turn from natural objects to the history of our race, sacrifice and suffering are still ever before me. isaac is devoted as a burnt-offering before he becomes the father of the chosen race; joseph is sold for pieces of silver ere he can redeem his family from destruction; the storm is only stilled by jonah's being cast out into the deep; samson triumphs over the enemy by the sacrifice of his own life! all these historical facts seem to me as types, dim and shadowy indeed, yet legible to the eye of faith, and sacrifice is the word which they form." "dim and shadowy," repeated abishai, to whom hadassah's views on the subject appeared somewhat fanciful and vague. "if so in nature and history," said the hebrew lady, "the lines are clear and distinct enough in our holy law. why have countless victims been offered, even from the time of the fall? why was the dying lamb of abel more acceptable than the bloodless offering of cain? why have thousands of guiltless creatures been slain on the altar of god; nay, not upon his alone, even on altars of the heathen who have never heard of his name, as if there were a deep instinct implanted in the soul of man, to testify that without shedding of blood there is no remission of sin? think we that the all-merciful can take pleasure in the death of bulls or of goats? yet hath he himself ordained it. sacrifice, suffering, substitution, one life accepted as ransom for another, this idea pervades the law given by inspiration to moses; yea, long before the birth of moses, to abraham, to noah, to abel!" "i grant it," abishai replied. "as man is guilty in the sight of his maker, there must be sacrifice for sin as long as the world shall last." the light of inspiration seemed to glow in the uplifted eyes of hadassah, and her lips to breathe words not her own as she spoke again. "what if all these sacrifices but point to one great sacrifice; what if the deep mystery of suffering be resolved into some deeper mystery of love; what if god himself should provide the substitute, and if on some altar blood be shed which shall suffice to atone for transgressions past, present, and to come, even to the end of all time? may it not be--must it not so be--if we read the scriptures aright?" "i cannot divine your meaning," said abishai. "what is written here of the coming messiah?" asked hadassah, laying her hand on the roll of prophecy, as she turned her earnest, searching gaze upon her companion. "that he shall rule the nations with a rod of iron, and break them in pieces like a potter's vessel!" exclaimed abishai with exultation; "is he not named messiah the prince?" "who shall be _cut off, but not for himself_" (dan. ix. ), said hadassah, in low thrilling tones that made abishai start, and look at her with surprise. "you," she continued, "see the prince in prophecy, written as in characters of light; i see the sacrifice, ever in letters of deepening shadow. behold here,"--and as the widow spoke, she opened the roll till her finger could point to the twenty-second psalm,--"what means this cry of mysterious sorrow, _my god, my god, why hast thou forsaken me?_" "it is david's cry of anguish," said abishai. "look farther on, my son, ponder the subject more deeply," cried hadassah, and she proceeded to read aloud part of the inspired word. "_the assembly of the wicked have inclosed me: they pierced my hands and my feet. i may tell all my bones: they look and stare upon me. they part my garments among them, and cast lots on my vesture_ (ps. xxii. - ). these things never happened to david; the psalmist speaks not here of himself." "of whom then could he be speaking," said abishai, looking perplexed. "not surely of the messiah, not of the seed of the woman who shall bruise the serpent's head" (gen. iii. ). "wherefore not?" asked hadassah, "seeing that he himself must be bruised in the conflict? if it be written, _my servant shall deal prudently, he shall be exalted and extolled, and be very high_, the shadow lies close under the brightness, it is also written, _his visage was so marred more than any man, and his form more than the sons of men, and why? because so shall he sprinkle many nations_ (isa. lii. - ), it may be--with his own blood!" "yours are strange thoughts," muttered the son of nathan. "they are not my thoughts," replied hadassah. "behold, farther on in the roll, what was revealed to the prophet isaiah? is the note of triumph sounded here? _he is despised and rejected of men; a man of sorrows, and acquainted with grief: and we hid as it were our faces from him; he was despised, and we esteemed him not. surely he hath borne our griefs, and carried our sorrows: yet we did esteem him stricken, smitten of god, and afflicted. but he was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for our iniquities: the chastisement of our peace was upon him; and with his stripes we are healed. all we like sheep have gone astray; we have turned every one to his own way; and the lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all. he was cut off out of the land of the living: for the transgression of my people was he stricken_ (isa. liii. - , ). have we not here the victim, the substitute, the sacrifice bound on the altar, bleeding, wounded, dying, and that for sins not his own?" "it cannot be. it is impossible--quite impossible--that when the messiah comes he should be despised and rejected," exclaimed abishai, to whom this interpretation of prophecy was as unwelcome as it was new. "when he comes, all israel shall triumph and rejoice, and welcome their king, the ruler of the world." hadassah silently unrolled her parchment until she came to the thirteenth chapter[ ] of the prophet zechariah. "listen to this, son of nathan," said she. "_awake, o sword, against my shepherd, and against the man that is my fellow, saith the lord of hosts_" (zech. xiii. ). "who is my fellow?" repeated abishai, in amazement, for that portion of scripture had never been brought to his attention before. "can you have read the sentence correctly? were that not written in the word of god, methinks it were rank blasphemy even to think that the lord of hosts could have an equal." "there is mystery in that word which man cannot fathom," cried hadassah, "the divine essence is one: the foundation of our faith is the most solemn declaration, _hear, o israel! the lord our god_[ ] _is one lord_ (deut. vi. ); and yet in that very declaration is conveyed the idea of unity combined with distinction of persons." "hadassah, hadassah, into what wilderness of heresy are you wandering?" abishai exclaimed. the hebrew lady appeared not to hear him, but went on, as if thinking aloud: "no man hath seen god at any time, he himself hath declared--_no man shall see me, and live_" (exod. xxxiii. ). "but who, then, visibly appeared unto abraham? who was it who wrestled with jacob? who spake unto gideon? on whose glory was isaiah permitted to gaze? who was soon to walk in the fiery furnace? who was he, _like the son of man, who came with the clouds of heaven, and came to the ancient of days?_" (dan. vii. .) "at one moment you would view messiah as a victim; at the next, as a god!" cried the hebrew. "if god should deign to take the form of man, to bear man's penalty, to suffer man's death, might he not be _both_?" asked hadassah. seeing that abishai started at the question, she turned to the portion of the roll which contained the prophecy of isaiah, and read aloud:-- "_unto us a child is born_. here is clearly an announcement of human birth; yet is this child revealed to us as _the mighty god, the everlasting father, the prince of peace_" (isa. ix. ). "such thoughts as these are too high, too difficult, for the human mind to grasp," exclaimed abishai, pressing his brow. "the frail vessel must burst that has such hot molten gold poured within it. all that i can answer to what you have said is this. i believe not--and never will believe--that when messiah, the hope of israel, shall come, he will be rejected by our nation. were it so, such a fearful curse would fall upon our race that the memory of the egyptian bondage, the babylonish captivity, the syrian persecution, would be forgotten in the greater horrors of what god's just vengeance would bring upon this people. we should become a by-word, a reproach, a hissing. we should be scattered far and wide amongst the nations, as chaff is scattered by the winds, until--" abishai paused, and clenched his hand and set his teeth, as if language failed him to describe the utter desolation and misery which such a crime as the rejection of the messiah must bring upon the descendants of abraham. as abishai did not finish his sentence, hadassah completed it for him. "until," she said, with a brightening countenance--"until judah repent of her sin, and turn to him whom she once denied. hear, son of nathan, but one more prophecy from the scriptures. thus saith the lord:--_i will pour upon the house of david, and upon the inhabitants of jerusalem, the spirit of grace and of supplications: and they shall look upon me whom they have pierced, and they shall mourn for him, as one mourneth for his only son, and shall be in bitterness for him, as one that is in bitterness for his first-born_ (zech. xii. ). _and the lord shall be king over all the earth_" (zech. xiv. ). abishai left the dwelling of hadassah with a perturbed spirit, unwilling to own to himself that views so widely differing from his own could have any foundation in truth. the idea of a rejected, suffering, dying messiah was beyond measure repugnant to the soul of the hebrew. "see what comes of concentrating all the powers of the mind on abstruse study!" abishai muttered to himself as he descended the hill. "hadassah is going mad; her judgment is giving way under the strain." [ ] of course, the hebrew roll was not divided into chapters; they are but given for facility of reference. [ ] "god," in the original, is "elohim," a _plural_ word. chapter xii. trials of the heart. for the first time in the course of her life, zarah dreaded a meeting with hadassah. though the season was now so far advanced that the heat of the sun was great, the maiden lingered on the shadeless housetop, leaning her brow against the parapet, listlessly gazing towards jerusalem, but with her mind scarcely taking in the objects upon which her eyes were fixed. was it a foreboding of coming sorrow, or a feeling of self-reproach, that brooded over the maiden's soul? zarah was afraid to analyze her own feelings: she only knew that her heart was very heavy. nearly two hours thus passed. the sun had now approached the horizon, and the heat was less oppressive. zarah heard the slow step of hadassah ascending the stair, and rose to meet her, but with a sensation of fear. the remembrance of that look of sad displeasure, such as had never been turned upon her before, had haunted the mind of the conscious girl. was hadassah angry with her daughter? would she come to probe a heart which had never from childhood kept a secret from one so tenderly loved? zarah was afraid to raise her eyes to hadassah's when they met, lest she should encounter that stern look again; but never had the aged lady's face worn an expression of greater tenderness than it did when, on the housetop, she rejoined the child of her love. "have you been here in the heat of the sun, my dove, letting the fierce rays beat on your unveiled face?" said hadassah, after printing a kiss on the maiden's brow. "nay, i must chide you, my zarah. seat yourself where yon tall palm now throws its shadow, and i will sit beside you. we will talk of the glorious tidings which abishai brought to us to-day." it was a great relief to zarah to hear that such was to be the subject of the coming conversation. she glanced timidly up into the face of hadassah; and, quite reassured by what she saw there, took her favourite place at her grandmother's feet. "is it not evident," pursued hadassah, "that the arm of the lord is stretched out to fight for judah---that his blessing goes with judas maccabeus? do you not rejoice, zarah, in the victory which has been won by our hebrew heroes?" "i do rejoice; i thank god for it," replied the maiden. "i hope that a time is coming when we shall go forth, like the women of israel in olden time, who went singing and dancing to meet saul and david, after the triumph over the philistines." "david, when he slew goliath and won the hand of a king's daughter, deserved not more of his country than does maccabeus," observed hadassah. "are you not proud of your kinsman, my child?" "all judaea is proud of her hero," said zarah. "happy the woman whom he shall choose as his bride!" cried hadassah. the maiden gave no reply. "zarah, why should i longer conceal from you what has so long been in my thoughts?" said the aged lady, after a pause of some minutes' duration. "why should you not know of the high honour awaiting my daughter? from your early childhood both mattathias, our revered kinsman--on whose grave be peace!--and myself have looked forward to the future espousals of my loved zarah and judas." "judas! oh, no, no!" exclaimed zarah, suddenly withdrawing her trembling hand from that of her grandmother, in which it had been clasped. "he is wedded to his country; he will never think of taking a wife." she spoke rapidly, and with some emotion. "his toils and triumphs may, and i trust will, lead to future peace," said hadassah. "then may he enjoy the happiness which he has earned so well. will you not give it to him, zarah--you, whose very name signifies 'brightness'?" "i honour maccabeus as a hero; i could reverence him as my prince; i would kneel and wash the dust from his feet, or cut off my long hair to string his bow; but i cannot be his bride," exclaimed zarah. "i am so weak, so unworthy! it would be like mating the eagle with the sparrow that sits on the housetops. maccabeus is the noblest of men." "blessed the wife who can so honour her lord!" said hadassah. "i do honour maccabeus from the depths of my soul; but--but i fear him," faltered zarah. "were you a syrian you might say so," observed hadassah, with a faint approach to a smile; "but not as a daughter of judah. terrible as he is to his country's foes, to armed oppressors, no maiden had ever cause to dread maccabeus. the sharp thorns of the cactus make it an impenetrable fence which the strongest intruder cannot break through; yet bears it brilliant flowers and refreshing fruit. the strong war-horse tramples down the enemy in battle; but in peace the little child unharmed may play with his mane. the bravest are the most gentle. judas is no exception to this rule. pure-hearted and true, he is one to make a woman happy." zarah sighed, and drooped her head. "was it not a proud moment for achsah, when othniel, after the conquest of kirjathsepher, claimed her hand as the victor's prize?" asked hadassah. "but achsah was the daughter of a caleb," said zarah. then, raising her head, she suddenly inquired--"did my father also destine me to be the bride of my kinsman?" hadassah winced at the question, as if a painful wound had been touched. "oh, my child, have pity on me," she faintly murmured, "and speak not of him!" zarah had for long known that there was one subject which she dared never approach. her grandmother had, as it were, one locked chamber in her heart, which no one might venture to open. whether zarah's father were dead or not, the maiden knew not. she faintly remembered a tall, handsome man, who had played with her tresses and danced her in his arms when she was a child, in her early home at bethsura; but since she had left that home in company with her grandmother, she had never seen him nor heard his name. the slightest allusion to her father by zarah had caused such distress to hadassah, that the child had soon learned to be silent, though not to forget. hadassah often spoke of miriam, her only daughter, and of zarah's own gentle mother--twin-roses, as she would call them, both early gathered for heaven in the first year of their wedded lives--but of her son she never would speak. a mystery hung round the fate of abner--such was his name--which his daughter vainly longed to penetrate. her heart reproached her now for the unguarded question into which she had been surprised. "oh, forgive me, mother," said zarah, kissing the hand of hadassah, which was tremulous and cold; "your word, your will, shall be enough for me in all things, except--oh, ask me not to wed my kinsman." "is it, can it be because another has a nearer place in your heart?" said hadassah. the fair countenance of zarah became suddenly rosy as the sunlit cloud, then pale as lebanon snow, at the question. "oh, then, my fears are too true!" exclaimed hadassah, in a tone not of wrath but of anguish. "must the sins of the father be visited upon the innocent child! a gentile--a heathen--an idolater! would i had died ere this day!" "be not angry with me, mother," faltered zarah, wetting hadassah's hand with her tears. "i am not angry, my poor dove," cried the widow. "woe is me that i have been, as it were, constrained to expose you to this cruel snare. but you will break through it," she added, with more animation, "my bird will rise above earth with her silver wings unsullied and bright! various are the temptations which the soul's enemy employs to draw away god's servants from their allegiance; some he would sway through their fears; others he would win by the love of the world, its wealth and its pleasures; others he would chain by their hearts' strong affections. but the lord gives strength to his people, to resist and to conquer, whether the temptation be from fear or from love. you are the worthy kinsman of solomona, who gave life itself for the faith." "perhaps the sacrifice of life is not the hardest to make," zarah dreamily replied. "solomona gave her seven sons," said hadassah. "oh, what a mercy-stroke to her was that which let her follow them!" exclaimed zarah. "had she been left to survive all whom she loved, solomona had been the most wretched woman on earth!" "no; not the most wretched," said hadassah, with deep feeling, "for they all died in the faith. better, all, far better to lose seven by death, than one by--by treason against god!" and in an almost inaudible voice the aged lady added, closing her eyes, "must i know that misery twice?" "no, mother, mine own dear mother, you shall never know that misery through me!" exclaimed zarah with animation. "i will pray, i will strive, i will try to put away, even from my thoughts, all that would come between me and the faith of a daughter of abraham, only guide me, help me, tell your child what she should do," and the maiden passionately kissed again and again the hand of hadassah, and then pillowed her aching head on her parent's bosom. hadassah folded her there in a long and tender embrace. "i would send you to bethsura, to my aged cousin, rachel," said the widow, "only"-- "oh, send me not away; let me stay beside you; your health is failing; i should never know peace afar from you!" sobbed zarah, in a tone of entreaty. "i dare not send my child to idumea, with no safe escort, and the syrians, men of belial, holding the land," said hadassah. "better keep her here under my wing, in the quiet seclusion of my home. but, oh, my child, attend to the voice of your mother; you must avoid meeting the gentile stranger; you must be little in the lower apartments, zarah, and never save when i am there also. your trial will not last long; the athenian's wounds are healing; after the passover-feast, abishai will leave jerusalem to join the patriot band. when he is once safe beyond reach of the enemy, i will no longer for one hour harbour lycidas under my roof; he has been here far too long already. your painful struggle will now last but a short time, my zarah." zarah thought, though she did not say so, that the heart struggle would last as long as her earthly existence. "you will obey me, my daughter?" asked the widow; "you will shun the too attractive society of the stranger?" the maiden bowed her head in assent, and murmured, "pray for me, mother; i am so weak." "my life shall be one prayer," said hadassah. "mine--one sacrifice," thought the poor maiden. "oh, may that sacrifice be accepted!" chapter xiii. silent conflict. the maiden kept her silent promise; faithfully she obeyed the hest of hadassah. seldom as possible did she enter the room which communicated with the hiding-place of lycidas, and never save in the company of her aged relative. zarah's wheel was carried to her sleeping apartment; heat and discomfort were made no excuse for leaving the more secluded portions of the small and inconvenient dwelling. zarah, a voluntary prisoner, avoiding seeing him who appeared to her to be an embodiment of all that was beautiful in form, and brilliant in mind, one whose society resembled the light which glorifies every object on which it may fall. and zarah did not, as many maidens in her place might have done, punish hadassah for throwing her influence into the scale of duty, by showing her the extent of the sacrifice which she had required. the young girl, while her heart was bleeding, struggled to maintain a serene and placid mien. hadassah never heard zarah sigh, never surprised her in tears. no duty was neglected, no work left undone; nay, zarah spun more busily than ever, for the support of the stranger was a drain on the scanty resources of hadassah, and to work for him and pray for him was the sole indulgence which zarah could allow herself without self-reproach. she tried--how arduous was the effort!--even to turn her thoughts from the subject which was to her as the forbidden fruit was to eve. the chasm which divided abraham's daughter from the heathen was one over which, as zarah knew, it would be sinful to throw even the rainbow bridge of imagination. she must force her mind from approaching the dangerous brink. how many of the psalms of david, always those most mournful in their tone, zarah repeated to herself, to bring solace to her spirit by day, or sleep to her eyelids by night. while judas maccabeus was maintaining a gallant struggle against the enemies of his country, conquering, but through much stern endurance, zarah, with the same faith and obedience as animated the warrior, was keeping up a more painful fight against the heathen in her own gentle heart. there was one subject of thought, and that a distressing one, to which zarah's mind most readily reverted when she would turn it from the channel into which it was ever naturally flowing. this was the mystery connected with the fate of abner her father. the few words which had escaped hadassah in an unguarded moment, were as the dull red light which a torch might throw on the sides of some yawning pit, whose depths are left in profound darkness. often had zarah yearned to know more of her father, how he had died, for she had once deemed him dead, where his dear remains had been laid,--all that concerned him was of deep interest to his only child. but any attempt to break through the reserve which sealed the lips of hadassah had evidently occasioned such acute distress that zarah had long since given up the hope of gaining information from her. anna had entered the service of hadassah, since the hebrew lady had quitted bethsura; the attendant knew nothing, and therefore could tell nothing, of what had previously occurred in the family. solomona, when she had paid occasional visits to her kinswomen, had never given zarah an opportunity of speaking on so delicate a subject. once when zarah had ventured to ask the question, "did you know my father?" solomona had appeared not to hear it, and had instantly started some quite irrelevant topic of conversation. abishai doubtless knew much about the brother of his wife, but zarah shrank from questioning him; from his fierce impetuosity of character, he was not one to draw out the confidence of a gentle and timid girl. zarah almost felt as if her uncle disliked, and for some reason which she understood not, regarded her with mingled pity and contempt. thus the daughter of abner, cut off from all means of gaining reliable information, was thrown back on her own conjectures. a vague doubt which had lately arisen in zarah's mind, but which had always heretofore been repelled as treason to a parent's memory, was given form and substance by the faint exclamation which grief had wrung from hadassah, "_must i know that misery twice._" many slight circumstances then recurred to zarah's memory to confirm her suspicions, especially the anguish which hadassah had betrayed at the burial of solomona, when a strange pang of envy had seemed to intensify that of bereavement. zarah was as one bending lower and lower over that pit of which she longed, yet dreaded, to sound the depths, straining her eyes to penetrate the darkness, while trembling to think what horrors that darkness might hide. "is it possible that my father may yet be breathing on earth, living--the life of an apostate!" the idea haunted zarah like a spectre. there was only one hope which had power to lay it: "if living, he may be spared for repentance. god is merciful; he judgeth not severely; he delighteth in receiving his wanderers back. did not nathan say to penitent david, 'thou shalt not surely die;' was not even the guilty manasseh restored to his throne? oh, the son of the pious hadassah, a woman of such faith and prayer, can never be lost!" after such meditations, the burdened heart of zarah would find relief in fervent supplications for her father. her filial affection came to the aid of her religious obedience. "god will not hear prayers," thought zarah, "from one in whose heart an idol is enshrined. for my father's sake, as well as my own, let me strive to give unreserved obedience to my lord." so, endeavouring to overcome one grief by the help of another, and to cast a veil over both, zarah passed weary day after day, letting no murmur mar her offering of meek submission. she would even speak cheerfully to hadassah, and sing to her songs of zion, which the aged lady delighted to hear. there was one song especially dear, in which hadassah had herself woven prophetic promises into verse. the rhymes might be rude, and altogether unworthy of their theme; but when softly warbled by zarah's melodious voice, they appeared to the aged listener like the very breathing of hope. lay of zion. "jerusalem, thou sittest in the dust, god's heavy judgment on thy children lies; but he in whom their fathers put their trust shall bid thee yet, as from the grave, arise.[ ] oh, zion, discrowned queen! a throne awaits for thee;[ ] for glorious thou hast been, all glorious shalt thou be.[ ] "behold the white-winged ships from tarshish strand,[ ] shall bear thy sons and daughters o'er the wave; all nations call thee blessed, delightsome land,[ ] which god of old to faithful abraham gave.[ ] oh, zion, &c. "ephraim with judah god shall then restore,[ ] the hand that severed, now uniteth them; ephraim shall envy, judah, vex no more,[ ] all shall rejoice in thee, jerusalem. oh, zion, &c. "assyria, egypt, shall with israel join,[ ] (the land where daniel trod the lion's den, the land where pharaohs bowed at apis' shrine), oppressors once--but more than sisters then. oh, zion, &c. "god shall a wall of fire round thee abide,[ ] to guard thee as the apple of the eye;[ ] rejoicing as the bridegroom o'er the bride.[ ] for he hath pardoned thine iniquity.[ ] oh, zion, &c. "the mountains may depart, the hills may shake,[ ] but nought thy saviour's love from thee shall sever, the mother may her sucking child forsake, god thy redeemer shall forsake thee never.[ ] oh, zion, discrowned queen! a throne still waits for thee; for glorious thou hast been, all glorious shalt thou be." [ ] isa. lx. . [ ] isa. xxii. . [ ] isa. lx. , . [ ] isa. lx. . [ ] mal. iii. [ ] gen. xiii. . [ ] ezek. xxxvii. , . [ ] isa. xi. . [ ] isa. xix. . [ ] zech. ii. . [ ] zech. ii. . [ ] isa. lxii. . [ ] isa. xliv. . [ ] isa. liv. . [ ] isa. xlix. . chapter xiv. a crisis. lycidas, in the meantime, was chafing in wild impatience under the trial of zarah's almost perpetual absence. he could no longer watch her, no longer listen to her, except when his straining ear caught the faint sound of her music floating down from an upper apartment. why was she away? why should she shun him? she whose presence alone had rendered not only tolerable but delightful the kind of mild captivity in which he was retained, while the state of his wounds rendered the greek unable, without assistance, to leave the dwelling of hadassah. lycidas had none of the scruples of zarah regarding union with one of a different race and religion. the greek had resolved on winning the fair hebrew maid as his bride; he was conscious of possessing the gift of attractions such as few young hearts could resist, and asked fortune only for an opportunity of exerting all his powers to the utmost to secure the most precious prize for which mortal had ever contended. lycidas beguiled many tedious hours by the composition of a poem, of singular beauty, in honour of zarah. most melodious was the flow of the verse, most delicate the fragrance of the incense of praise. the realms of nature, the kingdom of art, were ransacked for images of beauty. but lycidas felt disgusted with his own work before he had completed it. he seemed to himself like one decorating with gems and hanging rich garments on an exquisite statue, in the attempt to do it honour only marring the perfection of its symmetry, and the grace of its marble drapery. a few words which the greek had heard hadassah read from her sacred parchment, appeared to him to include more than all his most laboured descriptions could convoy. lycidas had thought of zarah when he had listened to the expression, _the beauty of holiness_. "i will not stay a prisoner here, if i am to be shut out in this stifling little den not only from the world, but from her who is more than the world to me," thought the greek. after months of suffering and weakness, strength, though but slowly, was returning to the frame of lycidas; and when no one was near to watch him, when the door to the west was closed, and the curtain to the east was drawn, he would occasionally try how far that strength would enable him to go. he would raise himself on his feet, though not without a pang from his wounded side. then the greek would take a few steps, from one end of his prison to the other, leaning for support against the wall. this was something for a beginning; youth and love would soon enable him to do more. but lycidas carefully concealed from hadassah and anna that he could do as much. they never saw him but reclining on the floor. he feared that measures might be taken to clip the wings of the bird if it were once guessed how nearly those wings were fledged. the day before the celebration of the great feast of the passover, hadassah was far from well. whether her illness arose from the state of the weather, for the month of nisan was this year more than usually hot, or the effect of long fastings and prayer upon a frame enfeebled by age, or whether from secret grief preying on her health, zarah knew not,--perhaps from all these causes combined. the maiden grew uneasy about her grandmother, and redoubled her tender ministrations to her comfort. on the day mentioned, anna had gone into jerusalem to dispose of flax spun by the hebrew ladies, and procure a few necessary articles of food. hadassah never suffered her beautiful girl to enter to walls of the city, nor, indeed, ever to quit the precincts of her home, save when on sabbath-days and feast-days she went, closely veiled, to the dwelling of the elder salathiel, about half a mile distant from that of hadassah, to join in social worship. hadassah with jealous care shrouded her white dove from the gaze of syrian eyes. the aged lady had passed a very restless night. with thrilling interest zarah had heard her moaning in her sleep, "abner! my son! my poor lost son!" the sealed lips were opened, when the mind had no longer power to control their utterance. hadassah awoke in the morning feverish and ill. she made a vain attempt to rise and pursue her usual avocations. zarah entreated her to lie still. for hours the widow lay stretched on a mat with her eyes half closed, while zarah watched beside her, fanning her feverish brow. "let me prepare for you a cooling drink, dear mother," said the maiden at last, rising and going to the water-jar, which stood in a corner of the apartment. "alas! it is empty. anna forgot to replenish it from the spring ere she set out for the city. i will go and fill it myself." zarah lifted up the jar, and poising it on her head, lightly descended the rough steps of the outer stair, and proceeded to the spring at the back of the house. the spring was surrounded by oleanders, which at this time of the year in palestine are robed in their richest bloom. but the season had been singularly hot and dry, the latter rains had not yet fallen, and the spring was beginning to fail. zarah placed her jar beneath the opening from which, pure and bright, the water trickled, but the supply was so scanty that she could almost count the drops as they fell. it would take a considerable time for the jar to be filled by these drops. "ah! methinks my earthly joys are even as this failing spring!" thought the maiden, sadly, as she watched the slow drip of the water. "all will be dried up soon. my loved grandmother's strength is sinking; she will be unable to-morrow to keep the holy feast in salathiel's house, though her heart will be with the worshippers there. how different, oh! how different is this passover from that which we celebrated last year! then, indeed, there was an idol in the temple of the lord, and holy sacrifice could not be offered in the appointed place, but the fierce storm of persecution had not arisen in all its terrors. then around the table of salathiel how many gathered whom i never again shall behold upon earth! solomona, my kinswoman, and her seven sons all met in that solemn assembly; the bright-eyed asahel, the fearless mahali, young joseph, who was my merry playmate when ten years ago we came from bethsura hither! i remember that when hadassah looked on that cluster of brothers, she said that they were like the pleiades--they are more like those star-gems now, for they shine not on earth but in heaven! and solomona looked proudly on her boys--her noble sons, and said that not one of them had ever raised a blush on the cheek of their mother; and then, methinks, she regretted having uttered the boast, and i fancied that i heard a stifled sigh from hadassah. was it that the spirit of prophecy came upon her then, that she foresaw the terrible future, or was it--alas! alas! i dare not think wherefore she sighed! and old mattathias, he who now sleeps in the sepulchre of his fathers, he and his sons kept that passover feast with salathiel, having come up to jerusalem to worship, according to the law of moses. how venerable looked the old man with his long snowy beard! it seemed to me that so abraham must have looked, when his earthly pilgrimage was well-nigh ended. mattathias laid his hand on my head and blessed me, and called me daughter. ah! can it be that he thought of me then as his daughter indeed! the princely judas stood near, and when i raised my head i met the gaze of his eyes, and i thought--no, i never then fully grasped the meaning expressed in that gaze, it was to me as the tender glance of a brother. mattathias is gone; solomona and her children are all gone; judas, with his gallant band, is like a lion at bay with the hunters closing in an ever-narrowing circle around him. apollonius has been vanquished, seron defeated by our hero; but now nicanor and giorgias, with the forces of ptolemy, upwards of forty thousand men, are combining to crush him by their overwhelming numbers! what can the devotion of our patriots avail but to swell the band of martyrs who have already laid down their lives in defence of our faith and our laws! alas! theirs will be a stern keeping of the holy feast; other blood will flow besides that of the paschal lamb! and a sad keeping of the feast will be mine; i shall see scarce a familiar face, that of no relative save abishai; and i owe him but little affection. and oh! worst of all, i fear me that i have an unholy leaven in my heart, which i in vain seek to put entirely away. i am secretly cherishing the forbidden thing, though not wilfully, not wilfully, as he knows to whom i constantly pray for strength to give up all that is displeasing in his sight!" the jar was now full; zarah turned to raise it as the last thought passed through her mind, and started as she did so! lycidas, with all his soul beaming in his eyes, was close beside her! the maiden uttered a faint exclamation, and endeavoured to pass him, and return to the house. "stay, zarah, idol of my soul!" exclaimed the athenian, seizing her hand; "you must not fly me, you shall listen to me once--only once!" and with a passionate gush of eloquence the young greek laid his hopes, his fortunes, his heart at her feet. zarah turned deadly pale; her frame trembled. "oh, lycidas, have mercy upon me!" she gasped. "it is sin in me even to listen; it were cruelty to suffer you to hope. our law forbids a daughter of abraham to wed a gentile; to return your love would be rebellion against my god, apostasy from the faith of my fathers; better to suffer--better to die!"--and with an effort releasing her icy-cold hand from the clasp of the man whom she loved, zarah sprang hurriedly past him, and with the speed of a frightened gazelle fled up the staircase, and back into the chamber in which she had left hadassah. lycidas stood bewildered by the maiden's sudden retreat. he felt as if the gate of a paradise had been suddenly closed against him. chapter xv. the two camps. while the scenes lately described had been occurring in the neighbourhood of jerusalem, maccabeus, in the mountains, had been preparing for the deadliest shock of war. like wave upon wave, each swelling higher than the one before it, successive armies hurled their strength against the devoted band that held aloft the banner of the truth, as a beacon-light gleaming on high amidst the fiercest fury of the tempest. the mighty nicanor, son of patroclus, a man honoured with the king's peculiar favour, had gathered together a powerful force "to root out the whole generation of the jews," and with him was joined in command georgias, a general of great experience in war. a large camp was formed by the syrians at emmaus, about a sabbath-day's journey from jerusalem. the hills were darkened with their goats'-hair tents, the roads thronged with soldiers, and with a multitude of merchants who brought much silver and gold to purchase hebrew captives as slaves for their markets. for so confident of victory was nicanor, that he had beforehand proclaimed a sale of the prisoners whom he would reserve from slaughter; nay, had fixed the very price which he would demand for his vanquished foes! ninety of the hebrew warriors should be sold for a talent, so ran nicanor's proclamation. "these bold outlaws," said the haughty syrian, "shall spend their superfluous strength, as did their samson of old, in grinding corn for their victors, or in tilling the fields which they once called their own, with the taskmaster's lash to quicken their labours. ha! ha! it were good subject for mirth to see the lordly maccabeus himself, with blinded eyes, turning the wheel at the well, and bending his proud back to serve as my footstool when i mount my arab steed! this were sweeter vengeance, a richer triumph, than to hew him to pieces with the sword which he took from the dead apollonius. let the asmonean fall into my hands, and he shall taste what it is to endure a living death!" maccabeus, on his part, had led his forces to mizpeh, where they had encamped. here a day of solemn humiliation was appointed by the asmonean chief; he and his warriors fasted, put on sackcloth, and united in prayer to the god of hosts. the leader then more perfectly organized his little army, dividing it into bands, and appointing captains over the divisions. while divine aid was implored, human means were not neglected. early in the morning of the succeeding day, maccabeus and simon, his elder brother, held grave consultation together. the scene around them was historic; the very heap of stones upon which the chiefs were seated marked the spot where the last leave of laban had been taken by jacob their forefather, when returning to his aged parent. but few months have elapsed since judas stood, as the reader first saw him, by the grave of the martyrs, but these eventful months have wrought a marked change upon the asmonean leader. fatigue, hardship, the burden of care, the weight of responsibility, added to the sorrow of bereavement, have left their stamps on his expressive features. maccabeus looks a worn and a weary man; but there is increased majesty in his demeanour, that dignity which has nothing to do with pride; for pride has its origin in self-consciousness, true dignity in forgetfulness of self. "this will be our sharpest conflict; the enemy is strong," observed simon, glancing in the direction of the syrian hosts, which lay between them and jerusalem. "with the god of heaven it is all one to deliver with a great multitude or with a few," said maccabeus. "what is the number of our forces?" asked simon. "six thousand, as given by yesterday's returns," was the reply; "but to-day i will make proclamation that they who are planting vineyards or building houses, or who have lately married wives, have full leave to retire if they will it, and then--ha! eleazar returned already!" cried the leader, interrupting himself, as a young hebrew, dressed as a syrian merchant, with rapid step ascended the little eminence on which the asmonean brothers were seated. "i have been in the midst of them!" exclaimed eleazar; "ay, i have stood in their tents, heard their songs, listened to their proud boastings, been present when the sons of mammon bartered for the limbs and lives of the free-born sons of abraham! they may have our bodies as corpses," added the young asmonean, with a proud smile, "but never as slaves; and even as corpses, they shall purchase us dearly." "know you the numbers of the syrians?" inquired simon, whose quiet, sedate manner formed a strong contrast to that of the fiery young eleazar. "nicanor has forty thousand footmen and seven thousand horse," was the reply; "to say nothing of those who hang round his camp, as vultures who scent the carnage from afar." "more than seven to one," observed simon, slightly shaking his head. "hebrews have encountered worse odds than that," cried the young man. "ay, when all were stanch," his elder brother rejoined. "do you then doubt our men!" exclaimed eleazar. "many of them will be faithful unto death; but i know that in some quarters there are misgivings--i may call them fears," was the grave reply of simon. "not all our troops are tried warriors; some in the camp have spoken of submission." "submission!" cried eleazar, clenching his hand; "i would lash the slaves up to the conflict as i would lash dogs that hung back in the chase." "on the contrary," said maccabeus, who had hitherto listened to the conversation in silence, "i shall proclaim that whoso is fearful, has my free permission to depart from us in peace." "were that well?" asked simon, doubtfully, "we are already so greatly outnumbered by the foe." "it is according to the law," replied judas, calmly; "it is what gideon did before encountering midian. we can have no man with us who is half-hearted; no one who will count his life dear in the struggle which is before us." "if we are to fall in the struggle," observed simon, "half our number will indeed suffice for the sacrifice." he spoke without fear, but in the tone of one who felt the full extent of the threatening danger. "see you yon stone, my brother?" asked maccabeus, pointing to a pillar on the way to shen, which was clearly visible against the background of the deep blue sky. "yonder is ebenezer, _the stone of help_, which samuel set up in remembrance of victory over the philistines, when god thundered from heaven, and discomfited the foes of israel." "ay, i see it," replied simon; "and i see the power and faithfulness of the lord of hosts written on that stone. we are in his hand, not in that of nicanor." "let god arise, and let his enemies be scattered!" exclaimed eleazar. "my brother, give order that the trumpets be sounded," said maccabeus, "and let our proclamation be known through the camp--that all who fear may retire at once, nor remain to shame us by turning their backs in the day of battle." the commands of the leader were at once obeyed; the proclamation was issued, and its alarming effects were speedily seen. the small force of maccabeus began to melt like a snow-wreath under the beams of the sun. one man remembered the tears of his newly-wedded bride, another the helpless state of a widowed mother; the hearts of not a few were set on their flocks and herds, while many of their comrades found in the state of crops needing the sickle, an excuse to cover the fear which they would have blushed to own as their motive for deserting the cause of their country. long before the evening had closed in, the forces under maccabeus had been reduced to one-half their number. "they have judged themselves unworthy to share the glory that awaits their brave brethren," cried the indignant eleazar, as, leaning on his unstrung bow, he watched a long line of fugitives wending their way towards the west. undismayed, though perhaps somewhat discouraged by the defection of half his troops, maccabeus made before sunset a brief address to those who remained. "arm yourselves," he said, "and be valiant men; and see that ye be in readiness before the morning, that ye may fight with these nations that are assembled together to destroy us and our sanctuary. for it is better for us to die in battle than to behold the calamity of our people and our sanctuary. nevertheless, as the will of god is in heaven, so let him do." so, with stern resolution to conquer or die, the hebrews retired to their appointed places in the small camp till morning light should arouse them to the desperate conflict. chapter xvi. battle of emmaus. but the struggle was not to be deferred the morning. night had just spread her veil of darkness over earth, and simon, prudently reserving his strength for the expected fatigues of the coming day, had wrapped himself in his mantle, and stretched himself on the ground to snatch some hours of repose, when he was roused by the touch of a hand on his shoulder. opening his eyes, simon saw, by the red light of a torch, which the armour-bearer of judas was holding aloft, that maccabeus was before him. "awake, arise, my brother; this is no time for sleep," said the leader. simon was on his feet in a moment, an attentive listener, as maccabeus continued: "a scout has just brought in tidings from the syrian camp that nicanor has detached five thousand of his foot-soldiers and a thousand chosen horsemen, under the command of giorgias, to attack us this night, and take us by surprise." "they will find us prepared," said simon, as he girded on his sword. "nay; they will find their prey flown," replied maccabeus, his features relaxing into a stern smile; "we will fall on the syrian camp in their absence, teach the enemy his own lesson, and transfer the surprise to our foes." "well thought of!" exclaimed simon; "darkness also will serve to hide the weakness of our force." "our brethren are now marshalling our warriors," said judas; "all, under god, depends upon silence, promptitude, decision. we fight for our lives and our laws." the leader turned to depart, but as he did so accidentally dropped something on the ground. he stooped to raise and twist it rapidly round his left arm, under the sleeve. the incident was so very trifling that it scarcely drew the notice of simon, though the thought did flit across his mind that it was strange that his brother, on the eve of battle, could pause to pick up anything so utterly valueless as a slight skein of unbleached flax. it was valueless indeed, save from the associations which, in the mind of him who wore it, were entwined with every thread. that flax had been once used to tie together some flowers long since dead; the flowers had been dropped into a grave of martyrs; the light skein had fallen on the upturned sod unnoticed save by the eyes of one. perhaps it was from remembrance of the dead, or perhaps it was because hopes regarding the living (hopes brighter and sweeter than the flowers had been) seemed now bound up in that flaxen strand, that maccabeus fastened that skein round his arm as a precious thing, when he would not have stooped to pick up a chaplet of pearls. by the exertions of the five asmonean brethren, the little hebrew army was rapidly put under arms, and prepared for the night attack. the whole force was united as one forlorn hope. as moves the dark cloud in the sky, so darkly and silently moved on the band of heroes, and, like that cloud, they bore the thunderbolt with them. most of the syrians on that eventful night were sunk in sleep, but not all; in their camp some kept up their revels till late. all the luxuries which fancy could devise or wealth could purchase were gathered together at emmaus to hide the grim front of war, so that the camp by daylight presented the motley appearance of a bazaar with the gay magnificence of a court. there sherbet sparkled in vases of silver, and the red wine was poured into golden cups, chased and embossed, in tents stretched out with silken cords. garments bright with all the varied tints of the rainbow, rich productions of oriental looms, robes from tyre, shawls from cashmere, blended with instruments of warfare, swords, spears, and bucklers, the battle-axe and the helmet. the sentry, pacing his rounds, paused to listen to wild bursts of merriment, the loud oath and light song from some gay pavilion, where young syrian nobles were exchanging jests, and indulging in deep carousals. yonder, in the glaring torch-light, sat a group of officers, engaged in some game of chance, and their stakes were the captives whom they were to drag at their chariot-wheels on the morrow. each throw of the dice decided the fate of a hebrew; at least, so deemed the merry gamesters. but the destined slaves were coming to the market sooner than their expectant masters dreamed or desired, and the price for each hebrew would be exacted, not in gold, but in blood. suddenly the gamesters at their play, the revellers at the board, the slumberers on their couches, were startled by the blare of trumpets and a ringing war-cry, "the sword of the lord and maccabeus!" the full goblet was dashed from the lip, the dice from the hand; there were wild shouts and cries, and rushing to and fro, soldiers snatching up weapons, merchants flying hither and thither for safety, stumbling over tent-ropes in the darkness. there were confused noises of terror, trampling of feet, snorting of horses, calls to arms, clashing of weapons, with all the horrors of sudden panic spreading like an epidemic through the mighty host of syria. the few remained to oppose the unseen assailants, the many took to flight; the ground was soon strewn with treasure, dropped by terrified fugitives, and weapons thrown down by warriors who had not the courage to use them. tents were speedily blazing, and horses, terrified by the sudden glare and maddened by the scorching heat, prancing, plunging, rushing wildly through the camp, added to the fearful confusion. maccabeus, with the sword of apollonius in his hand, pressed on to victory over heaps of prostrate foes. terror was sent as a herald before him, and success followed wherever he trode. it seemed as if the lord of hosts were fighting for israel, as in the old days of gideon. hot was the pursuit after the flying syrians; maccabeus and his warriors followed hard on their track to gazora, azotus, and jamnia, and that southern part of judaea lying between the red sea and sodom, to which, from its having been colonized by edomites, had been given the name of idumea. for many a mile the track of the fugitives was marked by their dead. but as the morning dawned after that terrible though glorious night, the trumpets of maccabeus sounded to call his troops together. the leader had not forgotten--though some of his eager followers might have done so--that giorgias, with an army of chosen warriors, doubling their own in number, and comparatively fresh, was yet to be encountered. with stern displeasure maccabeus saw his own men, grim with blood and dust, loading themselves with the rich plunder which lay on the road; like fruit under orchard trees after a wild tornado. "be not greedy of the spoils," cried the leader, "inasmuch as there is a battle before us; but stand ye now against our enemies, and overcome them, and after this ye may boldly take the spoils." it is a more difficult task to call hounds off the prey that they have run down, than to let them slip from the leashes when the quarry first is in sight. it needed such moral influence over his men as was possessed by maccabeus to enforce instant obedience when wealth was at their feet, and needed but the gathering up. it was speedily seen, however, that the warning of the asmonean chief had not been unnecessary. but a few minutes elapsed after the utterance of that warning, when the vanguard of the forces of giorgias appeared on the crest of a hill at some distance, the live-long night having been spent by them in a vain attempt to discover the camp of the hebrews. after a long, tedious march, giorgias found himself on a commanding height, from whence at dawn he had an extensive view of the surrounding country. "the slaves have fled--they have made their escape to the mountains," exclaimed giorgias, as he dismounted from his weary war-horse, when the first bar of golden light appeared in the orient sky. "then they have left marks of their handiwork behind them," said a horseman, pointing in the direction in which lay what had been the camp of nicanor, now suddenly visible to the syrians from the summit of the hill. "see you yon smoke arising from smouldering heaps? there has been a battle at emmaus. the lion has broken through the toils. maccabeus has not been sleeping through the night." "nay, my lord pollux; it is impossible. the hebrews would never dare to attack a force so greatly outnumbering their own," exclaimed giorgias, unwilling to believe the evidence of his own senses. but as the light more clearly revealed the tokens of flight and disaster in the far distance, where the smoke of ruin was rising into the calm morning air, conviction of the terrible truth forced itself on the general's mind, and, with mingled astonishment and dismay, he exclaimed, "where are the hosts of nicanor?" "yonder are those who can give an account of them," said pollux, turning to the south, where in a valley the hebrews might be seen marshalled around their loader. "there, i ween, is the insolent outlaw who has been making a shambles of our camp. see you the glitter of the spears? maccabeus is setting his men in battle array. there is but a handful of them. shall we charge down upon them, and sweep them from the face of the earth?" giorgias glanced again northward at emmaus and the smoking ruins of the syrian camp; then southward, where the little compact force in the valley was clustering round the standard of maccabeus. though the troops under the command of giorgias doubled the hebrews in number, he dared not try the issue of battle with those who had so lately discomfited nicanor's formidable hosts. had the syrian leader been animated by such a fearless spirit as characterized his opponent, in all human probability the victory of the night might have been, to judas and his gallant little band, succeeded by the defeat of the morning. but giorgias showed an unusual amount of caution on the present occasion; and pollux, though he assumed a tone of defiance, was secretly by no means desirous to measure swords with maccabeus. the hebrews were weary with conquering and pursuing. their spirit was unbroken, but their strength was exhausted. it was with some anxiety that the eagle eye of judas watched the movements of the enemy on the heights, momentarily expecting an attack which he knew that his band of heroes was so little able to sustain. "they will be down upon us soon," said simon, as he leaned wearily on his spear. "nay; behold, they are vanishing over the crest of the mountain!" triumphantly exclaimed eleazar. "the cowards! only brave over the wine-bowl! not a stain on their swords! not a dint on their shields! they are fleeing when no man pursues! oh, that we had but strength to follow, and chase the dastards even up to the walls of jerusalem!" "god hath put fear into their hearts. to him be the glory!" said maccabeus, as he sheathed his heavy sword. and after this--to transcribe the words of the ancient hebrew historian, describing the triumphs of his countrymen--"they went home, and sung a song of thanksgiving, and praised the lord in heaven, because he is good, because his mercy endureth for ever." chapter xvii. departed. when zarah, trembling and pale, after her interview with lycidas, fled to the apartment of hadassah, she left her water-jar behind her at the spring. the sight of her grandmother, stretched on her low couch, with her eyes closed, and her lips parched and dry, recalled to the remembrance of the poor young maiden the errand for which she had quitted her side. "the water! the water!" exclaimed zarah, striking her brow. "she must have it. but oh! i dare not--i dare not go back; for nothing on earth could i go through that terrible struggle again!" as zarah stood on the threshold, in a state of painful indecision, to her great relief she heard the voice of anna below, and called to her to bring up the jar of water which she would find at the fountain. anna quickly obeyed, and came up the stairs laden, not only with the cooling fluid, but with ripe fruit and vegetables, which she had brought from jerusalem--the white mulberry and the nebeb, with early figs, cucumbers, and a melon. very grateful was the supply to hadassah; but more refreshing by far than the draught of cold water were the tidings which anna had brought from the city. the jewess was full of eagerness to a impart her glorious news. "i saw them myself--giorgias and his horsemen--jaded, crestfallen, as they rode through the streets," cried anna. "i marvel that they dared show their faces: they had not so much as crossed weapons with our conquering heroes!" "or they had not lived to tell the tale," exclaimed hadassah, to whom the news of the victory at emmaus seemed to give new energy and life. "we dared not clap our hands and shout," continued the jewish servant; "but there is not a hebrew child that is not wild with joy. we blessed the name of maccabeus, though we could only breathe it in whispers." "but a day is coming when the welkin shall ring with that name, and the walls of jerusalem echo back the sound," cried hadassah. "oh, my child!" she continued, glancing joyfully at zarah, "there will be a thankful celebration of the passover to-morrow. the lord is giving deliverance to his chosen, even as he once did from the power of the haughty pharaoh." "it must be a very quiet keeping of the feast," observed anna, shaking her head. "it is said that king antiochus is raging like a bear robbed of her whelps at the flight of nicanor and the disgraceful retreat of giorgias. a courier has ridden off, post-haste, bearer of despatches from the king to lycias, the regent of the western provinces." "is it known what the despatches contain?" asked hadassah. "it is reported in the city," said anna, "that lycias is to raise a more mighty and terrible army than any that has swept the country before--more mighty than those led by apollonius, seron, or nicanor. king antiochus has sworn by all his false gods that he will destroy the asmoneans root and branch." "what god hath planted, who shall root up? what god prospers, who shall destroy?" cried hadassah. "thinks antiochus epiphanes that he hath power to strive against the lord?" "he has terrible power to use against man," said anna, who had a less courageous spirit than her mistress. "sharper measures than ever, it is said, are to be taken to put down our secret worship. woe unto them who are found keeping the passover to-morrow! it will be done unto them, as it was done to solomona and her sons." "would that god would give me strength to attend the holy feast!" cried hadassah, on whom the idea of danger following its celebration appeared to act as a stimulant; "no fear of man should keep me away. but he who withholds the power accepts the will of his servant." "i will go with my uncle abishai," said zarah. "to rejoice and give thanks," cried hadassah. but zarah's sinking heart could not respond to any accents of joy. she bowed her head on he clasped hands, and faintly murmured,-- "to pray for you, for myself, and--" no human ear could catch the word which pale lips inaudibly framed. "go to our young greek guest, anna," hadassah. "bear to him some of this ripe, cooling fruit, and tell him of the triumphs of judas. though lycidas be but a heathen," she added, as her handmaiden quitted the apartment to do her bidding, "he has a soul to admire, if he cannot emulate, the lofty deeds of our heroes." in a brief space of time anna returned to the upper room, with alarm and surprise depicted on her face. "i can nowhere find the greek lord," she exclaimed. "he has made his escape from the house. there is nothing left but his mantle, and that had fallen near the spring." hadassah glanced inquiringly at zarah. but the maiden betrayed no surprise, uttered no word. she only trembled a little, as if from cold; for the sultry heat of nisan seemed to her suddenly to have changed to the chill of winter. hadassah made little observation on the flight of lycidas until anna had again quitted the apartment, when the widow lady said abruptly,-- "it was strange to leave without a word of farewell, a word of thanks, after having been for months treated as a guest, almost as a son!" zarah, with her cold, nervous fingers, was unconsciously engaged in tearing the edge of her veil into a fringe. "if i were not uneasy regarding the safety of abishai," resumed hadassah-- but here, for the first time in her life, zarah, with an appearance of impatience, interrupted the speech of her revered relative. "have no fear for abishai," cried the maiden, raising her head, and throwing back the long tresses which, from her drooping position, had fallen over her pallid face. "have no fear for abishai," she repeated. "the greek will never repay your generous hospitality by revenging his private injuries upon your son. i can answer for his forbearance." "you are right, my child," said hadassah, tenderly. "i did lycidas a wrong by expressing a doubt. abishai is secure in his silence; and, such being the case, i believe--nay, i feel assured--that, it is better that we harbour the stranger here no longer. i am thankful that lycidas has left us though his manner of departing seem somewhat churlish." was zarah thankful also? perhaps she was, though a miserable void seemed to be left in young heart, which she felt that nothing could ever fill up. more an orphan than the fatherless and motherless, more desolate than the widow, loving and beloved, yet--save for one sick and aged woman--alone in the world, it seemed to zarah that a slight tie bound her to life, and that even that tie was gradually breaking. on the eve of that day of sore trial, the spring behind the dwelling had quite dried up: not a single drop gushed forth from the hill to revive the fading oleanders. just before sunset a laden mule was driven to the door of hadassah's humble retreat. it was led by joab, a jew who had in former years been servant to the lady, and who had been one of those who had bravely assisted in digging the grave of the martyrs. his presence, therefore, in that unfrequented spot excited no alarm. "anna," said he, addressing the handmaid who stood in the doorway (for he knew her by name), "help me to unload my mule; and do you bear what i bring to your mistress." "from whence comes all this?" asked anna, with no small curiosity. "i met to-day," replied joab, "the same stranger whom we caught lurking amidst the olives on the night of the burial of solomona--(that was nigh being his last night upon earth!) he looked ghastly, as if himself new risen from the grave, and scarcely able to drag his steps along. i helped to raise him on my mule, and it bore him to a house in the city which he mentioned. i doubt whether the gentile recognized me--his mind seemed to be strangely wandering--till i asked him where he had been since we had met by moonlight under a tree; and then he started, and looked fixedly into my face. he knew me, and did not forget that i had been one to spare his life by stepping over the spear," continued the muleteer, with a grim smile. "the gentile is not ungrateful. i suppose that he remembered that he owed a debt in another quarter also, for he bade me return in a few hours; and when i did so, charged me to bear these things to the dwelling of the lady hadassah--ay, and gave me this purse of silver for her handmaid." "the lord lycidas has a noble heart! would that he were a son of abraham!" exclaimed the delighted anna, as she received the gift of the greek. with mingled curiosity and pleasure anna then carried up what joab had brought to the housetop, on which the hebrew ladies were then sitting, for the sake of the cooling breeze of even. at the bidding of hadassah, anna removed the outer wrappings which enclosed what lycidas had sent, and drew forth a store of goodly gifts, selected with exquisite taste--graceful ornaments, embroidery in gold, the lamp of delicate workmanship, the mirror of polished steel. anna could not forbear uttering exclamations of admiration; but hadassah and her grand-daughter looked on in grave silence, until a scroll was handed to the former, which she opened and read aloud. "with these worthless tokens of remembrance, accept the deep gratitude of one who has learned in a few too brief months under your roof more than he could elsewhere have learned in a life-time, of the loftiness of faith and the heroism of virtue." chapter xviii. the passover feast. very different was the celebration of the feast of unleavened bread in the days of antiochus epiphanes from what it had been in the palmy times when the children of israel were swayed by their own native kings. there was now no mighty gathering together of the people from dan to beersheba; herdsmen driving their lowing cattle, shepherds leading their bleating flocks from the slopes of carmel, and the pastures beneath the snow-capt heights of lebanon. fishermen left not their nets by the shores of the inland lakes, nor their boats drawn up on the coast by the sea, to go up, as their fathers had gone, to worship the lord in zion. there were no pilgrims from sharon's plains or the mountains of gilead. jerusalem was not crowded with joyful worshippers, and her streets made almost impassable by the droves and flocks collected for sacrifice, as when josiah held his never-to-be-forgotten passover feast. there were no loud bursts of joyful music, as when the singers, the sons of asaph, ranged in their appointed places, led the chorus of glad thanksgiving. groups of hebrews, by twos and threes, stealthily made their way, as if bound on some secret and dangerous errand, to the few houses in which the owners were bold enough or pious enough to prepare the paschal feast. amongst these dwellings was that of the elder salathiel, a man who, in despite of threatened persecution, still dared to worship god according to the law as given through moses. in an upper room in his house all was set ready for the celebration of the feast, in order as seemly as circumstances would permit. the paschal lamb had been roasted whole in a circular pit in the ground; it had been roasted transfixed on two spits thrust through it, one lengthwise and one transversely, so as to form a cross. the wild and bitter herbs, with which it was to be eaten, had been carefully washed and prepared. on the table had been placed plates containing unleavened bread, and four cups filled with red wine mingled with water. there had been difficulty in gathering together on this occasion, in the house of salathiel, even the ten individuals that formed the smallest number deemed by the hebrews sufficient for the due celebration of the feast. three of the persons present were females, two of them belonging to salathiel's own family. the third was zarah, who, closely shrouded in her large linen veil, came under the escort of abishai her uncle. the guests arrived late, having had to change their course more than once, from the suspicion that they were dogged by syrian spies. greetings, in that upper chamber, were interchanged in low tones; whispered conversation was held as to the recent events, the tidings of which had thrilled like an electric shock through the heart of jerusalem. the victories of judas maccabeus were in every mind and on every tongue. glad prophecies were circulated amongst the guests that the next passover would not be held in secret, and kept with maimed rites like the present; but that ere the circling year brought round the holy season again, the sanctuary would be cleansed, the city free, and that white-robed priests and levites would gather together in the open face of day, where the smoke of sacrifice should rise from the altar of god's temple. zarah was the most silent and sad of those who met in the house of salathiel. many thoughts were flowing through her mind, which she would not have dared to put into words. "is it sinful to desire that the blessings of the covenant were not so exclusive?" thus mused the young hebrew maid. "is it sinful to wish that the wall of partition could be broken down, and that jews and gentiles, descended from one common father, and created by one merciful god, could meet to break bread and drink wine in loving communion together? and, if my mother hadassah reads scripture aright, may not such a time be approaching? precious and goodly is the golden seven-branched candlestick of the temple; but is not the sun of righteousness to arise with healing on his wings (mal. iv. ), and will the candlestick then be needed? the candles illumine but one chosen spot; the sun shines from the east to the west, the glory and light of the world! can god care only for the children of abraham? lycidas has told us of far-distant isles in the west, where the poor savages are sunk in darkest idolatry, where they actually offer human sacrifices to their huge wicker-idols. yet might not god in his loving-kindness have mercy even on such wretches as these? would it be quite impossible that britons should receive the light of his word, even as they receive the light of his sunshine? i would fain cling to this hope; i trust that the hope is not presumptuous. and if even these savage islanders be not quite beyond reach of the mercy of the great father, will not that mercy embrace the greeks, the brave, the noble, the gifted? but my thoughts wander upon dangerous ground. can there be salvation for any that may not partake of the paschal lamb? is not exclusion from this feast exclusion from pardoning grace? oh that there could be a lamb whose blood could take away the sins of all the world--a sacrifice of such priceless worth, that not in jerusalem alone, but through all the earth, there might be forgiveness, and hope, and salvation for all who in faith partake of its merits!" the solemn feast now commenced. the bread was blessed by salathiel, broken, and then distributed around. the first cupful of wine was silently shared; but when the second was passed around, the lesser hallel, being the th and th psalms, were chanted in low subdued tones. suddenly, in the midst of a verse, every voice was silenced at once, every head turned to listen. the clank of a weapon that had fallen on the paved courtyard below, was to the startled assembly above what the blood-hound's bay is to the deer. "the syrians have found us; we are betrayed!" ejaculated abishai, starting up and drawing his sword. "fly! fly!" was echoed from mouth to mouth. the apartment in which the hebrews were assembled had two doors--one communicating by a staircase with the courtyard below, the other, on the opposite side of the room, leading to the roof, which was near enough to other dwellings to afford a tolerable chance of escape to those who should make their way over them under cover of the dusk. it was partly on account of this advantage presented by salathiel's house that it had been chosen as the scene of the paschal feast. the second door, through which escape might thus be effected, had been prudently left wide open, and at the first alarm there was a general rush made towards it. terror so often has the effect of confusing the mind, that the impressions made by passing events, though painfully vivid in colouring, are not distinct in their outlines. zarah could have given no clear account of the scene which followed, which was to her like a horrible dream. the instinct to make her escape was strong; but as she attempted to fly, the maiden's veil caught in something, she knew not what--it was three or four seconds--they seemed as many hours--before she could extricate it. zarah heard thundering noises at the one door, rushing sounds of flight at the other; then there was a bursting open of the frail barrier which divided her from the enemy, and zarah felt rather than saw that the place was filled with soldiers! one sight was indelibly stamped on her brain--it was that of abishai all streaming with blood, his eyes glaring and glazed, his teeth clenched, as he hissed out the word "apostate!" in the last pangs of death. zarah knew that it was death. then rude hands were laid on herself; and the terrified girl felt as the gazelle feels under the claws of the tiger! she was too much alarmed to have breath even to utter a scream. "hold! harm not the girl!" cried a voice which sounded to zarah strangely familiar, though she knew not where she could possibly have heard it before; and she saw a tall officer in syrian dress, the same who has been introduced to the reader more than once under the name of pollux, who appeared to be in command of the assailing party. zarah, in her agony of terror, stretched out her hands for protection to one in whose features, even at that moment, she recognized the hebrew type. but zarah could not appeal for mercy save by that supplicating gesture; horror so overpowered her senses that she swooned away; and had the steel then done its cruel work, she would have felt no pain. but the command of antiochus had been rather to seize than to slay; and the soldiers, by the order of pollux, carried off as their only prisoner a senseless maiden, leaving the dead body of abishai on the floor dyed with his blood. chapter xix. a prison. from her long swoon zarah awoke with a sensation of indescribable horror. the cold drops stood on her brow, and there was a painful tightness at her heart. the poor girl could not at once recall what had happened, but knew that it was something dreadful. the first image that rose up in her mind was that of the expiring abishai: zarah shuddered, trembled, raised herself by an effort to a sitting posture, and wildly gazing around her, exclaimed, "where am i? what can have happened?" the place in which the maiden found herself was almost quite dark, but as she glanced upwards she could see pale stars gleaming in through a small and heavily-barred window. she knew that she must be in a syrian prison. pressing both her hands to her forehead, the young captive recalled the terrible scene of which she had been a witness. "oh, god be praised that beloved hadassah was not there!" zarah repeated again and again to herself, as if to strengthen her grasp on the only consolation which at first offered itself to her soul. "abishai's fate is awful--awful!" zarah shuddered with mingled compassion and horror. "but oh, it is better, far better for him--my poor kinsman--that he did not fall into the hands of the enemy alive, as i have done! that would have been more awful still!" zarah was no high-spirited heroine, but a timid, gentle, loving girl, subject to fears, shrinking from danger, peculiarly sensitive to pain whether physical or mental. though related both to solomona and hadassah, zarah had neither the calm fortitude of the one, nor the exalted spirituality of the other; she deemed herself alike incapable of uttering the inspired words of a prophetess, or showing the firm endurance of a martyr. and it was a martyr's trial that was now looming before the imprisoned maiden: she would, like solomona and her sons, have to renounce either her faith or her life. to zarah this was a terrible alternative, for though, but a few hours previously the poor maiden had longed for death to come and release her from sorrow, the idea of its approach, heralded by such tortures as hebrew captives had had to undergo, was unspeakably dreadful to the tender spirit of zarah. "oh, i fear that i shall never endure to the end; my courage will give way; i shall disgrace myself, my country, my race, and draw on myself the wrath of my god!" exclaimed zarah, starting up in terror, after rehearsing to herself the ordeal to which her faith was likely to be exposed. "woe is me!--what shall i do--what shall i do--is there no way of escape?" those massive stone walls, those thick iron bars were sufficient answer to the question. zarah leant against the wall, and raised her clasped hands towards the glimpse of sky seen between those dark bars. "oh, my god, have mercy upon me!" she cried; "feeble, utterly helpless in myself, i cast myself upon thee! thou hast said, _when thou passest through the waters, i will be with thee; when thou walkest through the fire, thou shalt not be burned_. carry the weak lamb in thy bosom; let me feel beneath the everlasting arms!" the tears were flowing fast down zarah's cheeks as she sobbed forth her almost inarticulate prayer: "i ask not to be saved from death--not even from torture--if it be thy will that i should endure it; but oh, save me from falling away from thee; save me from denying my faith, and breaking the heart of my mother!---and i shall surely be saved!" said zarah more calmly, her faith gaining strength from the exercise of prayer. "perhaps the lord will make the pain tolerable--he to whom all things are possible can do so--or he may even send an angel to protect me, as he sent his bright and holy ones to guard elisha." the imagination of zarah pictured a being with glorious wings flying down to her rescue, with a countenance resembling that of lycidas--to her the type of perfect beauty. "or the lord may raise up some earthly friend," continued zarah. then fancy again pictured a lycidas, but this time wanting the wings. the maiden stopped her weeping, and dashed the limpid drops from her eyes. a gleam of brightness seemed to illumine the dark prospect before her. how eagerly do we listen to the voice of hope, even if it be but the echo of a wish, an echo thrown back from the cold hard rock which can only repeat the utterance of our own heart's desires; it comes back to us like music! zarah's prison would have been far more dreary to the maiden, her approaching trial far more dreadful, had she known the fact that lycidas had gone to bethlehem, and had heard nothing of the peril of her whom he loved. in the same unconsciousness of zarah's imminent peril, another, to whom she was dearer than the sight of the eyes or the breath of life, lay extended on the ground in sleep, many miles from jerusalem, with no pillow but that stalwart arm, around which was still twined a slight flaxen strand. a monarch might have envied the dream which made the features of the sleeper relax into an expression of happiness which, when waking, they seldom indeed wore. maccabeus, lying on the parched dry earth, was in thought seated in an eden of flowers, with zarah at his side, her small hand clasped in his own. she was listening with bashful smile and downcast eyes to words such as the warrior had never breathed to her, save in his dreams. all was peace within and without, peace deepening into rapture, even as the sky above appeared almost dark from the intensity of its blue! such was the hebrew's dream of zarah! how different the dream from the actual reality! had maccabeus known the actual position of the helpless girl, to guard whom from the slightest wrong he would so willingly have shed his life's blood, even that heart which had never yet quelled in the face of peril would have known for once keenest anguish of fear! chapter xx. the court of antiochus. fierce had been the rage and disappointment of antiochus epiphanes on hearing of the result of the night attack on his forces at emmaus, and the subsequent retreat of giorgias without striking a blow. in vain the troops of that too cautious leader endeavoured, by exaggerating the account of the numbers of their enemies, to cover their own shame. antiochus was furious alike at what he termed the insolence of a handful of outlaws, and the cowardice of his picked troops, who had flaunted their banners and gone forth as if to assured victory, and had then fled like some gay-plumed bird before the swoop of the eagle. not only the oppressed inhabitants of jerusalem and its environs had cause to tremble at the rage of the tyrant, but his own syrian officers and the obsequious courtiers who stood in his presence. and none more so than pollux, once the chosen companion and special favourite of the syrian king. pollux had been so loaded with wealth and honours by his capricious master, as to have become an object of envy to his fellow-courtiers, and especially so to lysimachus, a syrian of high birth, who had seen himself passed in the race for royal favour by a rival whom he despised. but there was little cause for envying pollux, the wretched parasite of a tyrant. alas, for him who has bartered conscience and self-respect to win a monarch's smile! he has left the firm though narrow path of duty, to find himself on a treacherous quicksand, where the ground on which he places his foot soon begins to give way beneath him! a few months before the time of which i am writing, pollux, after a long sojourn in antioch, then the capital of the syrian dominions, had rejoined antiochus in jerusalem, where the monarch was holding his court in a luxurious palace which he had caused to be erected. it was here that pollux first experienced the fickleness of royal favour. the courtier had been present at the trial of solomona and her brave sons without making the slightest effort to save them, though their fate had moved him to something more than pity. but though pollux could to a certain extent trample down compunction, and force his conscience to silence, he had not perfect command over his nerves. he might consent to the perpetration of horrors, but he could not endure to witness them; and, as we have seen, he had quietly, and, as he hoped, without attracting notice, quitted the chamber of torture. the keen eye of jealousy had, however, keenly watched the movements of pollux, and lysimachus had not failed to make the most of the weakness betrayed by his rival. "pollux has sympathy with the hebrews," observed lysimachus to the tyrant, when antiochus was chafing at being baffled by the fortitude of his victims. "pollux may wear the syrian garb, and he loaded with favours by the mighty syrian king, but he remains at heart a jew." from that day pollux found himself an object of suspicion, and having once reached the quicksand, he gradually sank lower and lower, notwithstanding his desperate efforts to save himself from impending ruin. his most costly gifts, his most fulsome flattery, his assurances of deathless devotion to "the greatest, noblest of the kings who sway realms conquered by alexander, and surpass the fame of macedonia's godlike hero," met but the coldest response. pollux had once been wont to delight the king with his brilliant wit; now his forced jests fell like sparks upon water. antiochus was growing tired of his favourite, as a child grows tired of the toy which he hugs one day, to break and fling aside on the next. all the more embarrassed from having to simulate ease, all the more wretched because forcing himself to seem merry, with the sword of damocles ever hanging over his head, pollux, in the midst of luxury and pomp, was one of the most miserable of mankind. the court became to him at last an almost intolerable place. in an attempt at once to free himself from its restraints, and to win back the favour of the king by military service, in an evil hour for himself, he had volunteered to join the forces of nicanor. the courtier was incited by no military ardour; he had no desire to fall on the field of victory; pollux was not a coward, but he clung to life as those well may cling who have forfeited all hope of anything but misery beyond it. pollux, as we have seen, had accompanied giorgias when that general led a detachment of chosen troops to make that night attack upon judas which had proved so unsuccessful. with giorgias, pollux had returned to jerusalem, covered with shame instead of glory. more than his fair share of the obloquy incurred had fallen to the unfortunate courtier. "be assured, o most mighty monarch"--thus had lysimachus addressed the disappointed tyrant--"that had there been no sympathizers with the hebrew rebels in the army of the king, giorgias would have returned to jerusalem with the head of judas maccabeus hanging at his saddle-bow." the insinuation was understood--the instilled poison worked its effect. antiochus had met his former favourite with an ominous frown. he did not, however, consign pollux to irremediable ruin; he gave him a chance of redeeming his character from the imputation of treachery towards the syrian cause. pollux received a commission from antiochus to attack and seize a party of hebrews who, according to information brought by spies, were to celebrate the passover feast in salathiel's house, in defiance of the edict by which the king had endeavoured to crush the religion of those who still worshipped the god of their fathers. an office more repugnant to the feelings of pollux could scarcely have been assigned to him, but he dared not show the slightest hesitation in obeying the mandate; nay, the courtier even feigned joy at the opportunity given him of serving the king by rooting out the religion which, in the secret depths of his heart, pollux regarded as the only true one; for he could not obliterate from memory lessons once learned on his mother's knee. the poor wretch was, as it were, sunk in the quicksand up to his lips, and would have clutched at red-hot iron, had such been the only means of drawing him upwards out of the living grave in which he was being gradually entombed. wearing the mask of mirth to conceal his misery, pollux, before setting out on his hateful mission, jested in regard to the number of fanatic jews whom he would enclose in his toils, and bring to make sport before the king, to fight wild beasts in the large gymnasium, which had been erected within jerusalem for games which the jews regarded as unlawful and sinful. the courtier, in the presence of antiochus, affected the gay delight of the hunter, trying to cover with a garb of levity the remorse which was gnawing at his heart, and not betray even by a look, the secret torture which he felt. we know what followed the attack upon salathiel's house: the flight of the hebrews, the fall of abishai, whose last word and dying look inflicted upon pollux a pang keen enough to have satisfied the fiercest thirst for revenge. when tidings were brought to the palace that the result of the boasted exertions of pollux was the death of a single hebrew and the capture of one young girl, the wrath of the tyrant antiochus epiphanes rose higher than before. his courtiers, catching the infection of the anger of the king, showed something of what would have been the indignant rage of an audience crowding the coliseum at rome in the expectation of gloating on the sight of many victims flung to the lions, had the spectacle been reduced to the sacrifice of one. antiochus, however, determined to have what sport he could out of the single poor gazelle that had been run down by his hounds. one who--albeit, of the weaker sex--had been venturesome enough to keep the passover feast, might make sufficient resistance to his arbitrary will to afford him a little amusement, when none more exciting could be had. the monarch, therefore, after he had enjoyed his noonday siesta, gave command that the hebrew prisoner should be brought into his presence in his grand hall of audience. there sat the tyrant of syria on an ivory throne, his footstool a crouching silver lion, over his head a canopy of gold. in front of the king was a splendid altar, on which fire was constantly burning before a small image of jupiter; and the luxurious fragrance of incense, frequently thrown on this fire, filled the magnificent hall. many courtiers, in splendid apparel, clustered on either side below the dais which raised the throned monarch above them all. behind these were numerous slaves, mostly nubians, richly and gaudily dressed, some of whom held aloft large fans of the peacock's many-tinted plumes. the whole scene was one of gorgeous magnificence, the pomp and glory of the world throwing its false halo of beauty over guilty power. antiochus himself wore a robe crusted over with sparkling jewels, worth the tribute of a conquered province. he was, as his appearance has been handed down to us on coins, a kingly-looking man, with short curled hair, and regular, strongly-marked features, but a receding forehead, and an expression cold and hard. no one would expect from him "the milk of human kindness." antiochus looked what he was--a stern, merciless tyrant. there was at this period no premonitory sign in the appearance of the king of that frightful disease which, within a year's time, was to render him an object of horror and loathing to all who approached him--a disease so exquisitely painful, that it seemed to combine and exceed all the tortures which the tyrant had made his victims endure. antiochus, glittering on his ivory throne, appeared to be in the prime of health as well as the zenith of power; none guessed how brief was the term of mortal existence remaining to the despot, on the breath of whose lips now hung fortune or ruin, whose angry frown was a sentence of death. chapter xxi. the maiden's trial. before this gorgeous assembly--before this terrible king--stood, surrounded by guards, a trembling, shrinking girl, wrapping closer and closer her linen veil around her slight form and drooping head. "tear off her veil!" said the king. the command was instantly obeyed, and, like the painful glare of noonday to one brought suddenly out of darkness, the terrible splendour of the scene before her flashed upon zarah. her exquisite beauty, as her face now flushed crimson with shame at having to meet, without the protection of a veil, so many gazing eyes, then turned pale from overwhelming fear, caused an involuntary murmur of admiration to burst from the throng. "no herculean task to bend this willow wand," observed antiochus, even his hard stern countenance relaxing into a smile. "bring her nearer." the guards obeyed. zarah approached the king, but with timid, faltering steps; how different from the firm tread with which a captive maccabeus would have drawn nigh to the oppressor who might slay but never subdue him! "there is the altar of jupiter olympus--that of venus would have been more appropriate to so fair a votary," said antiochus, with an oath; "but it little matters which deity receives the homage, so that it be duly paid. maiden, throw some grains of yon incense into the flame, bend the knee in worship, and i promise you," the king added, with a laugh, "a gay house and a gallant husband, pearls and goodly array, and all else that a young maid's heart can desire." zarah did not stir; she did not appear to have even understood or heard the words of the king, only her lips were moving in agonized prayer. antiochus repeated more sternly his command to offer the incense. "oh, my god, help me; let me not be tried beyond what i can bear!" was the silent ejaculation which rose from the heart of the terror-stricken girl, as she slightly shook her bended head as her only reply. "what! silent still," cried antiochus, with displeasure. "know you not, young mute, that we have workers of miracles here,"--he pointed to some black african slaves who performed the office of executioners; "these are skilful to bring sounds, and those some of the shrillest, from lips the most closely sealed." in terror zarah raised her dark eyes and looked wildly around her, in the vain hope of seeing some one, perhaps lycidas himself, from whom she might receive protection or pity. but there was not a single countenance amidst the gay throng of courtiers that promised anything but cold indifference to, if not cruel amusement in her sufferings or her degradation; unless, perhaps, that of pollux formed an exception. zarah's anxious gaze rested for a moment on his face with an imploring look of entreaty, which might have touched a harder heart than his. "i brook no more idle delay!" cried antiochus; "as you love your life, do sacrifice at once to my god." "i cannot--i dare not!" exclaimed the young maid. faint as was her utterance of the words, they were heard distinctly, so great was the silence which prevailed through the assembly in that marble hall. the answer surprised antiochus and his courtiers. "ha! there is some resistance in the willow-wand then, after all!" cried the king, half amused and half angry. "i warrant me tough boughs grow on the tree from which that slender twig has sprung. tell me, fair rebel," he continued, "your name and lineage, and the place of your birth." zarah had firmly resolved that, come what might, she would betray no friend; above all, that she would never draw down the fire of persecution upon the house of hadassah. in the midst of all the misery which she was enduring from personal fear, zarah forgot not this resolution. "my name is zarah; i was born in bethsura; my father was called abner," faltered forth the young maid. pollux involuntarily started and gasped, as if every word had been a live coal dropped upon his bare breast. it was well for him then that all eyes, even those of lysimachus, were fixed at that moment on zarah. "is your father living?" inquired the king, who, in the common name of abner, did not recognize the almost forgotten one previously borne by a favourite. "i know not," was the reply. "was he not with you at the rebellious meeting?" asked antiochus epiphanes. "no; i went with my uncle, who was slain: he was my only companion thither," said the trembling maiden, thankful to be able with truth to say what would bring no person into peril. there was a brief pause, to zarah inexpressibly awful; then antiochus epiphanes, he who had looked on the dying agonies of solomona and her sons, said in his stern voice of command, "i am not wont to bid thrice, and woe to those who presume to neglect my bidding. throw incense on that fire, or the consequences be upon your own head. others have experienced ere this what it is to brave my displeasure and disobey my command." bewildered and terrified, zarah suffered, as if scarcely conscious of the import of the act, a few grains of incense to be put into her hand, then, recovering her self-possession, she flung them from her with a look of aversion and horror. "ha! is it so?" thundered antiochus; "if the incense go not into the fire, the hand that held it shall go. executioners, do your work!" four of the fierce black slaves approached the young hebrew maiden. she clasped her hands, and shrieked out, "father, save me!" it was no mortal to whom she addressed that wild cry for help. but the cry was answered by a mortal. pollux, as if moved by an irresistible impulse, sprang forward, by a gesture of his hand arrested the movements of the executioners, and bent his knee before epiphanes. "the mighty king," he began, with a great effort to appear indifferent and at his ease; "the mighty king has spoken of magicians who have skill to force out sounds from lips that are dumb. i dispute not the power of yonder black magi, but i should deem one their superior in the mysterious art who could bring songs rather than shrieks from a hebrew; who could subdue the proud will rather than torture the body. oh, illustrious monarch of the world, let me but for twenty-four hours try my potent spells upon this young rebel, and i will answer for it with my head that, before the twenty-four hours be past, she shall gladly and cheerfully do sacrifice to any god in olympus, feast on swine's flesh, dance as a bacchante, or drink wine, like belshazzar of old, out of the vessels of the temple. try my powers, o king, and according to my failure or success, so be the maiden's fate and mine!" antiochus hesitated; with a look of keen suspicion he regarded the kneeling courtier. zarah watched the king's countenance with breathless anxiety--a respite even of twenty-four hours seemed to the poor captive so priceless a boon. intense was her relief when she heard the tyrant's reply to pollux:-- "twenty-four hours' delay you have asked, and i grant. it were a nobler triumph to make a proselyte than to slay a victim. i myself, as you well know, pollux," continued the tyrant, with sarcastic emphasis, "won such a triumph myself. take yonder obstinate jewess, and work upon her your spells, whatever they may be; but hear my final decision," the king raised his hand and uttered a deep oath: "if to-morrow you have failed in doing what you now undertake to perform, if the girl be obdurate still, the moment when she refuses to do sacrifice shall be your last upon earth--she shall go to the furnace, and her protector to the block." and then, with an imperious gesture of command, antiochus dismissed the assembly. chapter xxii. a breathing space. the captive was not taken back to prison-chamber which she had occupied during the preceding night, but to an apartment in the palace--one belonging to the suite appropriated to pollux. she was confined within a room so luxurious, that, save from the door being fastened to prevent her exit, and there being no possibility of escaping through the latticed window, zarah could scarcely have realized that she was a prisoner still. the floor of the apartment was inlaid with costly marbles; on the walls were depicted scenes taken from mythological subjects; luxurious divans invited to repose; and vases, wreathed with brilliant flowers and filled with rose-water, were surrounded by others loaded with a profusion of fruit and a variety of dainties. the young hebrew maiden, accustomed to the simplicity of hadassah's humble home, gazed around in wonder. when left alone by the guards, the first impulse of the captive was to kneel and return thanks to her heavenly protector for the merciful respite granted to her. zarah was young, and hope was strong within her. what might not happen in the space of twenty-four hours to effect complete deliverance! she then laved her face, hands, and arms, and the tresses of her long hair, in the cool, fragrant water, and found great refreshment from her ablutions. it was then with a sense of enjoyment, at which she herself was surprised, that zarah partook of the fruit before her. nature had been almost exhausted, not only by the terrible excitement and alarm which the maiden had had to endure, but by sleeplessness and abstinence from food. coarse bread had indeed been brought to her in her prison, but had remained untouched, not only because the poor captive had had no appetite for eating, but because the bread, being leavened, was not at that season lawful food for a jewess. zarah now carefully abstained from any part of the collation which she deemed might contain anything which moses had judged unclean, and chiefly partook of the fruits, which were pure, as god himself had made them, and which were, of all kinds of food, that most refreshing to her parched and burning lips. "how good is my lord, to spread a table for me thus in this wilderness of trial!" murmured zarah; and she felt much as the israelites must have felt when they first saw the glistening bread of heaven lying on the face of the desert. the maiden's spirit was soothed and cheered, as well as her frame refreshed; and, reclining on one of the luxurious divans, she was able with tolerable calmness to review the exciting events of the day. "how thankful i am that, with all my cowardice and weakness, i was preserved by my lord from doing anything very wicked!" thought zarah. "i was not suffered either to betray my friends or to deny my god; and yet my faith almost failed me. i could scarcely endure the terror: how could i endure the pain? but will not he who supported me under the one sustain me also through the other, if i must die for my faith to-morrow before that terrible king? i will not weary myself by thinking; i will just trust all to my god. it is so sweet to rest in his love, like a babe on her mother's bosom." zarah lay perfectly still for some time, letting her overstrained nerves regain their usual tone. it was such a comfort to be quite alone, with no sound to disturb save the cooing of doves from a garden which separated the palace of epiphanes from mount zion. the young captive then arose, went to the lattice, and looked forth. pleasant to the sight was the rich foliage of the juniper and acacia, the terebinth and the palm, the orange, almond, and citron, watered from marble-bordered tanks by artificial irrigation, which counteracted the effects of a season sultry and dry. here and there fountains threw up their sparkling waters, transformed to diamonds in the sun. but the eyes of the maid of judah wandered beyond this paradise of beauty, created for the pleasure of a tyrant, and rested on the holy mount and the sacred temple on its summit. if the very stones, nay, the dust, of jerusalem have an interest to gentile strangers, with what feelings must a child of abraham regard the spot on which the temple was reared! as zarah gazed on the holy pile before her, words of scripture came into the mind of hadassah's grand-daughter, which filled her with a joy which was indeed nourished by the dew of heavenly hope, but had its root in earthly affection. slowly and emphatically zarah repeated to herself: "_also the sons of the stranger, that join themselves to the lord, to serve him, and to love the name of the lord, to be his servants, every one that keepeth the sabbath from polluting it, and taketh hold of my covenant; even them will i bring to my holy mountain, and make them joyful in my house of prayer: for mine house shall be called an house of prayer for all people_" (isa. lvi. , ). "oh, blessed promise!" exclaimed zarah. "israel has been, like joseph, the chosen amongst many brethren, to wear the many-coloured robe prepared by his father, and to go first, through bondage and tribulation, to dignity and honour. but his brethren are not forgotten: he shall yet be a blessing to them all, even to them who have hated and sold him. through israel shall light spread throughout the dark world, and with the bread of life shall the hungry nations be fed." zarah was interrupted in her musings by the entrance of nubian slaves, who silently replenished the vases, lighted silver lamps as the day was closing, placed rich garments upon the divan, and then retired from her presence. their coming had caused a flutter in the timid heart of the captive; and it was a relief when they had left her again to that solitude which scarcely seemed to be loneliness, so sweet were the thoughts which had been her companions. zarah went up to the divan, and looked admiringly on the silken robes and richly-embroidered veil. "these are meant for my wear," said the maiden; "but i will not touch them. the gentiles would allure me, as the serpent allured eve our mother, by the lust of the eyes and the pride of life. embroidered robes are not for the prisoner, nor silver zone for the martyr. this simple blue garment, spun and woven by my own hands, is good enough to die in." zarah watched the sun as it sank beneath the western horizon, its last beams lingering on the pinnacles of the temple. "perhaps this will be my last evening on earth," thought the prisoner. "ere the sun set again, i may have entered into eternal rest." a deep sense of holy peace stole into the maiden's heart, though the expression of her beautiful countenance was pensive as she meditated on the future. "i shall no more join in worship with my brethren below; but perhaps, while they gather together in secret, with perils around them, my eyes shall see the king in his beauty, shall behold the land that is very far off. and will not he for whom i die hear now my feeble prayers for those whom i leave behind? never have i felt that i could plead with such child-like confidence before him as i do now; praying not only for myself, but for those who are dearer than self. oh, may the lord hear, and graciously answer, the supplications of his child!" zarah knelt down, and poured out her simple prayer. first, she besought god for hadassah; that he would comfort the bereaved one, grant her rest from her tribulation, and give her the desire of her heart. tears mingled with this prayer, as zarah thought of the desolation to which the aged widow was left. "let her not weep long for me," murmured the maiden; "and oh, never let her want a loving one to tend her in sickness and comfort her in sorrow, better than i could have done." the hebrew girl then prayed for her country, and for those who were fighting for its freedom; especially for judas maccabeus, that god would be his shield and defender, and cover his head in the day of battle. zarah forgot not her unknown father. she now pleaded for him more fervently than she had ever pleaded before; and, by some mysterious connection in her mind, thoughts of her lost parent linked themselves to remembrance of the generous courtier to whose intercession she had owed her present respite from torture and death. the young prisoner implored her lord not to let the syrian suffer for his kindness to a stranger, but to requite it sevenfold into his own bosom. zarah did not yet rise from her knees. her supplications became yet more fervent as she prayed for another, dearest of all. no fear of displeasing god now marred the comfort which the maiden found in supplication for a gentile. it was not sinful, she thought, for the dying to love. her misery might be the means which god would deign to employ in winning lycidas from the errors of idolatrous worship. she might be permitted, as it were to beckon to her beloved from the other side of the grave. zarah arose from her devotions feeling almost happy. it seemed to her as if the worst bitterness of death were already passed. she again partook, with a thankful spirit, of needful refreshment, and afterwards laid herself down to rest. the prisoner had had no refreshing sleep during the preceding terrible night, and now her eyelids were heavy. soft slumber stole over zarah, as the psalmist's words were on her lips, _i will both lay me down in peace and sleep, for thou, lord, only makest me dwell in safety_. chapter xxiii. found at last. so profound was the slumber of the weary girl that she heard not the sound of opening the door, nor a step on the marble floor, and lay unconscious of the yearning, anxious, mournful gaze that was fixed upon her she slept. "lovely, most lovely--fairer even than her mother!" murmured pollux, as he stood beside the couch of zarah, upon whose slumbering form softly fell the light from a silver lamp. "even so beautiful and so pure lay my naomi, when the angel of death had in mercy called her soul away, and bereft me of a gift of which i was so unworthy." what bitter memories of early years passed through the renegade's soul as he spoke! happy days, when there was no shame on the brow, no gnawing worm in the conscience--when he had feared the face of no man, and had dared to lift his eyes towards heaven, and his heart to one who dwelt there! blessed days, never, never to come again! "hark! she speaks in her sleep. what says she?" pollux bent down his head to listen, and caught the faint murmur, "my poor, poor father!" the groan which burst from the apostate's lips awoke the sleeper. zarah started into a sitting posture, and, with a gesture of alarm, threw back the long tresses which had partly fallen over her face. "fear not, poor child; i would not harm you," said pollux, in a gentle, soothing tone, which restored zarah's confidence at once. "oh no! i will not fear you!" she cried, recognizing her protector; "it was you--the god of jacob requite you for it!--it was you who saved me to-day." "and will do so again," said pollux, as he seated himself at zarah's side; "but i cannot save you in spite of yourself. you must let yourself be guided by me." "what would you have me do?" asked zarah. "bend to the force of circumstances, humour the mighty king, give an outward obedience to his will. i have pledged myself that you should do so. there is nothing so dreadful, after all," continued the courtier, forcing a smile, "in bowing the knee as others do, or in burning a few grains of incense. it is but a little matter." "a little matter!" repeated zarah, opening wide her eyes in innocent surprise; "is it a little matter for me to throw away my soul, and break the heart of hadassah?" pollux winced on hearing the name, but quickly recovering himself, observed, "the heart of no woman would be thus broken. she would feel a pang less keen at your falling away for a time, than that which would wring her soul should you die by the executioner's hand." "you have never seen hadassah; you do not know her!" exclaimed zarah with spirit; "she has told me herself that she would rather lose seven children by death than one by apostasy from god!" pollux bit his nether lip till the blood came. when he resumed speaking, his voice sounded hoarse and strange. "if you care not for your own danger, maiden, think of my peril; my head is staked upon your submission," he said. zarah looked distressed and perplexed for a moment, then her fair face brightened again. "even cruel antiochus," she replied, "would never slay one of his nobles because he failed in persuading a hebrew girl to violate conscience. you are not--cannot be in peril through me." "i am, whether you believe it or not," said the courtier. "but methinks, when speaking to a girl like yourself in the morning of life, with so much that might make existence delightful"--pollux glanced at the luxurious decorations of the apartment--"one might be supposed to need small power of persuasion to convince her that music, dance, and feasting are better than torture; life than death; nature's sunshine and earth's love than a nameless grave. the king is munificent to those who oppose not his will; his hand is bounteous and open. listen to me, fair maiden. antiochus has promised, if you yield to his commands, to give you in marriage; it shall be my care that his choice for you shall fall upon one gentle and noble, one who will not deal harshly with you if you choose to follow your own religion, but who will accord to you in the privacy of your home all the freedom of worship which you could desire." pollux paused, turning over in his mind who would be the noble most likely to fulfil these conditions; and thinking aloud, he uttered the words, "such a one as lycidas the athenian." how the heart of zarah bounded at the name! the temptation was fearfully strong. she beheld life and lycidas on the one hand; on the other the cold steel and the glowing flame, and those black fearful ministers of death, the remembrance of whom made her shudder. pollux, skilful in the courtier's art of reading the thoughts of men, saw symptoms of yielding in the face of his prisoner, and pushed his advantage. he had appealed to zarah's instincts, now he attempted to dazzle and pervert her reason. with subtle sophistry he brought forward arguments with which his mind was but too familiar. pollux spoke of necessity, that artful plea of the tempter, who would try to make the deity himself answerable for the sin of his creatures, as having placed them under circumstances where such sin could not be avoided; as if strength of temptation were excuse sufficient for yielding to the temptation! then the courtier spoke of the difference between spiritual worship, the assent of the soul to a lofty creed, and the mere outward posture of the body. the latter might bow down in the house of rimmon, pollux argued, while the spirit retained its allegiance to the only true god. nay, the tempter quoted scripture (as the devil himself can quote it) to show that what god demands is the heart, and that therefore he cares little for the homage of the knee. the courtier tried to involve the artless girl in the meshes of his false philosophy, but a woman's simple faith and love burst through them all. "leave me--leave me!" cried zarah passionately, at the first pause made by pollux; "it is sinful, cruel, to tempt me thus! you would have tried to persuade the three children in babylon to bow down to the image of gold! i cannot argue, i cannot reason with one so learned as you are, but i know that it is written in god's law, _thou shalt not bow down nor worship_, and that is enough for me." "but you never can endure the agonies which await you if you madly hold out in your obstinate resistance!" cried pollux. "i know that i have no strength of my own; i know that i am a trembling, feeble, cowardly girl, weak as water!" exclaimed zarah, bursting into tears; "but god--my god--once made a firm wall of water, and he who sends the trial will send the strength to endure it!" "zarah, you will drive me to madness!" exclaimed pollux, alarmed at the constancy shown by so timid and fragile a being; "nay, turn not away, i _will_ be heard! i command you to yield obedience to the king, and i have a right to command; zarah, he who speaks to you is--your father!" had not instinct suggested that before, had there not been something in the voice, the face of the courtier of epiphanes which had reminded zarah of hadassah, and had strangely drawn the maiden's heart towards him? up sprang abner's daughter with a cry, her arms were around his neck, her head was pillowed on his bosom, his vest was wet with her tears; she sobbed forth, "my father! my father!" forgetting for the moment everything else in the delight of having found the lost one at last, and of being locked in the embrace of a parent. and pollux, for a brief space, could think of nothing but the fact that his child was clasped in his arms. he drew her close to his heart, then held her back that he might gaze upon her face, and press kiss after kiss on the lips of her whom he called his darling, his pride, his beautiful child! but when the first burst of natural emotion was over, pollux made his daughter sit close beside him, and with his arm round her slight form, resumed the conversation which had been interrupted by his revealing the intimate relationship in which they stood to each other. "you see, my child," said the courtier, "that you may now yield with an easy conscience. a parent's commands are law to a hebrew maiden; if there be any sin in what you do, it lies upon me alone." "and think you that i would bring sin upon your head?" said zarah. "oh no, that would be to wrong a parent indeed!" "i have such a burden of my own to carry," observed pollux, bitterly, "that i shall scarcely be sensible of so small an addition to its weight. zarah, it is clearly your duty to submit, for my safety is involved in your submission. if you refuse to obey antiochus, you seal the doom of your father." in anguish zarah clasped her throbbing temples with both her hands; even the path of duty itself seemed dark and uncertain before her. then a thought, sudden and bright, as if it were an inspiration, came into the young girl's mind. "oh no, i will save my father!" she exclaimed; "save him from worse than death! let us fly together at once," she continued; "no, not together, i would cumber your flight; but make your escape, o my father, from this wicked court, this barbarous king, this life which, to a son of hadassah, must be misery and bondage indeed! oh, fly, fly; be safe, be free; be again what you were once! it is not too late! it is not too late!" there was intense delight to zarah in the new-born hope that she might draw her wretched parent from this den of infamy, this pit of destruction. pollux was startled by the sudden suggestion. "whither could i fly?" asked the renegade gloomily. "to judas maccabeus, our hero," cried zarah; "his camp is the rallying-place for all fugitives from oppression." "maccabeus!" exclaimed pollux; "he would loathe--would spurn an apostate!" "oh no, he would never spurn the father of zarah," cried the maiden, for once realizing and exulting in the secret power which she exercised over the leader of the hebrews; "judas would welcome you, his brave companions would welcome, coming as you would come to redeem the past by devoting your sword to your country! god would receive you; and hadassah," continued zarah, her enthusiasm kindling into rapture as she went on, "hadassah, in her joy, her ecstasy, would forget all her grief--the thought of her long-lost son being with maccabeus would enable her almost to rejoice at her zarah being--with god." "impossible, impossible," muttered pollux, rising from his seat as if to depart; but zarah detected indecision in his tone. she threw herself at his feet, she clasped his knees, she pleaded with passionate fervour, for she deemed that a parent's life and soul were at stake. "oh, father, if you would but consent to leave for ever this horrible, horrible place, to return to your people, your mother, your god, i feel as if i could die happy, so happy; we should then meet again in a brighter world, all, all re-united, and for ever!" it was as the voice of his guardian angel--as if his once fondly-loved wife had been suffered to visit abner in mortal form, to counsel, warn, entreat; to tell him that there yet might be mercy for him if he would but turn and repent! there was a terrific struggle in the renegade's mind. he could not at once decide on taking so bold and sudden a leap as that to which he was urged, though conscious of the peril as well as misery of his present position at the court. as the deer, driven by wolves to the precipice's brink, hesitates on making the plunge down--though it give him the only chance of escape from the ravening jaws of his fierce pursuers--so hesitated the wretched pollux. he would have felt no indecision had he known that, at the very time when zarah was pleading in tears at his feet, antiochus was signing, in the presence of the exulting lysimachus, a warrant for the execution of pollux on the morrow. his rival had succeeded in working his ruin; the only door of safety yet open to the apostate was that towards which his child, with fervent entreaties, was trying to draw him; shortly--little dreamed pollux how shortly--that door of safety would be closed. unable to form a sudden resolution, to come to a prompt decision, seeing difficulties and dangers on every side, fearing to remain where he was, yet afraid to fly, pollux wasted the precious time yet given him, he let the golden moments escape. in a state of strong excitement, he at length quitted his daughter's presence, to seek that solitude in which his perturbed mind might become sufficiently calm to form a judgment which must be as the pivot upon which his whole future life would turn. pollux left zarah still on her knees, nor did she rise when he had torn himself from her clinging arms and left the apartment. when the daughter could no longer plead with, she pleaded for, her father--she implored that grace and wisdom might be given to him at this momentous crisis. there was no more sleep for zarah on that eventful night. chapter xxiv. decision. tossed backwards and forwards on a wild sea of doubt--a vessel without ballast, compass, or rudder--was the mind of the miserable pollux. the courtier paced for hours up and down a verandah where the cool breeze of heaven could fan him, and where he would be secure from interruption. ever and anon pollux tore his beard, or smote his breast; unconsciously giving expression by outward gesture to the inward torture which he felt. was he to give up all at once--all for which he had bartered his soul, rank, wealth, position--to begin life again on the lowest round of the ladder, with the brand of disgrace, the burden of shame upon him? could he endure to appear in the presence of maccabeus, to sue from him the place of hewer of wood and drawer of water; to exchange the pride of power and pomp of wealth for hardship and want, poverty and peril? pollux felt that he could not bring his pride to submit to the degradation, or his worldliness to the loss. the leap to be taken was from such a height, and into such an abyss, that it seemed as if he must be dashed in pieces by the fall. but what was the alternative, if the dreaded leap were not taken? if zarah remained firm in the faith, she must die;--could the father endure to witness the martyrdom of his beautiful child? and his own life--was it not in danger? was not instant flight from court the only means of affording a chance of safety either to parent or daughter? was it not the only means of delivering an apostate from the execrations of his countrymen, the curse of his mother, the impending vengeance of the most high! conscience would no longer be silenced--zarah had aroused the sleeper; beside the faith and purity of his own child, pollux had regarded himself almost as a demon! and zarah had awakened not only conscience, but hope. she had clung to the apostate with tenderness, not shrunk back from him with horror. she had not, then, been taught to regard her parent as one who had forfeited all claim to her affection. zarah had spoken of the possibility of his yet giving joy to the lofty-souled mother whom pollux, in the midst of his guilt, had not ceased to reverence and love. for many years the apostate had tried to drive from his mind all thought of hadassah; now her image came vividly before him, not in the attitude of uttering a malediction, but as holding out her arms to receive back her prodigal son. while pollux was deliberating, and zarah praying, lysimachus was carousing amidst boon companions in the city. the ruin and approaching execution of his rival gave unwonted zest to the revels of the profligate syrian. "here's to our friend the magnificent pollux!" exclaimed lysimachus, raising on high a huge goblet of wine. "he is going on a long journey to-morrow; here's to his quick passage over styx, and welcome at the shadowy court of king pluto!" and those who listened were not ashamed to laugh at the jest, or to drink the toast, though they had mixed in familiar intercourse with pollux, flattered and followed him, when he had basked in the sunshine of royal favour. one of the guests was calculating how he should now get possession of some coveted gem which he had seen sparkling on the girdle of the man to whom he had once sworn unalterable friendship; another fixed on the arab steed of the ruined courtier as his share of the spoils. there was not one of the sycophants met together at that night-revel who had a word of warning or a thought of pity to give to him who had been the most admired, envied, and flattered of all the nobles who composed the brilliant court of antiochus epiphanes! stars were paling, the night was waning, the door of safety was slowly, imperceptibly closing--soon, soon the decision of pollux, if made, would be made too late! when once the course of duty is clear to the mind, perilous is every minute of delay: while we hesitate, the enemy steals on; while we doubt, we may find ourselves under his fangs! "zarah shall decide for me!" exclaimed the unhappy waverer at last. "if i find her resolution immovable, come what may, i will give my child one chance of escape from the horrible fate with which she is threatened." in a few minutes, pale and haggard from his contending emotions, pollux re-entered the apartment in which he had left his daughter. "zarah!" he cried, in a hollow tone, as he grasped the maiden by the wrist, and scanned her countenance with an almost despairing gaze, "i come to ask what is your final decision. are you still insane enough to choose tortures and death?" zarah looked her father full in the face; she pale, but she blenched not. in a calm, unhesitating voice she replied, "i will never deny my faith." "then the die is cast!" exclaimed pollux, almost relieved by being at least freed from the misery of indecision. "we live or perish together!--we will make our escape before daybreak." there was little time left for words--none to express the thankful joy which swelled the heart of zarah. she was rescuing her father from dishonour and guilt; she was giving him back to his country. "put on this dress of a syrian slave-girl, which i have brought for you," said pollux. "take up yon empty water-jar; it must appear as if you went to fill it at the tank. we cannot keep close together; that would awaken suspicion. we shall have guards to pass, and possibly other persons besides, though at this very early hour even slaves will scarcely have commenced their morning toils." "how shall i find my way, father?" inquired zarah; "this vast palace is as a labyrinth to me." "you must never quite lose sight of me," pollux replied; "though following at a sufficient distance to prevent its appearing that your movements are guided by mine. but no, that plan will not answer," he continued, pressing his forehead with his hand; "i should not then have you in view, and, should you be challenged, i should be unable to come to your help. you, my child, must go first." "oh, my father, my presence will fearfully increase your danger!" cried zarah. "leave me here, i implore, and make your escape alone. no one will challenge you." pollux silenced his daughter's expostulation with an impatient gesture of the hand. "attend to my directions," he said; "we have wasted too much time already. you will follow me through the first court, and then you will precede me. keep to the right till you pass the first sentries; then you will find yourself in a garden, in the centre of which is a tank. fill, or make show of filling, your jar. then the long dark passage which, you will see on the left will conduct you to a postern gate of the palace; there will be a guard at that also." "how shall i pass them?" asked zarah, who began to realize the difficulties and perils of the undertaking before her. "i know not; but god, whom you serve, will help you, my brave and innocent child! i will be following at no great distance--every soldier or slave will know me--call me, and i will come to your aid." "father, give me your blessing," faltered zarah. "_my_ blessing!" ejaculated pollux, drawing back; "does any one ask a blessing from a wretch from whom it would sear and blast more than a curse from the lips of another!" "oh, never say so!" cried zarah. "you doing now what is generous--noble--right! you are casting in your lot with the people of god; like lot, you are turning your back upon sodom." "and you are the angel leading me thence," exclaimed pollux. "oh, zarah, zarah, sainted child of a sainted woman, you who have been the first to cast a gleam of hope on the darkness of guilt and despair, if ever i find mercy from man or from god, if ever i look again on the face of my mother, if ever i escape the righteous doom of an apostate, it is owing to you! whatever be the result of our perilous enterprise to-night, remember that i thank you, i bless you--and you shall be blessed, o my daughter!" pollux laid both his trembling hands on the head of his kneeling child, and uttered for her the first prayer to the true god which the apostate had dared to utter for many guilty, miserable years. chapter xxv. a retrospect. hadassah had, in the meantime, been enduring the martyrdom of the heart. when zarah, under the escort of abishai, left her home to attend the celebration of the holy feast, hadassah sent her soul with her, though failing health chained back the aged lady's feeble body. in thought, hadassah shared the memorial feast; in thought, partook of the sacrifice and joined in the hymns of praise. her mind dwelt on the circumstances attending the celebration of the first passover, when, with loins girded and staff in hand, the fathers of israel had taken their last meal in egypt, before starting for the promised land. "is not this the _promised land_ still?" thought hadassah; "though those who are as the canaanites of old now hold it--though unhallowed worship be offered on mount zion, and images be set up within the walls of jerusalem. yea, it is to israel the promised land, till _every_ prophecy be fulfilled; till the king come to zion, _lowly and riding on an ass_ (zech. ix. ); till--oh, most mysterious word!--the thirty pieces of silver be weighed out as the price of the lord and cast to the potter (zech. xi. , ); till he shall speak peace to the heathen, and his dominion be from sea to sea, and from the river to the ends of the earth (zech. ix. ). faith looks backward on fulfilled prophecy with gratitude, on yet unfulfilled prophecy with hope. zion's brightest days are to come. her lord crowned her with glory in the days of old; but in the days which will rise on her yet, he shall himself be to her as a diadem of beauty!" (isa. xxviii. .) absorbed in such high contemplations, with hopes intensified by the victories of maccabeus--which seemed to her types and pledges of greater triumphs to come--time did not pass wearily with hadassah until the hour arrived for zarah's expected return. even the delay of that return did not at first seriously alarm hadassah; circumstances might render it safer for the maiden to linger at salathiel's house; she might even be pressed to remain there during the night, should syrians be lurking about in the paths amidst the hills. hadassah had so often attended meetings in the elder's dwelling, with or without her grand-daughter, that habit had made her regard such attendance as less perilous than it was now to be proved to have been. but hadassah on this night could not retire to rest. she could not close her eyes in sleep until they had again looked upon her whom the hebrew lady fondly called her "white dove." midnight stole on, and hadassah's heart, notwithstanding her courage and faith, became burdened with heavy anxiety. she made anna lie down and rest; while she herself, notwithstanding her state of indisposition, kept watch by the door. presently her ear caught the sound of footsteps, hurried yet stealthy. hadassah heard danger in that sound, and opened the door without waiting to know who came, or whether the steps would be arrested at her threshold. the light which the widow held in her hand fell on a countenance ghastly with fear; she recognized the face of salathiel, and knew before he uttered a word that he had come as the messenger of disaster. "the enemy came--we fled over the roofs--abishai is slain--zarah in the hands of the syrians!" such were the tidings which fell like a sentence of death on the ear of hadassah! salathiel could not wait to tell more; he must overtake his family and with them flee for his life; and he passed away again into darkness, almost as swiftly as the lightning passes, but, like the lightning, leaving behind a token of where it has been in the tree which it has blasted! hadassah did not shriek, nor sink, nor swoon, but she felt as one who has received a death-blow. she stood repeating over and over to herself the latter part of salathiel's brief but fearful announcement, as if it were too terrible to be true. had zarah been taken from her by natural cause, the hebrew lady would have bowed her head like job, and have blessed the name of the lord in mournful submission; but the thought of zarah in the hands of the syrians caused an agony of grief more like that of jacob, when he gazed on the blood-stained garment of his son and refused to be comforted. for hadassah loved the young maiden whom she had reared with the intensity of which a strong and fervent nature like hers perhaps alone is capable. zarah was all that was left to her grandmother in the world, the sole relic remaining of the treasures which she once had possessed. it may be permitted to me here, as a digression, to give a brief account of hadassah's former life, that the reader may better understand her position at the point reached in my story. few women had appeared to enjoy a brighter lot than hadassah, when beautiful, gifted, and beloved, a happy wife, a rejoicing mother, she had dwelt near bethsura in idumea, the possessor of more than competence, and the dispenser of benefits to many around her. hadassah had in her youthful days an ambitious spirit, a somewhat haughty temper, and a love of command, which had to a certain degree marred the beauty of a character which was essentially noble. grief soon came, however, to humble the spirit and to soften the temper. hadassah was early left a widow, and heavily the grief of bereavement fell upon one whose love had been passionate and deep. two children, however--a daughter and son--remained to console her. around these, and especially her boy, the affections of hadassah clung but too closely. abner was almost idolized by his mother. if ambition remained in her heart, it was ambition for him. he was her pride, her delight, the object of her fondest hopes; abner's very faults seemed almost to become graces, viewed through the medium of hadassah's intense love. many years now flowed on, with little to disturb their even tenor. miriam, the only daughter of hadassah, was married to abishai; abner was united to a fair maiden whom his mother could receive love as a daughter indeed. the hebrew widow lived her early days over again in her children, and life was sweet to her still. then came blow upon blow in fearful succession, each inflicting a deep wound on the heart of hadassah. both the young wives were taken in the prime of their days, within a few weeks of each other--miriam dying childless, naomi leaving but one little daughter behind. but the heaviest, most crushing stroke was to come! when seleucus, king of pergamos, with the concurrence of the romans, had placed antiochus on the throne of syria, the new monarch had speedily shown himself an active enemy of the faith held by his subjects in judaea. onias, their venerable high priest, was deposed, and the traitor jason raised to hold an office which he disgraced. a gymnasium was built by him in jerusalem; reverence for mosaic rites was discouraged. both by his example and his active exertions, jason, the unworthy successor of aaron, sought to obliterate the distinction between jew and gentile, and bring all to one uniformity of worldliness and irreligion. in the words of the historian:[ ] "the example of a person in his commanding position drew forth and gave full scope to the more lax dispositions which existed among the people, especially among the younger class, who were enchanted with the ease and freedom of the grecian customs, and weary of the restraints and limitations of their own. such as these abandoned themselves with all the frenzy of a new excitement, from which all restraint had been withdrawn, to the license which was offered to them. the exercises of the gymnasium seem to have taken their minds with the force of fascination." to temptations such as these, a disposition like that of abner was peculiarly accessible. his religion had never been the religion of the heart; his patriotism was cold, he prided himself upon being a citizen of the world. unhappily, after the death of his wife, abner had become weary of bethsura, and had gone up to jerusalem to divert his mind from painful associations. he there came under the influence of jason, and plunged into amusement in a too successful effort to divert his mind from sorrow. ambition soon added its powerful lure to that of pleasure. abner met the newly-made king shortly after his accession, and at once attracted the attention and won the favour of the monarch. there was nothing but the hebrew's faith between him and the highest distinctions which a royal friend could bestow. abner yielded to the brilliant temptation; he parted with his religion (more than nominal it never had been), changed his name to that of pollux, abandoned all his former friends and pursuits, and attached himself entirely to the syrian court, then usually residing at antioch. abner, or, as we have called him, pollux, dared not face his mother after he had turned his back upon all which she had taught him to revere. the apostate never went near bethsura again; he kept far away from the place where he had passed his innocent childhood, the place where slept the relics of his young jewish wife. abner wrote to hadassah to inform her of what he termed the change in his opinions; told her that he had given up an antiquated faith, commended his little daughter to her care, and asked her to forget that she herself had ever given birth to a son. hadassah, after receiving this epistle, lay for weeks at the point of death, and fears were at first entertained for her reason. she arose at last from her sick-bed a changed, almost broken-hearted woman. as soon as it was possible for her to travel, the widow left bethsura for ever. she could not endure the sight of aught to remind her of happier days; she could not bear to meet any one who might speak to her of her son. hadassah's first object was to seek out abner, and, with all the persuasions which a mother could use, to try to draw him back from a course which must end in eternal destruction. but abner was not to be found in jerusalem, nor in any part of the country around it. he had carefully concealed from his mother his new name--the hebrew was lost in the syrian--abner was dead indeed to his family and to his country--and to hadassah the courtier pollux was utterly a stranger. it was long, very long, before hadassah gave up her search for abner, and she never gave up either her love or her hope for her son. affection with her was like the vein in the marble, a part of itself, which nought can wash out or remove. there was scarcely a waking hour in which the mother did not pray for her wanderer; he was often present to her mind in dreams. and the character of hadassah was elevated and purified by the grief which she silently endured. the dross of ambition and pride was burned away in the furnace of affliction; the impetuous high-spirited woman refined into the saint. exquisitely beautiful is the remark made by a gifted writer:[ ] "everything of moment which befalls us in this life, which occasions us some great sorrow for which in this life we see not the uses, has nevertheless its definite object.... it may seem but a barren grief in the history of a life, it may prove a fruitful joy in the history of a soul." hadassah's intense, undying affection for her unworthy son, led her to regard with peculiar affection the child whom he had left to her care. she loved zarah both for his sake and her own. zarah was the one flower left in the desert over which the simoom had swept; her smile was to the bereaved mother as the bright smile of hope. hadassah, as she watched the opening virtues of abner's daughter, could not, would not believe that the parent of zarah could ever be finally lost. god would surely hear a mother's prayers, and save abner from the fate of an apostate. all that hadassah asked of heaven was to see her son once again in the path of duty, and then she would die happy. the love for abner which still lived in the widow's bosom, was like the unseen fires that glow unseen beneath the surface of the earth, only known by the warmth of the springs that gush up into light. even as those springs was the love of the widow for abner's daughter. [ ] dr. kitto. [ ] lord lytton. chapter xxvi. weary wanderings. hadassah had believed years previously that she had suffered to the extreme limits of human endurance--that there were no deeper depths of misery to which she could descend; but the news brought on that fatal night by salathiel showed her that she had been mistaken. the idea of her zarah, her tender loving zarah, in the hands of the syrians, brought almost intolerable woe. so carefully had the maiden been nurtured, watched over, shielded from every wrong, like an unfledged bird that has always been kept under the warm, soft, protecting wing, that the utter defencelessness of her present position struck hadassah with terror. and how--the widow could not help asking herself--how could one so timid and sensitive stand the test of persecution from which the boldest might shrink? zarah would weep at a tale of suffering, turn faint at the sight of blood. she was not any means courageous, and her young cousins, solomona's sons, had been wont to make mirth of her terror when a centipede had once been found nestling under a cushion near her. could such a soft silken thread bear the strain of a blast which might snap the strongest cable? hadassah trembled for her darling, and would willingly have consented to bear any torture, to have been able to exchange places with one so little fitted, as she thought, to endure. sorely tried was the faith of the hebrew lady; how little could she imagine that the prayers of many years were being answered by means of the very misfortune which was rending the cords of her heart. in the misery of her soul, all hadassah's physical weakness and pain seemed forgotten. before morning she had dragged her feeble steps to the gate of the prison which held her child, with the faithful anna for her only attendant. in vain hadassah implored for admission; in vain offered to share the captivity of zarah, if she might be but permitted to see her. she was driven away by the guards, with insolent taunts, only to return again and again, like a bird to its plundered nest! but no complaining word, no murmuring against the decree of him who had appointed her sore trial, was heard from hadassah; only that sublime expression of unshaken faith, _though he slay me, yet will i trust in him_. then the widow thought of lycidas the greek. she had a claim upon his gratitude, and she knew that zarah had a place in his affections. with his wealth, his talent, his eloquence, might he not help to save her child? "anna," said hadassah to her handmaid, "could we but find the greek stranger, he might afford us aid and advice in this our sore need. but i know not where he abides." "joab would know," observed the jewess, "and i know the quarter of the town in which he dwells with his mother's sister, hephzibah; for i have dealt with her for olives and melons. but, lady, you are weary, the heat of the sun is now great; seek some place of shelter and rest while i go in search of joab." "there is no rest for me till i find my zarah; and what care i for shelter when she has but that of a prison!" cried hadassah. the two women then proceeded on their quest to a quarter of jerusalem inhabited only by the poorest of the people. simple as were the garments worn by the widow lady, she carried with her so unmistakably the stamp of a person of distinction, that her appearance there excited surprise amongst the half-clad, half-starved children that stared at her as she passed along. the street was so narrow that the women, meeting a loaded camel in it, had to stand close to the wall on one side, to suffer the unwieldy beast to pass on the other. hungry lean dogs were growling over well-picked bones cast forth in the way, evil odours rendered the stifling air more oppressive. but hadassah went forward as if insensible of any outward annoyance. hephzibah, a miserable-looking old woman, with eyes disfigured and half blinded by ophthalmia, was standing in her doorway, throwing forth the refuse of vegetables, in which she dealt. anna had frequently seen her before, and no introduction was needed. "where is joab?" asked the handmaid, at the bidding of hadassah. the old crone through her bleared eyes peered curiously at the lady, as she replied to the maid, "joab has gone forth, as he always goes at cockcrow, to lade his mule with leeks, and melons, and other vegetables and fruits. he will not be back till night-fall." hadassah pressed her burning brow in thought, and then herself addressed the old woman. "have you heard from joab where dwells a week--an athenian--lycidas is his name?" "lycidas? no; there be none of that name in our quarters," was the slowly mumbled reply. "has joab never spoken to you of a stranger, very goodly in person and graceful in mien?" persisted hadassah, grasping at the hope that the singular beauty of lycidas might make it less difficult to trace him. hephzibah shook her head, and showed her few remaining teeth in a grin. "were he goodly as david, i should hear and care nothing about it," said she. "the stranger has a very open hand, he gives freely," observed anna. the words had an instant effect in improving the memory of the old jewess. "ay, ay," she said, brightening up; "i mind me of a stranger who gave joab gold when another would have given him silver. he! he! he! our mule is as strong a beast as any in the city, but it never brought us such a day's hire before." "when was that?" asked hadassah. "two days since, when joab had taken the youth to his home." "can you tell me where that home is?" inquired hadassah with eagerness. "wait--let me think," mumbled hephzibah. hadassah thrust a coin into the hand of seller of fruit. hephzibah turned it round and round, looking at it as if she thought that the examination of the money would help her in giving her answer. it came at last, but slowly: "ay, i mind me that joab said that he took the stranger to the large house, with a court, on the left side of the west gate, which apollonius" (she muttered a curse) "broke down." this was clue sufficient; and thankful at having gained one, hadassah with her attendant left the stifling precincts of hephzibah's dwelling to find out that of the greek. terrible were the glare and heat of the noonday sun, and long appeared the distance to be traversed, yet hadassah did not even slacken her steps till she approached the gymnasium erected by the renegade high-priest jason. with difficulty she made her way through crowds of syrians and others hastening to the place of amusement. hadassah groaned, but it was not from weariness; she turned away her eyes from the building which had been to so many of her people as the gate of perdition, and the merry voices of the pleasure-seekers sounded sadder to her ears than a wail uttered over the dead. precious souls had been murdered in that gymnasium; the hebrew mother thought of her own lost son! almost dropping from fatigue, hadassah reached at last the place which hephzibah had described. it was an inn of the better sort, kept by an athenian named cimon, who had established himself in jerusalem. hadassah had no difficulty in obtaining an interview with the host, who received her with the courtesy befitting a citizen of one of the most polished cities then to be found in the world. cimon offered the lady a seat under the shadow of the massive gateway leading into his courtyard. "dwells the lord lycidas here?" asked hadassah faintly. she could hardly speak; her tongue seemed to cleave to the roof of her mouth from heat, fatigue, and excitement. "the lord lycidas left this place yesterday lady," said the greek. "whither has he gone?" gasped hadassah. "i know not--he told me not whither," answered cimon, surveying his questioner with compassion and curiosity. "months have elapsed since the athenian lord, after honouring this roof by his sojourn under it, suddenly disappeared. search was made for him in vain. i feared that evil had happened to my guest, and as time rolled on and brought no tidings, i sent word to his friends in athens, asking what should be done with property left under my charge by him who, as i deemed, had met an untimely end. ere the answer arrived, the lord lycidas himself appeared at my door, but in evil plight, weak in body and troubled in mind. he would give no account of the past; he said not where he had sojourned; and yester-morn, though scarcely strong enough to keep the saddle, he mounted his horse, and rode off--i know not whither; nor said he when he would return. if the lady be a friend of the lord lycidas," continued the athenian, whose curiosity was strongly excited, "perhaps she may favour me by throwing light upon the mystery which attends his movements." but hadassah had come to gain information, not to impart it. "i cannot linger here," she said, "but if lycidas return tell him, i earnestly charge you, that the child of one who nursed him in sickness is now the prisoner of the syrian king!" grievously disappointed and disheartened by her failure, hadassah then turned away from the dwelling of the greek. "oh, lady, rest, or you will sink from fatigue!" cried anna, whose own sturdy frame was suffering from the effect of efforts of half of which, a day before, she would have dreamed her mistress utterly incapable. hadassah made no reply; she sank rather than seated herself under the narrow strip of shade afforded by a dead wall. the lady covered her face; anna knew from the slight movement of her bowed head that hadassah was praying. presently the hebrew lady raised her head; she was deadly pale, but calm. "i cannot stay here," she murmured. "i must know the fate of my child. anna, let us return to the prison." even with the aid of her handmaid, the lady was scarcely able to rise. the twain reached the gate of the prison. a group of syrian guards kept watch there. the appearance of the venerable sufferer, bowed down under such a weight of affliction, moved one of the soldiers to pity. "you come on a fruitless errand, lady," he said, "the maiden whom you seek is not here." "dead?" faintly gasped forth hadassah. "no, no; not dead," answered the syrian promptly. "i know not all that has happened, but the young girl was certainly brought before the king." "before him who murdered solomona and her boys--the ruthless fiend!" was the scathing thought that passed through the brain of hadassah. "and what followed?" she asked with her eyes, for her lips could not frame the question. "belikes the king thought it shame to kill such a pretty bird, so kept it to make music for him in his gardens of joy," said the guard. "all that i can say is, that the maiden was not sent back to prison, but remains in the palace." "the palace!" ejaculated hadassah; more distressed than reassured by such information. "of course," cried another soldier, with a brutal jest; "the girl was not going to commit the folly of dying for her superstitions like a bigoted fanatic old woman, with no more sense than the staff she leans on! of course, the maid did what any woman in her senses would do,--worshipped whatever the king bade her worship, the muses, the graces, or the furies. converts are easily made at her age, with all kinds of torments on the one side, all kinds of delights on the other." hadassah turned slowly away from the spot. could the soldier's words be true? had zarah forsworn her faith as her father had done, though under circumstances so different? "oh! god will forgive her--he will forgive my poor lost child, if she have failed under such an awful trial!" murmured the hebrew lady, pressing her hand to her side, as if to keep her heart from bursting. but hadassah was by no means sure that zarah's resolution had indeed given way. she determined at all events and at any hazard to see the maiden; and, collecting all her strength, proceded at once to the palace. the unhappy lady ought have guessed beforehand that it would be a hopeless attempt to gain admittance into that magnificent abode of luxury, cruelty, and crime. the guards only mocked at her prayer to be permitted to see the captive hebrew maiden. "then i must speak to the king himself!" cried hadassah. "i will watch till he leave the gate." "the king goes not forth to-day," said a syrian noble who was quitting the palace, and who was struck by the earnestness of the aged widow, and, the anguish depicted on her noble features. "but antiochus rides forth to-morrow, soon after sunrise." "then," thought hadassah, "daybreak shall find me here. i will cling to the stirrup of antiochus. i will constrain the tyrant to listen. god will inspire my lips with eloquence. he will touch the heart of the king. i may yet persuade the tyrant to accept one life instead of another. oh! my zarah, child of my heart, it were bliss to suffer for you!" clinging to this last forlorn hope, hadassah allowed herself at last to be persuaded by anna to seek the residence of a hebrew family, with whom she was slightly acquainted; there to partake of a little food, lie down and attempt to sleep. snatches of slumber came at last to the widow, slumber filled with dreams. hadassah thought that she saw her son, her abner, bright, joyous, and happy as he had been in his youth. then the scene changed to own home. hadassah fancied that zarah had unexpectedly returned; in delight she clasped the rescued maid to her heart, and then, to her astonishment, found that it was not zarah, but zarah's father, whom she clasped in her arms! it was strange that dreams of joy should come in the midst of so much anguish, so that a smile should actually play on the grief-worn features of hadassah. was some good spirit whispering in her ear, "while you are sleeping your son is praying. your supplications for him are answered at last?" but hadassah lost little time in sleep. while the stars yet gleamed in the sky, the lady aroused anna, who was slumbering heavily at her feet. the handmaid arose, and without awakening the household, hadassah and her attendant noiselessly quitted the hospitable dwelling which had afforded them shelter, and turned their steps again in the direction of the stately palace of antiochus epiphanes. as the two women traversed the silent, narrow, deserted streets, they suddenly, at the angle formed by a transverse road, came upon a young man, whose rapid step indicated impatience or fear. he was moving with such eager speed that he almost struck against hadassah, before he could arrest his quick movements. "ha! hadassah!" "lycidas! heaven be praised!" were the exclamations uttered in a breath by the greek and the hebrew. "is it--can it be true--zarah--captive--in peril?" cried the young man, whom the tidings of the attack on salathiel's dwelling, and the capture of a maiden, had casually reached that night at bethlehem, where he was sojourning, and whom these tidings had brought in all speed to jerusalem. lycidas had ridden first to the house of cimon, where the message left by hadassah had confirmed his worst fears. leaving his horse, which had fallen lame on the rocky road, he had hurried off on foot to the palace, with no definite plan of action before him, but resolved at any rate to seek an interview with the king. "zarah is prisoner in yon palace," said hadassah, "you will do all in your power to save her?" "i would die for her!" was the reply, hadassah in few words made known to the young athenian her own intention to await at the palace gate the going forth of antiochus, and plead with the syrian king for the life and freedom of zarah. the lady was thankful to accept the eager offer of lycidas to remain beside her, and support her petition with the weight of any influence which he might have with the tyrant, small as he judged that influence to be. hadassah, thankful at having found a zealous friend to aid her, leant on the arm of lycidas as she might have done on that of a son. difference in nation and creed was for awhile forgotten; the two were united by one great love and one great fear, and the gentile could, with the soul's deepest fervour, say "amen" to the hebrew's prayer. chapter xxvii. flight. it was with a strange sense of happiness mingling with fear that zarah followed her father out of the apartment which had been her place of confinement. the blessing of abner lay so warm at the heart of his daughter! zarah was no longer like one peering into depths of darkness to catch a glimpse of some terrible object below; she had discovered what she had sought, and by the cords of love was, as it were, drawing up a perishing parent into security and light. it was rapture to zarah to reflect on what would be the joy of hadassah on the restoration of her son. the maiden could rejoice in past perils, and, with a courage which surprised herself, confront those before her; so clearly could she now perceive that her sufferings had been made a means of blessing to those whom she loved. with a light, noiseless step, zarah, obeying the directions of her newly-found parent, and keeping his form in sight, crossed the first court which they had to traverse. it was paved, surrounded by pillars, and open to the sky, of which the deep azure was paling into morning. the place was perfectly silent. zarah observed that her father glanced up anxiously towards the building which formed the south side of the court, where marble pillars, with wreathed columns and richly carved capitals, supported a magnificent frieze. antiochus himself occupied that part of the palace. but no eye peered forth at that early hour on the forms that glided over the marble-paved court below. under the shadow of the colonnade now reached, pollux awaited his daughter;--the first point of danger was happily passed. pollux now pointed to a broad, covered passage to the right, lighted by lamps, of which some had already burnt out, and others were flickering. zarah saw at the further end forms of men dimly visible. the guards, weary with the long night-watch, were apparently sleeping; for they appeared to be half sitting, half reclining on the pavement, and perfectly still. zarah had now to go first, and with a throbbing heart the maiden approached the soldiers, breathing an inaudible prayer, for she felt the peril to be very great. the passage at the end of which the guards kept ward opened into one of the small gardens which adorned the interior of the extensive edifice, with a tank in the centre, from which a graceful fountain usually rose from a statuary group of marble, representing niobe and her children. the fountain was not playing at this hour, and there was not light sufficient to throw the shadow of the statues upon the still water below. it was impossible to reach the garden without passing between the two guards. zarah could not tell whether they were indeed sleeping, and the space left between them was scarcely sufficiently wide to admit of her traversing it. frightened, yet clinging to hope, zarah, with her jar on her head walked slowly and cautiously on. just as she was gliding by the guards, one of them started and caught hold of her dress. "ha! slave, what mischief are you after at such an hour as this?" "my lord has bidden me dip my jar in yon tank," said zarah, in as calm a tone as she could command. "i trow your lord has heated himself with a stronger kind of drink, or he would not need water to cool him now," said the syrian, releasing zarah, who, wondering at her own success, rapidly hurried into the garden. she almost forgot, in her haste to escape, that it was needful to dip her jar into water, as she was still within view of the syrian. the maiden had to turn back one or two steps, and bend over the brink of the tank. its cool waters refreshed her, as she dipped her slender fingers therein. "now," thought zarah, "there is a long dark passage to traverse--is it on the right or the left? i scarce can remember my father's directions; and a mistake now might be fatal both to him and to me. oh, may heaven direct me!" as zarah glanced anxiously on either side, she perceived to the left a narrow opening in the mass of buildings which enclosed the garden. the opening was so utterly dark, that it looked to the trembling girl like the mouth of a sepulchre, and she feared to enter into it. as zarah stood hesitating, she could hear pollux behind her giving the password to the sentries. his voice strengthened the courage of his daughter; it was a comfort to know that he was near. quitting the garden, zarah entered the gloomy passage. it was not quite so dark within as it had appeared from without. the maiden could dimly distinguish a niche in the wall, in which she deposited her jar, which could now only burden her in her flight. the passage along which zarah was groping her way was one merely intended as a back-way, along which slaves carrying viands or other burdens might pass, though it was not unfrequently used by courtiers bound on secret errands. it conducted to a much wider passage or corridor, which crossed it at right angles, and which led direct to a postern-door of the palace, by which four guards kept watch night and day. when zarah reached the point where the smaller passage opened into the larger, she became aware of the most formidable obstacle which she had yet had to encounter--the presence of these guards; and to the young fugitive the obstacle seemed insuperable. the door was strongly bolted, and the soldiers were wide awake; there appeared to the mind of zarah not the smallest chance that they would unbar the door for her, or suffer her to pass. the heart of the young fugitive sank within her. it was terrible to be so near to liberty, and yet have that impassable barrier between her and freedom! how formidable looked the deadly weapons of the soldiers as they gleamed in the waning torch-light; how stern the weather-beaten countenances of that warriors of antiochus epiphanes! zarah leaned against the wall of the dark narrow passage, and listened for the footsteps of her father behind her. she dared not venture out of the shadow into the lighted corridor. presently pollux was at her side; she felt his hand gently laid on her shoulder. "all will be lost if you attempt to save me, father," murmured the trembling girl. "oh, go on without me--leave me to god's care; i can never pass those guards." "when i raise my hand, come forward and go forth," whispered pollux. not like a prisoner escaping, but with the firm tread of a man who doubts not his right and power to go where he will, the courtier of antiochus strode into the corridor and advanced towards the guards, who saluted, in oriental fashion, a noble of high distinction, whose person was familiar to them all. "the word is 'the sword of antiochus.' unbar that door, and quickly; i am on business of importance which brooks no delay," said pollux to the guards in a tone of command. the order was instantly obeyed. zarah joyfully heard bolt after bolt withdrawn, and then the creaking of the door upon its hinges; and felt the freshness of outer air admitted through the opening. pollux seemed to be about to pass out, when he suddenly raised his hand, as his appointed signal to his daughter. zarah, gasping with breathless anxiety, obeyed the sign, and glided forward to go forth from the palace. one of the soldiers, however, instantly barred her passage with his weapon. "let the slave pass," said pollux sternly. the point of the guard's weapon was lowered; but another of the soldiers was about to remonstrate. "it is against orders," he began, when pollux interrupted him. "methinks you are one who served under me in the force of giorgias," observed the courtier, with presence of mind. "ay, my lord," answered the soldier. "when we next see maccabeus, we must come to closer quarters with him," observed the noble. "here, my brave men,"--he drew forth a purse heavy with gold--"share this among you, and drink success to the brave." the soldiers could scarcely repress a shout at the unexpected liberality of pollux. not one of them so much as looked at zarah as she glided forth into the open air. oh, transporting sense of liberty! how delicious was the breath of early morn on the fugitive's cheek; how glorious the open vault spread above her, blushing in the first light of dawn! pollux experienced, though in a very inferior degree, some of the pleasure felt by his daughter, as he joined her on the broad marble steps which led down from the grecian-built palace of antiochus to the platform on which it erected. "this way, my child," whispered pollux, as drew zarah in the direction of one of the high narrow streets of jerusalem. "we must put as much space as possible between us and pursuers before sunrise. would that we had started hours ago! many dangers yet are before us." one was nearer than the speaker was aware of. scarcely had the fugitives entered the nearest street when they encountered a syrian courtier, splendidly attired, whose unsteady gait betrayed in what manner he had been passing the night. more than half intoxicated as he was, lysimachus instantly recognized pollux. "ha! whither bound?" exclaimed lysimachus, standing, or rather staggering, in the narrow path directly in front of the fugitives. "i give an account of my movements only to such as have a right to demand it," said pollux haughtily, attempting to pass his rival, while zarah kept close behind her father. "the fox has caught sight of the trap--pollux has found out that i hold his death-warrant," cried lysimachus; "and that his head must fall at sunrise!" pollux started at the words of his enemy. "he is making his escape!" continued lysimachus, in a louder voice; "he's falling off to the hebrews! but this shall stop him!" and with a quick, unexpected movement, the syrian plunged a dagger into the breast of pollux, then himself fell heavily rolling over into the dust! lysimachus had been struck down by a blow from the hand of lycidas, who had been but a few paces behind him! zarah had caught sight of the greek, and of the venerated form of hadassah at that momentous crisis; her eyes riveted on them, she had not seen the blow inflicted on her father, who, though mortally wounded, did not instantly fall. for pollux also beheld his mother, and the sudden, unexpected vision of her from whom he had so long been divided, seemed to have power to arrest even the hand of death. parent and son met--they clasped--they locked each other in a first--a last embrace! "oh, mother," exclaimed zarah, "he has saved me; he is your own son again, devoted to his country--to his god!" did hadassah hear the joyful exclamation? if she did not, it mattered but little, for she had already grasped with ecstasy all that its meaning could convey; for the last sentence uttered by lysimachus ere he fell had reached her ear. her son--her beloved--was "falling away to the hebrews," or rather was returning to the faith which he once had abjured; he was given back--he was saved from perdition--he was rescuing his child from death and his mother from despair! hadassah's mind had received all this, conveyed as it were in a lightning flash of joy. she needed to know no more;--her son was folded in her arms! pollux and hadassah sank together on the paved way. the sight of a few drops of blood on the stones first startled zarah into a knowledge that lysimachus had inflicted an injury on her father. "oh, he is wounded!" she exclaimed, throwing herself on her knees beside him. "dead!" ejaculated anna, who was vainly attempting to raise the head of pollux. "no--no--not dead! oh, lycidas!--lycidas!" exclaimed zarah in horror, intuitively appealing to the athenian to relieve her from the terrible fear which anna had raised. "it is too true," said lycidas sadly; for he could not look upon the countenance of pollux and doubt that life was extinct. "we must gently separate the son from the arms of his mother." but they who had been so long separated in life could not be separated in death; man had now no power to divide them. often had hadassah thought that her heart would break with grief;--it had burst with joy! her day of sorrow was over; her long sabbath rest had begun. the happy smile which had lately played on her lips in sleep, now rested upon them in that last peaceful slumber from which she should never again awake to weep. she had been given her heart's desire, and so had departed in peace. blessed death; most joyful departure! chapter xxviii. united in the grave. lycidas dared not at first break to zarah the mournful truth that one blow had bereft her of both her protectors, that she was now indeed an orphan, and alone in the world. zarah saw that her father was dead, but believed that hadassah had swooned. the subdued wail of anne over the corpse of her mistress, first revealed to the bereaved girl the full extent of her loss. its greatness, its suddenness, almost stunned her; it was a paralyzing grief. but this was no time for lamentation or wail. lycidas remembered--though zarah herself for the moment entirely forgot it--her imminent personal peril should she be discovered and arrested by the syrians. to save her precious life, was now the greek's most anxious care. he tried to persuade her to fly; but even his entreaties could not draw the mourner from the dead bodies of hadassah and pollux. it seemed as if zarah could understand nothing but the greatness of her bereavements. a terrible fear arose in the mind of the greek that all that the maiden had undergone during the last two days had unsettled her reason. "what can be done!" exclaimed lycidas, almost in despair; "if the syrians find her here, she is lost. the city will soon be astir; already i hear the sound of hoofs!" a man, leading a large mule with two empty panniers, appeared, trudging on his solitary way. as he approached the spot, lycidas to his inexpressible relief recognized in him joab, a man whose countenance was never likely to be forgotten by him--being connected with one of the most exciting passages in the life of the young athenian. "ha! the lady hadassah!" exclaimed the muleteer, in a tone of surprise and regret, as his eye fell on the lifeless body, round which zarah was clinging, with her face buried in the folds of its garments. "i have seen you before; i know you to be a good man and true," said lycidas, hurriedly. "you risked your life to bury the martyrs, you will help us now in this our sore need. assist us to lift these bodies on your mule, and take them as secretly and as swiftly as we may to the house of hadassah." "i would risk anything for my old mistress," said joab; "but as for yon silken-clad syrian, i care not to burden my beast with his carcass." the muleteer looked with stern surprise on the corpse of pollux. "who is he," continued joab, "and how comes he to be clasped in the arms of the lady hadassah?" "my father--he is my father!" sobbed zarah. "raise them both," said lycidas; "we cannot divide them, and there is not a moment to be lost." the united efforts of the party hardly sufficed to raise the two bodies to the back of the mule, which, though a large and powerful animal, could scarcely carry the double burden. joab took his large coarse mantle, and threw it over the corpses to hide them, then taking his beast by the halter, led it forward in silence. "is there no danger from him?" said anna to lycidas, pointing to lysimachus, who lay senseless and bleeding, his head having come into violent collision with a stone. by a brief examination lycidas satisfied himself that the courtier was indeed in a state of unconsciousness, and knew nothing of what was passing around him. the athenian then went up to zarah, who, drooping like a broken lily, was slowly following the corpses of her parent and his mother. lycidas offered her what support he could give; zarah did not, could not reject it. a deadness seemed coming over her brain and heart; had not lycidas upheld the poor girl, she must have dropped by the wayside. with what strange emotions did lycidas through life remember that early walk in jerusalem! the being whom he loved best was leaning upon him, too much exhausted to decline his aid; there was thrilling happiness in being so near her; but the uppermost feelings in the mind of lycidas were agonising fear upon zarah's account, and intense impatience to reach some place of safety. fearfully slow to lycidas appeared the progress of the heavily-laden mule, terribly long the way that was traversed. the muleteer purposely avoided that which would have been most direct; he dared not go through one of the city gates, but passed out into the open country at a spot little frequented, where a part of the wall of jerusalem still lay in ruins, as it had been left by apollonius. most unwelcome to lycidas was the brightening day, which awoke the world to life. every human form, even that of a child, was to him an object of alarm. the brave young greek was full of terrors for one who in her grief had lost the sense of personal fear. partly owing to the skilful selection of paths by joab, partly owing to the circumstance of the day being still so young, the party did not meet many persons on their way, and these few were of poorer class, early commencing their morning toils. inquiring glances were cast at the singular cortege, but at that time of bondage and peril, a common sense of misery and danger taught caution and repressed curiosity. only once was a question asked of the muleteer. "what have you there, joab, under yon mantle?" inquired a woman with a large jar on her head, who stopped to survey the strange burden of the mule. "a ripe sheaf of the first-fruits, a wave-offering, deborah," replied joab, with significance. "there will be more, many more, cut down soon," replied the woman gloomily; "may desolation overtake the syrian reapers!" joab saw the athenian's look of apprehension. "fear not, stranger," he said; "no hebrew will betray us; deborah is true as steel, and knows me well." there is little of twilight in judaea; day leaps almost at a bound upon his throne. the world was bathed in sunshine long before the slowly-moving party reached the lonely dwelling amongst the hills. how thankful was lycidas for the seclusion of that wild spot, which seemed as if it had been chosen for purpose of concealment! hadassah had left the door fastened when she had quitted the place on the preceding morning, full of anxious terrors on account of the peril of zarah; but anna had charge of the key. with what thankful joy would the hebrew widow have for the last time crossed that threshold in life, could she have foreseen that her child would so soon return in safety, albeit as a mourner, following hadassah's own corpse! the two bodies were reverentially laid on mats on the floor of the dwelling. lycidas then went outside the door with joab, to make such arrangements as circumstances permitted for the burial, which, according to the custom of the land, rendered necessary by the climate, must take place very soon. joab undertook to find those who would aid him in digging a grave close to that of the martyrs, and promised to come for the bodies an hour after midnight. lycidas drew forth gold, but the hebrew refused to take it. "to bury the martyred dead is a pious office and acceptable to the most high," said the brave muleteer; "but as for yon syrian, son though he may be of the lady hadassah, i care not to lay his bones amongst those of martyrs. i trow he was nothing but a traitor." "he died by the hand of a syrian, he died saving a hebrew maiden, he died in his mother's arms," said lycidas, with tender regard for the feelings of zarah, who would he knew be sensitive in regard to respect paid to the corpse of her parent. "deny him not a grave with his people." joab merely shrugged his shoulders in reply, laid his hand on the halter of his mule, and departed. on the following night, lycidas found himself again in that olive-girdled spot which he had such reason to remember. he stood under that tree behind the bending trunk of which he had crouched for concealment on the night when he had first seen zarah. the ground was very hard from the long drought. joab, and two companions whom he had brought to assist in the perilous service, had much difficulty in preparing a grave. "we need the strong arm of maccabeus here," observed one of the men, stopping to brush the beaded drops from his brow. "maccabeus is employed in making graves for his enemies, not for his friends," was the muleteer's stern reply. thick heavy clouds obscured the starless sky, not a breath of wind was stirring, the air felt oppressively close and sultry even at the hour of midnight. a single torch was all the light which the grave-diggers dared to employ while engaged on their dangerous work. in almost perfect darkness were the remains of hadassah and her unhappy son lowered into the dust. there was no silver moonlight streaming between the stems of the olives, as on the occasion of the martyrs' burial, nor was zarah present to throw flowers into the open grave. with her the powers of nature had given way under the prolonged strain which they had had to endure; the poor girl lay in her desolate home, too ill to be even conscious of the removal from it of the remains over which she had watched and mourned as long as she had been capable of doing either. it was strange to lycidas to be, as it were, only representative of hadassah's family at the funeral of herself and her son,--he, who was not only no relative, but a foreigner in blood, and in religion an alien; but it was a privilege which he valued very highly, and which he would not have resigned to have held the chief place in the most pompous ceremonial upon earth. as soon as the displaced earth had been thrown back into the grave of hadassah and her abner, the night-clouds burst, and down came the long longed-for, long-desired latter rains. the parched dry sod seemed to drink in new life; the shrivelled foliage revived, all nature rejoiced in the gift from heaven. when the sun rose over the hills, water was again trickling from the stream behind the dwelling of hadassah; the oleanders were not yet dead, they would bloom into beauty again. chapter xxix. the mourner's home. i shall pass lightly over the events of several succeeding months. the summer passed away, with its intense heat and its fierce simooms. then came heavier dews by night, and temperature gradually decreased by day. the harvest was ended, but few of the inhabitants of jerusalem had ventured to observe pentecostal solemnities. the time for the feast of tabernacles arrived, but none dared raise leafy booths of palm and willow--to spend therein the week of rejoicing, according to the custom of happier years. early in the summer antiochus epiphanes had quitted judaea for persia, to quell an insurrection which his cupidity had provoked in the latter country. the absence of the tyrant had somewhat mitigated the fierceness of the persecution against such hebrews as sought to obey the law of moses; but still no one dared openly to practise jewish rites in jerusalem, and the image of jupiter olympus still profaned the temple on mount zion. judas maccabeus, in the meantime, still maintained a bold front in southern judaea and the tract of country called idumea; the power of his name was felt from the rich pasture-lands surrounding hebron as far as the fair plains of beersheba on the south-west--or on the south-east the desolate valley of salt. wherever the asmonean's influence extended, fields were sown or their harvests gathered in peace; the husbandman followed his team, and the shepherd folded his flocks; mothers rejoiced over the infants whom they could now present to the lord without fear. but again the portentous war-cloud was rolling up from the direction of antioch. lycias, the regent of the western provinces, by the command of antiochus had gathered around him a very large army, a force yet more formidable than that which had been led by nicanor, and syria was again collecting her hordes to crush by overwhelming numbers judas and his patriot band. and how had the last half-year sped with zarah? very slowly and very heavily, as time usually passes with those who mourn. and deeply did zarah mourn for hadassah--her more than mother, her counsellor, her guide--the being round whom maiden's affections so closely had twined that she had felt that she could hardly sustain existence deprived of hadassah. and much zarah wept for her father--though in remembering him a deep spring of joy mingled with her sorrow. a thousand times did zarah repeat to herself his words of blessing--a thousand times fervently thank god that she and her parent had met. the words of lysimachus had lightened her heart of what would otherwise have painfully pressed upon it. those words had told her that pollux was a doomed man; that apostasy on her part could not have saved his life; that had he not fallen by the syrian's dagger, he would have been but reserved for the headsman's axe. and had pollux perished thus, there would have been none of that gleam of hope which, at least in zarah's eyes, now rested upon his grave. zarah never left the precincts of her secluded dwelling, except to visit her parents' grave--where she went as often as she dared venture forth, accompanied by the faithful anna. no feet but their own ever crossed the threshold of their home. zarah's simple wants were always supplied. anna disposed in jerusalem of the flax which her young mistress spun, as soon as zarah had regained sufficient strength to resume her humble labours. during the period of the maiden's severe illness, anna had secretly disposed of the precious rolls of scripture from which hadassah had made her copies, and had obtained for them such a price as enabled her for many weeks to procure every comfort and even luxury required by the sufferer. the copies themselves, traced by the dear hand now mouldering into dust, zarah counted as her most precious possession; her most soothing occupation was to read them, pray over them, commit to memory their contents. during all this long period of time, zarah never saw lycidas, but she had an instinctive persuasion that he was not far away--that, like an unseen good angel, he was protecting her still. the name of the athenian was never forgotten in zarah's prayers. she felt that she owed a debt of gratitude to one who had struck down her father's murderer, who had paid the last honours to his remains and those of hadassah, and to whose care she believed that she owed her own freedom and life. if there was something more than gratitude in the maiden's feelings towards the greek, it was a sentiment so refined and purified by grief that it cast no dimness over the mirror of conscience. but zarah knew that her life could not always flow on thus. it was a most unusual thing in her land for a maiden thus to dwell alone, without any apparent protection save that of a single handmaid. it was a violation of all the customs of her people, an unseemly thing which could only be justified by necessity. the daughter of abner was also in constant peril of having her retreat discovered by those who had searched for herself and her father in vain, but who might at any day or any hour find and seize her as a condemned criminal, and either put her to death, or send her as a captive to antiochus epiphanes. often, very often had zarah turned over the subject of her peculiar position in her mind, and considered whether she ought not to leave the precincts of jerusalem, and secretly depart for bethsura. there the orphan could claim the hospitality of her aged relative rachel, should she be living yet, or the protection of the asmonean brothers, who, being her next of kin, were, according to jewish customs, the maiden's natural guardians. but zarah shrank from taking this difficult step. very formidable to her was the idea of undertaking a journey even of but twenty miles' length, through a country where she would be liable to meet enemies at every step of the way. zarah had no means of travelling save on foot, unless she disposed of some of the few jewels which she had inherited from her parents; and this she was not only unwilling to do, but she feared to do it lest, through the sale of these gems in jerusalem, she should be tracked to her place of retreat. anna was faithful as a servant, but could never be leaned upon as an adviser--she would obey, but she could not counsel; and her young mistress, timid and gentle, with no one to guide and protect her, felt her strength and courage alike insufficient for an adventurous journey from jerusalem to bethsura. the possible necessity which might arise of her having to place herself under the protection of maccabeus, should rachel be no longer living at bethsura, greatly increased zarah's reluctance to leave her present abode. the maiden remembered too well what hadassah had disclosed of a proposed union between herself and judas, not to feel that it would be peculiarly painful to have to throw herself upon the kindness of her brave kinsman. zarah could not, as she thought, tell him why the idea of such a union was hateful to her soul--why she was averse to fulfilling the wishes of mattathias and hadassah. while maccabeus often experienced an almost irrepressible yearning once more to look upon zarah, whom he believed to be still with hadassah, of whose death he never had heard, zarah shrank with emotions of fear from meeting the hebrew chieftain. tender affection also made the orphan girl cling to her parents' grave and the home of her youth. dear associations were linked with almost every object on which her eyes rested. those to whom the present is a thorny waste, and the future a prospect darkened by gloomy mists, are wont to dwell more than others on the green spots which memory yet can survey in the past. it is natural to youth to look forward. zarah, as regarded this world, dared only look back. it was well for her that she could do so with so little of remorse or regret. "not to have known a treasure's worth till time hath stolen away the slighted boon, is cause of half the misery we feel, and makes this world the wilderness it is." when winter was drawing near, when the bursting cotton-pods had been gathered, and the vintage season was over, when the leaves were beginning to fall fast, and the cold grew sharp after sunset, circumstances occurred which compelled a change in zarah's quiet routine of existence. she could no longer be left to indulge her lonely sorrow; the current of life was about to take a sudden turn which must of necessity bring her amongst new scenes, and expose her to fresh trials. chapter xxx. changes. one evening, towards the hour of sunset, zarah sat alone at her wheel awaiting the return of anna from the city, she was startled by the sound of a hand rapping hastily upon the panel of the door. the hand was assuredly not that of anna, who, from precaution, had adopted a peculiar way of tapping to announce her return. as no visitor ever came to zarah's dwelling, it was no marvel that she felt alarm at the unexpected sound, especially as she was aware that she had neglected her usual precaution of barring the door during the absence of anna. as zarah hastily rose to repair her omission, the door was opened from without, and lycidas stood before her. the countenance of the greek expressed anxiety and alarm. "lady, forgive the intrusion," said lycidas, bending in lowly salutation before the startled girl; "but regard for your safety compels me to seek this interview. i was to-day in company with lysimachus, the syrian courtier--how we chanced to be together, or wherefore he mentioned to me what i am about to disclose, matters little, and i would be brief. lysimachus told me that, from information which he had received--how, i know not--he had cause to suspect that the maiden who some half-year back had been sentenced by the king to death if she refused to apostatize from her faith, was living secluded in a dwelling amongst the hills to the east of the city. the syrian declared that he was resolved to-morrow morn to explore thoroughly every spot which could possibly afford a place of concealment to the maiden--whom he intends to seize and send as a prisoner into persia, to the merciless tyrant whom he serves." zarah turned very pale at the tidings, and leaned on her wheel for support. "you must fly to-night, dearest lady," said lycidas; "this dwelling is no longer a safe asylum for you." "whither can i fly, and how?" murmured the orphan girl. "i have no friend here except"--zarah hesitated, and lycidas completed the sentence. "except one to whom your lightest wish is a command; to whom every hair of your head is dearer than life!" exclaimed the athenian. "speak not thus to me, lycidas," said zarah, in a tone of entreaty; "you know too well the impassable barrier which divides us." "not impassable, zarah," cried the greek; "it has been thrown down, i have trampled over it, and it separates us no longer. hear me, o daughter of abraham! much have i learned since last i stood on this threshold; deeply have i studied your scriptures; long have i secretly conversed with the wise and learned who could instruct me in your faith. i am now persuaded that there is no god but one god--he who revealed himself to abraham: i have renounced every heathen superstition; i have in all things conformed to the law of moses; i have been formally received as a proselyte into the jewish church; and am now, like achor the ammonite, in everything save name and birth, a hebrew." zarah could not refrain from uttering an exclamation of delight. her whole countenance suddenly lighted up with an expression of happiness, which was reflected on that of him who stood before her--for in that blissful moment lycidas felt that he must be beloved. "oh, joy!" cried zarah, clasping her hands. "then have you also embraced the holy covenant, and you are numbered amongst the children of abraham! then may i look upon you as a brother indeed!" "can you not look upon me as something more than a brother, zarah?" exclaimed the athenian. "why should you not fly--since you needs must fly from this dangerous spot--under the protection, the loving, devoted care, of an affianced husband?" zarah flushed, trembled, covered her face with her hands, and sank, rather than seated herself, upon the divan from which she had risen on hearing the knock of the greek. lycidas ventured to seat himself beside the young maiden, take one of her unresisting hands and press it first to his heart, then to his lips--for he read consent in the silence of zarah. but the maiden had none of the calm tranquillity of happiness; she felt bewildered, doubtful of herself; again she covered her face and murmured, "oh, that my mother were here to guide me!" "hadassah would not have spurned a proselyte whom the elders have received; she was too large-minded, too just," said lycidas, disappointed and somewhat mortified at the doubts which evidently disturbed the mind of the maiden. "listen to the plan which i have formed for your escape, my zarah. i have already made arrangements with the trusty joab. he will bring a horse-litter an hour after dark to bear you and your handmaid hence; i will accompany you as your armed and mounted attendant. we will direct our course to the coast. at joppa we shall, i hope, find a vessel, borne forward by whose white wings we shall soon reach my own beautiful and glorious land, where love, freedom, and happiness, shall await my fair hebrew bride!" for some moments zarah made no reply; how tempting was the vista thus suddenly opened before her--radiant with rosy light, like those seen in the clouds at sunrise! then zarah uncovered her face, but without raising it, or venturing to look at lycidas, she said, in a voice that trembled with emotion, "hadassah, my mother, would have deemed it unseemly for a maiden thus to flee from her country to a land where her god is not known and worshipped, and under the protection of one who is none of her kindred." "i thought that you had no kindred, zarah," said lycidas, with uneasiness; "that you had none left of your family whose guardianship you could seek." "i have--or had--an aged relative, rachel of bethsura," replied zarah, "who, if she be yet living, will assuredly receive me into her home. but my next of kin are the asmonean brothers." "the noblest family in the land!" exclaimed the athenian. "if it be indeed impossible for you to escape with me into greece--" "not impossible, but wrong," said zarah, softly; "it would be disobeying what i know would have been the will of her whose wishes are more sacred to me now than ever." "then be mine in your own land," cried lycidas, "where i may show that i merit to win you. will the noble judas and his brothers deem me unworthy to unite with one of their race if i devote my sword to the cause of which they are the champions--a cause as glorious as that for which my ancestor died at marathon?" still the cloud of doubt did not pass from the fair brow of zarah. there was a difficulty in her mind which she shrank from disclosing to lycidas. at last she timidly said, her cheeks glowing crimson as she spoke, "shall i be candid with you, lycidas? shall i tell all--as to a brother?" "all, all," replied the athenian, with painful misgiving at his heart. "beloved hadassah is at rest, i can hear her dear voice no more, but--but i am not ignorant of what were her views and wishes," said zarah. "i believe--indeed i know"--zarah could hardly speak distinctly enough, in her confusion, for the strained ear of lycidas to catch her words--"she had destined me for another; i am not quite certain whether i be not even betrothed." lycidas could not refrain from a passionate outburst. "it was wicked--cruel--infamous," he cried, "to dispose of your hand without your consent!" "such words must never be applied to aught that she did," said zarah. "the revered mother ever consulted the happiness as well as the honour of her child. she would never have urged upon me any marriage from which my heart revolted, but she let me know her wishes. and the very last day that we were together"--tears flowed fast from under zarah's long drooping lashes as she went on--"on that fatal day, ere i left her to attend the passover feast, hadassah charged me, by the love that i bore to her, never to take any important step in life without at least consulting him in whom she felt assured that i should find my best earthly protector." "and who may this chosen individual be?" asked lycidas, almost fiercely; a pang of jealousy stirring in his breast as he demanded the name of his rival. zarah murmured, "judas maccabeus." "judas maccabeus!" exclaimed the young greek, starting to his feet, more alarmed at the sound of that name than had been the warriors of nicanor, when hearing it suddenly at night in the death-shout. lycidas, with all the enthusiastic admiration which noble deeds inspire in a poetic and generous nature like his, had regarded the career of the hebrew hero. the history of maccabeus was to the greek an acted epic; in character, in renown, judas, in his estimation, towered like a giant above all other men of his generation. lycidas had met the chieftain but once; but in that one meeting had received impressions which made him idealize maccabeus into a being more like the demi-gods of whom poets sang, whom worshippers adored, than one of the denizens of earth. he was in the eyes of the young enthusiast, conqueror, patriot, and prince--a breathing embodiment of "the heroism of virtue." the greek had never thought of maccabeus before as one subject to human passions, save love of country, and perhaps love of fame; or as one influenced by human affections, who might seek to win a woman's heart as well as to triumph over his foes. the idea of having him for a rival struck the young athenian with something like despair; it seemed more than presumption to enter the arena against such an opponent as this. lycidas believed that, had antiochus epiphanes laid the crown of syria at the feet of zarah, she would have rejected the gift; but breathed there a maiden in judaea who could do aught but accept with pride the proffered hand of her country's hero--of him who was to all other mortals as snow-capped lebanon to a mole-hill? zarah felt that her disclosure had inspired more alarm in the mind of lycidas than she had intended, or than was warranted by the true state of the relations between her and the hebrew leader. she hastened to relieve the apprehensions of the greek. "i reverence maccabeus," said the maiden; "i would repose the greatest confidence alike in his wisdom and his honour; but, personally, judas is no more to me than any of his brothers." lycidas drew a deep sigh of relief. grateful for the encouragement which he drew from this avowal, the greek resumed his place by the side of zarah. "what course will you then pursue towards maccabeus?" he inquired. "i must consult him, as hadassah bade me consult him," said the maiden: "he must know all that most nearly concerns me; it seems to me as if he stood to me now in the place of a father." the spirits of lycidas rose at the word; again his heart was buoyant with hope. "our first object now, beloved one," said he, "must be to place your person in safety. as you will not seek refuge in attica, we will bend our course southward--if such be your wish--and find out your aged relative at bethsura. i would fain that she dwelt in any other direction; for bethsura itself holds a syrian garrison, the army of lysias is advancing, and southern judaea is so infested by armed bands that travelling is scarcely safe. have you no friends, no relatives, in galilee, or on the sea-coast?" zarah shook her head. "i know not of one," she replied. "rachel dwells not in bethsura but near it, and in a spot so retired that the enemy is scarcely likely to find it out. if the country be infested by armed bands--they are the followers of maccabeus, and from them we have nothing to dread." though lycidas was not a little disappointed at having to give up his first scheme--that of bearing off zarah to the coast, and thence to attica--he could not but respect her scruples, and own that the course upon which she had decided was not only the most dutiful but the most wise. it was agreed therefore that zarah, under the escort of lycidas, should start at the hour which the greek had first proposed; but that, instead of joppa, her destination should be bethsura--at which place, by travelling all night, she might hope to arrive before dawn. while zarah was concluding these arrangements with lycidas, anna returned from jerusalem. the face of the faithful servant expressed anxiety; a warning dropped in her ear by a hebrew acquaintance had rendered her uneasy on account of her mistress. "beware! dogs are on the scent of the deer." heartily glad was the handmaid to find that the athenian lord had come to aid the escape of zarah; his talents, his courage, the gold which he so lavishly spent, would, as she thought, clear away all difficulties attending their flight. the greek soon left the lady and her attendant to make needful preparations for a journey so sudden and unexpected as that which was before them. chapter xxxi. night travelling. the enforced hastiness of zarah's departure rendered it perhaps less painful than it would otherwise have been. zarah had little time to indulge in tender regrets on leaving a spot which memory still peopled with loved forms, giving a life to lifeless objects, making the table at which hadassah had sat so often, the wheel at which she had spun, the plants that she had nurtured, things too precious to be parted from without a pang. there was little which zarah could take with her in a litter; save the parchments, some articles of dress and her few jewels, all must be left behind. yet at this time of peril, while the wound inflicted by bereavement was yet unhealed, zarah felt a spring of happiness which she had believed could never flow again, rising within her young heart. "lycidas is an adopted son of abraham! lycidas, one of god's chosen people!" that thought sufficed to make zarah's soft eyes bright and her step buoyant, to flood her spirit with hope and delight. not that zarah forgot hadassah in her new sense of happiness; on the contrary, the memory of the sainted dead was linked with each thought of joy, and served to make it more holy. "how hadassah would have praised and blessed god for this!" reflected zarah. "her words were the seeds of truth which fell on the richest of soils, where the harvest now gladdens her child. it was she who first saved the precious life of my lycidas, and then led his yet more precious soul to the fount of salvation! had lycidas never listened to the voice of my mother, he had been an idolater still!" it was with more of pleasure than of apprehension that zarah, timid as was her nature, anticipated the journey before her. lycidas was to be her protector, lycidas would be near her, his presence seemed to bring with it safety and joy. "and may it not be thus with all the future journey of life?" whispered hope to the maiden. "will judas maccabeus make any very strong opposition to the union of his kinswoman to a proselyte, when he finds that her happiness is involved in it, and that lycidas will be a gallant defender of the faith which he has adopted as his own?" zarah felt some anxiety and doubt upon this question, but nothing approaching to despair. the maiden had little idea of the intensity of the affection concentrated upon herself by one who was wont to restrain outward expression of his feelings; she feared that judas might be offended and displeased, but never imagined that she had the power of making him wretched. was such a mighty hero, such an exalted leader, likely to care for the heart of a simple girl? love was a weakness to which zarah deemed that so calm and lofty a being as maccabeus could scarce condescend. but is the forest oak less strong and majestic because spring drapes its branches with thousands of blossoms, or are those blossoms less truly flowers because their hue is too like that of the foliage to strike a careless beholder? maccabeus, with his thoughtful reserved disposition, would as little have talked of his affection for zarah as he would of the pulsations of his heart; but both were a part of his nature, a necessity of his existence. joab was punctual to his appointment. an hour after dark the clatter of horses' hoofs was heard on the lonely hill-path which led to the house of hadassah. anna cautiously unclosed the door, peering forth anxiously to see whether those who came were friends or foes. "it is my lord lycidas!" she joyfully exclaimed, as the horseman who rode in front drew his rein at the door. the athenian found zarah and her attendant ready to start, and in a few minutes the two were seated in the horse-litter conducted by joab, the crimson curtains were drawn, and the travellers departed from the lonely habitation upon their perilous journey. the weather at this advanced season was cold, almost frosty, at night; but lycidas was glad of the cessation of the heavy rains which had, as usual, heralded the approach of winter. the night was cloudless and clear, the azure vault was spangled with stars. after some windings amongst the hills, the party entered the long valley of rephaim, rich with corn-fields, vineyards, and orchards. the corn had long since been garnered, the grapes had been gathered, but the fig-trees were still laden with fruit. zarah noticed little of the scenery around her, though brilliant star-light rendered it faintly visible. the rough motion of the litter over rocky roads precluded conversation, even had zarah been disposed to enter into it with her attendant. the rocking of the litter rather invited sleep, and after the maiden had been for about an hour and a half slowly pursuing her journey, drowsiness was stealing over her, when she was startled by a sudden shock, which, though not violent, was sufficient somewhat to alarm, and thoroughly to arouse her. "has anything happened?" asked the maiden, partly drawing back one of the crimson curtains of her litter. lycidas had dismounted, and was at her side in a moment. "it is a trifling matter," he said; "be not alarmed, dear lady. one of the thongs has given way; joab will speedily set all to rights; i only regret the delay." "where are we now?" asked zarah. "close to the village of bethlehem," was the athenian's reply. "ah! i must look upon bethlehem again!" cried zarah with emotion, drawing the curtain further back, so as to obtain a wider view of the dim landscape of swelling hills and soft pastures. "my loved mother hadassah was wont to bring me every year to this place; she called its stones the memorial of the past, and the cradle of the future." "i know that bethlehem is a place of great historical interest," observed lycidas, glancing around; "it was here that david, the anointed shepherd, watched his flock, and encountered the lion and the bear. and it was here that the gentle ruth gleaned barley amongst the reapers of boaz." the young greek was well pleased to show his recently-acquired knowledge of sacred story. "yes; my mother was wont to point out to me the very spots where events took place which must ever render them dear to the hebrews," observed zarah. "but hadassah always said that the chief interest of bethlehem lies in the future rather than in the past. it is here," zarah reverentially lowered her voice as she went on--"it is here that messiah the prince shall be born, as has been revealed to us by a prophet." "one would scarcely deem this village to be a place likely to be so honoured," observed lycidas. "ah! you remind me of what my dear mother once said in reply to words of mine, spoken several years ago, when i was very young," said zarah. "'it will be a long time before the prince can come,' i observed, 'for i have looked on every side, and cannot see so much as the first stone laid of the palace in which he will be born.'--'think you, child,' said hadassah, 'that a building ten thousand times more splendid than that raised by solomon would add a whit to his glory? the presence of the king makes the palace, though it should be but a cave. does it increase the value of the diamond if the earth in which it lies embedded show a few spangles of gold dust?'--i have never forgotten that gentle reproof," continued zarah, "and it makes me look with something of reverence even on such a building as that mean inn which we see yonder, for who can say that the prince of peace may not be born even in a place so lowly!" as joab was still occupied in repairing the thong, lycidas, standing bridle in hand beside zarah's litter, went on with the conversation. "the mind of hadassah," he observed, "seemed especially to dwell upon humiliation, suffering and sacrifice in connection with the mysterious being for whose advent she looked--we all look. if her view be correct, it may be possible that not only the death, but the earthly life of the messiah may be one long sacrifice from the cradle to the grave." the conversation then turned to themes less lofty, till joab had succeeded in effecting the slight needful repairs. lycidas then remounted his horse, and the party resuming their journey, bethlehem was soon left behind them. it is unnecessary to describe that night-journey, or tell how lycidas and his companions passed the site of king solomon's pleasure-grounds, his "gardens, and orchards and pools of water;" or how the road then led over the succession of barren hills which extend southward as far as hebron. travelling was slow and tedious, the road rough, and the horses grew weary. lycidas was too anxious to place his charge in safety, to permit of a halt for refreshment and rest on the way. the greek's uneasiness on zarah's account was increased as, towards dawn, they met parties of peasants fleeing, as they said, from the syrians, who, like a vast cloud of locusts, were carrying devastation through the land. lycidas felt that danger was on all sides; he knew not whether to advance or to retreat; responsibility weighed heavily upon him, and he almost envied the stolid composure with which the hardy joab trudged on his weary way. the athenian would not disturb the serenity of zarah's mind by imparting to her the anxious cares which perplexed his own. lycidas was touched by the implicit confidence placed by the gentle girl in his power to protect and guide her; and he was thankful that while with him eye, ear, brain, were strained to the utmost to detect the most remote approach of danger, the weary zarah in her litter was able to enjoy the refreshment of sleep. chapter xxxii. friends or foes? "hold! stand! who are ye, and whither go ye?" was the stern challenge, the sound of which startled zarah out of a pleasant dream. the motion of the litter suddenly ceased, a strong hand was on the bridle of the horse which lycidas was riding, a weapon was pointed at the breast of the greek. there was not yet sufficient light to enable him to distinguish whether those who thus arrested the further progress of the party were syrians or hebrews. "we are quiet travellers," said the athenian; "let us pursue our journey in peace. if gold be your object, i will give it." "if we want your gold we can take it," cried the leader of the band that now surrounded the litter. "are you a follower of antiochus epiphanes?" "no," replied lycidas boldly. to speak the simple truth is ever the manliest, and in this instance it also proved the safest course to pursue. the grasp on the greek's bridle was relaxed, the point of the weapon was lowered, and in a more courteous tone the leader inquired, "are you then a friend of judas maccabeus?" "may he be given the necks of his enemies!" exclaimed joab, before lycidas had time to reply. "it is his kinswoman whom we are taking in this litter to bethsura, that we may put her in safety out of reach of the tyrant who has sworn to slay her because she will not burn incense to his idol!" "what, the lady hadassah?" asked one of the men. "no, it is more than six months since that mother in israel departed to abraham's bosom," replied joab, lowering his tone. an exclamation of regret burst from more than one of those who surrounded the litter, and he who had first spoken observed, "these will be sorry tidings for maccabeus and his brethren." lycidas now addressed a hebrew who appeared to be of superior condition to the others. "in this litter," he said, "is the grand-daughter of the lady hadassah. she is fleeing from persecution, and seeks an asylum in the home of an aged relative who dwells near bethsura." "ah! rachel the widow; we know her well," was the reply. "then you can guide this lady to her abode." "guide her into the wolf's den!" exclaimed the hebrew; and one of his companions added with a laugh, "the only way to reach rachel's dwelling from hence is over the corpses of defeated syrians, as mayhap we shall do ere to-morrow." alarmed at finding that he had conducted zarah to the scene of an expected deadly conflict, lycidas inquired with anxiety, "where then can the lady and her attendant find shelter and protection?" "for protection, she has all that our swords can give--our fate must be her fate," replied the hebrew whom the greek had addressed. "as for shelter, there is a goatherd's hut hard by. some of our men have passed the night there, though our leader slept on the ground." there was some whispering amongst the hebrews, and lycidas caught the words, uttered in a half-jesting tone, "an awkward matter for maccabeus to have this his fair kinswoman coming on the eve of a battle on which the fate of judah depends." "i pray you show us this hut at once," said the greek, annoyed at zarah's being exposed to such observations, and impatient to remove her as soon as possible to a place of as much retirement as could be found in the camping-ground of an army. "the lady has travelled all night, and is weary." "i will lead her to the hut," said one of the hebrews; "and do you, saul," he continued, addressing a companion, "go at once and announce to our prince the lady's arrival." again the litter of zarah moved onwards, and the weary horses were guided to a hut at no great distance. one of the jewish soldiers ran on before to give notice, that the dwelling might be vacated of its warlike occupants, and put into such order for the reception of a lady as circumstances and haste would permit. the hebrews who had passed the frosty night under the roof of the goatherd's dwelling, quitted it at once to make room for the lady and her handmaid, leaving a portion of their simple breakfast for the newly-arrived guests. a homely care occupied the mind of zarah on her way to the hut. "anna," she said to her attendant, "we are much beholden to joab, and i have no shekels wherewith to pay for the hire of the litter and horses, or to requite him for his faithful service. it is not meet that the lord lycidas should be at charges for me. let joab speak to me when i quit the litter, or do you give him this jewel from me." the jewel was a massive silver bracelet, which had been worn by the unhappy pollux. zarah had selected this from the other ornaments which had belonged to her parents, on account of the weight of metal which it contained. there was also something heathenish in the fashion of the bracelet itself, which made the hebrew maiden care not to keep it as a remembrance of her father. "joab is not here," said anna, glancing from between the curtains; "he has given up the guidance of the horses to one of the hebrew warriors." joab had in fact gone off with saul, being eager to be the first to carry to judas maccabeus intelligence of what had occurred in jerusalem since they had parted beside the martyrs' grave, and especially of the momentous events which had occurred in the family of hadassah. "if i cannot see joab himself," observed zarah, "i must ask the lord lycidas to find him and do this my errand, for the muleteer must not go unrewarded by me." accordingly, after the maiden, assisted by lycidas, had descended from her litter, and explored with anna the goatherd's abode, she bashfully asked her protector to execute for her this little commission, and with the heavy silver bracelet requite her obligation to joab. "to yourself," added zarah with downcast eyes, "i can proffer but heartfelt thanks." the spirits of lycidas had risen: with him, as with nature, the gloom of night was now succeeded by the brilliance of morning. the rebound of a mind lately weighed down with intense anxiety and the pressure of heavy responsibility was so great that it seemed as if every care were flung off for ever. lycidas had accomplished his dangerous mission; he had placed his beloved charge under the care of her relatives; and he felt assured that her heart was his own. the clang of martial preparation which he now heard around him was as music to the ardent spirit of the greek. he was now going to join in a brave struggle under a heroic commander, to deserve zarah, and then to win her! the heart of the gallant young athenian beat high with hope. "nay, zarah," said lycidas gaily, in reply to the maiden's words; "i may one day claim from you something better than thanks. as for the bracelet, rest assured that i will well requite faithful joab; he shall be no loser if i keep the jewel in pledge, and never part with it, save to my bride." lycidas clasped the bracelet on his arm, as with a proud and joyous step he quitted the goatherd's hut. "stay, lycidas," expostulated zarah, following him over the threshold; but then arresting her steps, and watching his receding form for a moment with a smile as radiant as his own. "how could he fear a rival!" was the thought flitting through zarah's mind as she gazed. she then turned to re-enter the hut, and saw before her--judas maccabeus! chapter xxxiii. the leader and the man. in the unsettled state of the holy land, where its brave sons had to maintain a kind of guerrilla warfare against the powerful enemy who held its strongholds and ruled in its capital--where communication between places not far remote from each other was difficult and dangerous, and a written letter was a thing almost unknown--the asmonean brothers had been in ignorance of many events which have occupied a large space in these pages. joab, therefore, on his arrival in the camp of the hebrews, had much to tell that was to them entirely new. judas with thrilling interest had listened to the muleteer's account of zarah's peril and escape from the palace of antiochus, and the deaths of hadassah and pollux. the fount of tenderness which lay concealed under the chief's usually calm and almost stern exterior was stirred to its inmost depths. grief, admiration, love, swelled his brave heart. maccabeus could hardly wait to hear the end of joab's narration. zarah was near him--his beauteous, his beloved, his chosen bride--she who had so suffered and so mourned--the tender orphan maiden bereaved of all love, all protection save his own--but dearer in her poverty and desolation than she could have been had she brought him the dowry of an empire! it was thus that maccabeus thought of zarah, as, with an eagerness of impatience which could not have brooked an instant's longer delay, he strode rapidly towards the hut which sheltered his treasure. he soon beheld her--could it indeed be she? no desolate, weeping, trembling fugitive met the gaze of the chief; but a maiden bright and fair as the morn, with a blush on her cheeks and a smile on her lips, her whole countenance beaming with hope, and her eyes fixed with a lingering look on a greek who was disappearing from view in a direction opposite to that by which judas had approached her! the depths of the leader's feelings were again stirred, but this time as by a bar of glowing red-hot iron. "who is yon gentile?" was the sudden fierce exclamation which burst from the warrior's lips. never before had her kinsman looked so terrible to zarah as when he startled her then by his sudden appearance. it was not because she now saw maccabeus for the first time arrayed in the harness of battle, his tall powerful frame partly sheathed in glittering steel, and a plumed helmet on his head, giving him a resemblance to the description which she had heard from lycidas of the fabled god of war; it was the eye, the manner, the tone of judas that changed the smile of the maiden in a moment to a look of embarrassment and fear. antiochus himself, on his judgment-seat, had scarcely appeared more formidable to the trembling captive before him, than did the kinsman who had come to welcome her, and who would have died to shield her from wrong! maccabeus repeated his stern question before zarah found courage to reply. "that is lycidas, the athenian lord," she faltered; "he whom you spared by the martyrs' tomb. he has well requited your mercy. he protected and aided hadassah to the end, and paid the last honours to her dear remains; he struck down the syrian who slew my father. lycidas has embraced the hebrew faith, and has come to fight, and, if need be, to die in the hebrew cause!" the maiden spoke rapidly, and with a good deal of nervous excitement. she did not venture to glance up again into the face of her kinsman to see the effect of her explanation, for all the false hopes regarding his indifference with which she had buoyed herself, had vanished like a bubble at a touch. maccabeus did not at once reply. silently he led zarah back into the hut, and motioned to her to take her seat upon a low heap of cushions which anna had removed from the litter, and placed on the earthen floor for the accommodation of her young mistress. he then dismissed the attendant by a wave of his hand. the profound gloomy silence of her kinsman was by no means re-assuring to zarah, who felt much as a criminal might feel in presence of a judge--albeit in regard to her conduct towards lycidas her conscience was clear. maccabeus stood before zarah, the shadow of his form falling upon the maiden, as he towered tween her and the light, gloomily gazing down upon her. "zarah," he said at last, "there must be no concealment between us. you know in what relation we stand to each other. you have told me what that gentile has been to hadassah, and to abner your father; tell me now, what is he to _you_?" zarah struggled to regain her courage, though she knew not how deeply her evident fear of him wounded the spirit of her kinsman. she did not dare to answer his question directly. "lycidas is not a gentile," she said; "he is, as you are, a servant of god, a true believer; he has been fully admitted into all the privileges held by our race." "even the privilege of wedding a hebrew maiden?" inquired maccabeus with slow deliberation. zarah fancied that his tone was less stern, and was thankful that judas had been the one to break ground upon so delicate a subject. "hadassah would not have blamed us," she said simply, blushing deeply as she spoke. notwithstanding what had just passed, zarah was utterly unprepared for the effect of what was in fact an artless confession. it was not a groan nor a cry that she heard, but a sound that partook of the nature of both; a sound that the last turn of the rack could not have forced from the breast that uttered it now! it was the expression of an agony which few hearts have affections strong enough to feel, fewer still could have fortitude to sustain. no death-wail, no cry of woe, no shriek of pain that zarah had ever listened to, smote on her soul like that sound! she heard it but once--it was never heard but once--and before she had recovered from the shock which it gave her, judas had rushed forth from the hut. he was as one possessed; so fierce were the demons of jealousy and hatred that for a space held reason, conscience, every power of mind and soul in subjection. one wild desire to kill his rival, to tear him limb from limb, seemed all that had any definite form in that fearful chaos of passion. it was well for lycidas that he did not then cross the path of the lion! maccabeus plunged into the depths of a wood that was near, seeking instinctively the thickest shade afforded by evergreen trees. he would fain have buried his anguish from the sight of man in the darkest cavern--in the deepest grave! the very sunlight was oppressive! all lost--all rent away from him for ever! what hope had clung to, what love had treasured through the long, long years of waiting, giving new courage to the brave, new energy to the weary! youth, happiness, the cup of joy just filled to the brim by the coming of zarah, without one moment's warning dashed from the lips of him who loved her, and the last drops sucked up by the thirsty sand! the miseries of a long life seemed to be crowded into the few minutes during which the leader of the hebrews, the hope of judah, lay prostrate on the earth, clinching the dust in his despair. hatred and jealousy raged within; and a yet darker demon had joined them, one whose presence, above all others, makes the soul as a hell! like burning venom-drops fell the suggestions of rebellious unbelief upon the spirit of the disappointed man. "is it for this that you have washed your hands in innocency, and kept your feet in the paths of truth? is it for this that you have devoted all your powers to god and your country, have shrunk from no toil, and dreaded no danger? he whom you were faithfully serving hath not watched over your peace, nor guarded for you that treasure which you had confided to his care. what profit is there in obedience, what benefit in devotion? prayer has been but vanity, and faith but self-deception!" such moments as these are the most terrible in the experience of a servant of the lord. they afford a glimpse of the depths of guilt and misery to which the noblest human soul would sink without sustaining grace; they show that, like the brightest planet, such soul shines not with light of its own, but with an imparted radiance, deprived of which it would be enveloped in utter darkness. an abraham, left to himself, could lie; a david stain his soul with innocent blood. all need the sacrifice of atonement, all require the grace which comes from above. but judas maccabeus was not left unaided to be carried away to an abyss of crime by his own wild passions. they were as a steed accustomed to obey the rein of conscience, that, smitten with agonizing pain, has taken the bit into its teeth, and rushed madly towards a precipice. but the hand of its rider still grasps the bridle, his eye sees the danger in front, and the frantic animal beneath him has but for a brief space burst from his master's powerful constraint. if the rider cannot otherwise stop his wild steed, he will strike it down with a heavy blow, that by a lesser fall the greater may be avoided; and so he leads it back to its starting-place, quivering, trembling in every limb, the sweat on its flanks, the foam on its bit, but subdued, submissive, under command. even so with the hebrew chief, conscience regained its habitual sway over the passions; as soon as the anguish of his soul found vent in prayer, the crisis of danger was past. maccabeus rose from the earth, pale as one who has received a death-wound, but submissive and calm. "shall one who has been so favoured, beyond his hopes, far beyond his deserts, dare to repine at the decree of him who orders all things in wisdom and goodness?" thus reflected the chief. "who am i, that i should claim exemption from disappointment and loss? shame on the leader who gives way to selfish passion, and at such a time as this! we shall shortly close in battle; and if in that battle i fall" (the thought brought strange consolation), "how shall i look back from the world of spirits on that which for a time could almost shake the trust of this unworthy heart in the god of my fathers? if i survive the perils of the day, better it is that there should be no selfish hopes, no selfish cares, to prevent me from concentrating all my energies and thoughts upon the work appointed me to do. i have been wasting my time in idle dreams of earthly enjoyment; i have been rudely awakened. o lord of hosts, strengthen thy servant to arise and gird up his spirit to perform fearlessly and faithfully the duties of the day!" then, with slower step and calmer aspect, judas maccabeus returned to his camp. chapter xxxiv. fanaticism. we will now glance at the encampment of the hebrew warriors, upon a wild expanse of undulating ground, in view of the towers of bethsura, a strong fortress rebuilt by the edomite settlers on the site of that raised in former times by rehoboam. bethsura is now garrisoned by the syrians, and its environs occupied by the countless tents of their mighty host. on a small rising ground near the centre of the hebrew camp stands, as on a rostrum, an old jew clad in a camel-hair garment, with long gray unkempt hair hanging over his shoulders. his manner is excited, his gestures vehement, and the shrill accents of his voice are so raised as to be heard to a considerable distance. a gradually increasing circle of listeners gathers around him--stern, weather-beaten men, who have toiled and suffered much for their faith. what marvel if with some of these warriors religion have darkened into fanaticism, courage degenerated into savage fierceness? it is the tendency of war, especially if it be of a guerrilla character, to inflame the passions and harden the heart. only terrible necessity can justify the unnatural strife which arms man against his brother man. even the most noble struggle in which patriot can engage in defence of his country's freedom, draws along with it terrible evils, of which a vast amount of human suffering is not perhaps the greatest. "yea, i do charge you, joab, i do charge you, o son of ahijah, with having brought a spy, a traitor, into our camp!" almost shrieked the wild orator jasher, as he pointed with his shrivelled finger at the sturdy muleteer, who stood in the innermost rank of the circle. "was not this greek, by your own showing, present at the martyrdom of the blessed saint solomona?--was he not tried for his life at her grave, where he was discovered coiling like a serpent in the darkness?--is he not one of a race of idolaters, worshippers of images made by man's hand?" "all that i can say," replied joab, doggedly, "is, that whatever lycidas may have been, he is not an idolater now." "who are you that you should judge, you nabal, you son of folly?" exclaimed the excited orator. "mark you, men of judah, mark you the blindness that falls on some men--ay, even on a reputed saint like the lady hadassah! joab has learned from her handmaiden the astounding fact that for months this lycidas, this viper, was nurtured and tended in her home, as if he had been a son of abraham! doubtless it was this act of worse than folly on the part of hadassah that drew down a judgment on her and her house. mark what followed. the warmed viper escapes from her dwelling, and the next day--ay, the very next day--syrian dogs beset the house of salathiel as he celebrates the holy feast! who guided them thither?" the question was asked with passionate energy, and the feelings of the speaker were evidently beginning to communicate themselves to the audience. "who then lay a bleeding corpse on the threshold, slain by the murderous syrians?" continued jasher, with yet fiercer action; "who but abishai, the brave, the faithful, he who had denounced the viper, and had sought, but in vain, to crush it--it was he who fell at last a victim to its treacherous sting!" jasher ended his peroration with a hissing sound from between his clinched teeth, and the caldron of human feelings around him began, as it were, to seethe and boil. fanaticism stops not to weigh evidence, or to listen to reason. joab could hardly make his voice heard amidst the roar of angry voices that was rising around him. "lycidas was present and helped at the burial of the lady hadassah; he has risked his life to protect her daughter," cried the honest defender of the greek. "ha! ha! how much he risked we know not, but we can well guess what he would win!" exclaimed jasher, with a look of withering scorn. "he has crept into the favour of a foolish girl, who forgets the traditions of her people, who cares not for the afflictions of jacob, who prefers a goodly person"--the old man's features writhed with the fierceness of his satire--"to all that a child of abraham should regard with reverence and honour! but what can we expect from the daughter of a perjured traitor, an apostate? had she not abner for a father, and can we expect otherwise than that she should disgrace her family, her tribe, her nation, by wedding an accursed gentile, a detestable greek?" "never! never!" yelled out a hundred fierce voices. and one of the crowd shouted aloud, "i would rather slay her with my own hand, were she my own daughter!" "i cannot believe lycidas false!" cried out joab, at the risk of drawing the tempest of rage upon himself. "you cannot believe him false, you son of the nether millstone!" screamed out the furious jasher, stamping with passion; "as if you were a match for a wily greek, born in that idolatrous, base, ungrateful athens, that banished her only good citizen, and poisoned her only wise one!" the fierce prejudices of race were only too easily aroused in that assembly of hebrew warriors, and if jasher were blamed by some of his auditors, it was for allowing that any athenian could be either wise or good. "yet hear me for a moment--i must be heard," cried joab, straining his voice to its loudest pitch, yet scarcely able to make his words audible; "lycidas has been admitted into the covenant by our priests; he can give proofs--" "who talks of proofs?" exclaimed jasher, stamping again on the earth. "did you never hear of the proofs given by zopyrus? know you not how babylon, the golden city, fell under the sword of darius? zopyrus, minion of that king, fled to the city which he was besieging, showed its defenders his ghastly hurts--nose, ears shorn off--and pointed to the bleeding wounds as _proofs_ that darius the tyrant, by inflicting such injuries upon him, had won a right to his deathless hatred.[ ] the babylonians believed the proofs, they received the impostor, and ye know the result. babylon fell, not because the courage of her defenders quailed, or famine thinned their numbers; not because the enemy stormed at her wall, or pestilence raged within it; but because she had received, and believed, and trusted a traitor, who had sacrificed his own members to gain the opportunity of destroying those who put faith in his honour! hebrews! a zopyrus has now come into our camp! will ye open your arms, or draw your swords, to receive him?" a wild yell of fury arose from the listening throng, so fierce, so loud, that it drew towards the spot hebrews from all parts of the encampment. it drew amongst others the young proselyte, who came eager to know the cause of the noise and excitement, quite unconscious that it was in any way connected with himself. as lycidas made towards the centre of the crowd, it divided to let him pass into the immediate presence of jasher, his accuser and self-constituted judge, and then ominously closed in behind him, so as to prevent the possibility of his retreat. lycidas had come amongst the hebrew warriors with all the frank confidence of a volunteer into their ranks; and the greek's first emotion was that of amazement, when he found himself suddenly the object of universal indignation and hatred. there was no mistaking the expression of the angry eyes that glared upon him from every direction, nor the gestures of hands raising javelins on high, or unsheathing keen glittering blades. "here he is, the traitor, the gentile, led hither to die the death he deserves!" exclaimed jasher. "what mean ye, hebrews--friends? slay me not unheard!" cried lycidas, raising on high his voice and his hand. "i am a proselyte; i renounce my false gods,--" "he has their very effigies on his arm!" yelled out jasher, pointing with frenzied action to the silver bracelet of pollux worn by the greek, on which had been fashioned heads of apollo and diana encircled with rays. here was evidence deemed conclusive; nothing further was needed. "he dies! he dies!" was the almost unanimous cry. the life of lycidas had not been in greater peril when he had been discovered at the midnight burial, or when he had wrestled with abishai on the edge of the cliff. in a few moments the young greek would have lain a shapeless trampled corpse beneath his murderers' feet, when the one word "forbear!" uttered in a loud, clear voice whose tones of command had been heard above the din of battle, stayed hands uplifted to destroy; and with the exclamation, "maccabeus! the prince!" the throng fell back on either side, and through the ranks of his followers the leader strode into the centre of the circle. one glance sufficed to inform him sufficiently of the nature of the disturbance; he saw that he had arrived on the spot barely in time to save his athenian rival from being torn in pieces by the crowd. "what means this tumult? shame on ye!" exclaimed maccabeus, sternly surveying the excited throng. "we would execute righteous judgment on a greek--an idolater--a spy!" cried jasher, pointing at lycidas, but with less impassioned gesture; for the fanatic quailed in the presence of maccabeus, who was the one man on earth whom he feared. "he is a greek, but neither idolater nor spy," said the prince. "he is one of a gallant people who fought bravely for their own independence, and can sympathize with our love of freedom. he has come to offer us the aid of his arm; shame on ye thus to requite him." "i doubt but he will play us false," muttered one of the warriors, giving voice to the thoughts of the rest. "we shall soon have an opportunity of settling all such doubts," said maccabeus; "we shall attack the enemy at noon, and then shall this greek prove in the battle whether he be false man or true." the prospect of so soon closing with the enemy was sufficient to turn the attention of every hebrew warrior present to something of more stirring interest than the fate of a solitary stranger. jasher, however, would not so easily let his intended victim go free. "he's an achan!" exclaimed the fanatic; "if he fight amongst us, he will bring a curse on our arms!" "he is a proselyte," replied maccabeus in a loud voice, which was heard to the farthest edge of the crowd; "our priests and elders have received him--and i receive him--as a hebrew by adoption, companion in arms, a brother in the faith!" the words of the prince were received with respectful submission, if not with satisfaction. maccabeus was regarded with enthusiasm by his followers, not only as a gallant and successful leader, but as one whose prudence they could trust, and whose piety they must honour. no man dare lay a finger upon him over whom the chief had thrown the shield of his powerful protection. lycidas felt that for the second time he owed his life to judas maccabeus. there was a gush of warm gratitude towards his preserver in the heart of the young athenian; but something in the manner of the prince told lycidas that he would not listen to thanks, that the expression of the greek's sense of deep obligation would be regarded as an intrusion. lycidas therefore, compelled, as it were, to silence, could only with fervour ask heaven for an opportunity of showing his gratitude in the coming fight by actions more forcible than words. "now, sound the trumpets to arms," exclaimed maccabeus, "and gather my troops together. if god give us the victory to-day, the way to jerusalem itself will be open before us! here will i marshal our ranks for the fight." maccabeus strode to the summit of the rising ground from which jasher had just been addressing the crowd, and beckoned to his standard-bearer to plant his banner behind him, where it could be seen from all parts of the camp. here, with folded arms, maccabeus watched the movements of his warriors as, at the signal-call of the trumpet-blast, they hastened from every quarter to be marshalled in battle-array, by their respective captains, under the eye of their great commander. with rapid precision the columns were formed; but before they moved on to the attack, maccabeus, in brief but earnest supplication, besought the divine blessing on their arms. [ ] the student of history need not be reminded that the fall of babylon through the stratagem of zopyrus was quite distinct from and subsequent to its conquest by cyrus. (see rollins's "ancient history.") chapter xxxv. the battle-prayer. lycidas was a native of the very land of eloquence; he had been, as it were, cradled amidst "thoughts that breathe, and words that burn." he had studied the philippics of demosthenes, and felt the spirit of the dead orator living in them still. lycidas had listened to the eloquence of the most gifted speakers of his own time, expressing in the magnificent language of greece thoughts the most poetic. he had experienced the power possessed by the orator on the rostrum, the tragedian on the stage, the poet in the arena, to stir the passions, subdue by pathos, or excite by vehement action. but never had the athenian listened to any oration which had so stirred his own soul, as the simple prayer of judas maccabeus before the battle of bethsura. there was no eloquence in it, save the unstudied eloquence of the heart; the hebrew but uttered aloud in the hearing of his men the thoughts which had made his own spirit as firm in the hour of danger as was the steel which covered his breast. there was much in the scene and in the congregation to add to the effect of the act of worship on the mind of lycidas. he beheld adoration paid to no image formed by man's art, no fabled deity, capricious as the minds of those in whose imaginations alone he had existence, but to the holy, the high and lofty one who inhabiteth eternity, "whose robe is the light, and whose canopy space." and it was in no building raised by mortal hands that maccabeus bent his knee to the lord of hosts. he knelt on the soil of the glorious land which god had given to his fathers--the one spot chosen out from the expanse of the whole mighty globe to be the scene of events which would influence through eternity the destinies of the world! on the verge of the southern horizon lay hebron, where had dwelt the father of the faithful, where the ground had been trodden by angels' feet, and the feet of the lord of angels, with whom abraham had pleaded for sodom. it was that hebron where david had reigned ere he was hailed king over all israel. and the nearer objects were such as gave thrilling interest to the prayer of the asmonean prince: the view of the towers of bethsura which he was about to assail, the hosts of the enemy whom he--with far inferior numbers--was going to attack; this, perhaps, even more than associations connected with the past, made every word of maccabeus fall with powerful effect on his audience. and that audience was in itself, probably, the noblest that could at that time have been gathered together in any laud, not excepting italy or greece. it was composed of men whom neither ambition nor the lust of gold had drawn from their homes to oppose an enemy whose force greatly exceeded their own. in face of the trained warriors of syria were gathered together peasants, artizans, shepherds, animated by the purest patriotism, and the most simple faith in god. every man in that kneeling army knew that he carried his life in his hand, that in case of defeat he had no mercy to expect, and that victory scarce lay within the verge of probability according to human calculation; yet not a countenance showed anything but undaunted courage, eager hope, firm faith, as the weather-beaten, toil-worn hebrews listened to and joined in the supplications of their leader. but it was the character of that leader himself which gave the chief force to his words. if maccabeus the asmonean received the lofty title of "prince of the sons of god," it was because his countrymen acknowledged, and that without envy, the stamp of a native royalty upon him, which needed not the anointing oil or the golden crown to add to its dignity. any nation with pride might have numbered amongst its heroes a man possessing the military talents of a miltiades, with the purity of an aristides; one whose character was without reproach, whose fame was unstained with a blot. simple, earnest faith was the mainspring of the actions of maccabeus. the clear, piercing gaze of the eagle, energy like that with which the strong wing of the royal bird cleaves the air, marked the noble asmonean; for the soul's gaze was upward toward its sun, and the soul's pinion soared high above the petty interests, the paltry ambition of earth. as there was dignity in the single-mindedness of the character of judas, so was there power in the very simplicity of his words. i will mar that simplicity by no interpolations of my own, but transfer unaltered to my pages the asmonean's battle-prayer. "blessed art thou, o saviour of israel, who didst quell the violence of the mighty man by the hand of thy servant david, and gavest the host of strangers into the hand of jonathan, the son of saul, and his armour-bearer! shut up this army in the hand of thy people israel, and let them be confounded in their power and horsemen; make them to be of no courage, and cause the boldness of their strength to fall away, and let them quake in their destruction. cast them down with the sword of them that love thee, and let all those that know thy name praise thee with thanksgiving!" when the tones of the leader's voice were silent, there was for a moment a solemn stillness throughout the martial throng; then from their knees arose the brave sons of abraham, prepared to "do or die." chapter xxxvi. bethsura. her brief but momentous interview with maccabeus had left a very painful impression upon the mind of zarah. it had disclosed, to her distress as well as surprise, the depth of the wound which she was inflicting upon a loving heart; for zarah had none of that miserable vanity which makes the meaner of her sex triumph in their power of giving pain. zarah's apprehensions were also awakened on account of lycidas; she could not but fear that very serious obstacles might arise to prevent her union with the greek. generous as maccabeus might be, it was not in human nature that he should favour the claims of a rival; and determined opposition from her kinsman and prince must be annihilation to the hopes of the maiden. there would be in many jewish minds prejudices against an athenian; zarah was aware of this, though not of the intense hatred to which such prejudices might lead. the short interview held with maccabeus had sufficed to cover zarah's bright sky with clouds, to darken her hopes, to distress her conscience, to make her uneasily question herself as to whether she were indeed erring by giving her heart to a stranger. had she really spoken truth when she had said, "hadassah would not have blamed us?" but when anna, pale with excitement, brought tidings to her young mistress that the hebrews were marching to battle, when zarah heard that the decisive hour had come on which hung the fate of her country, and with it that of lycidas, all other fears yielded for a time to one absorbing terror. on her knees, with hands clasped in attitude of prayer, yet scarcely able to pray, zarah listened breathlessly to the fearful sounds which were borne on the breeze--the confused noises, the yells, the shouting--which brought vividly to her mind all the horrors of the scene passing so near her. it was not needful for her to look on the raging torrent of war; imagination but too readily pictured the streams of opposing warriors, like floods from opposite mountains, mingling and struggling together in a wild whirlpool of death; chariots dragged by maddened horses over gory heaps of the slain--the flight of hurtling arrows--the whirl of the deadly axe--the crash--the cry--the rush--the retreat--the rally--the flashing weapons, now dimmed with blood;--zarah in thought beheld them all, and covered her eyes with horror, as if by so doing she could shut out the sight. for hours this agony lasted. the excitement of conflict may bear brave hearts through a battle with little sense of horror and none of fear; warriors, even the generous and humane, can see and do things in hot blood, from which their souls would revolt in calmer moments; but the woman whose earthly happiness is on the cast of the die, who cannot shield the being dearest to her upon earth from the crushing blow or the deadly thrust, to her the day of battle is one of unmixed anguish; suspense is agony, and yet she dreads to exchange that suspense for knowledge which might bring agony more intolerable still. the maiden found some slight alleviation of her distress in the occupation in which she and her handmaid engaged, that of making such preparations as circumstances permitted for the comfort of the wounded, though they knew too well that if the syrians should win the day, there would be no wounded hebrews to tend--the conqueror's sword would too thoroughly do its hideous work. judas maccabeus had displayed his accustomed judgment in choosing to be himself the assailant, instead of awaiting the assault of the myrmidons of syria. his sudden, unexpected attack threw the enemy into some confusion, and gave an advantage in the commencement of the battle to the slender forces of the hebrew prince. his men rushed to the conflict as those assured of success. had they not measured swords with the warriors of apollonius and seron, and more recently those of bacchides? had they not scattered the thousands of nicanor, and made giorgias seek safety in ignominious retreat? was not maccabeus their leader, and saw they not the light flashing from his helmet in the fore-front of the battle? yet was the struggle obstinate; and when the syrians were at last forced to retire before the hebrew heroes, a number of the troops of lysias threw themselves into the fortress of bethsura, to rally their forces behind its walls, and gather strength to renew the combat on the following day. but it was no part of the plan of their active adversary to leave such a rallying-point to the syrians, or suffer them from thence to harass his rear, should he press onwards towards jerusalem. his victory must not be incomplete, bethsura must be his ere darkness should put an end to the conflict. "see you yon syrian banner waving from the tower," cried maccabeus,--"who will be the first to tear it down?" he was answered by a shout from his men. "to the walls! to the walls!" as the hebrews pressed hard upon their retreating foes. bethsura was not a place of much strength, though the height of its towers gave to their defenders the power to annoy and distress assailants with a shower of arrows and other missiles as they rushed to the assault. maccabeus, foreseeing that bethsura itself must become the scene of the closing struggle, had had scaling-ladders in readiness, roughly constructed by his own men from trees hewn down by their battle-axes. with cries and shouts these were now borne onwards towards the bulwarks of bethsura, and notwithstanding the fierce opposition of the syrians, two of them were planted against the wall. who would mount them, who would be the first to climb upwards through the death-shower of darts, the first to meet the fierce downward blows and thrusts of those who stood to the defence of the beleaguered fortress? lycidas had borne himself bravely in the battle, he had well maintained the honour of the land that had withstood the gigantic power of xerxes; now his foot was the first on one of the ladders. it was a perilous moment. the rough spar, with branches fastened transversely at intervals across it, on which lycidas was mounting (for the ladder was little more than this), swayed backwards and forwards with the struggle between those above to fling it down, and those below to sustain it, and it was with extreme difficulty that the climber could keep his footing. stones and arrows rattled on the shield which the young greek held with one arm above his head, as he used the other in climbing; but lycidas neither flinched nor paused. "well done--bravely done!" shouted the hebrews who were rushing on from behind. "he is no gentile, though he be a greek!" cried the wild shrill voice of jasher; "onwards, upwards, warriors of judah! one struggle more, and bethsura is ours!" almost at the top of the ladder, almost close to the wall, gasping, straining, bleeding, struggles on the young greek. a stone strikes his shield, smashes it, stuns, disables the left arm which upheld it; slain by a dart, the hebrew just behind him falls crashing from the ladder! the brain of lycidas is dizzy, his ears are filled with wild clamour, he is conscious only that honour and most probably death are before him, still he mounts, he mounts! two powerful syrians have seized the upper end of the ladder; with an effort of gigantic strength they thrust it back from the supporting wall with its living burden of clambering men, all but one, the foremost! lycidas feels the ladder beneath him failing, with a tremendous effort of agility he springs as it falls at the wall, catches hold of it with his right hand, and flings himself up on the parapet. but not one moment's breathing-space is given him to start to his feet, or grasp the sword which he has carried hung round his neck. he cannot rise, he cannot resist; swords are gleaming above him; those who have thrown down the ladder seize the greek to hurl him after it! a thought of zarah flashes across the reeling brain of the young man, is it not his last?--no, a broad shield is suddenly thrust between lycidas and his assailants, they shrink back from the sweep of a terrible sword; up the other ladder the strong and brave have pressed with irresistible force; judas maccabeus himself has planted his foot on the bulwarks, has driven back step by step their defenders before him, and has arrived at this crisis in the fate of lycidas to preserve for the third time the life of his rival! the banner of maccabeus is planted on the highest tower of bethsura, and as it waves in the light of the evening sun, such a loud wild shout of triumph rises from the victors, as might be heard for miles around! it reaches zarah in her hut, and sends a thrill of hope and exultation through her heart, for she knows the shout of her people, and none but conquerors could have rent the air with such a cheer as that! it is followed by the cry "jerusalem, jerusalem!" as from the hebrew heroes, in that their hour of success, bursts that name of all earthly names most dear to the sons of israel! jerusalem, their mother, will be free, her liberty from a galling yoke will be the crowning reward of their labours and perils, no foe will now dare to oppose the conqueror's onward march towards the holy city. maccabeus joins in the shout, and shares in the exultation; he tramples his own private griefs under his feet, that they may cast no gloom over the triumph which god has vouchsafed to the arms of his people. the prince raises his helmed head and his victorious right arm towards heaven, and cries aloud, not with pride, but with glad thanksgiving, "behold! our enemies are discomfited! let us go up to cleanse and dedicate the sanctuary of zion!" chapter xxxvii. after the battle. there are joys as well as sorrows into which the stranger cannot enter, and which baffle the attempt of the pen to describe; such was that of lycidas and zarah when they first met after the battle of bethsura. the maiden had her happiness tempered indeed with something of anxiety and even alarm, for she beheld the young greek pale with loss of blood, exhausted by excessive fatigue, and with his left arm in a sling, but her mind was soon relieved, for lycidas had sustained no serious or permanent injury. the young proselyte was rather glad than otherwise to carry on his person some token of his having fought under judas maccabeus, and been one of the foremost of those who had stormed bethsura. with zarah and her attendant for his deeply interested listeners, lycidas gave a graphic and vivid description of the fight. zarah held her breath and trembled when the narrator came to that thrilling part of his account which described his own position of imminent peril, when he would have been precipitated from the top of the wall, had not judas maccabeus come to his rescue. "i deemed that all was over with me," said lycidas, "when the prince suddenly flashed on my sight! had i not long since given to the winds the idle fables that i heard in my childhood, i should have deemed that mars himself, radiant in his celestial panoply, had burst from the cloud of war. but the hero of israel needs no borrowed lustre to be thrown around him by the imagination of a poet, he realizes the noblest conception of homer." "and maccabeus was the one to save and defend you! generous, noble!" murmured zarah. "ay, it seems destined that i should be overwhelmed with an ever-growing debt of obligation," cried lycidas, playfully throwing a veil of discontent over the gratitude and admiration which he felt towards his preserver. "i would that it had been my part to play the rescuer; that it had been _my_ sword that had shielded his head; and that maccabeus were not fated to eclipse me in everything, even in the power of showing generosity to a rival but i must not grudge him the harvest of laurels," added the young athenian, with a joyous glance at zarah, "since the garland of happiness has been awarded to me." on the morning after the battle of bethsura, simon and eleazar, the asmoneans, both visited their youthful kinswoman in the goat-herd's hut, where she and anna had remained during the night. they regarded her still as their future sister, and offered her their escort to the house of rachel, which was at no great distance from the fortress of bethsura. as zarah desired as soon as possible to place herself under the protection of a female relative, she gladly accepted the offer. the horse-litter was brought to the door of the lowly hut; and with the curtains closely drawn, the maiden and her attendant proceeded to the dwelling of old rachel, who joyfully welcomed the child of hadassah. zarah, on that morning, saw nothing of lycidas, and judas maccabeus avoided approaching her presence. the chief could not trust himself to look on that sweet face again. through the hebrew camp all was bustle and preparation. tents were struck--all was made ready for the coming march to jerusalem; the tired warriors forgot their weariness, and the wounded their pain, so eager were all to gather the rich fruits of their victory within the walls of zion. but amidst all the excitement and confusion, with so many cares pressing upon him from every side, the mind of the prince dwelt much upon zarah. he felt that she was lost to him--he would have scorned to have claimed her hand when he knew that her heart was another's; but he resolved at least to act the part of a brother towards the orphan maiden. painful to maccabeus as was the sight of his successful rival, the chief determined to have an interview with lycidas, that he might judge for himself whether the stranger were indeed worthy to win a hebrew bride. lycidas had proved himself to be a brave warrior--he had won the admiration even of the fanatic jasher; but would the greek stand firm in his newly-adopted faith when fresh laurels were no longer to be won, or fair prize gained by adhesion to it? "the most remote hope of winning zarah," mused maccabeus, "were enough to make a man espouse the cause of her people, and renounce all idolatry--save idolatry of herself. i must question this athenian myself. i must examine whether he have embraced the truth independently of earthly motives, and, as a true believer, can indeed be trusted with the most priceless of gems. if it be so, let him be happy, since her happiness is linked with his. never will i darken the sunshine of her path with the shadow which will now rest for ever upon mine." it was with no small anxiety that lycidas obeyed the summons of the prince, and entered his presence alone, in one of the apartments of the fortress which he had aided to capture. the greek could not but conjecture that his fate, as regarded his union with zarah, might hang on the result of this interview with his formidable rival. the interview was not a long one: what occurred in it never transpired. not even to zarah did lycidas ever repeat the conversation between himself and the man whose earthly happiness he had wrecked. as the greek passed forth from the presence of maccabeus, he met simon and eleazar, who had just returned from escorting their young kinswoman to the dwelling of rachel. the asmonean brothers frankly and cordially greeted the stranger whom they had seen for the first time in the thick of the conflict of the preceding day. the bandage round his temples, the sling which supported his left arm, were as credentials which the athenian carried with him--a passport to the favour and confidence of his new associates in the field. "you have leaped into fame with one bound, fair greek!" cried eleazar. "you had reached the highest round of the ladder ere i could plant my foot on the lowest. i could fain envy you the honour you have won." eleazar, accompanied by simon, then passed on into the presence of maccabeus, while lycidas pursued his way. the smile with which the young hebrew had spoken was still on his lips when he entered the apartment in which the prince sat alone, but the first glance of eleazar at judas banished every trace of that smile. "you are ill!" he exclaimed anxiously, as he looked on the almost ghastly countenance of his brother; "you have received some deadly hurt!" the chief replied in the negative by a slight movement of the head. "the weight of responsibility, the lack of sleep, the exhaustion of yesterday's conflict, are sapping your strength," observed simon gravely. "judas, you are unfit to encounter the toils of the long march now before us." "i was never more ready--never more impatient for a march," said maccabeus, rising abruptly, for it seemed to him as if violent physical exertions alone could render life endurable. "i marvel," said eleazar, "if our graceful young proselyte will bear hardships as bravely as he has proved that he can encounter danger. methinks he shows amongst our grim warriors as a marble column from solomon's palace amongst the rough oaks that clothe the hill-side. if lycidas is to be--" "he is to be--the husband of zarah," interrupted maccabeus. his voice sounded strange and harsh, and he turned away his face as he spoke. "the husband of zarah!" re-echoed eleazar in amazement; "why"--simon's warning pressure on the young man's arm prevented his uttering more. the brothers exchanged significant glances. that was the last time that the name of zarah was ever breathed by either of them in the hearing of maccabeus. zarah found that her residence in her new home would be but a brief one, and that she was likely to return to jerusalem far sooner than she could have anticipated when she had set out on her night journey so short a time before. rachel--a woman who, though well stricken in years, had lost none of the energy and enthusiasm of youth--was filled with triumphant joy at the victory of bethsura, and declared to zarah her intention of starting for the city in advance of the army. "i have a vow upon me--a solemn vow," said the old jewess to the maiden. "long have i mourned over the desolation of zion; and i have promised to the lord that if ever holy sacrifices should again be offered up in the temple at jerusalem, my heifer, my fair white heifer, should be the first peace-offering. i have vowed also to go up myself to the holy city, and make there with my own hands wafers anointed with oil, to eat with the sacrifice of thanksgiving. the time for keeping my vow has arrived. we will go up together, my daughter, and my bondsman shall drive the white heifer before us. my soul cannot depart in peace till i have looked upon the sanctuary in which my ancestors worshipped, and with a thankful heart have performed this my vow to the lord." zarah made no opposition to the wishes of her relative, which, indeed, coincided with her own. arrangements for the proposed journey were speedily made. the horse-litter in which zarah had travelled to bethsura would avail for the accommodation of both the ladies on her return to the city. the faithful joab would resume his office of attendant, and anna join company with the handmaidens of rachel. it was under joyful auspices that the travellers would set forth on their way to the city of david. chapter xxxviii. the victor's return. is there a more glorious, a more soul-stirring sight than that of a brave nation bursting from foreign bondage, casting from her the chains that bound and the sackcloth that covered her, rising victorious and free--free to worship the one god in purity and truth? even so, when the shadow of the eclipse is over, the moon bursts forth into brightness, to shine again in beauty in the firmament of heaven. it was thus with jerusalem when maccabeus and his followers went up to the holy city which they had delivered, through god's blessing on their arms. the town was in a delirium of joy, which there was now no need to conceal. the voice of thanksgiving and rejoicing was heard in every street; women wept for very happiness; and while the younger inhabitants made the walls ring with their shouts, the old men blessed god that they had been spared to see such a day. the advanced season forbade any profusion of flowers; but on every side palm branches were waving, doors and windows were decked with evergreens, and goodly boughs were strewed in the way. every trace of heathenism was eagerly destroyed in the streets, and the very children fiercely trampled under foot the fragments of idol or altar. again was the song of miriam heard, "sing ye unto the lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously;" and women went forth with timbrels to welcome the warriors of judah. though it was the month of casleu,[ ] the sun shone with cheerful radiance and warmth, as if nature herself shared in the general rejoicing. up mount zion they come, the brave, the true, the devout; they who through much tribulation have kept the faith; they who have never bowed the knee to idol, nor forsaken the covenant of god. maccabeus is foremost now in glory as once in danger. press ye to see him, children of judah! shout to welcome him, sons of the free! a group of matrons and maidens surrounded the entrance to the temple. zarah and rachel were amongst them. "you should stand foremost, my daughter, to greet the conquerors," cried rachel to her fair young companion, who was rather inclined to shrink back. "the asmonean blood flows in your veins; you are kinswoman to our prince; and you have yourself nobly suffered persecution for the faith. what! tears in your eyes, maiden, on such a morning as this!" "oh, that my beloved mother, hadassah, had lived to behold it!" thought zarah. "she would have deemed this glorious day a type and forerunner of that even more blessed time when _the ransomed of the lord shall return to zion with songs and everlasting joy upon their heads: they shall obtain joy and gladness, and sorrow and sighing shall flee away_" (isa. xxxv. ). yes; as that bright, warm day in winter, soon to be succeeded by frosts and storms, was in regard to the long, glorious summer, so was the happiness of judaea under the sway of her first asmonean princes, compared to the glory which will be hers when her many ages of tribulation shall be ended. in the time of maccabeus and his successors, the "discrowned queen" had arisen from the dust; but she has not yet, even at this late period, mounted her throne. more fearful judgments, more terrible desolation, were to succeed an interval of prosperity and freedom in the history of zion. the romans, more formidable even than the syrians, were to give jerusalem's sons to the sword and her temple to the flames; and god's ancient people were to be scattered throughout all nations, to be a by-word and a hissing amongst them. but the glory is not departed for ever. we may--or our descendants must--see the vine brought out of egypt, budding into new beauty and life at the breath of the promised spring. "he comes, he comes! maccabeus, our hero!" such were the shouts which burst from every side as the war-worn victors appeared, with palm branches in their hands. was not exultation in the heart of maccabeus at that moment? perhaps not. perhaps he would gladly have exchanged the shouts of all the people for a loving welcome from one dear voice. judas caught a glimpse of zarah. hers were the only eyes in all the crowd that were not fixed upon himself. she was eagerly looking at the form of one a little way in the rear of the chief---the form of her betrothed husband, the gentile proselyte whom she loved. the conquerors entered the temple of zion. they came, not only to worship, but to purify. no sacrifice could be offered in the sanctuary till what the heathen had denied the hebrew should cleanse. with indignant horror maccabeus and his followers beheld the image of jupiter, which for years had desecrated the temple. since the departure of antiochus, no worshipper indeed had bowed down before the idolatrous shrine: the edifice had been deserted and left to neglect. the place had now an appearance of wildness and desolation, as if the curse of god were upon it, and presented such a contrast to what it had been in former days as struck sadness into the hearts of maccabeus and his warriors. in the words of the historian: "when they saw the sanctuary desolate, and the altar profaned, and the gates burned up, and shrubs growing in the courts as in a forest or in one of the mountains, yea, and the priests' chambers pulled down, they rent their clothes and made great lamentations, and cast ashes upon their heads, and fell down to the ground upon their faces, and blew an alarm with the trumpets, and cried towards heaven." but no long time was given to lamentations. with all the energy of his nature, maccabeus at once set about the work of restoration. he chose out the most zealous and virtuous of the priests to cleanse the sanctuary, destroy every vestige of idolatry, carry away even the stones that had been defiled, and pull down the altar which had been profaned. new vessels were made, shew-bread and incense were prepared, all in the renovated sanctuary was made ready, for the joyful feast of dedication, this festival was appointed by judas maccabeus to be annually held; and it was from thenceforth celebrated from year to year for more than two centuries--till her darkest, most lengthened trial came upon jerusalem. who shall now keep the feast of the dedication of the temple when that glorious temple has itself become a thing of the past? [ ] answering to december. of this time of the year, dr. kitto tells us: "gumpenberg in jerusalem, on the th, th, th, and th, experienced weather which he describes as almost equal to that of may in our latitudes." chapter xxxix. the feast of dedication. loud was the burst of joyous music from citherns, harps, and cymbals--mount zion rang with songs of gladness--when in the early morning the worshippers of the lord of hosts appeared in his temple, to offer sacrifices of thanksgiving! the front of the building was decked with crowns of gold, and with shields; and, in the forcible language of the ancient historian, "thus was there very great gladness among the people, for that the reproach of the heathen was put away." then--emblem of thanksgivings from thousands of hearts--rose clouds of delicious fragrance from the altar of incense. judas maccabeus stood beside it--more pale and pensive, perhaps, than seemed to suit the occasion--watching the light curling smoke as it ascended and lost itself in the perfumed air. presently the prince took something from his arm, and cast it into the flame. the movement was so quiet that it was noticed but by few by-standers; and none knew what that was which blazed brightly for a moment, and then left not even visible ashes behind. it was but a few threads of flax, which had bound up flowers long since withered; it seemed a worthless sacrifice indeed; but when, a few years later, judas maccabeus poured out his life's-blood on the fatal field of eleasa, the steel which pierced his brave heart inflicted not on him so keen a pang. and here will i close my story, leaving the hero of judah a victor over his enemies, and a victor over himself. let the picture left on the reader's mind be that of jerusalem in the hour of her triumph and rejoicing--when the lord had turned again the captivity of zion, and her exulting citizens were like unto them that dream! but, ere i lay down my pen, let me crave leave for a few moments to address my readers, both christian and hebrew. and to the first i would say: think not of the record of the lives of judah's heroes, and the deaths of her martyrs, as something in which we have no personal interest--merely to be admired, like the courage of the greeks at thermopylae, or the devotion of regulus at rome. rather let us honour the children of abraham who fought or died for the covenant as our brethren in faith, heirs of all the promises on which we rest our hopes, as well as of some others peculiarly their own. their scriptures are our scriptures--they guarded them at hazard of their lives; their messiah is our messiah, though he visited earth too late for them--as too early for us--to behold him. christianity rests on such judaism as was held by hebrew saints and martyrs; christianity is in regard to the ancient religion as the capital to the column, the full-blown flower to the bud, as the cloud floating high above the sea is to the waters from which it drew its existence. laws and rites which passed away when types had been accomplished and prophecies fulfilled, are as the salts which are necessary component parts of the sea but not of the cloud; when it rose on high it left them behind. it is an interesting subject for thought to inquire whether, if daniel's weeks had run out in the times of the maccabees, and the messenger of the covenant had then come suddenly into his temple, christ would not have found adoring worshippers instead of fierce persecutors--a throne instead of a cross? would he not then have been welcomed by the heroes of emmaus and bethsura, instead of being despised and rejected of men? would he not, humanly speaking, have escaped the scourge, the nails, and the spear? but how then shall the scriptures be fulfilled (matt. xxvl. ) that christ should suffer these things? (luke xxiv. ). the sacrifice must be slain, that the sinner may be pardoned and live. and if--as i would fain hope--some hebrews peruse these pages, how earnestly would i desire power to speak to their hearts! countrymen and countrywomen of maccabeus, ye whose fathers fought side by side with the asmonean brothers, does the history of their deeds rouse none of their spirit of patriotism in your breasts? can ye, amidst the cares and toils of this working-day world, be indifferent to the state of your own land, your own city--yours by divine right--yours by a deed of gift signed and sealed by god himself! is it no grief to you that the mosque stands on the site of your holy temple; that--under a corrupt form of so-called christianity--idolatry is practised at this day in the city of david? _ye that make mention of the lord keep not silence, and give him no rest, till he establish, and till he make jerusalem a praise in the earth!_ (isa. lxii. , .) if gentile christians are longing and praying for that time, shall not hebrews long, pray, and strive to hasten its coming? shall they not search their hearts and ask, "wherefore is it so long delayed? wherefore are the heathen still suffered to prevail; the followers of the false prophet to hold the holy city in subjection? for what transgression doth the lord god of israel still hide his face from his people; what hath brought upon them a judgment enduring so much longer than egyptian bondage, or babylonish captivity, or the tyranny of an antiochus epiphanes?" seek for the answer to this momentous question in your own scriptures; read them in the light thrown by your own history;--that history will in the future flash into greater brilliancy than even in the days of the hebrew heroes; we christians are assured of this, because we, like yourselves, believe those scriptures, and know that god's word is pledged for your restoration, and that _the word of the lord endureth for ever_!