UC Santa Barbara Journal of Transnational American Studies Title “American” Pictures and (Trans-)National Iconographies: Mapping Interpictorial Clusters in American Studies Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/02x2r3zx Journal Journal of Transnational American Studies, 6(1) Author Hebel, Udo J. Publication Date 2015 eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California https://escholarship.org/uc/item/02x2r3zx https://escholarship.org http://www.cdlib.org/ W I N F R I E D F L U C K E R I K R E D L I N G S A B I N E S I E E K E H U B E R T Z A P F ( E d s . ) American Studies Today New Research Agendas Universitatsverlag W I N T E R H e i d e l b e r g U D O J. H E B E L ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s a n d ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s : M a p p i n g I n t e r p i c t o r i a l C l u s t e r s in A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s 1 T h e iconic turn propagated with c o n s i d e r a b l e fervor in the early 1990s and exerting w i d e s p r e a d i n f l u e n c e across the h u m a n i t i e s in the two d e c a d e s a f t e r w a r d s m a r k e d less o f a watershed for A m e r i c a n Studies. Visual representations o f ' A m e r i c a ' and visual c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f ' A m e r i - c a n ' identities and US A m e r i c a n ideologies had long been an integral part o f the interdisciplinary cultural studies a g e n d a and cultural history p r o j e c t of A m e r i c a n Studies w h e n Gottfried B o e h m and W. J. T. Mitchell p r o c l a i m e d their respective versions of what c a m e to be known as the iconic or pictorial turn on both sides of the Atlantic. Alan T r a c h t e n b e r g ' s magisterial study Reading American Photographs of 1989 with its still n o t e w o r t h y subtitle Images as History as well as G e r h a r d H o f f m a n n ' s exhibition and scholarly catalog Indianische Kunst im 20. Jahrhundert of 1985 and also T h o m a s W . G a e h t g e n s ' and Heinz I c k s t a d t ' s American Icons: Transatlantic Perspectives on Eighteenth- ami Nineteenth Century American Art of 1992 m a y serve as e x a m p l e s to illustrate that the discipline of A m e r i c a n Studies has indeed paid atten- tion to A m e r i c a n visual cultures since the m y t h - a n d - s y m b o l school of the 1950s and 1960s. In her a s s e s s m e n t of A m e r i c a n fine arts f r o m 1670 to 1980, Bettina Friedl c l a i m s that well into the 1980s A m e r i c a n Studies did more for the study o f A m e r i c a n painting than Art History itself did f o r this field of A m e r i c a n visual cultures. The 1993 and 1994 annual c o n f e r e n c e s of the G e r m a n Association for A m e r i c a n Studies, " D e m o c r a c y and the Arts in the United S t a t e s " and " M e d i e n k u l t u r " (both predating the 2 0 0 6 c o n f e r e n c e on " A m e r i c a n Studies as Media 4 0 2 U D O J. H E B I l S t u d i e s " b y m o r e t h a n a d e c a d e ) t e s t i f y in d i f f e r e n t w a y s t o the l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d d i v e r s i t y o f visual c u l t u r e s t u d i e s a p p r o a c h e s and p e r s p e c t i v e s in G e r m a n A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s . A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s w a s in n o dire need at t h e turn f r o m t h e 1980s to the 1990s o f c a l l s f o r a p r o g r a m m a t i c r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f its a g e n d a and p r a c t i c e s in o r d e r to r e c o g n i z e the s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d c o m p l e x i t i e s o f ( A m e r i c a n ) visual c u l t u r e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e e m e r g e n c e and p o p u l a r i t y o f v i s u a l c u l t u r e s t u d i e s a s a ( n e w ) t h e o r e t i c a l and c o n c e p t u a l p a r a d i g m has left its m a r k on A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e past t w e n t y y e a r s . T h e pictorial turn a f f e c t e d A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s in the i n t e n s i t y and p r o m i n e n c e o f the e x p l o - ration o f ( A m e r i c a n ) visual c u l t u r e s w i t h o u t , h o w e v e r , f u n d a m e n t a l l y t r a n s f o r m i n g the d i s c i p l i n e ' s i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y o r i e n t a t i o n s , m a t e r i a l b a s e s , a n d t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s at large. T h e c o n c e r n o f visual c u l - t u r e s s t u d i e s w i t h , a m o n g o t h e r a s p e c t s ( a n d d i s r e g a r d i n g f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g i m p o r t a n t w o r k d o n e at the i n t e r s e c t i o n s w i t h t h e natural s c i e n c e s a n d m e d i c i n e ) , t h e c o n t e x t s and p o l i t i c s o f i m a g e s , the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f s c o p i c r e g i m e s , p h e n o m e n a o f h y p e r r e a l i t i e s a n d m e d i a c u l t u r e s , a n d t h e social a n d p o l i t i c a l d i m e n s i o n s o f p r a c t i c e s o f l o o k i n g a p p e a r s to h a v e f a l l e n on p a r t i c u l a r l y f e r t i l e and w e l l - p r e p a r e d g r o u n d in A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s . T h e s p e c i a l interests o f t h e N e w A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s s i n c e t h e late 1980s and early 1990s in identity p o l i t i c s , r e v i s i o n i s t h i s t o r y , the r h e t o - ric o f d i f f e r e n t m o d e s a n d m e d i a o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s o f c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e a n d c i r c u l a t i o n h a v e c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h k e y i s s u e s and a p p r o a c h e s in v i s u a l c u l t u r e s t u d i e s . T h e m u c h - q u o t e d v i s u a l i t y o f 9/11 and t h e e n s u i n g c o n t r o v e r s i e s o v e r i s s u e s o f v i s i b i l i t y a n d t h e im- p l i c a t i o n s and l i m i t s o f visual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n h a v e f u r t h e r e n h a n c e d the c o n c e r n w i t h v i s u a l c u l t u r e s in A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s . " For p u b l i c a t i o n s o f the p r o c e e d i n g s o f the 1993 a n d 2 0 0 6 c o n f e r e n c e s , s e e H o r n u n g , H o f f m a n n , a n d D o e r r i e s ; K e l l e t e r a n d Stein. In m y r e p o r t on the d e v e l o p m e n t o f Amerikastudien/American Studies, the q u a r t e r l y j o u r n a l o f the G e r m a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s , f r o m v o l u m e 4 8 ( 2 0 0 3 ) t h r o u g h v o l u m e 55.1 ( 2 0 1 1 ) , 1 h a v e i d e n t i f i e d t h e in- c r e a s e d c o n c e r n w i t h issues a n d t o p i c s o f visual c u l t u r e s t u d i e s as o n e o f t h e m a j o r c h a n g e s o f t h e j o u r n a l ' s s c o p e and c o n t e n t s o v e r the y e a r s o f m y g e n e r a l e d i t o r s h i p . S e e H e h e l . "Amerikastudien/American Studies 2 0 0 2 - 2011." ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s and ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 4 0 3 W h e r e t o , then, f r o m here with the study of ( A m e r i c a n ) visual cul- t u r e s in A m e r i c a n Studies? In his Picture Theory of 1994. W. .1. T. Mitchell formulated what still bears special quoting in A m e r i c a n Studies c o n t e x t s : " W h a t w e need is a critique of visual culture that is alert to the p o w e r of images for the good and evil and that is c a p a b l e o f discrimi- n a t i n g the variety and historical specificity of their u s e s " (Mitchell, Picture Theory 2-3). M i t c h e l l ' s agenda-setting e m p h a s i s on the power, f u n c t i o n a l i t y , and historical and cultural specificity of i m a g e s has s u p p o r t e d the e m e r g e n c e — i n view of d e v e l o p m e n t s in Art History t h r o u g h o u t the twentieth century, r e - e m e r g e n c e — o f notions, c o n c e p t s , a n d practices of i c o n o g r a p h y : Die b i l d t h e o r e t i s c h e D i s k u s s i o n d e r letzten f u n f D e k a d e n hat a l s o ver- starkt e i n e n k u l t u r e l l e n Blickvvinkel e i n g e n o m m e n und d a m i t d i e F o r - m e n d e s S a g e n s und d e s Z e i g e n s in g l e i c h e r W e i s e als k u l t u r s p e z i f i s c h e D a r s t e l l u n g s k o n v e n t i o n e n zu e r f a s s e n v e r s u c h t . [ . . . ] I n s o f e r n h a t d e r so- g e n a n n t e cultural turn v o l l i g zu R e c h t a u c h b i l d w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e F r a g e - s t e l l u n g e n erfaBt. [ . . . ] A l s H a b i t u s d e s B i l d w i s s e n s c h a f t l e r s w i r d d a m i t b e r e c h t i g t e r w e i s e n i c h t l a n g e r d a s V e r h a r r e n „ v o r e i n e m B i l d " , s o n d e r n die Z u w e n d u n g z u m g e s a m t e n Reich d e r B i l d e r o d e r g a r a l l e r v i s u e l l e r P h a n o m e n e g e f o r d e r t , w a s als A k t d e r D e m o k r a t i s i e r u n g und P l u r a l i s i e - r u n g des G e g e n s t a n d s e m p f u n d e n w e r d e n m a g . ( S a c h s - H o m b a c h a n d S c h i r r a 3 9 6 - 9 7 ) 3 Individual items of visual culture, including the so-called ' m a s t e r p i e c e s ' of allegedly singular artistry and standing, are considered as " a l w a y s e n g a g e d within a c o m p l e x system o f c o n f l i c t i n g or c o r r e s p o n d i n g i c o n o g r a p h i e s of e m p o w e r m e n t and d i s e m p o w e r m e n t " ( H a s e l s t e i n . O s t e n d o r f , and Schneck 7). Publications such as, e.g., National Imagi- naries, American Identities: The Cultural Work of American Iconogra- phy ( R e y n o l d s and H u t n e r ) and Iconographies of Power: The Politics and Poetics of Visual Representation (Haselstein, O s t e n d o r f , and Schneck) illustrate the potential and practice of f u s i n g long-established c o n c e r n s and materials of A m e r i c a n Studies with the agenda and per- spectives of i c o n o g r a p h i c studies. T h e focus of American S t u d i e s on context and f u n c t i o n m e r g e s well with the interest of i c o n o g r a p h i c T h e G e r m a n term Bildwissenschaft e v o k e s the w i d e r s c o p e o f r e c e n t ap- p r o a c h e s in Art H i s t o r y in t h e w a k e o f the iconic t u r n ; see S c h u l z . 4 0 4 U D O J. H E B I l a p p r o a c h e s in Art History in the position of the individual w o r k of vis- ual art in the n e t w o r k of r e p e r t o i r e s and c o n v e n t i o n s . Within the f r a m e - w o r k of A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s , i c o n o g r a p h i c r e a d i n g s p e r f o r m the re- situating interpretive act that W i n f r i e d Fluck, in his article on the visual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of p o v e r t y in the 1930s, d e s c r i b e s as f o l l o w s : T h e m e a n i n g that w e a t t r i b u t e to the i m a g e is the result o f a n a r r a t i v e c o n t e x t that w e b r i n g to it and w e a v e a r o u n d it. [ . . . ] F o r t u n a t e l y , A m e r i - can S t u d i e s h a s a l w a y s insisted that it is not s u f f i c i e n t to look at s i n g l e texts o r o b j e c t s . W e h a v e to look at t h e n a r r a t i v e s a b o u t A m e r i c a that c o m e a l o n g w i t h t h e m . ( F l u c k , " P o o r L i k e U s " 9 1 ) It is f r o m these larger c o n t e x t s that the present c a s e for the m a p p i n g of interpictorial clusters in A m e r i c a n Studies e m e r g e s . T h e f o c u s of the f o l l o w i n g sections will be on the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and e x p l o r a t i o n of the implicit or explicit interplay b e t w e e n pictures, with special e m p h a s i s given to political p h o t o g r a p h y . T h e a r g u m e n t will take its starting point in p r o m i n e n t p h o t o g r a p h s of US A m e r i c a n p r e s i d e n t s and p r o j e c t the m a p p i n g of interpictorial clusters with the p u r p o s e of tracing the histori- cal and cultural f l o w as well as m o b i l i t y of p o w e r f u l pictures, r e v e a l i n g the possible political impact and f u n c t i o n of particular i m a g e s and rep- ertoire c o n v e n t i o n s at large. 2 A m o n g the public relation failures of the Bush a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , the visualization of President G e o r g e W. B u s h ' s r e s p o n s e to the H u r r i c a n e Katrina disaster is g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d particularly c a t a s t r o p h i c . T h e p i c t u r e s of President Bush flying high o v e r N e w O r l e a n s on 31 A u g u s t 2 0 0 5 and v i e w i n g t h e flooded disaster area f r o m a b i r d ' s eye p e r s p e c t i v e and f r o m behind the n a r r o w p e e p h o l e s of the cabin w i n d o w s o f Air Force O n e w e r e taken as the public revelation of the p r e s i d e n t ' s limited vision and disinterested d e t a c h m e n t f r o m the n e e d s of the d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s and the A m e r i c a n people in all respects. W h e n President O b a m a w a s c o n f r o n t e d with the n e c e s s i t y to s h o w c o m p e t e n t d i s a s t e r 4 B e s i d e s the W h i t e H o u s e p h o t o g r a p h s by Paul M o r s e , s e e , e.g., t h e p h o t o - g r a p h s by S u s a n W a l s h ( A s s o c i a t e d Press) a n d M a n n i e G a r c i a ( R e u t e r s ) . ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s a n d ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 4 0 5 h a n d l i n g in t h e w a k e o f t h e D e e p w a t e r H o r i z o n B P oil spill in the G u l f of M e x i c o , d i f f e r e n t i m a g e s and i m p l i c a t i o n s w e r e c a l l e d for. P r e s i d e n t O b a m a ' s r e p e a t e d v i s i t s to the L o u i s i a n a c o a s t in late M a y a n d e a r l y J u n e 2 0 1 0 w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d by p i c t u r e s that s h o w e d h i m in a d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n and in d i f f e r e n t p o s e s . P r e s i d e n t O b a m a w a s d e p i c t e d on t h e g r o u n d , i.e., w h e r e t h e d i s a s t e r w a s a c t u a l l y h a p p e n i n g . He w a s p r e s e n - ted a s p e r s o n a l l y c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h both the v i c t i m s o f the d i s a s t e r a n d t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e r e l i e f u n i t s o f , e.g., t h e N a t i o n a l G u a r d , a n d h e w a s g e n e r a l l y v i s u a l i z e d as t a k i n g an a c t i v e i n t e r e s t in t h e p r o c e e d i n g s . 5 B u s h ' s r e m o t e , m a r g i n a l i z e d o b s e r v e r p o s i t i o n w a s t o be r e p l a c e d by a p o s i t i o n o f a g e n c y and c o m p a s s i o n , a l b e i t s y m b o l i c a l l y and r e c o g n i z a - ble as p a r t of a w e l l - s t a g e d , m e d i a - o r i e n t e d e v e n t . F i g u r e I: P r e s i d e n t O b a m a , Port F o u r c h o n B e a c h . L A , 28 M a y 2 0 1 0 . D a v i d G r u n f e l d (New Orleans Times-Picayune) D a v i d G r u n f e l d ' s p h o t o g r a p h of P r e s i d e n t O b a m a on Port F o u r c h o n B e a c h , L A , 2 8 M a y 2 0 1 0 is p r o b a b l y the m o s t - w i d e l y c i r c u l a t e d i m a g e o f the p r e s i d e n t i a l v i s i t s to the d i s a s t e r a r e a a l o n g t h e G u l f C o a s t . It s h o w s t h e p r e s i d e n t a l o n e with the ( a l m o s t i n v i s i b l e ) d i s a s t e r , p e r s o n a l l y c o n c e r n e d , a n d p h y s i c a l l y ' i n t o u c h ' w i t h the i m m e d i a t e c o n s e q u e n c e s B e s i d e s D a v i d G r u n f e l d ' s p h o t o g r a p h s ( N e w O r l e a n s T i m e s - P i c a y u n e ) , s e e , e.g.. p h o t o g r a p h s by E v a n V u c c i ( A s s o c i a t e d Press), W i n M c N a m e e ( G e t t y I m a g e s N o r t h A m e r i c a ) , a n d C h a r l e s D h a r a p a k ( A s s o c i a t e d Press). 4 0 6 U I ) ( ) J. H E B F L o f t h e e c o l o g i c a l c a t a s t r o p h e . T h e p r e s i d e n t is p r e s e n t e d a s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , w i t h t h e p o l i c e c a u t i o n t a p e m a r k i n g t h e s c e n e of d a n g e r and a d e a d bird in t h e b a c k g r o u n d as t h e u n m i s t a k e n p r o o f o f the i m p a c t o f t h e oil spill. P r e s i d e n t G e o r g e B u s h ' s p o s i t i o n high up in the air a b o a r d .Air F o r c e O n e , b e h i n d t h e s m a l l w i n d o w s of t h e h e r m e t i c a l l y c l o s e d - o f f s p a c e o f t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l p l a n e , is c o u n t e r e d by p i c t u r e s of P r e s i d e n t O b a m a on t h e s a m e level w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e in the o p e n s p a c e s a l o n g t h e G u l f C o a s t s h o r e l i n e . W i t h his j a c k e t t a k e n o f f a n d his s h i r t s l e e v e s rolled up to t a k e a c t i o n , t h e p r e s i d e n t is p r e s e n t e d as part of the w o r k f o r c e on the b e a c h , b e n d i n g d o w n in a p o s t u r e of p a r t i c i p a t i o n , c o n c e r n , and e m p a t h y . F i g u r e 2: P r e s i d e n t L y n d o n B. J o h n s o n w i t h T o m F l e t c h c r ' s f a m i l y on t h e p o r c h o f t h e i r h o m e , M a r t i n C o u n t y , K Y , 2 4 A p r i l 1964. W a l t e r B e n n e t t (Time Magazine) In its c o m p o s i t i o n and p r e s i d e n t i a l i c o n o g r a p h y , D a v i d G r u n f e l d ' s p i c t u r e o f P r e s i d e n t O b a m a r e s e m b l e s W a l t e r B e n n e t t ' s p h o t o g r a p h of P r e s i d e n t L y n d o n B. J o h n s o n ' s visit to M a r t i n C o u n t y , KY a s part o f t h e p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s c a m p a i g n f o r his ' w a r on p o v e r t y ' in A p r i l 1964.'' T h e s i m i l a r i t i e s o f G r u n f e l d ' s p i c t u r e w i t h B e n n e t t ' s w e l l - k n o w n p h o t o g r a p h 6 It m a y b e a r m e n t i o n in r e g a r d to p r e s i d e n t i a l d i s a s t e r m a n a g e m e n t thai L y n d o n B. J o h n s o n p e r s o n a l l y visited New O r l e a n s on t h e g r o u n d a f t e r H u r r i c a n e B e t s y h a d hit t h e city in 1965. ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s and ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 4 0 7 of the G r e a t S o c i e t y p r o g r a m of the 1960s p l a c e O b a m a in the tradition of D e m o c r a t i c p r e s i d e n t s and their w o r k f o r the social w e l l - b e i n g of the A m e r i c a n p e o p l e w h i c h dates back to the 1930s and Franklin D e l a n o R o o s e v e l t ' s N e w Deal in w h o s e larger c o n t e x t s the political career of Lyndon B. J o h n s o n b e g a n . D u r i n g the 2 0 0 8 presidential election c a m - paign and in t h e early d a y s of his p r e s i d e n c y in 2 0 0 9 . President Barack O b a m a w a s e a g e r to establish a special r e l a t i o n s h i p with J o h n s o n for o b v i o u s r e a s o n s of political lineage and a s s u m e d c o m p e t e n c e in national crisis m a n a g e m e n t . F i g u r e 3: Floyd B u r r o u g h ' s W o r k S h o e s , H a l e C o u n t y , A L , 1936. W a l k e r E v a n s . The salient detail w h i c h m a k e s G r u n l e l d ' s p h o t o g r a p h particularly noteworthy in the present c o n t e x t is the pair of s h o e s that O b a m a is w e a r n g , o b v i o u s l y w i t h o u t their laces fully tied. Art h i s t o r i a n s m a y point to V i n c e n t Van G o g h ' s f a m o u s 1886 p a i n t i n g o f a pair of s h o e s that i a s given rise to n u m e r o u s and c o m p e t i n g interpretations, a m o n g them those by Martin H e i d e g g e r , M e y e r S h a p i r o , and J a c q u e s Derrida, and lhat w a s given a special s i n g l e - p a i n t i n g e x h i b i t i o n by the W a l l r a f - R i c h i r t z - M u s e u m in C o l o g n e in 2 0 0 9 . F r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e of A m e r i - ' Cn the e x h i b i t i o n and t h e v a r i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f Van G o g h ' s p a i n t i n g , see B a t c h e n . 4 0 8 U D O J. H E B I l can Studies, the shoes in G r u n f e l d ' s p h o t o g r a p h can be considered as an " i c o n o g r a p h i c a l l u s i o n " (Fluck, " P o o r Like U s " 74) to Walker E v a n s ' p h o t o g r a p h of Floyd B u r r o u g h s ' work shoes as taken in Hale C o u n t y , AL in 1936 and later included in J a m e s A g e e ' s and W a l k e r E v a n s ' Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (1941). The prominent e l e m e n t of the work shoes a n c h o r s G r u n f e l d ' s picture o f President O b a m a on the beach of L o u i s i a n a in the visual archive of A m e r i c a n social p h o t o g r a p h y of the 1930s and its respective ideological implications and presuppositions. T h e visualization o f President O b a m a on the polluted Gulf Coast par- ticipates in the iconographic repertoire of W P A representations o f the plight, dignity, and p e r s e v e r a n c e of c o m m o n p e o p l e during the Great Depression which Walter B e n n e t t ' s 1964 p h o t o g r a p h of President J o h n s o n on the front porch of the Fletcher h o m e in Martin C o u n t y . KY had already e v o k e d in a similar m a n n e r . The a f f i n i t i e s between G r u n f e l d ' s 2 0 1 0 photograph and the visual archive of American social p h o t o g r a p h y m a k e Barack O b a m a look like a c o m m o n man president and underscore in a subtle, interpictorial w a y the parallels between O b a m a and his D e m o c r a t i c p r e d e c e s s o r s in the White House. 1 ' O n c e the visual rhetoric of the ( A m e r i c a n ) c o m m o n man has c o m e into view, the associative range is open to include, e.g., further p h o t o g r a p h s by W a l k e r Evans and his W P A colleagues and, reaching f u r t h e r back into the storehouse of A m e r i c a n visual cultures, n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y depictions such as, e.g., John N e a g l e ' s painting Pa! Lyon at the Forge ( 1 8 2 5 / 2 6 ) and the f r o n t i s p i e c e portrait to the first edition of Walt W h i t m a n ' s Leaves of Grass ( 1 8 5 5 ) . T h a t t h e W h i t e H o u s e m a y p u r p o s e f u l l y w o r k w i t h i n t e r p i c t o r i a l s t r a t e g i e s in the c h o r e o g r a p h y o f P r e s i d e n t O b a m a ' s p u b l i c p e r c e p t i o n can be illus- trated by p h o t o g r a p h s s h o w i n g t h e O b a m a f a m i l y on a H a w a i i a n v a c a t i o n h o m e porch and B a r a c k O b a m a e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e w a v e s on the b e a c h o f O a h u , H a w a i i , w h i c h a r e r e m i n i s c e n t o f c o r r e s p o n d i n g p i c t u r e s o f , r e s p e c - t i v e l y , the J o h n F. K e n n e d y f a m i l y on a p o r c h o f t h e i r c o m p o u n d at H y a n n i s Port, M A , a n d the t h r e e K e n n e d y b r o t h e r s e m e r g i n g f r o m the w a v e s a f t e r a s w i m in the A t l a n t i c o f f the c o a s t o f C a p e C o d . ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s a n d ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 4 0 9 F i g u r e 4: P r e s i d e n t G e o r g e W . B u s h , B a g h d a d , 2 7 N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 3 . Anja Niedringhaus (Associated Press) T h e second set of e x a m p l e s to illustrate the political and ideological i m p l i c a t i o n s of d i a l o g s b e t w e e n pictures starts with a p h o t o g r a p h of President G e o r g e W. Bush presenting a T h a n k s g i v i n g t u r k e y to US A m e r i c a n troops in B a g h d a d on 27 N o v e m b e r 2003. A n j a N i e d r i n g h a u s ' p h o t o g r a p h depicts the C o m m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f in the midst of a g r o u p of soldiers, w e a r i n g an A r m y w i n d b r e a k e r in an o b v i o u s gesture of bond- ing and solidarity. 1 ' Bush carries a tray, which evidently bulges u n d e r the weight of the festive food and, by implication, under the g e n e r o s i t y of the n a t i o n ' s leader t o w a r d his soldiers in the field. President Bush is shown as the pater familias taking good care of the troops fighting the n a t i o n ' s w a r against terrorism in f a r - a w a y lands even on the very day of the celebration o f t i m e - h o n o r e d traditions o f A m e r i c a n history, culture, and family. T h e s p e c i a l m o m e n t w a s c a p t u r e d f r o m s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s by s e v e r a l o t h e r p h o t o g r a p h e r s , i n c l u d i n g , e.g., P a b l o M a r t i n e z M o n s i v a i s ( A s s o c i a t e d Press) a n d T i m S l o a n ( A F P and G e t t y I m a g e s ) . 4 1 0 U D O J. H E B I l fyS* F i g u r e 5: N o r m a n R o c k w e l l , " F r e e d o m f r o m W a n t " ( 1 9 4 3 ) W h i l e it w a s the salient e l e m e n t of the untied w o r k i n g shoes in David G r u n f e l d ' s picture of President O b a m a on the Louisiana G u l f Coast which triggered the evocation of the a r c h i v e of social d o c u m e n - tary p h o t o g r a p h y , it is the gesture of presenting the turkey in Niedring- h a u s ' picture which establishes a relation to the national narrative of T h a n k s g i v i n g and to one of its most f a m o u s v i s u a l i z a t i o n s , N o r m a n R o c k w e l l ' s " F r e e d o m from W a n t " of 1943. R o c k w e l l ' s p a i n t i n g is part of his Four Freedoms cycle w h i c h took its title f r o m President Roose- v e l t ' s a d d r e s s to C o n g r e s s in J a n u a r y 1941 and f r o m R o o s e v e l t ' s and Winston C h u r c h i l l ' s Atlantic Charter of A u g u s t 1941 (Hebel and M o r e t h - H e b e l ) . T h e publication of the series in The Saturday Evening Post in F e b r u a r y and March of 1943 and its s u c c e s s f u l tour of the coun- try as part of a US Department o f T r e a s u r y w a r b o n d s drive in the m o n t h s f o l l o w i n g m a d e R o c k w e l l ' s paintings w i d e l y p o p u l a r and inex- tricably linked it in collective A m e r i c a n m e m o r y with W o r l d War II. C o u n t l e s s r e p r o d u c t i o n s have kept the " F o u r F r e e d o m s " visible as one of the " i c o n s of A m e r i c a n visual c u l t u r e " ( H e n n e s s e y and K n u t s o n 9 5 ) as i n e x p e n s i v e prints and posters as well as s t a m p s well into the 1990s. ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s a n d ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 12 T h e p h o t o g r a p h o f President Bush celebrating T h a n k s g i v i n g with A m e r i c a n troops in B a g h d a d is thus interpictorially linked with two m a j o r national narratives: first, the national myth of T h a n k s g i v i n g and e a r l y N e w England f o u n d a t i o n a l history that had already inspired R o c k w e l l ' s painting; and s e c o n d , the narrative of the so-called ' g o o d w a r , ' w h i c h w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o m i n e n t throughout the 1990s and semi- n a l l y s u p p o r t e d the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the National W o r l d W a r II M e m o r i a l at t h e center of the N a t i o n a l Mall in W a s h i n g t o n , DC in 2004, and w hich, a c c o r d i n g to the w e b site of the National Park Service, " c o m m e m o r a t e s the s a c r i f i c e and celebrates the victory of ' t h e greatest g e n e r a t i o n ' [ . . . a n d ] c o n n e c t s the legacy of the A m e r i c a n Revolution and the A m e r i c a n Civil W a r with a great crusade to rid the world of f a s c i s m " ( " F r o m the H o m e Front"). Similar to G r u n f e l d ' s p h o t o g r a p h of President O b a m a f i g h t i n g the D e e p w a t e r Horizon BP oil spill in the Gulf o f M e x i c o , the B a g h d a d T h a n k s g i v i n g p h o t o g r a p h positions President Bush in positively c o n n o t e d ideological contexts and in widely accepted collective narratives. C o m p a r a b l e to the interpictorial associations in regard to the visual a r c h i v e of the ( A m e r i c a n ) c o m m o n m a n , the B a g h d a d p h o t o g r a p h o f 2 0 0 3 reverberates with the visual repertoires of A m e r i c a n cultural h i s t o r y . Popular U S A m e r i c a n f a m i l y T V series of the 1950s and early 1960s such as, e.g., Father Knows Best, m a y serve to d e m o n s t r a t e how v i s u a l i z a t i o n s of President Bush as the national pro- v i d e r of f o o d and f a m i l y h a r m o n y m a y be taken to allude to the gen- dered repertoire of p o s t - W o r l d War II suburban m i d d l e class ideologies. 4 1 2 U D O J. H E B I l F i g u r e 6: S c r e e n s h o t f r o m T V - S e r i e s Father Knows Best ( 1 9 5 4 - 6 0 ) T h e series o f e x a m p l e s o f p o l i t i c a l p h o t o g r a p h s a n d their i n t e r p l a y w i t h t h e a r c h i v e s o f A m e r i c a n v i s u a l c u l t u r e s c a n be c o n c l u d e d by w h a t p r o b a b l y is t h e m o s t o b v i o u s a l b e i t n o n - p r e s i d e n t i a l e x a m p l e of inter- p i c t o r i a l i t y : T h o m a s F r a n k l i n ' s p h o t o g r a p h of t h e 9/11 N e w Y o r k fire- f i g h t e r s r a i s i n g the U S flag o v e r G r o u n d Z e r o in o b v i o u s a l l u s i o n t o J o e R o s e n t h a l ' s p h o t o g r a p h of the I w o J i m a f l a g - r a i s i n g in F e b r u a r y 1945 ( a n d its r e p r o d u c t i o n by t h e U S M a r i n e C o r p s W a r M e m o r i a l n e x t t o A r l i n g t o n N a t i o n a l C e m e t e r y in W a s h i n g t o n , D C ) . T h e visual a s s o c i - ation i n v e s t s t h e v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e m o m e n t of a t t a c k a n d d e f e a t w i t h t h e p r o s p e c t o f v i c t o r y and n a t i o n a l g l o r y in a r h e t o r i c a l g e s t u r e r e m i n i s - c e n t o f the A m e r i c a n j e r e m i a d ( C h e r o u x 6 2 - 7 7 ) . ' " 1 1 1 O n the i c o n o g r a p h y o f A m e r i c a n firefighters s i n c e t h e early n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , s e e H o c h b r u c k . ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s a n d ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 4 1 3 F i g u r e 7: N e w Y o r k F i r e f i g h t e r s R a i s i n g t h e Flag, G r o u n d Z e r o , 1 1 S e p t e m b e r 201 1, T h o m a s F r a n k l i n (Associated Press) F i g u r e 8: M a r i n e s R a i s i n g t h e Flag, I w o J i m a , 2 3 F e b r u a r y 1945. Joe Rosenthal (Associated Press) 3 W h a t m a y h a v e a p p e a r e d as a r a n d o m p l a y o f a s s o c i a t i o n and t h e a r b i - t r a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r e l a t i o n s and a f f i n i t i e s b e t w e e n o t h e r w i s e u n c o n n e c t e d p i c t u r e s w a s t o s e r v e a s an i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e p r a c t i c e and 4 1 4 U D O J. H E B I l p o t e n t i a l of i n t e r p i c t o r i a l r e a d i n g s o f p o l i t i c a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y p o w e r f u l i m a g e s . T h e c o n c e p t o f i n t e r p i e t o r i a l i t y " f o r e g r o u n d s visual d i a l o g s , e x c h a n g e s , and n e g o t i a t i o n s w h o s e d i v e r s e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s h a v e long b e e n c o n s i d e r e d in Art H i s t o r y in t e r m s and c a t e g o r i e s such as, e.g.. i m i t a t i o n , p a r o d y , q u o t a t i o n , v a r i a t i o n . S i m i l a r t o c o n c e p t s of literary i n t e r t e x t u a l i t y , the c o n c e p t o f i n t e r p i e t o r i a l i t y g o e s b e y o n d the m e r e d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d d e s c r i p t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s , i n f l u e n c e s , a n d s o u r c e s . It r a t h e r e m p h a s i z e s s e m a n t i c and s e m i o t i c i m p l i c a t i o n s of the f r a m e ( s ) of r e f e r e n c e and a c t ( s ) o f s i g n i f i c a t i o n a d d e d to t h e r e s p e c t i v e i m a g e by m e a n s o f its i n t e r p i c t o r i a l r h e t o r i c . T h e i n t e r p i c t o r i a l r e a d i n g of a spe- c i f i c visual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n u n d e r s c o r e s t h e f u n c t i o n a l i t y o f the s e m a n t i c s u r p l u s p r o d u c e d by t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a n d . p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t , p o s s i b l e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and r e s i g n i f i c a t i o n of c o n v e n t i o n s , r e p e r t o i r e s a n d t r a d i t i o n s . In t e r m s o f their s e m i o t i c s t r u c t u r e , i n t e r p i c t o r i a l l y c h a r g e d p i c t u r e s are h y b r i d s y s t e m s o f s i g n i f i c a t i o n w i t h both r e f e r e n t i a l and s y m b o l i c f u n c t i o n s ( N o t h 2 4 3 - 4 4 ) . T h e y are s e m a n t i c a l l y d e t e r - m i n e d and i n d e t e r m i n a t e at t h e s a m e t i m e a n d p r e s e n t m u l t i - l a y e r e d , p a l i m p s e s t - l i k e o p t i o n s f o r ' r e - c o g n i t i o n ' ( T h i i r l e m a n n 2 1 9 , 2 2 3 - 2 4 ) . I n t e r p i c t o r i a l l y c h a r g e d v i s u a l s can b e c o n s i d e r e d m e t a p i c t u r e s ( M i t c h e l l , Picture Theory 3 5 - 8 2 ) w h i c h , by t h e i r v e r y d e f i n i t i o n and c o m p o s i t i o n , c o m p l i c a t e a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t the i m m e d i a t e a c c e s s i b i l i t y and c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f p i c t u r e s and e x p o s e t h e p o s s i b l y m a n i p u l a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s and s t r a t e g i e s of their o w n u s e . T h e c o n c e p t of i n t e r p i e t o r i a l i t y is t h u s p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l - s u i t e d to m a k e the A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s a g e n d a s o f c o n t e x t , f u n c t i o n , and e x p l o r a t i o n o f national n a r r a - t i v e s and their p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , and c u l t u r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s interact with the c o n c e r n s o f Art H i s t o r y , Bildwissenschaft, and visual c u l t u r e s t u d i e s w i t h i c o n o g r a p h i c c o n v e n t i o n s , t r a d i t i o n s , and r e p e r t o i r e s . T h e p r a c t i c e of i n t e r p i c t o r i a l r e a d i n g s can b e seen as a v a r i a t i o n , if n o t r a d i c a l i z a t i o n , o f a p p r o a c h e s t o i c o n o g r a p h y and i c o n o l o g y a s pre- s e n t e d by E r w i n P a n o f s k y b e t w e e n 1932 and 1955. O n c e ( a g a i n ) they are d i s c u s s e d w i d e l y in r e c e n t Art H i s t o r y , Bildwissenschaft, and v i s u a l " T h e term itself is o f r a t h e r r e c e n t c o i n a g e a n d in G e r m a n at t i m e s u s e d inter- changeably with Interbildlichkeit, Intervisualitdt, Interikonizitat. See Von Rosen; Rose, Parodie, Intertextualitat, Interbildlichkeit; and Rose, Pictorial Irony, Parody. Pastiche. I s e k e n m e y e r ' s collection of essays, Interpiktorial- itat: Theorie und Geschichte der BUd-Bild-Beziige, was published a f t e r the c o m p l e t i o n o f the p r e s e n t article. ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s and ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 4 1 5 c u l t u r e studies ( P o e s c h e l ; Buttner and G o t t d a n g ; S c h u l z ; Sachs- H o m b a c h ; K.opp-Schmidt'~). Without p r o v i d i n g a detailed m e t h o d o l o g y , P a n o f s k y outlines an interpretive trajectory that m o v e s in three stages f r o m the p r e - i c o n o g r a p h i c a l description o f r e c o g n i z a b l e empirical g i v e n s and e x p e r i e n c e s in the picture under consideration to the icono- graphical tracing o f representational c o n v e n t i o n s , m o t i v e clusters, and archival repertoires, a n d , finally, to the iconological interpretive synthe- sis e x p l o r i n g the possible m e a n i n g , s i g n i f i c a n c e , and cultural impact of the picture. In regard to the s a m p l e p h o t o g r a p h s of US A m e r i c a n presi- dents Barack O b a m a and G e o r g e W. Bush by David G r u n t e l d and A n j a N i e d r i n g h a u s presented a b o v e , the interpretive acts m o v e f r o m the work shoes and the T h a n k s g i v i n g turkey as empirically recognizable givens, to the tracing of c o n v e n t i o n s and traditions of social p h o t o g r a p h y , the c o m m o n m a n , and the national narratives of T h a n k s g i v i n g and World W a r II, and f r o m the interpretation of the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the functional t r a n s f e r of the iconographical clusters to the politically motivated repre- sentation of the two U S A m e r i c a n presidents in their respective histori- cal positions. Interpictorial relations are established and analyzed in Erwin P a n o f s k y ' s s e c o n d and third stages and located b e t w e e n what P a n o f s k y calls i c o n o g r a p h i c and iconological interpretation. Although his model has been criticized for the f u z z i n e s s of its distinction between these two levels and c o n c e p t s — e s p e c i a l l y by M a x I n i d a h l — P a n o f s k y ' s p r o c e d u r e as well as its very critique e n h a n c e our u n d e r s t a n d i n g of interpictorially charged pictures as s t o r e h o u s e s and g e n e r a t o r s of m e a n i n g : S o w o h l E r w i n P a n o f s k y w i e M a x I m d a h l h a b e n v o r a l l e m A n s a t z e zu e i n e r B i l d t h e o r i e im S i n n e e i n e r T h e o r i e d e r Bedeutungskonstitution der liilder g e l i e f e r t . D i e a u f e i n e n Blick s o u n t e r s c h i e d l i c h e n A u t o r e n h a b e n b e i d e ein e m p h a t i s c h e s V e r h a l t n i s z u r i n t e r p r e t a t i v e n D e t a i l a r b e i t . F u r b e i d e ist d a s e i g e n t l i c h e Ziel der K u n s t w i s s e n s c h a f t d a s V e r s t e h e n d e s It d e s e r v e s special m e n t i o n in the p r e s e n t c o n t e x t that t h e s p r i n g 2 0 1 2 i s s u e of Critical Inquiry p r i n t s an E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f E r w i n P a n o f s k y ' s 1 9 3 1 / 1 9 3 2 lecture a n d e s s a y " Z u m P r o b l e m d e r B e s c h r e i b u n g u n d I n h a l t s - d e u t u n g v o n W e r k e n d e r b i l d e n d e n K u n s t " ( " O n t h e P r o b l e m o f D e s c r i b i n g and I n t e r p r e t i n g W o r k s o f t h e V i s u a l A r t s " ) , f o l l o w e d by an e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n o f " t h e g e n e s i s o f i c o n o l o g y " by t h e t r a n s l a t o r s , J a s E i s n e r a n d K a t h a r i n a L o r e n z . 4 1 6 U D O J. H E B I l e i n z e l n e n K u n s t w e r k s als B e d e u t u n g s t r a g e r . D e s h a l b ird ihre j e w e i l s n o c h zu r e k o n s t r u i e r e n d e B i l d t h e o r i e a u c h e i n e r T h e o r i e d e r W e r k i n t c r - p r e t a t i o n g l e i c h k o m r a e n . [ . . . ] U m d i e D i f f e r e n z a u f e i n e F o r m e l zu b r i n g e n : Fur Erwin P a n o f s k y sind die B i l d e r Speicher und Transforma- toren von B e d e u t u n g , f u r M a x I m d a h l sind s i e Generaloren von B e d e u - t u n g . ( T h i i r l e m a n n 2 3 2 - 3 3 ; italics in t h e o r i g i n a l ) I n t e r p i c t o r i a l l y c h a r g e d p i c t u r e s p a r t a k e a c t i v e l y — i n a c u l t u r a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t w a y - in w hat s c h o l a r s o f i c o n o g r a p h y h a v e called " B i l d g e d a c h t n i s " ( P o e s c h e l 7) and " n a t i o n a l e [ r ] B i l d e r v o r r a t " ( B o g e r 106). T h e i n d i v i d u a l p i c t u r e w i t h its p o s s i b l e n e t w o r k o f i n t e r p i c t o r i a l r e f e r e n c e s is t h e t a n g i b l e site in t h e c u l t u r a l f l o w o f i m a g e s a n d t h e s t e p p i n g - s t o n e into t h e v i s u a l a r c h i v e o f a c u l t u r e . T h e indiv idual p i c t u r e o p e n s up v e n u e s f o r the a n a l y s i s o f ( e x p l i c i t or i m p l i c i t ) p r o c e s s e s o f g e n e r a t i n g and t r a n s f e r r i n g m e a n i n g and t h u s f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e p r o c e s s e s o f c u l t u r a l and political r e s i g n i f i c a t i o n a n d r e e v a l u a - t i o n . I n t e r p i c t o r i a l r e a d i n g s p e r f o r m acts o f r e - s i t u a t i n g and a i m at r e v e a l i n g the c o n t e x t s a n d p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s g o v e r n i n g the v i s u a l r h e t o r i c o f s p e c i f i c p i c t u r e s . T h e y r a i s e i s s u e s o f v i s u a l l i t e r a c y and o f t h e pic- t u r e ' s i n v e s t m e n t in the visual a r c h i v e and c o l l e c t i v e m e m o r y of a c u l - t u r e a n d / o r n a t i o n . I n t e r p i c t o r i a l r e a d i n g s are p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t in r e g a r d t o s o - c a l l e d i c o n i c p h o t o g r a p h s ( H a r i m a n and L u c a i t e s ; G o l d b e r g 1 3 5 - 6 1 ; S t u r k e n a n d C a r t w r i g h t 3 6 ) or s o - c a l l e d Schlagbilder ( D i e r s ) . 1 In h e r s u m m a r y r e v i e w o f m a j o r p u b l i c a t i o n s in the Held, S a r a B l a i r s t r e s s e s t h e " a f t e r - l i v e s " o f p o p u l a r , p o s s i b l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l p i c t u r e s a n d t h e i r " a g e n c y in c o m p e t i n g n a r r a t i v e s " ( 6 9 2 ) . C a p t u r i n g w h a t p h o t o g r a p h y t h e o r i s t a n d p h o t o j o u r n a l i s t Henri C a r t i e r - B r e s s o n called " t h e d e c i s i v e m o m e n t . " and " b o u n d in a m a t r i x o f c u l t u r a l m e a n i n g " ( G o l d b e r g 17), i c o n i c p h o t o - g r a p h s f u l f i l l t h e " p r o v e n f o r m u l a f o r r e p r o d u c i n g a s o c i e t y ' s s o c i a l o r d e r " in t h e i r " c o m b i n a t i o n o f m a i n s t r e a m r e c o g n i t i o n , w i d e c i r c u l a - l j S e e a l s o the e x c h a n g e o f d i f f e r e n t v i e w s on a p h o t o g r a p h ' s i c o n i c i t y b y R o b K r o e s , M i l e s O r v e l l , a n d A l a n N a d e l in Journal of American Studies 45.1 ( 2 0 1 1): 1 - 2 0 . ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s a n d ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 4 1 7 tion, and e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t " ( H a r i m a n and L u c a i t e s 9). R o b K r o e s ' c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n as " e p i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n " (68). Vicki G o l d b e r g ' s d e s c r i p - tion as a " p u b l i c m o n u m e n t " ( 1 3 5 ) , and Sara B l a i r ' s a s s e s s m e n t as "a m e a n i n g f u l site of c i v i c p e r f o r m a n c e " ( 6 8 2 ) e m p h a s i z e f r o m d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s and a p p r o a c h e s the structural features, collective i m p e t u s , a n d p e r f o r m a t i v e g e s t u r e of iconic pictures. For the present c o n t e x t , it is e s p e c i a l l y n o t e w o r t h y that iconic pictures tend to be inter- p i c t o r i a l l y w o v e n into national political i c o n o g r a p h i e s ( W a r n k e et al.) and p r o v i d e "a h o r i z o n within w h i c h the public finds itself, constitutes itself, and d e l i b e r a t e s its o w n e x i s t e n c e " ( P h i l l i p s 4). F i g u r e 9: L y n d o n B. J o h n s o n T a k i n g t h e O a t h o f O f f i c e , 22 N o v e m b e r 1963. C e c i l W . S t o u g h t o n ( W h i t e H o u s e ) Cecil W . S t o u g h t o n ' s p h o t o g r a p h " L y n d o n B. J o h n s o n T a k i n g the Oath of O f f i c e " illustrates t h e interpictorial d i m e n s i o n s and i m p l i c a t i o n s of iconic p h o t o g r a p h s in the context of political i c o n o g r a p h i e s and c o l l e c t i v e m e m o r y . S t o u g h t o n ' s p h o t o g r a p h is part of the visual a r c h i v e and c o l l e c t i v e m e m o r y related to the t r a u m a t i c e v e n t s of the a s s a s s i n a - tion of P r e s i d e n t J o h n F. K e n n e d y in Dallas, T X on Friday, 22 N o v e m - ber 1 9 6 3 . 1 4 E y e w i t n e s s a c c o u n t s of the p r o c e e d i n g s inside Air Force ! 4 For a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n a l y s i s o f S t o u g h t o n ' s p h o t o g r a p h a n d an e x t e n d e d d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f its visual c o n t e x t s , s e e H e b e l , " R e p l a c i n g t h e P r e s i d e n t . " 4 1 8 U D O J. H E B I l O n e d o c u m e n t that d e s p i t e t h e c h a o t i c situation and insecurities o f vari- o u s k i n d s , the s w e a r i n g - i n o f the n e w p r e s i d e n t w a s e n a c t e d as a c o n s c i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e of the c o n t i n u i t y , f u n c t i o n a l i t y , and constitu- t i o n a l i t y o f t h e US p r e s i d e n c y and f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t . S t o u g h t o n took t w e n t y - o n e p h o t o g r a p h s of the ritual c o n f i r m i n g t h e r i g h t f u l t r a n s f e r of p o w e r , eight o f t h e m d u r i n g the t w e n t y - e i g h t s e c o n d s o f L y n d o n B. J o h n s o n ' s t a k i n g the p r e s i d e n t i a l o a t h o f o f f i c e . T h e c o m p l e t e s e q u e n c e of p h o t o g r a p h s c o m p l i c a t e s t h e m o n u m e n t a l s i n g u l a r i t y o f S t o u g h t o n ' s m u c h - r e p r o d u c e d p h o t o g r a p h and d i s s o l v e s the historical f r e e z e of the o n e ' d e c i s i v e m o m e n t ' into an a d m i t t e d l y brief p e r i o d of w a i t i n g , inde- c i s i o n . and action o f s o m e length and c o m p l e x i t y . A c l o s e a n a l y s i s of the s e q u e n c e s h o w s that the one p h o t o g r a p h selected f o r i m m e d i a t e c i r c u l a t i o n o v e r t h e w i r e s e r v i c e s — m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r in the s e q u e n c e o f p i c t u r e s S t o u g h t o n t o o k — i s an i n t e r p i c t o r i a l l y c h a r g e d c o n d e n s a t i o n of the i c o n o g r a p h y o f p r e s i d e n t i a l s w e a r i n g - i n c e r e m o n i e s as " t h e true c r o w n of A m e r i c a n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m " ( P a u l e y 215). F i g u r e 10: P r e s i d e n t A n d r e w J o h n s o n T a k i n g t h e O a t h o f O f f i c e a f t e r t h e A s s a s s i n a t i o n o f A b r a h a m L i n c o l n . 15 A p r i l 1865. L i b r a r y o f C o n g r e s s Prints and P h o t o g r a p h s D i v i s i o n ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s a n d ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 4 1 9 F i g u r e 1 i : P r e s i d e n t H a r r y S. T r u m a n T a k i n g t h e O a t h o f O f f i c e , a f t e r the D e a t h of F r a n k l i n D. R o o s e v e l t , 12 A p r i l 1945. F i g u r e 12: P r e s i d e n t J o h n F. K e n n e d y T a k i n g t h e O a t h o f O f f i c e . 2 0 J a n u a r y 1961. S t o u g h t o n ' s p h o t o g r a p h — u n i q u e as its s c e n e m a y a p p e a r at first sight b e c a u s e of t h e u n u s u a l setting of an a i r p l a n e c a b i n — r e s e m b l e s p r e v i o u s e m e r g e n c y c e r e m o n i e s o f this k i n d , all o f w h i c h w e r e r e p r e - sented as indoor p e r f o r m a n c e s of limited s c o p e and a u d i e n c e . T h e picture p o s i t i o n s t h e u n e x p e c t e d C o n s t i t u t i o n a l A c t of 22 N o v e m b e r 1963 in a s e q u e n c e of historical p r e c e d e n t s f r o m t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y 4 2 0 U D O J. H E B I l t h r o u g h the s w e a r i n g - i n of President T r u m a n only e i g h t e e n years earlier, and thus n o r m a l i z e s the event. At the s a m e t i m e , S t o u g h t o n ' s photo- graph c o r r e s p o n d s to the v i s u a l i z a t i o n of g r a n d presidential inaugura- tions o f , e.g., W o o d r o w W i l s o n , Franklin D. R o o s e v e l t , D w i g h t D. E i s e n h o w e r , and John F. K e n n e d y . S i m i l a r to p h o t o g r a p h s of the festiv e e n a c t m e n t of regular i n a u g u r a t i o n s , the c o m p o s i t i o n of S t o u g h t o n ' s p h o t o g r a p h is c e n t e r e d around the ritualistic e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n the president to be s w o r n in and the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the j u d i c i a r y , in this case Federal J u d g e Sarah T. H u g h e s . L y n d o n B. J o h n s o n is the most salient participant in the tableau and the n u c l e u s of the p r o c e e d i n g s in t e r m s of c o m p o s i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s and vectorial s t r u c t u r e . J o h n s o n ' s physical p r e s e n c e and c o r p o r e a l centrality radiate stability and order as he p e r f o r m s the c o n s t i t u t i o n a l g e s t u r e of t a k i n g the oath of o f f i c e . T h e n e w president is f r a m e d by three w o m e n w h o in d i f f e r e n t w a y s represent c o n s t i t u t i v e f e a t u r e s of inaugural visuals: J u d g e H u g h e s a d m i n i s t e r i n g the oath of o f f i c e acts as the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the j u d i c i a r y ; J a c q u e l i n e K e n n e d y stands in as the s y m b o l i c r e m n a n t of the f o r m e r p r e s i d e n c y ; Lady Bird J o h n s o n a s s u m e s her n e w role as the first lady and m a j o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the n e w first f a m i l y . E x t e n d i n g to the rear cabin d o o r , the new p r e s i d e n t is s u r r o u n d e d by W h i t e H o u s e a i d e s , c o n g r e s s m e n , security o f f i c e r s , and Air Force O n e c r e w m e m b e r s w h o m a k e f o r a s y m b o l i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a u d i e n c e of m e m b e r s of the legislative, e x e c u t i v e , and j u d i c i a r y b r a n c h e s as well as of the larger public. A l t h o u g h the s c e n e in the c r o w d e d n a r r o w n e s s of the Air Force O n e cabin s e e m s o d d l y d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d , the seal of the President of the United S t a t e s — a salient repertoire c o m p o n e n t of presidential i n a u g u r a - tion p h o t o g r a p h s (and not visible in S t o u g h t o n ' s o t h e r p h o t o g r a p h s of the s c e n e ) — a n c h o r s the c e r e m o n y r e c o g n i z a b l y in an o f f i c i a l national c o n t e x t , albeit in a f r a g m e n t a r y f o r m at the rear wall of the c a b i n . All in all, the p h o t o g r a p h ' s r e d u c t i o n and f r a g m e n t a t i o n in c o m p a r i s o n to prototypical m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f the i c o n o g r a p h y of i n a u g u r a l visuals is c o m p e n s a t e d for by its structural m i m e s i s and m e t o n y m i c c o m p l e t e n e s s . Its r e p e t i t i v e n e s s and interpietoriality e n a b l e s the p h o t o g r a p h to p e r f o r m the political and cultural f u n c t i o n of the i n a u g u r a t i o n ritual itself. S i m i - lar to the p h o t o g r a p h s of President O b a m a on the G u l f C o a s t beach and For a c o m p r e h e n s i v e a c c o u n t o f m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s to t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e g r a m m a r o f visual d o c u m e n t s , see K r e s s a n d V a n L e e u w e n . ' A m e r i c a n ' Pictures and ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 4 2 1 o f P r e s i d e n t B u s h in B a g h d a d , S t o u g h t o n ' s p h o t o g r a p h o f P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n t a k i n g the oath of o f f i c e is a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h a p e r f o r m a t i v e f o r c e and f u n c t i o n of its o w n : " I n v i e l e n Fallen ist die E r z e u g u n g v o n B i l d e r n d e r performance f u r d e r e n ( g l o b a l e ) W i r k u n g w i c h t i g e r als ihre I n s z e n i e r u n g u n d A u f f u h r u n g selbst. P e r f o r - m a n c e u n d B i l d e r sind d e s h a l b in u n a u f l o s b a r e r W e i s e m i t e i n a n d e r v e r s c h r a n k t " ( W u l f a n d Z i r f a s 1()). 1 6 .•-.- SbtJs'ttojijorkeimt*. KENNEDY IS KILLED BY SNIPER AS HE RIDES IN CAR IN DALLAS; JOHNSON SWORN IN ON PLANE F i g u r e 13: Front p a g e of The New York Times, 23 N o v e m b e r 1963. T h e f u n c t i o n a l i t y a n d c r e d i b i l i t y o f C e c i l W . S t o u g h t o n ' s p h o t o g r a p h and its p e r f o r n i a t i v i t y e m e r g e t o a l a r g e e x t e n t f r o m its i n t e r p i c t o r i a l c o r r e s p o n d e n c e t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n s , c o d e s , and n o r m s g o v e r n i n g the c h o r e o g r a p h y of i n a u g u r a t i o n c e r e m o n i e s . T h e p i c t u r e ' s e v o c a t i o n o f the i c o n o g r a p h y of t h e s w e a r i n g - i n p r o c e s s f r a m e s t h e m o m e n t o f n a t i o n a l 1 6 See also Susan S o n t a g ' s d i c t u m that " [ t ] o p h o t o g r a p h is to c o n f e r i m p o r t a n c e " (28). It d e s e r v e s m e n t i o n that the Handbook of Rhetoric and Public Address includes a c h a p t e r on p i c t u r e s as " p u b l i c a d d r e s s " ( P a r r y - G i l e s , ch. 10) and thus p o i n t s to a field m o r e w o r k could be d o n e in. 4 2 2 U D O J. H E B I l shock and crisis and n o r m a l i z e s the extraordinary m o m e n t of historical rupture. Given the e n f o r c e d e x c l u s i v e n e s s and public invisibility of the c e r e m o n y inside Air Force One, the p h o t o g r a p h a s s u m e d the role of the inauguration ritual itself for the w ider public. T h e N B C telecast of the p h o t o g r a p h at 5:40 p.m. EST m a d e the continuity of the presidency and the functionality of the federal g o v e r n m e n t visible to the nation and to the world b e f o r e Air Force O n e landed at A n d r e w s Air Force Base at 6:05 p.m. E S T and b e f o r e the first live TV pictures s h o w e d the unload- ing of the dead p r e s i d e n t ' s c o f f i n and the first public statement of the new president at 6:14 p.m. EST. As visual proof of the w o r k i n g o f the constitutional system and of the new president taking over. S t o u g h t o n ' s p h o t o g r a p h filled the gap in presidential visibility and countered imme- diately circulated d o c u m e n t a t i o n s of the d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f the president such as, e.g., J a m e s A l t g e n s ' equally f a m o u s p h o t o g r a p h of the presi- dential limousine rushing a w a y f r o m the scene of assassination. The i c o n o g r a p h i c interplay on the front page of The New York Times of N o v e m b e r 23, 1963 between A l t g e n s ' photograph of the vanishing president and S t o u g h t o n ' s o f f i c i a l White House representation o f the e m e r g i n g new president taking the oath of o f f i c e illustrates the substitute function and p e r f o r m a n c e of S t o u g h t o n ' s interpictorially charged p h o t o - graph most poignantly. 5 T h e s a m p l e analysis of presidential p h o t o g r a p h s illustrates how inter- pictorial readings trace clusters of visual rhetorics and uncover their possible political p o w e r and f u n c t i o n . Positioned at the intersections of visual culture studies and Art History, on the one hand, and A m e r i c a n Studies, on the other, the practice of m a p p i n g interpictorial clusters c o n n e c t s P a n o f s k y ' s i c o n o g r a p h i c and iconological a p p r o a c h e s with the e m p h a s i s of A m e r i c a n Studies on trajectories o f impact, on p r o c e s s e s of a p p r o p r i a t i o n , and on acts of cultural and political s i g n i f i c a t i o n and resigniftcation. The interpretive practice stresses the political and cul- tural p e r f o r m a t i v i t y of interpictorially charged pictures which m a y be further e n h a n c e d in particular situations and contexts o f display in pub- ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s and ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 4 2 3 lie or private s p a c e s . 1 C h r i s t o p h D e c k e r ' s call f o r the " s y s t e m a t i c d o c u - m e n t a t i o n and e x p l o r a t i o n " ( 1 0 ) of the visual c u l t u r e s of the U S c o r r e s p o n d s with the present c o n c e r n w i t h a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a s s e s s m e n t of the s p e c i f i c i t y , historicity, and f u n c t i o n a l i t y of individ- u a l — a n d i n d i v i d u a l l y p o w e r f u l - m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of A m e r i c a n visual cul- t u r e ( s ) o v e r the c o u r s e of A m e r i c a n history and in c h a n g i n g national and t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s . P r o j e c t s of m a p p i n g interpictorial c l u s t e r s should not be limited to r e c e n t t i m e s of i n c r e a s e d visuality and virtuality but s h o u l d e m b r a c e the p r o d u c t i v i t y of political i c o n o g r a p h i e s o v e r the entire c o u r s e of A m e r i - c a n cultural history. S p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s could f o c u s on visual r e p r e s e n t a - t i o n s of historical m o m e n t s such as, e.g., the arrival of C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s in the N e w W o r l d in 1492 and G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n ' s c r o s s i n g o f the D e l a w a r e R i v e r with the C o n t i n e n t a l A r m y in 1776. T h e first c l u s t e r w o u l d take its starting point in T h e o d o r e de B r y ' s late s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e n g r a v i n g o f C h r i s t o p h e r C o l u m b u s ' arrival and trace the f l o w o f visual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f so-called ' l a n d i n g s c e n e s ' and of imperial a n d colonial acts of t a k i n g p o s s e s s i o n in an a r c h i v e of historical paint- ings and prints i n c l u d i n g , a m o n g m a n y o t h e r s and f o r the s a k e of issues of c o m m i s s i o n e d art, p u b l i c d i s p l a y , and c o m m e r c i a l s u c c e s s , e.g., H e n r y S a r g e n t ' s " L a n d i n g of the P i l g r i m s " ( 1 8 1 8 - 2 2 ) , John V a n d e r l y n ' s " T h e L a n d i n g o f C o l u m b u s " ( 1 8 3 7 - 4 7 ) , C u r r i e r & I v e s ' r e p r o d u c t i o n s of the arrival of both C o l u m b u s and the P l y m o u t h P i l g r i m s f r o m the s e c o n d half of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d , in a g e s t u r e of t r a n s n a t i o n a l e x t e n s i o n toward South A f r i c a , C h a r l e s D a v i d s o n B e l l s ' p a i n t i n g " T h e L a n d i n g of Jan van R i e b e e c k , 1652" ( 1 8 5 0 ) . T h e second cluster w o u l d take its starting point in E m a n u e l L e u t z e ' s " W a s h i n g t o n C r o s s i n g the D e l a w a r e " ( 1 8 5 1 ) and trace the p a i n t i n g ' s interpictorial a p p r o p r i a t i o n in prints by C u r r i e r & Ives, Larry R i v e r s ' " W a s h i n g t o n C r o s s i n g the D e l a w a r e " ( 1 9 5 3 ) , Robert H. C o l e s c o t t ' s " G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n C a r v e r C r o s s i n g the D e l a w a r e : Page f r o m an A m e r i c a n History T e x t b o o k " ( 1 9 7 5 ) , Grant W o o d ' s " D a u g h t e r s of the A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n " ( 1 9 3 2 ) , and a host of c o m m e r c i a l items such as, e.g., r e p l i c a s of the historic 1 T h i s a s p e c t c o u l d be f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d in t h e c o n t e x t s o f spatial s t u d i e s in g e n e r a l and o f m u s e u m s t u d i e s a n d s t u d i e s o f d e c o r a t i o n a s a c u l t u r a l a n d political p h e n o m e n o n in p a r t i c u l a r . S e e , e.g., d i s c u s s i o n s o f c o n c e p t s s u c h a s " P r a s e n t a t i o n s z u s a m m e n h a n g " and " D e k o r a t i o n s k o m p l e x e " in S a c h s - H o m - bach and S c h i r r a 4 1 6 ; Biittner and G o t t d a n g 2 4 ; P e t e r f y 2 6 5 - 6 7 . 4 2 4 U D O J. HEBI l s c e n e with D i s n e y f i g u r e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , p r o j e c t s o f interpictorial m a p p i n g c o u l d t a k e their p o i n t s of d e p a r t u r e in n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g s and p o r t r a i t p h o t o g r a p h s of N a t i v e A m e r i c a n w a r r i o r s and c h i e f s by Karl B o d m e r , G e o r g e C a t l i n , a n d E d w a r d S. C u r t i s and t r a c e their i n t e r p i c t o r i a l r e s i g n i f i c a t i o n in p h o t o g r a p h s and p a i n t i n g s such as. e.g., " W h i t e M a n ' s M o c c a s i n s " ( 1 9 5 4 ) and " A n A m e r i c a n P o r t r a i t " ( 1 9 7 9 ) by c o n t e m p o r a r y N a t i v e A m e r i c a n artists L e e M a r m o n and Fritz S c h o l d e r r e s p e c t i v e l y . N i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a i n t i n g s o f N a t i v e A m e r i - c a n s s u c h as, e.g.. T o m k i n s H. M a t t e s o n , " T h e Last o f t h e R a c e " ( 1 8 4 7 ) . J o h n M i x S t a n l e y ' s " T h e Last o f T h e i r R a c e " ( 1 8 5 7 ) , and Fredric R e m i n g t o n , " T h e Last o f H i s R a c e " ( 1 9 0 8 ) c o u l d a l s o b e taken into a c c o u n t as p o s s i b l e t a r g e t s o f i n t e r p i c t o r i a l s i g n i f i c a t i o n and r e s i g n i f i c a - tion in t h e v i s u a l art o f c o n t e m p o r a r y N a t i v e A m e r i c a n a r t i s t s . I x T h e s a m p l e c l u s t e r s g i v e n h e r e c a n o n l y i n d i c a t e the w i d e r a n g e o f t h e m e s , f o r m s , s t r a t e g i e s , and f u n c t i o n s o f visual c l u s t e r s in A m e r i c a n cultural h i s t o r y , p r o m i n e n t l y a m o n g t h e m p a r o d y and p o s s i b l y s u b v e r s i v e ap- p r o p r i a t i o n s o f h e g e m o n i c U S A m e r i c a n h i s t o r i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l n a r r a - t i v e s w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f r e s i g n i f i c a t i o n . T h e s a m p l e s m a y a l s o s e r v e to s u g g e s t h o w s t r a t e g i e s o f i n t e r p i e t o r i a l i t y c o n t r i b u t e to, e.g.. p o p u l a r i z i n g n a t i o n a l n a r r a t i v e s and c l a i m i n g r e c o g n i t i o n f o r s p e c i f i c 19 g r o u p s . A b y W a r b u r g ' s m o n u m e n t a l p r o j e c t o f a " B i l d e r a t l a s M n e m o s - y n e " — d e s c r i b e d by M i c h a e l D i e r s as " O r g a n o n e i n e r t r a n s d i s z i p l i n a r e n B i l d ( g e s c h i c h t s ) w i s s e n s c h a f t " ( D i e r s , " A t l a s u n d M n e m o s y n e " 185) and 1 8 T h e m a p p i n g o f i n t e r p i c t o r i a l c l u s t e r s and the t r a c i n g o f p o s s i b l e t r a n s f e r s , c o m p l i c a t i o n s , a n d c h a l l e n g e s o f m e a n i n g b y m e a n s o f i n t e r p i e t o r i a l i t y d o e s not h a v e t o be l i m i t e d to t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n p h o t o g r a p h s a n d p a i n t i n g s . T h u s , e.g., v i e w e r s o f 1950s a n d 1960s T V s e r i e s a r e s h o w n m i d d l e class s u b u r b a n i d y l l s — e s p e c i a l l y in the o p e n i n g s c e n e s of s u b u r b a n f a m i l y T V s e r i e s — w h i c h c o n t a i n and c o n t i n u e p o p u l a r n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v i s u a l i z a - t i o n s o f g e n d e r roles a n d spatial i d e o l o g i e s as t r a c e a b l e in p o p u l a r p r i n t s by C u r r i e r & Ives s u c h as, e.g., Four Seasons of Life. A s t r i d B o g e r ( 1 2 9 - 3 0 ) has s h o w n h o w R o b e r t C a p a ' s ( e l e v e n s u r v i v i n g ) D - D a y p h o t o g r a p h s are used by S t e v e n S p i e l b e r g in Saving Private Ryan ( 1 9 9 8 ) t o r e p r e s e n t t h e Allied l a n d i n g in N o r m a n d y in J u n e 1944. 1 9 S e e F l u c k , " M e n in B o a t s , " a n d L e m k e f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s of the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f A m e r i c a n s e l f - i m a g e s a n d n a t i o n a l i c o n s in p r o c e s s e s o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e . ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s a n d ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 4 2 5 r e p e a t e d l y e v o k e d in d e f i n i t i o n s of i c o n o g r a p h y — m a y also r e m a i n a point of r e f e r e n c e in c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of interpictoriality: 1m Z e i t a l t e r d e r I n d i v i d u a h s i e r u n g und P l u r a l i s i e r u n g gibt es k e i n e ka- n o n i s i e r t e n B e z u g s s y s t e m e m e h r , dafiir h a b e n i n t e r t e x t u e l l e A n s p i e l u n - gen und V e r w e i s u n g e n u m s o groBere B e d e u t u n g . Ihr N a h r b o d e n ist d a s F o r t b e s t e h e n d e r T r a d i t i o n e n im s o z i a l e n G e d a c h t n i s , d a s A b y W a r b u r g m i t s e i n e m B i l d a t l a s d o k u m e n t i e r e n w o l l t e . [ . . . ] A u f g a b e d e r I k o n o g r a - p h i e ist es, d a s V e r s t a n d n i s f u r K u n s t und f u r d i e in ihr a u f g e h o b e n e n E r i n n e r u n g e n w a c h z u h a l t e n , B i l d i n h a l t e zu d e u t e n und d i e V i e l f a l t d e r darin e n t h a l t e n e n o f f e n e n und v e r d e c k t e n B e z i i g e a u f z u d e c k e n und zu e r k l a r e n . ( B i i t t n e r a n d G o t t d a n g 2 7 4 - 7 5 ) In the field of A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s , J a n i c e R a d w a y ' s m u c h - q u o t e d e m p h a - sis on " i n t r i c a t e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e s " ( R a d w a y 10) and Shelley Fisher F i s h k i n ' s v i s i o n a r y call f o r the d e v e l o p m e n t o f " D E E P M A P S " ( D P M P / Digital P a l i m p s e s t M a p p i n g P r o j e c t s ) m a y be taken as c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e s of r e f e r e n c e f o r p r o j e c t s to m a p interpictorial clusters in A m e r i - can Studies and f o r the e x p l o r a t i o n o f the p a l i m p s e s t - l i k e structures of interpictorially c h a r g e d i m a g e s . F i g u r e 14: K e n t S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y S h o o t i n g , 4 M a y 1970. J o h n Paul F i l o David G r u n f e l d ' s picture of President O b a m a on the G u l f C o a s t beach and its allusion to V a n G o g h ' s p a i n t i n g d r a w s attention to the 4 2 6 U D O J. H E B I l possible transeultural i m p l i c a t i o n s of interpictorial r e a d i n g s . In a similar vein, S t o u g h t o n ' s p h o t o g r a p h can be c o n s i d e r e d in a t r a n s n a t i o n a l net- work of historical and political i c o n o g r a p h i e s w h i c h m a y include J a c q u e s - L o u i s D a v i d ' s p a i n t i n g " T h e O a t h of the H o r a t i i " ( 1 7 8 4 ) he- cause of the parallels o f the oath s c e n e , the e n s u i n g h a s t y d e p a r t u r e , and the g r i e v i n g w o m e n ( L u b i n 193-202). C h a r l e s D a v i d s o n B e l l ' s p a i n t i n g " T h e L a n d i n g of Jan van R i e b e e c k , 1652," finally, illustrates the trans- national p r o d u c t i v i t y of v i s u a l i z a t i o n s of c o l o n i a l arrivals and imperial acts of t a k i n g p o s s e s s i o n . All t h r e e e x a m p l e s f o r e g r o u n d the possible position and f u n c t i o n of interpictorially c h a r g e d i m a g e s at the c r o s s r o a d s of s p e c i f i c national i c o n o g r a p h i e s , on the o n e h a n d , and w i d e r t r a n s n a - tional traditions, a r c h i v e s , and r e p e r t o i r e s , on the other. G r u n f e l d ' s and S t o u g h t o n ' s pictures are ' A m e r i c a n ' p h o t o g r a p h s b e c a u s e of their " p u r - pose and f u n c t i o n within a given cultural m a t r i x " (Orvell 15); but they are also part of an " i n t e r n a t i o n a l e r B i l d e r k o s m o s " with virtually no limits ( W u l f and Z i r f a s 26; also Sturken and C a r t w r i g h t 36). In these t e r m s , John Paul F i l o ' s Pulitzer P r i z e - w i n n i n g p h o t o g r a p h of the Kent State U n i v e r s i t y s h o o t i n g of M a y 1970 is an ' A m e r i c a n ' p i c t u r e an- c h o r e d in the cultural m a t r i x of its o w n t i m e s , s p a c e s , and c o n f l i c t s , and e s p e c i a l l y so w h e n resituated in its o w n visual c o n t e x t s and the set of other pictures that Filo took on that day on the g r o u n d s of Kent State University."" H o w e v e r , w h e n p l a c e d b e s i d e e q u a l l y w e l l - k n o w n — a n d e q u a l l y situated and c o n t e x t u a l i z e d — p h o t o g r a p h s of the killing of B e n n o O h n e s o r g in Berlin in J u n e 1967 (Jiirgen H e n s c h e l ) , of t h e killing of H e c t o r Pieterson in S o w e t o / S o u t h A f r i c a in J u n e 1976 ( S a m N z i m a ) , and of the s u f f e r i n g of a s e v e r e l y w o u n d e d protester in S a n a ' a , Y e m e n , in O c t o b e r 201 1 ( S a m u e l A r a n d a ) , the interpictorial c l u s t e r t a k e s on a m u c h w i d e r s c o p e o f transeultural d i m e n s i o n s and t r a n s n a t i o n a l impli- cations. W h a t then are the i m p l i c a t i o n s , limits, and p u r p o s e s not only of tracing interpictorial a l l u s i o n s and a f f i n i t i e s in general but of t h e s p e c i f i c A m e r i c a n Studies c o n c e r n with m a p p i n g interpictorial c l u s t e r s ? T h e q u e s t i o n raises w e l l - k n o w n A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s issues r e g a r d i n g p o s s i b l e t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n d i s c i p l i n a r y f o c u s and t r a n s d i s c i p l i n a r y s p e c t r u m . Projects of m a p p i n g interpictorial clusters contain all the p o t e n t i a l of f r u i t f u l interdisciplinarity and all the p o s s i b l e pitfalls of d i s c i p l i n a r y 2 0 O n the w i d e r c o n t e x t s o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n s o f " A m e r i c a n P i e t a s , " s e e T a p i a . ' A m e r i c a n ' P i c t u r e s a n d ( T r a n s - ) N a t i o n a l I c o n o g r a p h i e s 4 2 7 h y b r i d i z a t i o n . K e e p i n g their f o c u s on p o w e r f u l ' A m e r i c a n ' p i c t u r e s and on t h e p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , a n d c u l t u r a l i m p a c t o f U S A m e r i c a n n a t i o n a l i c o n o g r a p h i e s , p r o j e c t s o f m a p p i n g ' A m e r i c a n ' i n t e r p i c t o r i a l c l u s t e r s s h o u l d e n g a g e t h e f a r - r e a c h i n g t r a j e c t o r i e s o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l i c o n o g r a - p h i e s in o r d e r to t r a c e and i n t e r p r e t t h e f l o w a n d m o b i l i t y o f i m a g e s and " t h e i n t r i c a t e i n t e r w o v e n n e s s o f n a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e s " (Paul 165)."' In this s e n s e , T r a n s n a t i o n a l A m e r i c a n Studies"" c a n p r o v i d e the c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k and t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s f o r m a p p i n g i n t e r p i c t o r i a l c l u s - ters in A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s . W o r k s C i t e d A g e e , J a m e s , and W a l k e r E v a n s . Let Us Now Praise Famous Men. B o s t o n : H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n , 1941. Batchen Geoffrey. What of Shoes: Van Gogh and Art History. Leipzig: See- m a n n , 2 0 0 9 . [ G e r m a n t r a n s . Van Goghs Sehuhe: Ein Streitgesprach. L e i p - z i g : S e e m a n n , 2 0 0 9 . ] Blair. S a r a . " T h e P h o t o g r a p h ' s Last W o r d : V i s u a l C u l t u r e S t u d i e s N o w . " Ame- rican Literary History 22.3 (2010): 673-97. Boger, A s t r i d . " D i e a m e r i k a n i s c h e F o t o g r a f i e . " Visuelle Kulturen der USA: Zur Geschichte von Malerei. Fotografie, Film, Fernsehen und Neuen Medien in Amerika. Ed. C h r i s t o p h D e c k e r . B i e l e f e l d : T r a n s c r i p t , 2 0 1 0 . 9 9 - 1 5 9 . B o e h m , G o t t f r i e d , e d . Was ist ein Bild? M i i n c h e n : F i n k , 1994 Bonfante-Warren, Alexandra. Currier & Ives: Portraits of a Nation. New York: M e t r o , 1998. 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For a d i s c u s s i o n o f " A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s as M o b i l i t y S t u d i e s , " s e e K u n o w . ~ For r e c e n t s u m m a r y a c c o u n t s o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s in A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s and b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f s e m i n a l s t u d i e s in t h e f i e l d , see F l u c k , P e a s e , and R o w e ; H e b e l , " P r e f a c e " ; a n d e n t r i e s in Encyclopedia of American Studies by H o r n u n g , R o w e , a n d R o b i n s o n . 4 2 8 U D O J. H E B I l Diers, M i c h a e l . " A t l a s und M n e m o s y n e . " Bildtheorien: Anthropologische und kulturelle Grundlagen des Visualistic Turn. Ed. K l a u s S a c h s - H o m b a e h . F r a n k f u r t : S u h r k a m p , 2 0 0 9 . 1 8 1 - 2 1 3 . —. Schlagbilder: Zur politischen Ikonographie der Gegenwart. F r a n k f u r t : F i s c h e r , 1997. E i s n e r , Jas, a n d K a t h a r i n a L o r e n z . 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