Summary of your 'study carrel' ============================== This is a summary of your Distant Reader 'study carrel'. The Distant Reader harvested & cached your content into a collection/corpus. It then applied sets of natural language processing and text mining against the collection. The results of this process was reduced to a database file -- a 'study carrel'. The study carrel can then be queried, thus bringing light specific characteristics for your collection. These characteristics can help you summarize the collection as well as enumerate things you might want to investigate more closely. Eric Lease Morgan May 27, 2019 Number of items in the collection; 'How big is my corpus?' ---------------------------------------------------------- 37 Average length of all items measured in words; "More or less, how big is each item?" ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 79127 Average readability score of all items (0 = difficult; 100 = easy) ------------------------------------------------------------------ 69 Top 50 statistically significant keywords; "What is my collection about?" ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24 star 21 Jupiter 19 Mars 18 illustration 17 earth 17 Saturn 15 Venus 14 sun 13 great 13 Mr. 11 planet 11 Mercury 10 Sir 10 Professor 8 moon 8 Observatory 8 Milky 8 Herschel 8 Dr. 7 time 7 Way 7 Newton 7 Kepler 6 Tycho 6 Royal 6 November 6 Neptune 6 Galileo 6 Earth 5 year 5 telescope 5 form 5 Sun 5 Moon 5 Halley 4 fig 4 Sea 4 Ptolemy 4 New 4 God 3 light 3 chapter 3 Uranus 3 Sirius 3 October 3 Mount 3 London 3 Laplace 3 Greenwich 3 Great Top 50 lemmatized nouns; "What is discussed?" --------------------------------------------- 12715 star 9499 sun 9009 earth 7379 time 6576 planet 5307 year 5057 moon 4215 distance 4102 body 4053 light 3509 day 3330 telescope 3329 mile 3309 motion 3305 observation 3271 system 3175 part 3155 comet 2920 p. 2914 line 2591 place 2589 object 2585 surface 2505 orbit 2365 point 2220 fact 2183 astronomer 2122 man 1988 work 1961 matter 1955 case 1906 space 1898 discovery 1895 position 1889 water 1873 ring 1872 period 1864 form 1828 way 1828 eye 1825 world 1823 number 1806 illustration 1780 degree 1699 theory 1692 force 1689 magnitude 1683 spot 1648 power 1645 foot Top 50 proper nouns; "What are the names of persons or places?" -------------------------------------------------------------- 23393 _ 3393 | 1866 . 1790 Footnote 1730 Jupiter 1482 Mars 1440 Fig 1402 heavens 1393 Venus 1293 Saturn 1153 Sun 1080 Mr. 1038 vol 1032 Herschel 989 Earth 982 Professor 960 Observatory 931 Sir 901 Mercury 765 Galileo 718 Dr. 709 Newton 659 Kepler 601 Royal 564 Milky 558 Way 549 Tycho 544 Neptune 519 Moon 491 M. 476 Halley 474 de 472 November 454 Uranus 449 HERSCHEL 445 New 445 Greenwich 433 Sirius 425 Copernicus 391 London 388 Astr 382 March 381 Great 377 England 375 � 371 June 365 John 357 God 349 William 343 heaven Top 50 personal pronouns nouns; "To whom are things referred?" ------------------------------------------------------------- 30538 it 14843 we 11074 he 8421 they 4814 i 4572 them 3572 us 2663 him 1796 you 1363 itself 998 himself 831 she 788 me 669 themselves 438 one 260 her 217 ourselves 188 myself 105 ours 55 herself 47 yourself 36 thee 23 theirs 21 his 17 mine 6 ''s 5 yours 4 oneself 4 ay 3 thyself 3 thy 3 je 2 u 2 ignità 2 hers 1 yow 1 yit 1 venus._--next 1 us:-- 1 true--"they 1 th 1 substance--"they 1 stars!--they 1 satellites:--''they 1 s 1 prominences._--fig 1 plato--"you 1 ourself 1 ony 1 oi Top 50 lemmatized verbs; "What do things do?" --------------------------------------------- 109663 be 29047 have 7162 see 5609 make 4821 do 4818 find 3877 know 3339 say 3247 show 3135 give 2978 take 2886 appear 2473 seem 2385 come 2361 call 1952 move 1891 form 1857 fall 1846 become 1842 pass 1749 observe 1718 suppose 1690 go 1607 follow 1568 think 1524 look 1283 discover 1251 produce 1227 bring 1216 describe 1135 accord 1134 turn 1127 consider 1090 lie 1063 regard 1051 begin 1046 remain 1037 revolve 1036 represent 1005 use 982 believe 975 carry 971 determine 969 reach 965 leave 932 exist 918 occur 908 lead 905 rise 898 draw Top 50 lemmatized adjectives and adverbs; "How are things described?" --------------------------------------------------------------------- 13809 not 7117 great 6606 more 6435 so 5948 other 4920 only 4885 very 4371 same 4178 first 3580 most 3545 then 3259 now 3170 as 3058 much 3023 many 2908 small 2740 even 2723 such 2682 far 2595 large 2566 also 2450 solar 2447 long 2433 well 2340 out 2277 however 2246 up 2246 thus 2245 about 2170 little 2130 less 1965 still 1937 different 1825 new 1759 high 1731 own 1716 bright 1541 nearly 1507 therefore 1498 few 1497 certain 1360 again 1305 just 1304 here 1303 visible 1276 good 1271 almost 1257 indeed 1246 yet 1246 present Top 50 lemmatized superlative adjectives; "How are things described to the extreme?" ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 834 great 675 least 488 most 449 good 432 near 315 large 311 high 267 bright 233 early 163 small 114 low 93 slight 89 fine 81 simple 76 Most 67 old 61 faint 46 long 43 short 40 strong 38 manif 38 late 35 deep 32 furth 31 rich 31 lofty 29 close 28 grand 28 farth 26 minute 25 wide 22 easy 21 bad 19 swift 19 clear 18 hot 18 dense 17 remote 17 noble 16 innermost 16 eld 15 light 15 heavy 14 slow 14 mere 14 keen 12 pure 12 full 12 dark 12 broad Top 50 lemmatized superlative adverbs; "How do things do to the extreme?" ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3092 most 161 least 121 well 9 fast 8 brightest 6 near 5 long 3 swiftest 2 shortest 2 highest 2 hard 1 tempest 1 richest 1 quick 1 potest 1 oldest 1 minutest 1 lookest 1 loftiest 1 lightest 1 latest 1 innermost 1 greatest 1 close Top 50 Internet domains; "What Webbed places are alluded to in this corpus?" ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 www.gutenberg.org 4 www.gutenberg.net 4 archive.org 2 csky.sattre-press.com 1 www.hti.umich.edu 1 www.archive.org 1 gallica.bnf.fr 1 digital.lib.msu.edu Top 50 URLs; "What is hyperlinked from this corpus?" ---------------------------------------------------- 2 http://csky.sattre-press.com 2 http://archive.org 1 http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=AAN1277.0001.001 1 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/58810/58810-h/58810-h.htm 1 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/58810/58810-h.zip 1 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44167/44167-h/44167-h.htm 1 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/44167/44167-h.zip 1 http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/2/8/2/4/28247/28247-h/28247-h.htm 1 http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/2/8/2/4/28247/28247-h.zip 1 http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/8/4/3/18431/18431-h/18431-h.htm 1 http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/8/4/3/18431/18431-h.zip 1 http://www.archive.org/details/gradualacceptan00stim 1 http://gallica.bnf.fr 1 http://digital.lib.msu.edu/ 1 http://archive.org/details/royalobservatory00maun 1 http://archive.org/details/heavensabovepopu00gillrich Top 50 email addresses; "Who are you gonna call?" ------------------------------------------------- 1 pebareka@iexpress.net.au 1 pamhall@www.edu 1 info@sattre-press.com Top 50 positive assertions; "What sentences are in the shape of noun-verb-noun?" ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35 earth is not 26 stars are not 18 sun does not 16 earth does not 16 stars are so 16 stars are visible 15 sun is about 14 _ see _ 14 moon does not 13 earth is round 13 stars do not 13 sun is not 12 _ is _ 12 light is not 12 moon is always 12 moon is full 12 moon is not 11 earth is about 11 moon is so 11 motion is not 11 sun is only 11 time went on 10 stars are suns 10 stars were not 10 sun is now 10 sun is so 10 sun is very 9 planets are not 9 planets do not 8 astronomers have not 8 earth was not 8 orbit is not 8 planet is not 8 stars are really 8 sun is north 7 _ know _ 7 bodies are not 7 comet was first 7 distance is about 7 motion was not 7 object was not 7 orbit is inclined 7 star was not 7 stars are very 7 sun is south 7 system is not 6 body is not 6 comets are not 6 earth is only 6 earth is very Top 50 negative assertions; "What sentences are in the shape of noun-verb-no|not-noun?" --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2 _ is no longer 2 bodies are not rigid 2 earth has no movement 2 earth is not absolutely 2 earth is not flat 2 earth is not immovable 2 earth is not round 2 moon is not very 2 orbit is not circular 2 planet is no longer 2 planets are not all 2 telescope had not yet 2 telescope has no finder 1 _ had no experience 1 _ is not _ 1 _ was not _ 1 astronomer had no hope 1 astronomer has no difficulty 1 astronomer is not that 1 astronomer took no doubt 1 astronomers do not often 1 astronomers had no mode 1 astronomers make no mention 1 astronomers was not very 1 astronomers were not able 1 astronomers were not exactly 1 astronomers were not more 1 astronomers were not satisfied 1 bodies are not evenly 1 bodies are not more 1 bodies are not spherical 1 bodies are not subject 1 bodies do not actually 1 bodies have no motion 1 bodies have no satellites 1 bodies have not sufficient 1 bodies is no longer 1 bodies is not only 1 bodies was not very 1 bodies were no doubt 1 bodies were not visible 1 body does not only 1 body is not especially 1 body is not proportional 1 body is not self 1 body was not discernible 1 body was not due 1 comet has no perceptible 1 comet is no less 1 comets are no longer Sizes of items; "Measures in words, how big is each item?" ---------------------------------------------------------- 223867 28247 201258 27378 178998 14565 141513 40240 133636 45356 120195 26556 112983 28613 111634 22472 103966 28570 100360 39142 100253 4065 95884 36495 92019 2298 83826 58810 82645 28434 68848 15620 68602 28274 65509 44167 65367 45112 58928 33337 56790 32598 53325 6630 53129 28752 52803 18431 50040 35744 49158 29031 48768 36741 46781 28853 33645 16767 32480 37711 26190 48218 20048 16227 16807 19395 13501 40439 5682 15636 25267 24883 Readability of items; "How difficult is each item to read?" ----------------------------------------------------------- 83.0 32598 79.0 15620 78.0 37711 77.0 48218 77.0 58810 76.0 28853 75.0 28570 75.0 28274 75.0 29031 74.0 28752 74.0 35744 73.0 36741 72.0 16767 72.0 45112 72.0 28613 72.0 22472 70.0 45356 70.0 40439 68.0 28247 68.0 36495 67.0 27378 66.0 33337 65.0 18431 65.0 4065 64.0 15636 64.0 44167 62.0 40240 62.0 2298 61.0 19395 61.0 26556 61.0 14565 60.0 6630 60.0 39142 60.0 28434 57.0 16227 25267 24883 Item summaries; "In a narrative form, how can each item be abstracted?" ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 14565 a. Form of the earth, its mean density, quantity of heat, electro-magnetic volcanic rocks, spring water forms, by precipitation, strata of limestone. barometrical height at the level of the sea in different zones of the earth. existing among the facts observed, can not form a conception of the present times that of the Earth; period of revolution, 217.387 years; mean long., according to the different degrees of distance from the Sun, appears very obedience to the laws of general gravity in conic sections round the Sun. When these masses meet the Earth in their course, and are attracted by it, [footnote] *Argelander, in the important observations on the northern light accurate observations on the temperature of the sea at different latitudes [footnote] *See the series of observations made by me in the South Sea, observed in different portions of the earth''s surface, to manifest such a 15620 the force of condensation it flamed like a sun, and not only lighted The heat of the sun, by its intense vibrations, comes to the earth by the rolling over of the earth [Page 65] the star will come into stars the earth''s enormous orbit, if lying like a blazing ring in star Vega in the west, touching our [Page 71] earth''s orbit on one D (Fig. 29), the distance of the moon and [Page 72] star is A E, light of the sun of the world into bodies, and vivify them according [Illustration: Fig. 42.--Showing the Sun''s Movement among the Stars.] earth the centre, and that the sun, moon, and stars were carried When Mercury comes between the earth and the sun, near the line The moon''s day, caused by the sun''s light, is 29-1/2 times as long earth received light from the sun. 15636 One might expect that the practical results of a science like The second great advance in astronomy originated in America, and was in The first photographic image of a star was obtained The third great advance in astronomy is in photographing the spectra of receiving at the present time, in nearly all the great observatories in An astronomer who would aid them in this work, by A second method of aiding astronomy is through the large observatories. astronomy is by securing the united work of the leading astronomers of measure the positions of all the stars in these zones. living astronomers, each in his own special line of work, and the latter could not get such an instrument, he measured the positions of the stars one of the great telescopes of the world, photographing the spectrum of consider the next great advance, which perhaps will be a method of 16227 DEDICATION OF NEW YORK STATE GEOLOGICAL HALL. the New State Geological Hall, at Albany,--in the hope that the marked feature in the ceremonies was the magnificent Oration of the Hon. EDWARD EVERETT, inaugurating the Dudley Observatory of Albany; and it is Of the New York State Survey he said:-of the motions of all the heavenly bodies; and the eye of science, reflect honor on the science of any country and any age; I mean the instrumental power; but the want was generally felt by men of science, 2. The second great practical use of an Astronomical Observatory is instrumental power, and of the means of ascertaining the ship''s time At the second dawn of science, the great fact again beamed into the mind There are occasions in life in which a great mind lives years of rapt NEW PERIODS IN ASTRONOMICAL SCIENCE. the advancement of science, to the increase of instrumental power. 16767 he turns his telescope towards a difficult double star. observer to direct a telescope of moderate power to the examination of way that a simple object-glass forms a telescope, a circumstance we of view of a Galilean Telescope depend on the size of the object-glass, _positive_ eye-piece, because the real image formed by the object-glass For observing objects at great elevations the diagonal eye-tube is view, if the telescope, once directed to the star, be made to revolve applied to the observation of close double or multiple stars, but for neighbouring stream of the Milky Way. Let our observer now direct his telescope to the star [epsilon] Lyræ. ring; and in Lord Rosse''s great Telescope "wisps of stars" are seen towards E.S.E. It is seen as a double star with very moderate telescopic [alpha]^1 of the 4th magnitude; in a good telescope five stars are seen, 18431 facts about the planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, etc., as well moon?--Lunar day and night--The earth as seen from the planet Venus, when viewed with a telescope, shows phases like those of at different rates, among them; the nearer planets, Venus and the earth, Being, like Mercury, nearer to the sun than the earth is, Venus also is earth, being an outer planet, is visible at times in that part of the Mars is the fourth planet in the order of distance from the sun, and the the sun as seen from the earth--Mars''s average distance from us is about be nearer than 744,000,000 miles to the earth, or eight times the sun''s the sun, so that the distance of the moon from the earth is continually orbit about the sun is more curved than the moon''s, and the earth is planets--Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, etc. 19395 The sun, 865,000 miles in diameter, from a direct photograph showing Twenty-foot Michelson interferometer for measuring star diameters, four stars, on the average, were seen in the field of the telescope. of stars, are on so great a scale (according to Shapley) that light, the 100-inch telescope, on its way up Mount Wilson.] the 100-inch Hooker telescope to follow the stars.] In less powerful telescopes the stars at the centre of the great laboratories, in which the sun and stars are examined by powerful measurement of star diameters if a sufficiently large interferometer angular diameter is perhaps as great as that of any other star. Hooker telescope, and path of the two pencils of light from a star of measuring the diameter of a star, and the 20-foot interferometer by the great distance of the star, which is about 160 light-years. An image of the sun about 16 inches in diameter is formed in the 22472 instances of similar objects or substances said to have fallen from the later, another object, like the one said to have fallen in 1819, had The substance that looked like beef that fell from the sky. of a substance that looked like beef fell from the sky--"from a clear lived near said he had seen it fall like flakes with the snow." tentatively and provisionally, we accept the Super-Sargasso Sea. Before we take up an especial expression upon the fall of immature and it--think that carved stone objects have fallen from the sky, because they think they have seen such objects fall from the sky. an object the size of a baseball--but I think a thing could fall from wheel-like objects in the sky, see _Nature_, 22-617; London _Times_, luminous object, had been seen to fall from the sky--or from a As to our data of gelatinous substance said to have fallen to this earth 2298 movement, by which the stars and all other celestial bodies appear to Ptolemy''s astronomical works had appeared a few years before the observations of the new star as those which Tycho made, possessed, places of the moon, the planets, and the stars on the celestial The last of Galileo''s great astronomical discoveries related to the fact, the great observer himself did not accept the new views of as the circumstances of astronomical observation would at that time At the present day, astronomers of the great national observatories illustrious friend''s great work, so that in the same year he was in a movement of the earth around the sun, the star must appear to have great French astronomer sketched for the first time that remarkable earth, the sun, and the five great planets with which Laplace was When he was twenty-eight years old, his first great astronomical 24883 25267 26556 Though we can understand that in old times the planets and stars were the positions of the various planets, signs, stars, etc., at the time of to the horizon that if the astronomers of the pyramid times had observed year, the ring reflects no light during the night time, the sun being on well known to the learned world,'' he says, ''that every star is a sun in star, like the sun of our system, has around it planets which are sun, and moon, and stars had been set in the heavens for its use and star a sun like him, about which many planets revolve. the formation of the earth and heavens, sun, and moon, and stars; while observation (by which time the new star had faded from the second to the observe the sun for this purpose until the present time. 27378 watches the moon, or star, or planet enter the field of view; and he fixed stars, the sun, the moon, and the planets. The actual distance of the sun from the earth is about 92,900,000 miles; directly between the earth and the sun, and the dark body of the moon Planets, Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars--Velocity of the Earth--The Outer Planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune--Light The sun and the moon, the planets and the comets, the attraction every planet must revolve in an elliptic orbit round the sun, In the case of our own planet, the earth rotates twenty-seven times for globe, and that the earth and all the other planets were small bodies hands, when he observed a small star-like object near the planet. to our position on the earth, we observe the stars from a point of view herself ardently in observing the moon, planets, and stars; and more 28247 discoveries of sun-spot and magnetic periodicity and of spectrum Early Views as to the Nature of Sun-spots--Wilson''s Observations and Period of Magnetic Disturbance--Sun-spots and Weather--Spectrum 1901--Movements of Sun and Stars--List of Great Telescopes--List of the "apex," or point of direction of the sun''s motion, close to the star for if the earth really travelled in a vast orbit round the sun, objects were observed for the first time, besides 3,347 double stars discovered [Footnote 117: _Results of Astronomical Observations made during the [Footnote 204: Observations on Uranus, as a supposed fixed star, went Newton showed that the bodies known as "comets," or _hirsute_ stars, records of sun-spot observations, from the time of Galileo and Scheiner dark-line solar spectrum, certain differences were perceiving, showing Sir John Herschel showed that heat-rays at the sun''s surface must [Footnote 755: _The Distance of the Sun from the Earth determined by the 28274 both mind and body by a spell of Sea air or Mountain beauty. and the tree-cats are spotted, like rays of light seen through leaves. Fig. 4 represents the Medusa or free form of this beautiful species. In the same way let us take a section of the earth''s surface AB (Fig. 17), and suppose that, by the gradual cooling and consequent contraction A lava stream flows down the slope of the mountain like a burning river, stately rivers, meres and lakes, and last, not least, the great ocean or lake, terraces, which were formed at a time when the river ran at a [Illustration: Fig. 29.--Diagram of an Alpine valley, showing a river [Illustration: Fig. 29.--Diagram of an Alpine valley, showing a river Finally, when the river at length reaches the sea, it in many cases valleys, animals and plants are continually changing: but the Sea is 28434 galaxies, universes of stars--suns--the innumerable host of heaven, each immovable centre of the universe, round which the Sun, Moon, planets, other celestial bodies--Sun, Moon, and stars, which would appear to have the Earth and planets in their orbits resides in the Sun. By the orb''s Milton supposes that, as the Earth receives light from the stars, she a great central sun, round which all the systems of stars perform their The conclusion that the stars are orbs resembling our Sun in magnitude Sun is one of a group of stars which occupy a region of the heavens as follows: ''If we regard a pair of stars as forming a double sun, round STAR CLUSTERS.--On observing the heavens on a clear, dark night, there heavens, we have no evidence that he regarded the stars as suns, nor the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars; their functional importance as 28570 order outwards the Moon, the planets Mercury and Venus, the Sun, and The sun, of course, occults planets and stars in exactly the same manner sun''s face is hidden as a consequence of the moon''s body coming directly place when the moon comes between the sun and the earth, in such a called a partial eclipse, because from the earth''s surface the sun is by one nearer coming in the way, a total eclipse of the sun is far the whereas an eclipse of the sun can only take place at _new_ moon. nights by the changing positions of the sun, the moon, and the stars; of the planets around the sun, and of the moon around the earth, were course of the year the distance of the earth from the sun varies. distance of forty-eight times that of the earth from the sun. 28613 all-important body in the universe, if the sun and planets and stars planets and stars revolve round our insignificant earth was too great to The length of the earth''s year is 365·256 days; its mean distance from uniform motion in each circle round the earth as a fixed body. planet''s year depends on the 3/2th power of its distance from the sun. By this time Newton was only forty-five years old, but his main work was moon, which is 60 times as far from the centre of the earth, drops 16 the earth revolved round the sun, how came it that the fixed stars light must be 10,000 times as great as the velocity of the earth in its Newton of the observed facts of the motion of the moon, the way he Now consider the earth and moon revolving round each other like a man 28752 eighth-magnitude star, a short distance northeast of the Great Nebula, three-inch, as it consists of a light-yellow star of magnitude three and 627, a double star, magnitude six and a half and seven, distance 21", p. magnitude star is again double, distance 4", p. Burnham has seen a star of thirteen and a half magnitude, distance remarkable for array of small stars near it; 38, double, magnitudes six of larger star blue--try with the five-inch; epsilon, double, magnitudes Other objects in Cancer are: Sigma 1223, double star, magnitudes six and seen shining with the light of a tenth-magnitude star, _but presenting six-inch telescope it would be a waste of time to attack the double star double, both stars being of the sixth magnitude, distance 5", p. double, both stars being of the sixth magnitude, distance 5", p. beautiful star are of magnitudes three and six, distance 10", colors 28853 The sun, as we all know, appears to cross the sky every day; he gets up think: ''Here is the great solid earth standing still, and the sun and marvellous truth is that, instead of the sun and moon and stars rolling days it was supposed that the sun went round the earth. the earth and all the planets as if they were swinging round the sun, earth-child was going round the sun, so that in a year''s time the moon caused by the earth''s shadow falling upon the moon; and that of the sun own light is the sun; all the rest, the planets and their moons, shine His year--the time he takes to go round the sun and come back to the sun, and can only sometimes be seen as a small star by people who know these other great suns which we call stars have also planets circling 29031 In the following account of the life and works of Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL, on the Periodical Star in Collo Ceti_, by Mr. WILLIAM HERSCHEL, of Bath. For some years HERSCHEL has observed the heavens every hour The memoir on the forty-foot telescope shows throughout that HERSCHEL''S general catalogue existed before HERSCHEL''S time, and led by the In the prosecution of this work HERSCHEL found stars whose light was The double stars were the subject of HERSCHEL''S earliest and of his The question of determining the parallax of stars first brought HERSCHEL case of one of HERSCHEL''S double stars, in much the same order in which HERSCHEL himself lived to see some of his double stars perform observed (by Sir JOHN HERSCHEL) with a telescope of twenty feet, similar Sun and Fixed Stars_ (1795), HERSCHEL recounts what was known of the of each double star [observed by HERSCHEL], brought together on 32598 The leaves of this great stone book are the layers of rock, laid down Surface water sinks into porous soils and rocks, and accumulates in scale the work of water in cutting away rock walls] water back to the surface, by forming cracks in the earth, and fine, Sand mixed with clay makes a mellow soil, which lets water and air pass The hard water, that comes through limestone rocks, adds lime in river water muddy, accumulates on the sea bottom as banks of mud, which water-formed rocks there were often created chimney-like openings, into the river has little to do but to carry away the surface water that In some places the water cuts away the soft rock and forms a called _metamorphic_ rocks, formed by water, then transformed by heat. The lowest forms of life, plant and animal, live in water to-day. 33337 number to a planet until it was quite certain that the discovery was new, accuracy, from observing the time of her revolution round the sun; the recorded by different observers were compared with the true time, which stars, it is not easy to directly observe the place of the sun among the new determinations of the sun''s distance, using three of the minor planets ordinary star, by Flamsteed, Lemonnier, Bradley, and Mayer, all observers [Sidenote: Adams'' announcement of the new planet.] [Sidenote: Airy announces the likelihood of a new planet, and suggests a [Sidenote: He finds too late that he had observed the planet.] [Sidenote: Curious difference between actual and supposed planet.] that time, Bradley made that long and wonderful series of observations [Sidenote: The Oxford new star found during work on Astrographic Chart.] Generally these stars have been noted by eye observation, as in the case [Sidenote: Bradley''s observations.] 35744 observing the work of God''s hand, he appears at the same time to be another work, the book of Hammarmunah the Old, stating that "the earth [Footnote 41: By the will of God the earth remains motionless and earth''s motion around the sun a hundred years before Copernicus; but a work." But the Cardinal stated these views of the earth''s motions in a [Footnote 102: Copernicus: _De Revolutionibus_, Thorn edit., 444. [Footnote 113: As the earth moves, the position in the heavens of a sun at the center of the universe rather than in the earth, in order heavens, and believed the earth was at the center of the universe admit new positions, for he never mentioned the motion of the earth the Scriptures that the earth is the principal body of the universe, moves the earth could not at the same time and with like motion move 36495 age, the sun and moon and stars, with all the planets, seemed absolutely sun every night, and, therefore, a different set of stars are seen in universal power, governing the heavens, the earth, fire, water, day and years and had seen the course of the sun change four times, and the days of the year by the stars which first appeared in the evening--as we place, like the motion of the earth in modern astronomy, round an saying that Vulcan''s anvil took seven days to fall from heaven to earth, turned about the earth in the same time, 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 doubt place the earth immovable in the centre of world, according to the Brahmins placed the earth in the centre, and said that the stars moved _On the Heavens and the Earth, On the Sun and Moon, the Stars, and Times 36741 brilliant views of scattered star-clusters as an opera-glass does. opera-glass and begin with the constellation Leo and the star Regulus. stars are marked with their Greek-letter names on our little map, you opera-glass can get a fine view of a celebrated star-cluster known in of Procyon is a third-magnitude star, called Gomelza, and the glass will field-glass not only makes the two stars appear brighter, and their little group of stars near the end of the handle of the Great Dipper, see eight or ten times as many stars, and with a field-glass still more Turn your glass upon the star shown in the map just above Mu ([mu]) and interesting to watch the star with an opera-glass. Near the little star Kappa ([kappa]) in the map will be seen These stars were best seen with a field-glass, although an Opera-glass, views of the stars with, 3. 37711 Venus was the planet of love, Mars, of war and hostility, the sun, hours, imparting its motion to sun, moon, and planets, thus causing day about the earth in the order Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, revolving spheres carrying sun, moon, and planets, regulating light and Chaucer determines the time by observing the position of the sun and by Chaucer''s references to the daily motion of the sun about the earth are References in Chaucer to the sun''s yearly motion are in the same sense Once again in the _Frankeleyns Tale_ Chaucer refers to the sun''s learning during Chaucer''s century, the sun and moon were also held to be By "artificial day" Chaucer means the time during which the sun is century to determine the position of the sun, moon, or planets at any time earth in a definite time, the sun in a year, the moon in 29-1/2 days. 39142 the origin, nature, and destinies of planets, sun, and star; observe sun, moon, and stars, because all the bodies of the cosmos were of three bodies (sun, earth, and moon) under the Newtonian law of the horizon, whether the sun was observed or moon or stars. planets were displaced among the stars by the annual motion of the earth measures of the position of sun, moon, and stars. the moon in Newton''s time was better known in terms of the earth''s size stars with the annual motion of the earth round the sun affords the spectrum of sun or star, and the position of these dark lines will first star was photographed, in 1851 the first total eclipse of the sun; Knowing thus the relation of sun, moon, and stars, and the number of the Evidently the earth by its motion round the sun makes every star 40240 sun, in the moon, in the planets, and especially in the fixed stars, are that the sun, moon, and stars, revolve about it, every day, from east to a _year_ is the period of the revolution of the earth around the sun. motion of the sun around the earth once a year, and occasions the change The motion of the earth in its orbit is nearly seventy times as great as Were a body to fall from a great distance,--suppose a thousand times We have thus far taken the earth''s orbit around the sun as a great twenty-seven days while the moon has been going round the earth, the sun the sun''s apparent revolution round the earth once a year he is situation of the sun, the moon, and the earth, at the time of a solar the earth''s periodic time is one year, and that of the planet Jupiter 40439 Platonic words, he calls the earth [Greek: ê(me/ras phu/lax kai\ first, in the rotation of the earth round its own axis, next, at believe that the earth revolves round its own axis in twenty-four the diurnal rotation of the earth round the centre of the cosmical earth packed round it, by the Platonic Timæus.] Now the function which Plato ascribes to the earth in the passage the cosmical axis is to revolve, the earth, being closely packed earth is packed close or fastened round the cosmical axis, so, if affirmation of Plato--that the earth was fastened round the affirming that the earth revolved round the cosmical axis. question thus--"Does Plato in the Timæus conceive the earth as rotation of the earth round the solid cosmical axis, which he that Aristotle ascribed to Plato the doctrine of the rotation of holds that the Platonic Timæus affirms the rotation of the earth, 4065 space and all time, as we are forced to believe, then each moving star becomes of the great flood of heat and light which the sun and stars comparative number in the region of the Milky Way. Of the stars visible Let us next count the number of stars visible in a powerful telescope galactic pole, and increases in every direction towards the Milky Way. Without such counts of the stars we might imagine our stellar system to constellations as the Southern Cross, all lie in or near the Milky Way. Schiaparelli has extended the investigation to all the stars visible to astronomer is to determine what stars have proper motions large enough Up to the present time, two stars have been found whose proper motions form a general idea of their average distance, though a great number of present time is that the number of stars in any of these spheres will 44167 THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY IN FLAMSTEED''S TIME 44 DOUBLE-STAR OBSERVATION WITH THE SOUTH-EAST EQUATORIAL 308 obtain his own local time by observations of the height of the sun. from a number of given stars at definite times for long periods in stars that Greenwich Observatory was founded, whilst the _Nautical or ''mean time.'' He drew up a catalogue of seventy stars, computing Greenwich Observatory, and for John Flamsteed''s observations made more accurate observations of the place of a star could be obtained As Astronomer Royal his great work was the systematic observation determine the distance of the sun by observations of the transit of in the Astronomer Royal''s house, and the present transit circle room. observations of places of moon, stars, and planets is likewise important duty of the Royal Observatory; and the Time Department, There is a great difference between the work of the observer with instrument is called, and the work of the transit observer. 45112 knowledge of the sun, moon, stars and planets, their motions and cluster of faint stars known as The Pleiades, lying a short distance brighter stars in the group surpass the sun many times in brightness. thirty-three light-years, the sun would appear as a star of the fifth earth and the sun, all the planets have moons or satellites of their That is, the moon, as well as the sun, stars and planets, rises in This star is about ten light-years distant from the earth, which the sun and the stars as well as the planets were in motion. or Orion star is about one hundred times more luminous than the sun, sixty-three thousand times the distance from the earth to the sun or sixty-three thousand times the distance from the earth to the sun or The nearest star is about 275,000 times more distant than the sun, 45356 a given time, because the attractive force of the earth increases--up mass of heat sticking to the surface of a block of matter of any kind. cubic miles for the ring at the same density as the nebula; so, the volume of the earth nebula, which at 234,620,000 miles in diameter miles alone of solid matter to be 2·25 times that of water. 7918 miles, and mean density at 5·66 times that of water, as already 190 Density of inner half of earth at 3000 miles diameter. 190 Density of inner half of earth at 3000 miles diameter. our estimate of 3 times the density of water, at 9 miles deep, was far period of time before the nebula forming the earth came to have even miles diameter, with density equal to air at atmospheric pressure, and measure, the sun''s attraction of the matter of the nebula towards his 48218 light, the Sun, was not seen with the stars; the brightness of his had worked out some means for determining what stars the Sun is near at west to east; the Moon moves much slower than the stars, so her motion the deviations from regularity in the planetary motions round the Sun. The Earth having been abandoned as the centre of the universe, a Earth is deflected in the same time, Mercury falling towards the Sun by the Sun amongst the stars gave a yet longer division of time, the year, light of Sun, Moon, or stars, according to the object to which the To observe the motions of the Moon, Sun, and planets, and to determine same size, but since the Sun is 400 times as far off as the Moon it the nearest star to us is nearly 300,000 times as far as the Sun, yet 58810 _sun_, _planets_, _moons_, _comets_, and _meteors_. line joining the sun and the planet, in these equal times, would all be shows the earth as it would appear to an observer at the sun during each the earth, as seen from the sun at the time of the summer solstice, of The great circle which passes through the centre of the sun and moon side of the moon, a star might be seen at the earth, although really inferior planet as seen from the earth are shown in Fig. 144, in which earth as to the sun: hence, near these parts of its orbit, the planet of the sun as compared with the moon''s orbit is shown in Fig. 154. lines seen on the centre of the sun''s disk often appear more or less shown in Fig. 240, according to the varying distance of the sun and moon 6630 with stars, our sun and his relatively few neighbors being placed near far more closely related to one another than is our sun to the stars could be turned into a new course by a close approach to a great sun, course, the earth, piloted by the sun, has come from the Milky Way in formed by chance combinations of conspicuous stars, like figures in a motions of the sun and stars, and have seen that they are so swift of the earth''s orbit, the close approach of a great star to the sun of planets, and the distances of the stars which appear to have been space and appear around the sun like the clouds of dust around a mill. some forming stars that perhaps have no planets, and will have none; planet like the earth; it has an atmosphere, though one of great